NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEARBOOK 1973


Table of Contents

PREFACE

The New Zealand Official Yearbook portrays New Zealand and its people. It describes the physical resources of the country and their use. It enumerates statistics of the population, their health and education, their employment and their production, their trade and their national finances, their wages and their savings, their housing and food consumption, their means of communication, and their international relationships. Supplementary material gives other social, administrative, and legislative information.

There is real value in combining such a breadth of information in one volume. Thus the Official Yearbook is established as a standard reference work both within and beyond New Zealand.

As a series, Official Yearbooks are a rich source of material for research workers and students. The yearly record becomes a survey of both growth and change. Every endeavour is made to give comprehensive accurate information as clearly as possible within the limits of space. Each section is progressively revised and the emphasis varies with economic and social developments.

In this latest issue some sections have been more extensively revised than usual; these include Health and Hospitals; Education; Marketing of Farm Produce; Industrial Relations; and Industrial Safety.

The metric system of weights and measures is in educational use and will be in common use by 1976; in this issue areas have been converted to metric measure.

A special article surveys the development of the meat industry.

Another special article covers New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

A short article refers to the Tenth British Commonwealth Games.

The photographic section features leisure opportunities in New Zealand.

Additional and more recent detail on many subjects may be obtained from publications of the Department of Statistics. These are listed towards the end of this Yearbook and are available from Government bookshops.

                                                                                                                        J. P. LEWIN,
                                                                                                              GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics,
WELLINGTON.

20 June 1973.

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

Maps
     Map of New Zealand
     Mean Annual Rainfall15
     Holdings in Regional Areas by Type of Farming385
     Minerals (non-metallic)453
     Factory Production—North Island471
                                  —South Island472
Diagrams
     Population57
     External Passenger Migration69
     Vital Statistics87
     Principal Causes of Death104
     Infant Death Rate110
     School Population205
     Railways308
     Motor Vehicles Licensed and Motor Spirits Consumption318
     Civil Aviation332
     Gross Farming Income390
     Milkfat Production393
     Meat Production395
     Wool Production398
     Area and Yield of Wheat for Threshing410
     Production of Rough-sawn Timber434
     Pulp and Paper Industry437
     Fisheries446
     Factory Production490
     Building Permits523
     Growth of Demand for Electricity543
     Electricity Generation547
     Retail Trade587
     Direction of External Trade595
     Value of External Trade with Individual Countries601
     Value of Exports—New Zealand Produce607
     Volume of Exports—New Zealand Produce608
     Consumers' Price Index665
     Annual Percentage Changes in Gross National Product688
     Expenditure on Gross National Product689
     Balance of Payments by Areas707
     Changes in Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand708
     Revenue from Taxation732
     Trading Banks—Deposits and Advances799
     Trading Banks—Classification of Advances799
     Savings Banks803
     Overseas Reserves816
     New Mortgages826
     Life Assurance—New Business844
     Life Assurance—Total Assets849
     Industrial Stoppages906

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

– nil or zero… not applicable
.. figures not available- amount too small to be expressed
  not yet available — space left blankx revised

VALUES

All values are shown in New Zealand currency, unless another currency is specifically stated.

MEASURES

Unless otherwise stated, a ton is a long ton (2,240 lb).

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

1 yard= 0.914 metre
1 inch= 25.4 millimetres
1 mile= 1.609 kilometres
1 square foot= 929.03 square centimetres
1 square yard= 0.836 square metre
1 acre= 0.405 hectare
1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometres
1 pound= 0.454 kilograms
1 hundredweight (cwt)= 112 lb = 50.8 kilograms
°Celsius (centigrade)= 5/9; (°Fahrenheit − 32)
1 cubic foot= 0.028 cubic metre
1 cubic yard= 0.765 cubic metre
1 gallon= 4.546 litres
1 bushel= 36.37 litres
1 long ton= 1.016 metric tons
1 short ton= 0.907 metric ton

ROUNDING

On occasions figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand or some other convenient unit. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items as shown in tables.

FISCAL YEARS

Figures for fiscal years ended 31 March (the fiscal year) are indicated in the text and headings of tables; otherwise figures are mainly for calendar years.

ABBREVIATIONS

bd ftboard feet
chchains
ctd.continued
cu ftcubic feet
cwthundredweight
Eeast
ftfeet
ggram
galgallon
hhour
hphorsepower
in.inch
kWkilowatt
kWhkilowatt-hour
lbpound
mmile
minminute
mmmillimetre
Nnorth
n.e.i.not elsewhere included
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified
ozounce
$(000)thousand dollars
$(m)million dollars
ccent
Ssouth
sq ftsquare feet
sup ftsuper feet
Wwest
ydyard

Chapter 1. Section 1
GEOGRAPHY

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific, that great ocean stretching across one-third of the earth's surface. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1,600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little over 10,000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west; the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which are the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover nearly a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest form 2 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social, and psychological during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population, New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of two island groups in the South-west Pacific—Niue and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. Niue is 2,460 kilometres north-east of Auckland, while the Tokelau Islands are 1,130 kilometres further north. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator.

The Ross Dependency, some 2,300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this Yearbook, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only.

 Area in Square Kilometres
(a) New Zealand
     North Island114,688
     South Island150,461
     Stewart Island1,735
     Chatham Islands963
     Minor islands—
          Inhabited—
               Kermadec Islands34
               Campbell Island114
          Uninhabited (Auckland and other offshore islands)681
Total268,676
(b) Overseas territories
     Tokelau Islands, comprised of—
          Fakaofo Island, Nukunonu Island, Atafu Island10
     Niue259
(c) Ross Dependency .. .. .. ..     (Estimated)414,400

The 16 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand on 4 August 1965; more detail is given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2,518 m), Ruapehu (2,797 m), Ngauruhoe (2,290 m), and Tongariro (1968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1,800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1,200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3,764 m), while no fewer than 16 peaks exceed 3,000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2,300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2,740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
          NORTH ISLAND 
Ruapehu2,797
Egmont2,517
Ngauruhoe2,290
Tongariro1,968
          SOUTH ISLAND 
Kaikoura Ranges
     Tapuaenuku2,884
     Alarm2,865
Southern Alps
     Cook3,763
     Tasman3,497
     Dampier3,440
     Silberhorn3,279
     Lendenfeldt3,201
     Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3,183
     Malte Brun3,176
     Torres3,163
     Teichelmann3,160
     Sefton3,157
     Haast3,138
     Elie de Beaumont3,109
     Douglas Peak3,081
     La Perouse3,079
     Haidinger3,066
     Minarets3,066
     Aspiring3,036
     Hamilton3,022
     Glacier Peak3,007
     De la Beche2,992
     Aiguilles Rouges2,966
     Nazomi2,961
     Darwin2,961
     Chudleigh2,952
     Annan2,947
     Low2,942
     Haeckel2,941
     Goldsmith2,905
     Conway Peak2,901
     Bristol Top2,898
     Walter2,898
     Grey2,893
     Green2,836
     Hutton2,834
     D'Archiac2,828
     Ronald Adair2,827
     Earnslaw2,823
     Hochstetter Dome2,822
     Nathan2,804
     Barnicoat2,799
     Sibbald2,798
     Arrowsmith2,795
     Spenser2,794
     The Footstool2,765
     Rudolf2,755
     The Dwarf2,751
Darran Range
     Tutoko2,756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)
* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
               NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
     Piako90
     Waihou (or Thames)175
     Rangitaiki193
     Whakatane105
     Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
     Waipaoa (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
     Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
     Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
     Ngaruroro154
     Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait*—
     Ruamahanga124
     Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
     Otaki48
     Manawatu182
     Rangitikei241
     Turakina137
     Whangaehu161
     Wanganui290
     Waitotara108
     Patea143
     Waitara98
     Mokau158
     Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
     Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
     Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
               SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait
     Pelorus64
     Wairau169
     Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
     Clarence209
     Conway48
     Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
     Hurunui138
     Waipara64
     Ashley97
     Waimakariri161
     Selwyn95
     Rakaia145
     Ashburton90
     Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
     Opihi80
     Pareora56
     Waihao64
     Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
     Kakanui64
     Shag72
     Taieri288
     Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait
     Mataura240
     Oreti203
     Aparima (Jacobs River)113
     Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
     Hollyford76
     Cascade64
     Arawhata68
     Haast64
     Karangarua37
     Cook32
     Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
     Whataroa51
     Wanganui56
     Waitaha40
     Hokitika64
     Arahura56
     Taramakau80
     Grey121
     Buller (from source, Travers River)177
     Mokihinui56
     Karamea80
     Heaphy35
     Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
     Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
     Motueka108
     Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 79 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in Kilometres*Greatest Breadth, in Kilometres*Area, in Square Kilometres†Drainage Area, in Square Kilometres†Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)‡Greatest Depth, in Metres

* 1 kilometre equals 0.621 square miles.

† 1 square kilometre equals 0.386 square miles.

‡ The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

          NORTH ISLAND
               Natural
Taupo40.227.46063,2891,271357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.8131297564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75442718614 (13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803,201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316 (1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310 (2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354 (1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439 (1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
               Artificial
Ohakuri33.80.4144,791157287..
Atiamuri6.40.415,128165252..
Whakamaru21.70.885,581174226..
Maraetai7.20.846,190191188..
Waipapa9.70.416,475198127..
Arapuni16.10.8136,876207111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.487,45922154..
Whakamarino0.80.4......274..
          SOUTH ISLAND
               Natural
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414..85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.6961,42487715 (7.6)189
Pukaki15.38.0831,355128500 (9.1)..
Ohau17.74.8601,19165527 (1.7)..
Hawea30.68.01191,46963345 (16.2)392
Wanaka45.14.81922,543202279 (4.3)..
Wakatipu77.24.82932,978174310 (2.1)378
Te Anau61.29.73443,302276209 (4.6)276
Manapouri28.98.01424,623386185 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.62827214196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085,698..(Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811,930..(Tidal)2
               Artificial
Cobb4.80.42736808 (15.2)..
Waitaki4.80.863,712344230..
Roxburgh32.20.4615,571489131..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—
     Ahuriri Arm18.54.4797,77034036096
     Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata are in many places tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over New Zealand many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of feet thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed when huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines) were formed, in which tens of thousands of feet thickness of sediments accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary  10 thousand
Pleistocene  2 million
Pliocene  11 ″
MioceneTertiary  25 ″
Oligocene  20 ″
Eocene  60 ″
Paleocene  70 ″
MesozoicCretaceous135 ″
Jurassic180 ″
Triassic225 ″
PaleozoicPermian270 ″
Carboniferous350 ″
Devonian400 ″
Silurian440 ″
Ordovician500 ″
Cambrian600 ″

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds … we can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago … a kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on …”. The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of feet. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each of a few inches or feet. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of feet high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements have built, carving detailed landscape pattern of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, splits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8,000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

Geological maps and an accompanying description were included in issues of the Official Yearbook up to 1971, and are also included in An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand.

A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand contains geological maps of New Zealand and summaries of New Zealand's geology and landscape development. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 66, The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000, is a lengthier summary with a more detailed geological map and cross sections.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—Earthquakes are geographically associated with active volcanoes and with major earth movements such as mountain building; these types of disturbance are confined, for the most part, to certain limited regions of the world. Such disturbed regions, of which New Zealand is one, are evidently the site of some kind of development affecting the outer shell of the earth. Little is yet known about the internal processes that give rise to these geophysical disturbances, nor are the relations connecting them fully understood.

Formerly earthquakes were believed to be caused by volcanic activity, but it is now recognised that volcanic earthquakes are restricted to small shocks in the immediate vicinity of the volcanism. In New Zealand, tremors of this kind are experienced in the zone of active volcanism that extends from Mount Ruapehu to White Island.

In some places geological faulting at the surface gives visible evidence that a major earth movement has occurred. Occasionally movement on a fault has been observed to occur simultaneously with an earthquake in the same vicinity. New Zealand provided one of the earliest examples of this to become generally known, when movement took place on the Wairarapa Fault at the time of the great Wellington earthquake of 1855. Such events as this have led to the idea that earthquakes in general are caused by fault movements. It is noteworthy, however, that there seems to be little earthquake activity along much of the Alpine Fault, which has been traced for 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti and is classed by geologists as one of the largest and most active faults in the world. The nature of the connection between earthquakes and faulting is still somewhat obscure.

The great majority of the world's earthquakes occur at depths of less than 60 km, and in many earthquake zones there are no shocks at any greater depth. A moderate number of New Zealand earthquakes are classed as intermediate in depth, i.e., originating at between 60 and 300 km deep. The two deepest New Zealand earthquakes recorded so far occurred four and a half minutes apart on 23 March 1960, with a common focus 600 km deep under North Taranaki, about 120 km shallower than the deepest earthquake known.

It is difficult to compare the degree of earthquake activity in New Zealand with that in other regions because of the many differences that arise in earthquake type and mode of occurrence. New Zealand and California are often regarded as roughly similar, with an activity very much less than, for example, Japan or Chile.

Regional Distribution—There are two separate regions of earthquake activity in New Zealand. The larger northern region may be roughly defined as lying between latitude 36 1/2;°S and 43 1/2;°S. It thus includes the northern half of the South Island, and all the North Island apart from the North Auckland peninsula; but the area from Kaipara Harbour to the lower Waikato River should be excluded. The southern active region lies to the west of longitude 169 1/2;°E, and incorporates Southland, western Otago, and southern Westland. Earthquakes have only occasionally been located in the parts of New Zealand lying outside these two regions.

Within the active regions the occurrence of shallow earthquakes is widely scattered. There has been a tendency, however, for the larger shallow earthquakes to lie towards the Pacific side of the northern active region and towards the Tasman side of the southern active region. Earthquakes with deeper foci are mostly confined to a narrow belt in the northern region, extending from the Bay of Plenty south-westwards to Tasman Bay.

The historical record is too brief to support a quantitative assessment of the frequency with which one might expect earthquakes to be felt at a given intensity in various parts of New Zealand. Considering the distances at which major earthquakes can be effective, in relation to the size of New Zealand, it would be imprudent to regard any part of the country as permanently exempt from the possibility of earthquake damage.

Outside the active regions there are many areas, however, where no damaging intensity has actually been experienced in historical times. Moreover, since the major shallow earthquakes on record have been rather widely distributed within the active regions, there appears to be no particular area of markedly intense seismicity.

The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931 resulted directly or indirectly in 255 deaths. The total of deaths that have been recorded as due to other earthquakes since 1848 is 32, of which three resulted from the Inangahua earthquake of 1968.

Seismological Observatory—Earthquake recorders are operated continuously at the following stations by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington: Apia and Afiamalu (Western Samoa); Nandi (Fiji); Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Wairakei, Gisborne, Tuai, Tarata, Chateau, Taradale, Castlepoint, Mangahao, and Wellington (North Island); Cobb, Kaikoura, Kaimata, Christchurch, Gebbies Pass, Mount John, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Monowai, and Waipapa Point (South Island); Chatham Islands; Campbell Island; and Scott Base (Antarctica). The Naval Research Laboratory, Auckland, operates a station on Great Barrier Island, the records from which are analysed at the Seismological Observatory. The installations at the following stations include instruments for recording distant earthquakes: Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, Roxburgh, and Scott Base. At the Pacific and Antarctic stations preliminary readings are made locally and notified by radiogram. The analysis of records from all stations is carried out at the Observatory in Wellington. A set of portable recorders is available for detailed studies of earthquakes in particular regions, and for investigations of aftershock sequences and earthquake swarms.

The analysis involves using observations from stations in other countries as well as those from the local network, and the Observatory likewise contributes data to the international seismological agencies about distant earthquakes as well as large local ones. Details of tremors felt in New Zealand are supplied to the public and the press. In the study of felt earthquakes the instrumental results are augmented by “felt reports”; these are supplied by a large number of voluntary observers throughout New Zealand in response to a standard questionnaire issued by the Observatory.

Earthquake data are used by the Observatory for studying the fundamental characteristics of the earth's crust in New Zealand, Antarctica, and the neighbouring oceanic regions, and also for contributing to geophysical knowledge of the earth's interior.

Earthquakes during 1972—Earthquake activity was comparatively quiet in New Zealand during 1972. The largest shock recorded was that of 24 March 1972, which had a magnitude of 5.8 (Richter Scale). This earthquake was centred off the Fiordland coast near Doubtful Sound, and was felt throughout Fiordland and Southland, but no damage was reported.

The earthquake that attracted most attention in the course of the year occurred near Te Aroha on 9 January, and was felt as far afield as Auckland, Mangakino and Whakatane. The magnitude of this shock was only moderate (5.1), but its shallowness and its closeness to Te Aroha resulted in high intensities being recorded there. The earthquake was followed by numerous aftershocks, and by the end of January, 16 had been recorded with magnitudes of 3.5 or greater. Further activity occurred on 20 and 21 June. The largest of these later shocks had a magnitude of 4.5 and was felt strongly throughout the Coromandel Peninsula and western Bay of Plenty.

Several shallow shocks were felt widely in the central parts of the country, and caused minor damage. The first, on 14 March, had a magnitude of 5.2 and was centred at the north of D'Urville Island in Cook Strait; it was felt in Wellington and elsewhere between southern Taranaki and Nelson. A shock of magnitude 5.1 occurred on 31 July about 30 kilometres to the east of Masterton, and was felt in the Wairarapa and Wellington regions. On 21 December a further shock of magnitude 5.1 originated 20 kilometres off Cape Turnagain in southern Hawke's Bay. This shock was felt throughout the southern part of the North Island.

Three deep earthquakes were also felt extensively in the central and southern parts of the North Island. These shocks occurred on 1 May at a depth of 100 kilometres near Palmerston North, on 12 October about 270 kilometres beneath the Ohakune region, and on 10 December at a depth of 200 kilometres beneath northern Taranaki. All these earthquakes had magnitudes of about 5.2.

A shallow earthquake in an area of less common activity occurred near Sheffield, 40 kilometres west of Christchurch, on 29 February. It had a magnitude of 4.4 and was felt at Lake Coleridge and Lyttelton.

A series of shallow earthquakes occurred about 10 kilometres south of Rotorua on 4 and 5 April. The three largest occurred within an interval of 40 minutes and had magnitudes ranging from 4.4 to 4.6. The earthquakes were felt in the Rotorua region, but caused no damage, and were not accompanied by any apparent volcanic or geothermal manifestations.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The collection of weather information and the provision of weather forecasts and climatic data for diverse interests in aviation, shipping, agriculture, Government departments, and the general public are functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. By arrangement with the administrations concerned the Service performs similar functions for British territories in the Pacific.

Weather reports for use in forecasting are made at about 140 places within New Zealand and 50 in the Pacific islands and collected by telegraph and radio, along with measurements of winds at upper levels made at 9 radio wind stations, and of temperatures made at 8 radiosonde stations. Daily observations are made for climatological purposes at about 250 places in New Zealand and 80 in the islands. Rainfall measurements are made at a total of about 2,400 places within New Zealand and 270 outside the country.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually by the New Zealand Meteorological Service in the Meteorological Observations, in Rainfall Observations, and in Fiji Annual Meteorological Summary. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette and in the Fiji Gazette.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 70°S.

The weather pattern from day to day is dominated by a succession of anticyclones, separated by troughs of low pressure, which pass more or less regularly from west to east across the Australia-Tasman Sea - New Zealand area and beyond. In this region there is no semi-permanent anticyclone such as those found in similar latitudes over the Indian Ocean and eastern Pacific Ocean respectively. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-east orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. Barometers then rise with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin passes over or near New Zealand accompanied by gales and heavy rain affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 80 miles from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the south-east This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 30 km or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This “funnel” effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These were all obtained by the use of anemographs.

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
40 mph or More60 mph or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1429430.61.62.216
Whangarei620260.20.40.612
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)2029490.91.62.524
Tauranga1319320.31.11.424
Rotorua67130.20.10.316
Hamilton913220.00.60.610
Gisborne1925440.30.91.223
Napier1720370.40.40.817
New Plymouth3448822.34.87.127
Wanganui3540752.44.56.910
Palmerston North2523480.70.81.512
Wellington (Kelburn)727414616.013.929.913
Nelson2314370.50.40.926
Blenheim (Woodbourne)2216380.70.71.425
Westport1319320.81.01.818
Hokitika1518331.21.62.821
Christchurch3224561.81.53.324
Timaru138210.60.41.010
Taieri3025551.31.42.726
Gore2920490.90.00.95
Invercargill4842905.44.710.124
NOTE—These are all aerodromes, with the exception of Auckland (Mechanics Bay) and Wellington (Kelburn).

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 7000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 800–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a sizable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 150 rain days (days with at least 0.2 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 percent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (2.5 mm or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES)* (1921–50)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
* 25 millimetres equal 1 inch.
Te Paki8491841421651831851421149776791442
Kerikeri114999114518818818515714011997941617
Dargaville8186691041351401301221029481761220
Auckland (Albert Park)84104711091221401401099710781791243
Tauranga Aerodrome8989971271241421271229711784861301
Hamilton (Ruakura)8481741021091241171049410994741166
Rotorua122104891241501501191301141351041091450
Gisborne Aerodrome718176861279912499746656511010
Lake Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1961931882112722312412211881701631472421
Taupo949961941221241091129910797791197
Taumarunui999984122130150124135122145117991426
New Plymouth119104941271351631571501221471141221554
Napier667156699779897148484851793
Wanganui697656717986747664816974875
Palmerston North767661848999798974978484992
Masterton (Waingawa)646956691041029910779796674968
Wellington (Kelburn)7189769111411712413094117791041206
Nelson Aerodrome695866768679749174916979912
Blenheim514841486658616461644648656
Westport Aerodrome1851551651781651911781851682061782062160
Hanmer89948486122899410210210984971152
Hokitika Aerodrome2462162112212262012082342082722392462728
Lake Coleridge666153717166797979816171838
Christchurch (Botanic Gardens)564643467669615851515161669
Lake Tekapo534641484636414153564658565
Timaru646446464341383646534874599
Milford Sound6485875665545493733734395036605875946433
Queenstown816479746656566466766461807
Alexandra463830332320181520202833334
Dunedin (Musselburgh)716464646674645856647174790
Gore817981716674535364698179851
Invercargill Aerodrome91971099794997176848691911086

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°C in the far north to 12°C about Cook Strait, then to 9°C in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°C per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°C on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 38°C, which has been recorded in four places; Ashburton and Darfield (Canterbury), Jordan (Marlborough), and Gisborne; and −19°C at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°C. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°–10°C. Further inland it exceeds 11°C in places, reaching a maximum of 14°C in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Temperatures in the preceding paragraphs are recorded on the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade), and not the Fahrenheit scale. The degree Celsius (°C) equals 5/9; (°F−32).

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “Katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1 m above the ground) has registered below 0°C only once in nearly 50 years, yet across the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as −12°C are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2,500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2,000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 1,000 m.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—between 20 and 30 percent or lower—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Nor'-wester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°C. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest areas are to be found near Blenheim, Nelson, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,400 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours a year, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations have been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5144
Hamilton5244
New Plymouth5347
Napier5752
Wellington5242
Nelson5857
Hokitika4344
Christchurch4645
Dunedin4143
Invercargill4235

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAnnual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Altitude (metres)Rain Days (0.2 mm or More)Wet Days (2.5 mm or More)*Bright Sunshine HrsDays of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
* 2.5 mm equals 0.10 in.
Te Paki581811052,140215.1231514826−1
Kerikeri731801022,010314.72415136290
Dargaville201851071,940614.3231514629−2
Auckland (Albert Park)491731012,090015.32314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4153932,320814.0241413429−2
Hamilton (Ruakura)401691001,9802513.0231311329−5
Rotorua307149972,0002412.1231212230−4
Gisborne Aerodrome5156832,210713.8241413432−2
Lake Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643195133..510.920911328−1
Taupo376157932,0303911.7231111229−4
Taumarunui1711751111,6903412.7241212231−5
New Plymouth491771122,110013.42113136260
Napier8126642,280813.9241314432−2
Wanganui22146852,120413.4221214529−1
Palmerston North34167921,8101512.8221213428−3
Masterton (Waingawa)104171902,0602812.2241211231−4
Wellington (Kelburn)126158972,010012.42011135261
Nelson Aerodrome2123722,4104111.8221212128−5
Blenheim5105572,4303412.5241212132−4
Westport Aerodrome21881381,960111.91912124250
Hanmer387143901,910849.82299−232−9
Hokitika Aerodrome391911371,8602511.9191111226−2
Lake Coleridge36412071..6910.021910−131−8
Christchurch (Botanic Gardens)7117551,9903611.4221012132−4
Lake Tekapo68397542,2001059.12168−320−10
Timaru17113571,9103911.0221011032−4
Milford Sound2197161..2710.118910225−3
Queenstown329128721,9805410.121810−130−5
Alexandra14197382,0808810.523711−232−8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2167781,7301210.9191011331−2
Gore72172931,7504610.22199031−8
Invercargill Aerodrome1991061,660509.51899128−5

NOTES: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950–66; sunshine 1935–60; mean temperature 1931–60; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

Brief Review of 1972: Year—There was an unusually high frequency of south-westerly winds in 1972 and it was a very windy year.

Rainfall was below normal, mainly by 15 percent, over most of the North Island and in Marlborough and North Canterbury and on the Canterbury Plains. Highest departures above normal (of 40 percent) were recorded on the Southland Plain, but it was also somewhat wetter than normal over the remainder of Southland, in Otago and Fiordland, also in Waikato and southern Northland. On the whole the North Island was 7 percent drier than normal and the South Island 4 percent wetter.

1972 was cooler than 1970 and 1971, and nearly the same temperature as 1969. Over both Islands temperatures were 0.3°C warmer than the 1931–60 normal.

Sunshine showed wide variations. Most eastern districts north of Oamaru together with Nelson were favoured with above normal totals, and the departure amounted to over 200 hours at Gisborne, Wairoa, Blenheim, and Motueka. Blenheim's total of 2,684 hours was the highest ever recorded for a year in any part of New Zealand. On the other hand, sunshine was more than 150 hours below normal in Southland and South Otago. It was also somewhat below normal in most western districts.

Seasonal Notes—January was rather a dry month, especially in the North Island.

February was dry and sunny; in the South Island it was one of the driest months on record.

The next month was the wettest March for at least 50 years over the North Island. It was also generally warm and cloudy. Good growth was reported. In northern districts of the North Island 90 percent of the rain fell in one week, from the 4th to the 10th. The worst flooding reported was on the Rangitaiki Plains, Bay of Plenty.

Although April was marked by an unusually high frequency of south-westerly winds, it was a warm month. Conditions were mainly favourable for farming, especially in the North Island.

May was marked by a greater frequency of south-westerly winds than usual, and it was predominantly a wet month but rather sunny. Excessive cloud and rain in parts of Southland and Otago made the ground too wet for farmers. The heaviest rains were reported from the 13th to the 16th, and gales were widespread over this period, with some damage. Temperatures fell rapidly towards the end of May accompanied by early snowfalls, which persisted for most of June, with some falls to low levels. For the country as a whole, this was the coldest June for many years. Losses of several thousand stock and other damage occurred as a result of flooding in Southland and South Otago on the 12th.

In contrast with the previous month, July was mild, and stock were reported to be wintering fairly well.

August was cold but sunny. Conditions were not particularly favourable for lambing.

September was a warm month marked by exceptionally strong winds from a westerly quarter. In Nelson, Marlborough, and Canterbury conditions were rather too dry. However, in Southland and Otago this was a particularly wet month, and it followed six months of predominantly wet weather, especially in Southland. Besides stock losses due to flooding there were many reports of losses in both lambs and ewes from the wet weather and lack of feed. Many gales were reported, especially in the South Island on the 13th, with some damage, particularly around Dunedin.

October was also marked by a somewhat greater frequency of winds from a westerly quarter than usual. It was a warm month, and particularly warm and sunny in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay.

November was a warm month but unusually cloudy in the North Island. It was also rather dry, especially in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay and in Marlborough, with serious effects on stock and crops.

The spring season of September, October and November was the warmest on record in eastern districts from Gisborne to Canterbury.

Pressures were unusually low over New Zealand in December and the weather was cool and windy. Over the northern half of the North Island good growth was reported, but elsewhere conditions were too dry, with a shortage of feed in some eastern districts.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1972—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1972 were at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfallRain Days (0.2 mm* or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost†Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)‡
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum

* 0.01 in.

† Minimum Air Temperature Less than 0.0°C.

‡ °C = 5/9 (°F -32).

 mm hours 
Kerikeri14841191968015.223.916.213.07.129.50.7
Dargaville10701381929515.022.615.413.47.230.0−1.6
Auckland10811182027015.421.914.515.68.426.53.5
Tauranga Aerodrome11201072299714.222.614.913.66.327.6−1.2
Hamilton (Ruakura)127512219382413.522.914.011.44.427.2−4.1
Rotorua136610719322612.721.612.511.74.627.4−2.7
Gisborne Aerodrome885962439814.023.714.712.85.329.6−2.6
Taupo105610821404012.122.811.710.23.129.4−3.6
Lake Waikaremoana1837146..911.420.19.710.53.828.5−1.2
Taumarunui139714916874312.823.713.510.43.628.8−5.4
New Plymouth Aerodrome12551412026413.221.213.512.65.824.9−0.6
Napier6047924341414.224.114.213.63.830.9−2 3
Wanganui694952023813.621.413.413.45.326.8−0.5
Palmerston North82911316681613.021.713.113.05.027.9−1.8
Masterton76610920452812.222.512.29.93.230.0−3.2
Wellington (Kelburn)10291172054012.519.811.312.55.926.00.2
Nelson Aerodrome8278325165112.222.212.212.41.226.5−5.6
Blenheim5305926844412.922.612.411.62.730.4−3.4
Westport Aerodrome23801851786112.219.812.311.84.623.1−0.3
Hanmer Forest977111197110310.221.49.57.7−1.230.6−7.6
Hokitika Aerodrome300718118161611.419.512.010.93.525.3−2.1
Lake Coleridge87495..7710.020.29.18.1−0.630.4−7.7
Christchurch5527521654911.921.211.010.91.833.2−4.4
Lake Tekapo734822311999.320.56.77.9−1.628.0−9.5
Timaru5498619284212.120.89.810.50.429.6−5.6
Milford Sound7453191..4110.318.38.810.01.823.2−2.4
Queenstown99510119174610.420.97.69.40.728.1−4.1
Alexandra4296920757710.922.28.19.1−1.630.6−7.6
Dunedin (Musselburgh)101314016001111.018.79.710.32.528.5−2.5
Gore11741681554299.717.98.07.71.128.1−3.8
Invercargill Aerodrome14481841471339.717.39.17.89.728.5−4.3

For 1972 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1015.9; Kelburn, Wellington, 1013.1; Nelson Aerodrome, 1013.6; Hokitika Aerodrome, 1013.7; Christchurch, 1012.0; and Dunedin Airport, 1010.9.

Chapter 2. Section 2
HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

EARLY HISTORY: General—When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

From the early days of European settlement in the first half of the nineteenth century many Maoris believed that their interests were best served by co-operation with the settlers. For the most part the Europeans adopted a humanitarian attitude to the Maori people, who accepted their assurances and found a satisfactory safeguard for their interests in the exercise of their rights and privileges of British subjects. As the Europeans established a self-contained and aggressively growing society, there grew up a rivalry for land and a clash of power. In the 1860s Maori tribes in Taranaki, Waikato, and Bay of Plenty fought the settlers and Government troops in a series of sporadic campaigns based on loss of land rights and rising Maori nationalism. After 1870 there followed the development of a European colony of settlement with Maori people making further economic adjustments to European ways.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing though still forming a minority component.

The overseas territories of Niue Island and the Tokelau Islands had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages. The bi-centenary of Cook's first visit to New Zealand was celebrated in 1969; an account of his voyages of discovery in the Pacific is given on pages 1116 to 1128 of the 1969 issue of the Official Yearbook.

The European discovery of Niue Island was made by Captain Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606.

European Settlement and Colonisation—Whaling stations sprang up along the coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands. To promote the translation of the Bible into Maori, Thomas Kendall (one of Marsden's assistants) took two Maori chiefs with him to England in 1820. The printing of the Bible in Maori was made possible through the establishment of a printing press by William Colenso at Paihia in the Bay of Islands in 1835.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty (see later).

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and pacification of the warring tribes.

The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10,000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3,801 in Wellington, 2,895 in Auckland, 2,500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125,000 (as against 55,000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200,000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain with the Vogel policy of public works development.

After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. Although the war had died down by 1870 it was only during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister that some measure of reconciliation began with the establishment of four Maori electorates in 1876.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold there had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500,000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated. After Vogel's plans for these loans to be secured against the land were frustrated by the provinces, he decided that the provincial system, begun in 1853, had outlived its usefulness and that parochialism was a hindrance to the development of the colony. The system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act 1876.

When systematic colonisation began, New Zealand's only important trade association was with the east coast of Australia. It was, however, the inflow of British capital which set the New Zealand economy on a path of growth: that determined by the requirements of markets in the United Kingdom. Britain with a vigorously expanding demand from its working population required from the young colony an assured and increasing supply of food and raw materials, and a guaranteed market for its industrial goods. In accordance with this archetypal pattern of colonial development agricultural trade with the United Kingdom assumed over-riding importance as the land was brought into production. By 1868, in spite of the problem of distance, the United Kingdom had already become New Zealand's principal trading partner.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was that of social justice, the principal manifestations of which were the breaking up of the large estates, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old age pensions. The policy of subdivision of large estates to produce closer settlement included the compulsory purchase of large holdings by the State, but more important were the effects of refrigeration, which encouraged the smaller dairy and fat-lamb farms, the accelerated Government purchase of Maori lands and the widespread introduction of systems of Crown leasehold with subsequent loans to small farmers to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration, the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognised bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time under the influence of William Pember Reeves.

The 6 years from 1906 with Joseph Ward as Prime Minister were marked by several notable events in imperial affairs, but, on the whole, the Government's domestic policies were singularly uninspiring.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the “cow-cockie” was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey, in order to strengthen the primary producer, introduced measures of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Industrial conflict on the waterfront and with the Waihi miners ended in a victory for Massey who relied on the use of troops and special constables to repress the strikes.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways. Prime Ministers in the 10 years from 1925 were J. Gordon Coates, Sir Joseph Ward, and George Forbes.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of the pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A coalition Government, formed in 1931 to meet the crisis had, as its leading figure, Coates, who was Minister of Finance from 1933. In order to produce balanced budgets and cope with the effects of the depression, enactments provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. Partly as a consequence of these measures and of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935.

Development as a Nation—The election of a Labour Government in 1935 (with notable politicians including Michael Savage, Peter Fraser, and Walter Nash, who successively became Prime Ministers) reflected the general climate of opinion and led to change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. These attitudes were reflected in certain distinctive trends in legislation.

The first major influence was a humanitarian attitude reinforced by a progressive economic policy. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers' compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of basic prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalisation of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

Another dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and by the provision of a system of medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits. (The evolution of social security in New Zealand was summarised in a special article in the 1972 issue of the Official Yearbook; this was an extract from the Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Social Security in New Zealand published in March 1972.)

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, reduction of working hours, extension of workers' compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

Shaken by conflict with its industrial left-wing, and faced with increasing public impatience at the continued existence of some wartime controls and concern at inflation, the Labour Government was defeated at the 1949 election after holding office since 1936. The National Party took office under the leadership of Sidney Holland and its first term was marked by a conflict with the Waterside Workers' Union. This dispute in 1951 ended in a complete victory for the Government after it introduced most stringent emergency regulations to deal with the situation. For the first time this century, Holland held an emergency election before parliament had run its full 3-year term. The result was to return the National Government with an increased majority.

In 1952, continued inflation and a balance of payments crisis produced restrictions on exchange allocation to importers in an effort to build up overseas reserves. The 1954 election reduced National's majority and was marked by the appearance of a third party, the Social Credit Party which gained 11 percent of the votes.

During his time as Prime Minister, Holland initiated a constitutional change with the abolition of the Legislative Council on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function. Illness caused Holland's retirement in 1957 when he was replaced as leader by Keith Holyoake.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. Early in 1972 John Marshall became leader of the National Party. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk.

International affairs have assumed growing importance in recent decades. It was evident when peace returned to the Pacific area in 1945 that New Zealand found itself in a different world, where its relations with the countries geographically closest to it would grow rapidly in importance. This did not, however, alter the extent to which New Zealand identified itself as a European nation. New Zealand took part in the Paris Peace Conference and it was not until 1955 that it altered the planning commitments of its defence forces from security arrangements in the Middle East to similar arrangements in the South-east Asia and Pacific areas.

The most far-reaching reorientation required of New Zealand in this new situation was the need to obtain a guarantee of its security from the United States rather than the United Kingdom to which it had traditionally turned. With Australia it signed the ANZUS pact with the United States in 1951 and this provides the cornerstone of New Zealand's security arrangements. It also gives New Zealand a common interest with the nations of Western Europe in encouraging the United States to maintain outward-looking policies and a global defence capability.

New Zealand's growing regional awareness has been expressed partly in its defence relationships through SEATO, and through the collective defence arrangements with Malaysia and Singapore; but more widely in its participation in the Colombo Plan and other arrangements for extending development aid to South-east Asia, the South-west Pacific and the Indian subcontinent. The stability and well-being of these areas are vital to New Zealand's interests and relationships with the countries of the region are becoming closer every year.

A feature of the 1960s was a series of national conferences on industrial development (1960), export development (1963), agricultural development (1963–64), and national development (1969).

Relations with Europe—Agricultural development has continued to be based on the principle of the family farm, and the New Zealand farmer remains typically both labourer and manager, as well as landowner. The present level of efficiency has been won by hard effort, skilled management, the application of the results of scientific research, and a heavy personal investment in farm improvement. Dairy producers are now faced with problems of maintaining overseas markets as a result of Britain's move to join the European Economic Community.

Farm production has constantly expanded so that New Zealand has become one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. The bulk of this produce still goes to the British market.

The advantages of a closely bilateral trading relationship with the United Kingdom were not one-sided. The association was grounded in economic logic, and enabled New Zealand to develop its only major natural asset into a pastoral system of unmatched economic efficiency, which, to the present day would, under free trading conditions, enable its farm products to meet any competition.

The pattern of economic dependence developed in accordance with a series of mutually agreed decisions extending over a long period, and these were formalised by the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 between the British and New Zealand Governments which provided preferential access to each other's markets. The advantages of this economic rationalisation were demonstrated most strikingly in the Second World War, 1939–45 when, apart from the New Zealand military contribution, its continued substantial supply of food to a beleaguered Britain was vital to the continuation of the Allied war effort.

Settlers came originally to New Zealand because of some dissatisfaction with the conditions of life they knew in their country of birth. They sought to build a new society which, while retaining what was good in Britain and Europe, would exclude the pressures which they had found damaging to the quality of their own lives. It is perhaps ironic that, to the extent which a new society has been created, this has been achieved by means of, and is contingent upon, continued strong economic ties with Europe. The decision of Britain to become part of the European Economic Community in 1973 and thus subject to a new pattern of trading arrangements would have been disastrous for New Zealand's exports of dairy produce and lamb, but for the negotiations of special arrangements for continuing trade; in these negotiations Holyoake and Marshall were key personalities.

Pacific Orientation—Increasing interest has been taken in the last decade in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific with New Zealand ties.

New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. One-tenth of the New Zealand population is Maori or Polynesian, and there are more Niue Islanders in New Zealand than in Niue. Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islanders are New Zealand citizens who freely move back and forth. These people have undoubtedly had a big influence on the character, attitudes, and behaviour of the rest of the New Zealand population—most have some understanding of the “Polynesian way”. New Zealand has a number of other basic links with the South Pacific, due in part to the common colonial history shared with such nations as Fiji. This British heritage has given a common language and the democratic tradition. Today all the independent states of the South Pacific are associated in the British Commonwealth.

The most recent political development is the establishment of the South Pacific Forum. This group, comprising the leaders of the five independent and self-governing nations of the South Pacific (Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Nauru), together with Australia and New Zealand, has already had highly successful meetings, in Wellington, in Canberra, and in Suva. The South Pacific Forum is a new concept in international relations—an exciting development. There is no constitution, there is no agenda, and there is no formality. The leaders come together in private sessions for frank and concentrated discussion on practical matters of direct relevance to the people of the Pacific. The island leaders themselves suggested the formula and proposed Australian and New Zealand participation. Clearly they saw the need to exchange views, discuss projects and priorities, and generally to secure on a regional basis effective collaboration and co-ordination at the highest level. A South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation has been established with a broad programme of trade, production, and economic development. It is based in Suva.

Financial and other assistance has been provided from New Zealand to overseas territories for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as roading and airports, communication facilities, etc. Fuller information is given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which has applied since 1966, has been an important factor in accelerated growth in trans-Tasman trade.

Sovereignty—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of native affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the war. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the “self-reliant policy” whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

In recognition of a nascent sense of nationality and of an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS—Few pressures existed prior to the early 1930s to impel New Zealand towards enunciating an independent foreign policy. Successive Governments preferred to make known any views on matters of foreign affairs only to the British Government and through the confidential channels of intra-Commonwealth consultation. The population was mainly British in composition and comparatively few were concerned to distinguish between New Zealand's interests and those of Britain. Nor had they much cause to do so: New Zealand had established a fruitful economic partnership with Britain, upon which country nearly all her material and cultural links were centred; and New Zealand's surest protector against dangers which it was incapable of meeting alone was the Royal Navy. It was, moreover, realised that New Zealand in her own right could make little impact on world affairs, whereas Britain was a great power capable of affecting the pattern of world events. New Zealand “foreign policy” therefore consisted chiefly in seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain.

The emergence of an independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually held to date from 1935. The Labour Government held strong views on the principle of collective security and upon the League of Nations as the embodiment of that principle. In its method of championing the principles of collective security, it pressed for the restoration of the authority of the League of Nations at a time when the United Kingdom Government was pursuing the policy which came to be known as appeasement, urging positive League action over Abyssinia, Spain, and China. In addition to making its views known in confidential communications to the United Kingdom Government, it also stated them with vigour in the international forum of the Council and the Assembly of the League of Nations.

There was nevertheless, no fundamental departure from the traditional policy of association with Britain. Moreover, the course that would be followed in the event of war was never in doubt. As early as 16 May 1938 a leading member of the Government had said, “If the Old Country is attacked, we are too … we will assist her to the fullest extent possible”. When war broke out the Prime Minister the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms that were as true in 1939 as they would have been in 1914:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand.”

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand gradually to revise its foreign policy and its method of implementing that policy. Also during the war years New Zealand was admitted to the councils of the Allies and was expected to advance informed views. The Government honoured its responsibility and, having established in wartime the habit of participating in the making of international decisions, accepted it as natural that New Zealand should continue to participate in the development of a post-war world order and in subsequent international consultations. To this end New Zealand established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and proceeded slowly to establish diplomatic missions in countries where New Zealand's interests merited protection. In particular, New Zealand sought increasingly to make its individual contribution to fostering good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increasing the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

To be woven into any post-war policy was the now traditional New Zealand belief in the principle of collective security and international justice, especially as symbolised by the United Nations. This was by no means an easy task in a world where the divisions of the cold war were reflected in competing regional alliances. There had to be a place, too, for belief in the ability of international co-operation to control armaments and to eliminate poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

The threat to New Zealand's security, posed by the entry of Japan into the war in 1941 at a time when the United Kingdom was fully committed in Europe, brought New Zealand into the closest relations with two of her neighbours on the borders of the Pacific—Australia and the United States. Recognition of the need for a greater measure of collaboration with Australia resulted in the signing in 1944 of the Canberra Pact which provided machinery for continuing consultation between the two Governments. Upon the entry of Japan into the war, both New Zealand and Australia had looked principally to the United States for protection. Relations among the three countries thus entered a new phase. The close association of wartime found expression in peacetime in the ANZUS Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a treaty of alliance and mutual defence with a foreign country and achieved the aim of both countries to enter into a close relationship with the major Pacific power. The ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard from aggression in the area.

The establishment of SEATO, like the formation of the ANZUS alliance, took place against a background of continuing insecurity and of danger in the Far East. In 1950 New Zealand had participated in collective action by the United Nations in Korea. In 1954, following the Indo-China crisis and the Geneva Accords, a broader collective defence treaty covering South-east Asia and the South-west Pacific, known as the Manila Treaty, was signed by New Zealand and Australia, France, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The parties agreed that in the event of armed attack on the parties or on a “protocol” State (Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam) they would act to meet the common danger. The parties established the South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) in Bangkok.

From 1955 New Zealand contributed forces to a Commonwealth Far East reserve stationed in Malaya. In 1959 New Zealand, with Australia, became associated with the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement, concluded in 1957, which subsequently became the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement with the formation of Malaysia in 1963. When the United Kingdom decided to withdraw its forces east of Suez by the end of 1971, New Zealand, in association with Australia, indicated its intention to maintain a military presence in Malaysia and Singapore after British withdrawal. Subsequently, with a change of government in the United Kingdom in June 1970, the British decided to retain forces in the area although they upheld the earlier decision to revoke AMDA. A new five-power defence arrangement involving Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, and the United Kingdom replaced the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement on 1 November 1971.

The scope of New Zealand's presence in Asia widened considerably in the years following signature of the Manila Treaty—diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of countries in the area, and increased activity in other fields of co-operation besides that of defence followed the extension of this network of diplomatic posts. By the mid 1960s New Zealand had more complete representation in Asia than in Western Europe. Subsequent accession to regional membership of ECAFE, the Asian Development Bank and ASPAC (the Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation) is further demonstration of this country's acceptance that it has a role to play in the Asian area.

New Zealand's direct interest in political, social, and economic developments in the South Pacific countries is reflected not only in its membership of such regional organisations as the South Pacific Commission, but also in an increased sense of involvement in their problems. The evolution of self-government and nationalism in the South Pacific reached a new stage when Western Samoa became the first independent Polynesian State on 1 January 1962. Three years later the Cook Islands achieved internal self-government. In 1968 Nauru achieved independence as did Fiji and Tonga in 1970. In August 1971, at the request of these five countries New Zealand hosted the first meeting of the South Pacific Forum. New Zealand's liberal tradition of friendship for emergent peoples, and the fact that large numbers of Polynesian people have settled here, means that the islanders tend to look to New Zealand for leadership and encouragement. Inevitably, New Zealand is going to be increasingly involved in the South Pacific region.

New Zealand has continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It has been an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation, has provided troops to the United Nations Force in Korea, and military observers and civilian police in various peace-keeping operations, and has endeavoured to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

The historic links with Britain and with Western Europe and North America remain as close as ever; and the economic links with Britain, New Zealand's best customer, remain strong. One of the key problems of external political and economic policy for New Zealand remains the movement towards political and economic integration in Europe since Britain has joined the European Economic Community at the beginning of 1973.

New Zealand intends in the future to pursue a more independent policy in international affairs, putting more emphasis on improving economic and social relations in other countries. Believing in the dignity and equality of all human beings, New Zealand totally rejects all doctrines of racial superiority.

Normal relations have been entered into with the People's Republic of China and plans have been made to open a New Zealand mission in Peking. With the peace settlement in Indo-China it is planned to develop new forms of regional co-operation in Asia.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs—The primary responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is for the formulation and execution of New Zealand foreign policy. It conducts relations with other countries and communications with their governments and representatives in New Zealand. It operates New Zealand's aid programme and maintains diplomatic and consular representation abroad. Its overseas functions are discharged through a network of 30 diplomatic and consular posts consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions. At home, the preparation and co-ordination of foreign policy recommendations is carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments. The ministry is administered jointly with the Prime Minister's Department. Prime Ministers have found it appropriate on occasions to hold the Foreign Affairs portfolio. The Secretary of Foreign Affairs is also Permanent Head of the Prime Minister's Department.

In economic and commercial matters the ministry works closely with the Department of Trade and Industry and with the Treasury. The ministry has a special role too as a clearing house for material provided by New Zealand posts overseas for other departments, and through its posts it performs numerous services on behalf of departments without representatives abroad.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—Through membership of the Commonwealth New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 31 other countries over a wide spectrum of social, economic, and political fields. The value New Zealand places on its Commonwealth links is derived not only from these practical benefits but also from the heterogeneous composition of the Commonwealth. Its 32 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. In particular membership in the Pacific has grown. Fiji, Tonga, and Western Samoa have secured the same full membership as Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru has special status.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. As Commonwealth heads of government affirmed in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their last meeting in 1971, the association “provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among member states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations.” New Zealand, itself a country where two races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965. Under the leadership of its Secretary-General, Mr Arnold Smith, it has become the main agency for multilateral communication between Commonwealth governments. The Commonwealth Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and coordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. The fund is financed by voluntary contributions from all Commonwealth countries and is designed to provide advice and assistance for development projects, export marketing, education, and training. The primary purpose of the fund is to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

New Zealand contributes to the budgets of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, and the Commonwealth Foundation. The foundation was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links between the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

New Zealand and the Pacific—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a remarkable growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Pacific area, that is, the areas and countries within, or facing on to the Pacific Ocean. In this process, defence policy and concern for national security have undoubtedly played an important part. From the first, and increasingly, the reorientation of defence interests towards the Pacific area has gone in parallel with the development of non-defence activities in that area. Some of the most important landmarks in that process have indeed stemmed from a concern with defence: participation in the United Nations action in Korea in 1950, the ANZUS Treaty, the Manila Treaty, the acceptance of responsibilities within the ANZAM, participation in the confrontation and Vietnam conflicts, and the Five Power defence arrangements. There is no doubt that New Zealand is now accepted as a country with an independent voice and a genuine stake in the area. There is also no doubt that this acceptance has followed from the interweaving of two strands of policy: a readiness to assume a role in the security of the area; and the development of a comprehensive relationship in matters other than defence. Thus, the developing defence policy must be seen within the context of our developing policy and national outlook.

The private and Government sectors have together been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic relationships. This has been assisted by the development of a pattern of regular economic talks with our main trading partners and in some cases by the conclusion of bilateral economic agreements, such as those with Japan and Australia.

Aid activities have developed. In the early 1950s aid programmes, except for assistance to New Zealand's own Pacific territories, were largely directed towards the Indian subcontinent in the form of capital grants, which called for little direct New Zealand participation. Since the mid 1950s, technical assistance programmes have been expanded to bring students to New Zealand and send New Zealand experts into the area. The scope of aid activities has been widened to involve our industrial and engineering skills as well as the more traditional agricultural and health fields. New Zealand has become a full member of ECAFE, a member of the ADB, and a participant in some at least of the international bodies co-ordinating aid to other countries. Together, these developments have meant that aid programmes are not just reflections of a humanitarian obligation but also part of a broader process of developing a wide range of contacts with countries in the area.

New Zealand's external activities, in the first 10 years after the Second World War, tended to be tied to the framework and timing of Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conferences and United Nations meetings because of the restricted nature of our representation abroad. In 1955, the New Zealand mission in Singapore was established. At that time, New Zealand had full diplomatic representation in only four countries in the Pacific area (the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia). By 1960, there was full diplomatic representation in seven countries. Today, there are 13 full diplomatic posts in the Pacific area and dual accreditation to another 4 countries.

This diplomatic network gives New Zealand the capacity to observe developments and assess their significance, to formulate and represent a New Zealand position, and to carry through a range of bilateral contacts. Over the same years New Zealand has developed its political contacts with countries of the Pacific area in many other ways. Three are worthy of particular note: exchanges of visits by Ministers, Parliamentarians, and by Heads of State of Government; participation in a number of multilateral bodies, such as SEATO, ASPAC, and the Five Power defence arrangements; and the development of bilateral consultative arrangements.

Cultural contacts with the countries of the Pacific area have expanded greatly over this same period. At one stage, New Zealanders, when they looked abroad for a model or for a broadening of their experience, looked automatically to Britain. Many still do. But many others look elsewhere. New Zealand society in general is much more aware of the Pacific area than 20 years ago. Professional bodies, sporting associations, private bodies, even our universities, have direct contacts with similar organisations in other countries of the Pacific area where 20 years ago they would have had links only with Britain and perhaps Australia. Tourism, the development of civil air links, and the general expansion of cultural interests have also helped bring a wider range of contacts.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—The South Pacific is New Zealand's immediate environment, its Polynesian peoples are close kin to the New Zealand Maori, its islands nearest and most important in the lines of communication which link New Zealand with America and Europe.

Through the South Pacific Commission the Governments administering territories in the South Pacific—Britain, the United States, France, Australia, and New Zealand—have made a concerted effort to promote the economic and social development of the area and its peoples. In the 24 years of its existence the commission has, within its budgetary limits (its budget for 1971, $1,096,954), done much valuable work, particularly in bringing the islanders together and developing a sense of community amongst them. Originally laying much stress on research, the commission has come to concentrate mainly on providing technical assistance and on pooling experience of handling common problems of development. Its membership has grown to include Western Samoa and Nauru. At the same time the importance of the South Pacific Conference has increased. The territorial representatives who attend the conference now have a decisive voice in determining the commission's work programme. Close working links are maintained with United Nations specialised agencies which take an active interest in the region.

But New Zealand has not been content with promoting progress in the economic and social spheres only. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945 it took a leading part in working out the trusteeship system embodied in the United Nations Charter, and subsequently the League of Nations Mandate for New Zealand to administer Western Samoa was replaced by a trusteeship agreement.

In accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people, a programme of political and constitutional development was launched which continued throughout the 1950s and which culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The transfer of sovereignty did not, however, weaken the close and friendly relationship which had grown up between Western Samoa and New Zealand and this was confirmed in a treaty of friendship between the two countries signed in August 1962. In the educational as well as in other fields New Zealand assists Western Samoa.

Whilst Western Samoa was moving towards independence, constitutional development was taking place in New Zealand's other island territories. Following expert surveys a programme of economic and social development for the Cook Islands was formulated in 1955 and legislative assemblies for the Cook Islands and for Niue were set up in 1957. In 1962 the New Zealand Government gave these bodies full responsibility for allocating the large subsidies granted by New Zealand. In the same year possible alternatives concerning constitutional development were submitted to the assemblies. Both chose full internal self-government together with a continued association with New Zealand. Events thereafter moved most rapidly in the Cook Islands. On 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. The Legislative Assembly, assured of New Zealand's financial assistance, is fully responsible for the internal affairs of the Cook Islands.

Progress in the constitutional field has also been made in Niue and the Tokelau Islands, New Zealand's remaining dependent territories. On 1 November 1968, at the request of the Niue Assembly, a full-member system of government was introduced, giving the Executive Committee responsibility for the portfolios controlling all Government departments. Under the Niue Amendment Act 1971 the Executive Committee has general direction and control of the executive government of Niue. There is a Resident Commissioner responsible to the Executive Committee who acts as a liaison officer between the Governments of New Zealand and Niue.

Responsibility for deciding priorities for Government works and expenditure has been given by the Administrator to the Tokelau Islands councils or fonos which have also fully discussed their future development and have expressed the wish (as have the people of Niue) to retain their association with New Zealand. At the request of the fonos, the New Zealand Government has instituted a pilot programme to assist Tokelau Islanders to resettle in New Zealand.

The independence of Western Samoa, self-government in the Cook Islands and Niue are indicative of broader developments in the South Pacific, developments which included in 1970 the attainment of full independence by the Kingdom of Tonga and by Fiji. Economic, social, and educational development has made the peoples of the area more self-reliant. Students from certain English-speaking territories in the South Pacific undertake courses at the University of the South Pacific in Fiji under the New Zealand bursary scheme.

New Zealand in the United Nations—If New Zealand is better known and commands more influence in international affairs than some other small states similarly situated, this is, in some measure at least, due to New Zealand's record of active participation in the United Nations.

New Zealand's share of the United Nations' regular budget is 0.32 percent, in 1971 this meant a New Zealand contribution to the organisation of $433,784.

United Nations Security and Peace-keeping Activities—New Zealand Governments have acted upon the conviction that the United Nations, and it alone, contains the rudiments of a universal collective system, and that it is through the United Nations, and not through its abandonment in favour of some alternative, that an effective and comprehensive collective security system may eventually be developed and agreement on disarmament achieved. At San Francisco in 1945 the Right Hon. Peter Fraser argued forcibly but unsuccessfully to eliminate the veto and to strengthen the collective security provisions of the United Nations Charter. Within the United Nations New Zealand has sought to remove the causes which might produce the need for recourse to collective security action. Its representatives have urged that the Assembly be used as a place for harmonising relations between nations; they have voiced the need for restraint in the pursuit of national objectives; they have consistently sought and supported responsible action in aid of an effective international organisation; and they have reiterated the need for the early adoption of a broad programme of supervised disarmament.

New Zealand was elected to the Security Council, which is charged with the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, for the years 1954 and 1955, and for a second term in 1966 when membership of the Council was increased from 10 to 15.

New Zealand has also advocated adequate and timely preparations in case aggression should occur and has supported the fullest possible development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping. New Zealand has been prepared to play its part; forces were supplied to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers to the United Nations observer groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon; and a civilian police unit has served in Cyprus.

New Zealand has recognised that the objective of developing the United Nations' potential in security and peacekeeping is a long-term one.

Economic and Social Activities—Apart from this substantial and primary concern with international peace and security, other aspects of the work of the United Nations have increased greatly in importance in recent years. Article 55 of the United Nations Charter recognises that peaceful and friendly relations among nations depend largely on conditions of economic and social progress. Advancement in these latter fields absorbs annually more and more of the United Nations' resources, and represents at least one area in which international understanding and co-operation are reaping tangible rewards. First the ′60s and now the ′70s have been designated as “development decades” and an international development strategy—an overall plan setting targets for development during the second decade—was adopted by the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Commemorative Session in 1970.

The United Nations Organisation with primary responsibility in this vast field is the Economic and Social Council (or ECOSOC), an elective body of 27 members, which co-ordinates the activities of the wide variety of bodies with interests in these fields, ranging from the functional commissions and committees of the United Nations itself to the autonomous specialised agencies.

The biggest single task now facing ECOSOC is to promote and direct programmes for economic development in the less-developed countries. New Zealand had always recognised the need for this type of development, and has been concerned to ensure that the international programmes in this field should be effective and realistic. Its interest in social and economic questions is illustrated by its membership of ECOSOC from 1947–49, and 1959–61; and it was again elected by the General Assembly to serve over the period 1971–73. New Zealand in 1963 became a full regional member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), a body of which it had previously been a non-regional member. New Zealand has also served terms of office from time to time on the Status of Women Commission, the Technical Assistance Committee, and on the Statistical, Social, and Fiscal Commissions. Most recently, it served on the Commission on Human Rights for two consecutive terms covering the period 1966–71, and served on the Population Commission for the period 1969–72.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all specialised agencies, except the International Development Association, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, range from $2,700 to $216,000 annually and totalled some $767,000 in 1971–72. New Zealand has also subscribed capital to the financial agencies.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote areas like New Zealand. In other cases, New Zealand benefits by the free interchange of knowledge and experience, and from the endeavours of the agencies to establish world-wide standards of safety, to promote facilitation of international traffic, and to examine restrictive or discriminatory practices in these fields. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the service of experts to developing countries (for example in physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities.

Two major fields for this sort of additional assistance are the contributions made to the United Nations Development Programme and to the World Food Programme. New Zealand has given annual contributions to UNDP (in 1971–72 $500,000), and in addition has sent experts abroad to work in the field on UNDP assignments. The WFP is a programme approved by the United Nations and FAO in 1961 and administered jointly by them. In 1963–70 New Zealand made total grants of US$1,670,000, of which US$610,000 was in cash and US$1,060,000 in commodities. For 1971–73, New Zealand has pledged a further US$840,000, of which US$280,000 will be in cash and US$560,000 in commodities. New Zealand is a member of the inter-governmental committee which supervises the programme.

New Zealand's accession to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation not only allows this country to participate in measures designed to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world, but also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of ECAFE “to foster economic growth and co-operation in the ECAFE region”.

New Zealand has supported agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands and some projects are now listed. WHO has assisted in the past in the eradication of yaws and tuberculosis; FAO is at present the executing agency for a UNDP project designed to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops, and has also established a regional fisheries development agency; UNESCO has set up a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; a development assistance team, backed by ECAFE and the specialised agencies, is being established in Suva.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UPU, and was a member of the FAO Council for 1970–72. Although, because of its size and limited scale of contributions, New Zealand is not likely to be elected frequently to the boards of at least the larger agencies, it can expect, over the years, to bear its share of administrative responsibility within them.

Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)—As a result of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development held in Geneva in 1964, the General Assembly agreed to hold a triennial conference on trade and development with the objective of promoting international trade, particularly between countries at different stages of development, with a view to accelerating the economic growth of developing countries. UNCTAD held its second session in New Delhi early in 1968. UNCTAD is the United Nations body generally responsible for all matters relating to trade development. It is open to all United Nations members and other states who are members of the specialised agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency. The conference has become a permanent organisation, with a trade and development board which conducts the affairs of the organisation between plenary conferences. New Zealand commenced its second consecutive term on the board in 1968. There are also within the organisation functional committees on commodities, manufacturers, finance invisibles, and shipping. New Zealand held a seat on the Committee on Commodities from 1967 to 1969, and the Committee on Shipping from 1969 to 1971. The second UNCTAD conference was held in Delhi in 1968 and the third conference was convened in Santiago, Chile, in April 1972.

GATT—New Zealand has been a contracting party to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade since its inception in 1947. Although not strictly a specialised agency, the GATT has assumed some of the characteristics of one, and its activities have extended into all aspects of international trade including, more recently, measures to liberalise non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade and to provide special export opportunities for the goods of the developing countries.

New Zealand Collective Security—The defence of New Zealand has been judged by successive Governments to call for active support for the concept of collective security. New Zealand alone is unable to defend its considerable but very isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. As a small country with limited resources, New Zealand is in no position to maintain the extensive defence effort needed if all possible contingencies are to be met. It has therefore supported efforts to promote the effective implementation of the provisions of the United Nations Charter designed to establish a universal system of collective security and, until this goal is reached, has accepted that its defence efforts should be made in concert with like-minded countries in order to create a broader framework for security than its individual national effort could provide. This in turn involves the obligation to make credible and effective contributions to collective defence arrangements from New Zealand's own armed services.

Since the Second World War, New Zealand has contributed to collective security action on several occasions both within the United Nations and under other arrangements. From 1955, military units were based in Malaya as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, where they took part in actions during the emergency. New Zealand forces later supported Malaysia in its successful resistance to Indonesian Confrontation. In 1965 an artillery battery was sent to South Vietnam under the Manila Treaty. It was subsequently joined by two infantry companies and a small Special Air Services troop. Force strengths rose to 560 before the beginning of withdrawals in 1970. All combat forces were withdrawn from South Vietnam at the end of 1971. Some 30 army personnel remained in a training role until 1972.

ANZUS—A basic expression of New Zealand's support for the principles of collective security is provided by the ANZUS Pact. This tripartite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States was signed at San Francisco on 1 September 1951 and came into force on 29 April 1952. It assured New Zealand and Australia of American support in the event of aggression in the Pacific.

The main provision of the ANZUS Pact is that each party recognises “that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of the parties would be dangerous to its own peace and safety and declares that it will act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes”. In the context of the agreement, an armed attack on any of the parties is deemed to include “an armed attack on the metropolitan territory of any of the parties or on the island territories under its jurisdiction in the Pacific or on its armed forces, public vessels, or aircraft in the Pacific”.

In keeping with the close ties between the three countries, the machinery for consultation has been kept as simple and flexible as possible. Meetings of a council of ministers are generally held once a year to review situations affecting the treaty area.

SEATO—Eight governments—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States—signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, also known as the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The treaty came into force on 19 February 1955. Under its terms, each party recognised that aggression by means of armed attack in South-east Asia or the South-west Pacific against any of the parties or against “a protocol state” (Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam) would endanger its own peace and safety, and agreed that it would act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional process. In the event of any other threat, the parties would consult on the measures to be taken for the common defence.

The South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty is headed by a council, made up of the foreign ministers of the signatory governments, which meets annually in members' capitals. Between meetings a body known as the Council Representatives provides continuity with representation generally provided by the heads of member countries' diplomatic missions in Bangkok; New Zealand is thus represented by its Ambassador to Thailand. From time to time various expert committees and study groups are convened to give collective advice to Council Representatives. The council also agreed in February 1955 that the military advisers to the ministers should meet as a group to advise it on measures for common defence. The civil and military secretariat has its headquarters at Bangkok.

The Manila Treaty has special significance because it is the only multilateral defence treaty applying to South-east Asia and the only treaty under which the United States has an obligation towards mainland South-east Asia. It is also the only treaty under which Thailand has any security guarantee. Thus the treaty helps maintain the fabric of collective defence without which the region would become the target of intensified communist pressure. It provides a backing for the efforts of those countries of the area striving, as the Manila Treaty states, “to uphold the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law”. The military planning and exercises carried out under the treaty are valuable in improving the capacity of the members to act together against aggression.

Neither in concept nor in structure is SEATO fitted for a major role in spheres other than defence. Nevertheless, the nature of the challenge in South-east Asia was recognised by making provision in the treaty for the parties, separately and jointly, to increase their capacity to counter subversion and to co-operate in economic measures to promote economic progress and social well-being. While most of this action is taken outside the framework of SEATO, the organisation has a useful aid programme designed to meet particular needs of the members of the treaty area. Thus SEATO has sponsored wide-ranging research efforts in the field of tropical medicine, agriculture, and engineering. A number of special SEATO professorships, post- and under-graduate scholarships, research fellowships and travelling lectureships have been established. The SEATO Graduate School of Engineering, established in Bangkok in September 1959, has now developed into an independent institution known as the Asian Institute of Technology. A programme to provide for a SEATO agricultural survey of the farming problems of the South-east Asian member governments has recently been initiated; New Zealand has contributed one expert to this programme. Seminars and study groups have been organised to consider particular problems. Cultural exchanges have been promoted. The New Zealand Government funded $20,000 a year from which to contribute to SEATO aid programmes.

Commonwealth Arrangements—Throughout the past two decades a defence arrangement known as ANZAM provided a further basis for New Zealand's co-operation in defence matters with Britain and Australia. In November 1971, following changes in Britain's role east of Suez, ANZAM was succeeded by an arrangement known as ANZUK. Unlike SEATO and ANZUS, ANZAM and ANZUK are not organisations established by formal treaty but have gradually evolved from the practice of close defence co-ordination among the three countries. ANZUK provides an important forum for consultation on defence matters of common concern to Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. The three Governments, however, retain full control over their individual defence policies. ANZUK meetings are usually held in Canberra.

In 1955, New Zealand transferred its wartime commitment from the Middle East to South-east Asia and agreed to contribute with Britain and Australia to a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve to be established in Malaya and Singapore.

Upon its accession to independence in 1957, the Federation of Malaya concluded the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement, which was subsequently extended to Malaysia on its formation in September 1963 and renamed the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement (AMDA). Under its provisions, the United Kingdom undertook to assist in the defence of Malaysia and was accorded the right to maintain such forces in Malaysia, including a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, as were agreed to be necessary for the defence of Malaysia and for the fulfilment of Commonwealth and international obligations. The agreement was accepted as applying generally to Singapore when it acceded to independence in 1965. In 1959 New Zealand, together with Australia, was associated with AMDA by an exchange of letters, placing on record that the provisions of the agreement applicable to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, in particular the provisions dealing with the status of forces, applied in respect of New Zealand forces in the reserve.

In January 1968 the British Government announced that its forces in South-east Asia would be withdrawn by the end of 1971. In February 1969 the New Zealand Prime Minister announced that the Government had decided to retain, in conjunction with Australia, a military presence in Malaysia and Singapore after the British withdrawal. A series of five-power meetings were held at official and ministerial level to discuss defence questions arising from the British decision to withdraw. During these meetings Malaysia and Singapore declared that the defence of the two countries was indivisible and Britain outlined the form its continuing interest would take, including its capability to assist in the event of a threat to peace and its intention to continue exercises and training in the area.

With the change of government in Britain in June 1970 the decision was taken to retain a British ground presence in Malaysia and Singapore. This presence was, however, to be on a smaller scale than previously and, in view of the nature of the continuing arrangement, the British upheld the earlier decision that AMDA should be revoked in 1971.

In place of AMDA, a new five-power defence arrangement for Malaysia and Singapore came into being on 1 November 1971. The new arrangement is less formal than AMDA and is based on the concept of partnership of the five participating countries. The basis of the five-power defence arrangement is not a formal treaty or agreement but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of ministers of the five-power countries held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, “that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat”. The Ministers agreed to establish an Air Defence Council to provide direction to the Commander of an Integrated Air Defence System for Malaysia and Singapore which was established on 1 September 1971; they also decided to set up a Joint Consultative Council to provide a forum for regular consultation at senior official level on matters relating to the defence arrangement.

New Zealand's military contribution to the five-power defence arrangement includes one battalion, a frigate regularly stationed at Singapore, medium-range transport aircraft and helicopters; and strike aircraft periodically deployed to the area from New Zealand. Underlying New Zealand's participation in the five-power defence arrangement is the belief that defence co-operation of this kind contributes significantly to the maintenance of stability and the continuation of development in the region as a whole. The five-power defence arrangement contributes to the security of Malaysia and Singapore. ANZUK forces are helping Malaysia and Singapore to build up their own defence establishments by supplementing their capabilities in the field of sophisticated equipment and by providing training assistance. It has always been made clear that the New Zealand presence will be maintained only as long as it has the consent and encouragement of the Governments of Malaysia and Singapore. New Zealand forces will not be involved in internal security problems and their deployment on active operations will require the express consent of the New Zealand Government.

New Zealand Aid—New Zealand's aid to developing countries takes many forms—capital aid (cash grants and equipment), technical assistance (the provision of experts and student training), food aid, and loans. It is channelled through a number of diverse programmes; multilateral, bilateral, and non-Governmental.

The Government decided in 1973 progressively to increase its contribution to United Nations aid programmes with the objective of attaining the target of 0.7 percent of the gross national product by the 1975–76 financial year.

Accordingly aid appropriations for 1973–74 are being increased to a total of $27,000,000. This would lift the Government's performance to 0.36 percent of estimated gross national product. For the following year it is planned to reach 0.5 percent.

To achieve the 0.7 percent target requires a substantial lift in aid. Official development assistance would then call for some $62,000,000. It would be subject to suitable growth in gross national product and the availability of resources.

The Government plans to play its part in leading New Zealand to the goal of 1 percent of gross national product in total resource transfers. These transfers include private aid grants, private overseas investments, and some forms of trade and commercial credits.

New Zealand has for many years played an active role in multilateral schemes initiated by the United Nations and its specialised agencies, e.g., the United Nations Development Programme, the World Food Programme, the United Nations Children's Fund and the programmes of aid to refugees.

The largest individual bilateral programme is the Colombo Plan, the main vehicle for the New Zealand Government's civil aid to South and South-east Asia. Other bilateral programmes undertaken by New Zealand include those involving the Cook Islands, Niue Island, the Tokelau Islands, Fiji and Tonga, and Western Samoa. Bilateral aid to Asia under the Colombo Plan amounted to $4,738,355 in the 1971–72 financial year, while aid to the islands of the South-west Pacific totalled $5,971,840.

Contributions to the Asian Development Bank's Technical Assistance Fund amounted to $75,000 in the 1971–72 financial year and together with $866,100 worth of Asian Development Banks Bonds taken up formed an important adjunct to New Zealand's bilateral aid to Asia.

Other programmes in which the New Zealand Government participates include the Special Commonwealth African Assistance Plan under which African students are brought to New Zealand for higher education and special training courses; the Commonwealth Education Scheme under which students and scholars from developing countries study in New Zealand; the Commonwealth Medical Scheme and the Commonwealth Programme for Technical Co-operation.

An amount of $10 million has been promised over 5 years for reconstruction in Indo-China.

New Zealand and the Colombo Plan—New Zealand was a foundation member of the Colombo Plan which had its origin in and takes its name from a meeting of Commonwealth foreign ministers held in January 1950 in Colombo to exchange views on world problems, particularly on the economic needs of the countries of South and South-east Asia. The Colombo Plan is not a single plan but rather an aggregation of a series of separate plans drawn up and administered by each country in the region: the external assistance required and made available to help implement these plans is negotiated on a bilateral basis. What was once a Commonwealth idea has grown into a truly international co-operative effort with 24 member countries.

Up to 31 March 1972, New Zealand has made available under the Colombo Plan capital aid and technical assistance amounting to $47,133,890.

The major capital aid projects with which New Zealand has been associated in 1971–72 include the provision of equipment for trade training schools in Burma and the Philippines, dairy and demonstration farm schemes in India, Korea, and the Philippines, the provision of road and aviation equipment for Thailand, jet barges to the Khmer Republic, aviation equipment to Indonesia, and the Ngam Ngum Dam in Laos and the Indus Waters Scheme in Pakistan.

Up to 31 March 1972 New Zealand has spent a total of $12,069,693 on student training and $8,176,969 on the provision of experts, advisers, and consultants. The number of students and trainees brought to New Zealand under Colombo Plan awards had reached 3,412, of whom 531 were in New Zealand on 31 March 1972. Experts who have served in Asia under the Colombo Plan had reached 531 by the same date. Major technical assistance projects overseas include the provision of a road construction team in north-east Thailand, a civilian surgical team in Vietnam, and teachers for Malaysia. Consultants from the private sector have also been engaged under the Colombo Plan on a wide range of technical assistance projects of a substantial nature. These include forestry, water reticulation, road design, beef cattle development, port surveys, architectural design, prefabricated buildings, abattoir design, irrigation, and geothermal power development.

Volunteer Service Abroad—The Council for Volunteer Service Abroad, although a non-governmental organisation, receives Government assistance in carrying out its programme of dispatching volunteer workers for assignments in many Asian and Pacific countries. At 31 March 1972 there were 120 volunteers in the field. The Government grant to VSA during the 1971–72 year was $90,076.

Distribution of New Zealand Aid—The distribution of New Zealand Government aid to overseas countries during the two latest financial years is set out in the following table. The aid is shown as bilateral where the arrangements were concluded directly between the New Zealand Government and the government of the recipient country or countries and multilateral where the aid was contributed to an international agency or fund. The table lists only Government aid. It does not take into account the substantial aid given in cash and kind through CORSO and other private organisations.

Item1969–701970–711971–72
Bilateral Assistance—NZ$(000)NZ$(000)NZ$(000)
     South Pacific—
               Cook Islands (including loans)2,2592,3753,242
               Niue9419721,140
               Tokelau Islands197156177
               Western Samoa400400258
               Training Scheme—Cook, Niue, Tokelau Islands105134111
               University of South Pacific capital assistance271
               South Pacific airports (excluding Rarotonga)131167379
               General40124106
 4,0734,3185,684
South and South-east Asia—
          Colombo Plan3,6464,6224,020
          Indonesian Trade Credit disbursement500478
          Other245196140
 3,8915,3184,638
Commonwealth—
          SCAAP18810280
          Commonwealth Education Scheme10514796
          Commonwealth Medical Scheme395584
          Commonwealth Programme for Technical Co-operation51020
 337314280
          Other including VSA, CORSO, and disaster relief67180460
          Total bilateral assistance8,36810,13011,062
Multilateral Assistance—
          Voluntary Programmes—
               International Development Association1,000
               United Nations Development Programme450450500
               United Nations Children's Fund120130130
               World Food Programme224191371
               South Pacific Commission142142154
               Asian Development Bank technical fund75
          Other8686186
Bank Subscriptions-
          Convertible currency subscription to Asian Development Bank1,0071,007
                    Total multilateral assistance2,0292,0812,341
               Total official development assistance10,39712,21113,340
Other Official Flows (ADB Bonds, trade credit to Peru, development of Rarotonga airport)4,4655,1526,759
               Total resource flows14,86217,36320,099

Substantial aid is also given in cash and kind through private voluntary agencies, such as CORSO, SCF, Red Cross, religious missions, etc.

General Aims—New Zealand's foreign policy has changed in emphasis and scope. It has been modified and extended to meet the demands of an international situation greatly changed from that of 1939. As a country of predominantly European settlement, New Zealand retains its traditional loyalties to the United Kingdom and a sense of identity with Europe and of involvement in its destiny.

New Zealand has accepted a growing involvement in the problems of the South Pacific region because of its close ties with the island people. New Zealand is in a unique position to encourage the growth of a regional consciousness in the South Pacific which is essential if the problems of the area are to be seen and tackled as a whole. At the same time it has recognised the importance of regional developments in Asia and the future security of that region, and has sought to develop its associations with Asian countries.

As a Pacific power, New Zealand has sought security in friendship and formal defensive arrangements with Australia and the United States. As a country concerned with the preservation of world peace and the organisation of defence against aggression it has placed prime importance upon development of the United Nations as an agency for peaceful settlement of international disputes and for the achievement of collective security. Pending the establishment of a broadly based United Nations security system, however, New Zealand has been prepared, in respect of South-east Asia, to participate in a protective grouping concerned with the defence of a single area. The limits of what it is able to do are those imposed by its size and capacity; its disposition is towards peaceful and friendly relations with all nations and (whatever the modifications which the needs of national security may impose) it is to that ultimate goal that its foreign policy is directed.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General—New Zealand is a monarchial State; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth, sharing with other members in “their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth …” (Preamble to Royal Titles Act 1953.)

THE MONARCH—The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the Royal style and titles as follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of her New Zealand Ministers.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot constitutionally be ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her stead the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices; confers knighthoods and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors in New Zealand in 1953–54, in 1963 and in 1970. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY—The supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is the General Assembly, which now consists of the Governor-General and the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are legally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 laws could not be made on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial effect.

The Electoral Act 1956 provides that certain of its sections may not be repealed except by a 75 percent majority of the House of Representatives or following a referendum. These sections are those relating to:

  1. The constitution and order of reference of the Representation Commission.

  2. The number of European electoral districts and the basing of their boundaries on the total population.

  3. The fixing of the tolerance within which the commission must work at 5 percent.

  4. The age of voting.

  5. The secret ballot.

  6. The duration of Parliament.

These reservations have become a formal convention associated with the fundamental character of the system of government.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, laws are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament—i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probably been made in the deliberations of Cabinet and caucus.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, there has been a growth in delegated legislation with detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter becoming the subject of regulations made by Order in Council under the authority of a particular statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. The power to make such regulations lies with the Executive Council which comprises all the members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, who presides over the Council. Regulations, though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the formal proceedings of the Executive Council, rest fundamentally on the will of Parliament as a whole and are now subject to its supervisory jurisdiction. A general provision contained in the Regulations Amendment Act 1962 requires all such regulations to be laid before Parliament. The Standing Orders of the House of Representatives, enable the House or any member thereof to refer any regulation to the Statutes Revision Committee, a Select Committee of the House, which is empowered to consider the regulation and to determine whether the special attention of the House should be drawn to it on any of the following grounds: (a) that it trespasses unduly on personal rights and liberties; (b) that it appears to make some unusual or unexpected use of the powers conferred by the statute under which it is made; (c) that for any special reason its form or purport calls for elucidation.

Meeting of Parliament—Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the summoning of Parliament and its prorogation. Its length varies, but it has traditionally covered the months from June to November. When Parliament is prorogued all the business on hand lapses, and if this is to be proceeded with in the next session it must be re-introduced.

The course of a session may be interrupted by adjournments.

In session parliamentary privileges include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest in civil cases, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System—The two main political parties represented in Parliament are Labour and National. A third party—Social Credit—obtained a seat for the first time at the 1966 General Election but lost it at the 1969 election. At any general election these parties, together with any other political parties and also those candidates standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each main party normally puts forward one candidate for each of the electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the general election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who makes ministerial appointments from elected members of his party. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party has a mandate to govern and the minority party has a responsibility to challenge Government measures in debate and to demonstrate to the electors that it can provide a viable alternative government.

Parliamentary Procedure—The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, which govern its procedure and which are administered by Mr Speaker in the exercise of his control of the House. The election of the Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Parliamentary Functions and Control—The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by the possibility of the Opposition mustering sufficient support to pass a resolution of no-confidence in the Government on a vital issue, thus forcing it to resign. With only two main disciplined political parties contending for office, changes of government are now rare except at the time of general elections. In the representation and formation of public opinion the major general debates are of principal importance. Special inquiries by select committees also provide a useful forum in which interests and opinions can make themselves heard. The major general debates are the address in reply to the speech from the Throne at the opening of Parliament, the debate on the Budget or financial statement, and the various debates on Imprest Supply Bills.

The first two of these give ordinary members an opportunity to air their views freely on any subject they choose from the national interest to the special aspirations of their constituents. Imprest supply debates are more specialised. On such Bills, the British principle of raising grievances before granting supply has been applied by allowing the Opposition to choose the subject for debate.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorised by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorises or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament.

Legislation can be initiated by any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in power as a result of policy decisions taken in Cabinet. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time it is given a second reading which is a debate on its general principles, followed by a clause-by-clause consideration of the Bill which may be by the whole House sitting in Committee. The Bill is then reported to the House, and later read a third time. The final stage is to send the Bill to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent and, unless provision is made for commencement on another date, it then becomes law as an Act of Parliament. To facilitate detailed informal discussion, and so that evidence from experts and interested parties may be heard by the House on legislation which is before it, a number of select committees are appointed regularly each year. Their terms of reference indicate areas of legislative interest corresponding to the various ministries. There are normally 7 members on each committee and party strength roughly reflects party strength in the House. In suitable cases Bills may be referred to a select committee for examination either after the first reading or the second reading. Committees have power only to report their opinions to the House. They cannot amend, though they can recommend amendments. The House as a whole thus retains its responsibility for approving legislation or rejecting it.

Apart from legislation, select committees deal with petitions, and, from time to time, ad hoc select committees are set up with some specific matter referred to them.

There are special procedures for dealing with local Bills and private Bills. Local Bills are those affecting a particular locality only, normally introduced at the request of a local authority. All such Bills stand referred to a select committee, the Local Bills Committee, after their first reading. The committee holds hearings at which interested parties appear, and it reports to the House on the merits of the Bill. The committee's report is often the decisive factor in local government legislation and always carries considerable weight with the Government and the House. Private Bills are those which apply specifically to a person or group of persons. They are initiated, after public notice, by a petition presented to the House by a member on behalf of the promoters.

Duration of Parliaments—Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at 3 years. General elections have been held at 3-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to 5 years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) to 4 years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the 3-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to nearly 5 years before dissolution on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliament has been of 3 years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved in 1951 after the expiration of approximately 20 months. The 3-year limit was re-enacted in the Electoral Act 1956, this being one of the reserved provisions referred to earlier. A referendum on 23 September 1967 favoured the continuation of terms of 3 years.

Number of Representatives—In 1972 87 electorates (83 European and four Maori) returned members to the House of Representatives. The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than 42 and not less than 24, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of 37 members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at 41; in 1860, at 53; in 1862, at 57; in 1865, at 70; in 1867, at 72; in 1870, at 74; in 1875, at 84; in 1881, at 91; in 1887, at 70; in 1900, at 76; in 1969, at 80; and in 1972 at 83. Since 1867 there have been four Maori representatives, and provision for this number was retained in the Electoral Act 1956. In 1954 the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, which had remained unaltered since 1867, were changed by Proclamation so as to give a greater degree of equality of population among the four districts (in effect the Southern Maori Electoral District now includes a considerable area of the North Island). The Electoral Amendment Act 1965 fixed the number of European electorates in the South Island at 25 (an increase of one) and provided that the number of European electorates in the North Island shall be ascertained by the Representation Commission after each quinquennial census of population on the basis of the quota fixed for the South Island. In 1971 the Commission considered the results of the 1971 census and fixed the number of European electorates in the North Island at 58 (an increase of three). Thus there were 87 electorates for the general election in 1972.

Qualifications of Members—Under the Electoral Act 1956 every registered elector of either sex is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. If a public servant is elected to Parliament he must vacate his office forthwith and he cannot resume employment in the Public Service within 12 months of ceasing to be a member of Parliament unless he had previously been a public servant for at least 5 years.

Salaries, etc.—Section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provides that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission shall be appointed for this purpose within 3 months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament. At April in the intervening years adjustments are made on a basis matching that for the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969; the Government Statistician provides the Prime Minister with a certificate specifying the percentage movements in average weekly ordinary time earnings outside the State Services (as ascertained from the April half-yearly survey of industries in the private sector conducted by the Department of Labour) and adjustments may be made by Order in Council to the salaries of Ministers and members.

The following table sets out the salaries and allowances payable from 1 April 1972 in accordance with the recommendations of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances 1970, as amended by the 1972 review conducted in accordance with the procedure outlined in the preceding paragraph.

OfficeSalaryExpense
Allowance

* Where the ministerial office of Minister of Foreign Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister an
additional allowance would be paid.

† Additional to normal allowances as member.

 $      $      
Prime Minister20,7734,000
Deputy Prime Minister15,3361,625
Minister with Portfolio13,8271,500*
Minister without Portfolio11,8941,275
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries10,4441,275
Speaker12,3161,300†
Chairman of Committees9,598700†
Leader of the Opposition12,9211,500
Deputy Leader of the Opposition8,511575†
Chief Whips8,2091,250
Junior Whips7,9671,250
Members7,6041,250

There is an additional allowance depending on classification of electorates: (a) electorates which are wholly urban, $90; (b) electorates which are substantially urban, $230; (c) electorates which are partially urban and partially rural, $520, (d) electorates which are ordinary rural, $920; (e) electorates which are predominantly rural, $1,150. The special additional allowance for Southern Maori electorate is $350 and for each of the other Maori electorates is $175. The daily sessional allowance is $3 and the night allowance for members entitled thereto is $8. In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain travel concessions and a stamp allowance.

Former Prime Ministers receive an annual payment of $400 for each full year in office, with a maximum of $2,000 a year, after retirement, defeat at the polls, or when a member only. This is subject to a two-year minimum period having been served as Prime Minister.

Under the Superannuation Act 1956 there is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme provides that a retiring allowance shall by payable to a member after 9 years' service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund. The rate of contribution was increased by 1 percent from 1 April 1970 to provide for cost-of-living adjustments to be made to retiring allowances. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired aged 60 years at the time of his death, or $260 a year, whichever is the greater.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY—After the election of a new Parliament, it is the responsibility of the leader of the party, which is most likely to secure and retain the support of the majority of members in the House, to form a Government. Although procedures for the selection of new Ministers have varied between the two principal parties, the Prime Minister has the final responsibility for allocating portfolios. A portfolio comprises a specific field of Government activity—for instance all matters relating to education will be allocated to one Minister who is henceforth known as the Minister of Education.

A Minister may have more than one portfolio and in addition responsibility for the supervision of one or more Government departments in which the activities carried out, though important, do not rank as portfolios. Occasionally, a Minister is appointed without portfolio, as, for example, an Associate Minister of Finance.

Executive Council—In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers comprise the Executive Council. The Governor-General normally presides over meetings of the Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

At January 1973 the Executive Council consisted of 20 members. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

His Excellency the Governor-General receives a salary and an allowance which are determined from time to time by the Civil List Act 1950 for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet—The membership of the Executive Council and Cabinet is identical but Cabinet, unlike the Executive Council, is not a body created by any legal document. The existence of Cabinet was not recognised by statute until a passing reference was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

The fact that the Juridical Acts to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others—the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown or a Statutory Commission—does not diminish the power and authority of Cabinet. Cabinet is the top committee of the administrative system, with responsibility for co-ordinating the work of the various Ministers and taking those decisions which largely determine the nature of the legislation put before Parliament and the regulations which the Executive Council is asked to approve.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Cabinet is assisted in its work by 10 Cabinet committees, the membership of which includes those Ministers principally concerned with the subject matters handled by the committee. There are committees covering economic and financial affairs, Government works, the environment, defence, foreign affairs, and the State services. Several of the committees are supported by inter-departmental committees of officials. All Cabinet committees have delegated authority from Cabinet to make decisions within certain prescribed limits.

The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the servicing of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning.

Government Departments—The Minister as the political head of a department of State may in fact have several departments under his control. There are, however, some 40 different departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Printing Office, Law Drafting, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup—Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup—State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Labour; the defence and law and order subgroup—Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the research subgroup—Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Ministry of Transport, Post Office, Railways, and Tourist and Publicity; the developmental—Ministry of Works, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Mines, Electricity, Energy Resources, Maori and Island Affairs, Trade and Industry; the commercial—Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Welfare Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular department. Most departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that it must give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank by the Minister of Finance, and to any resolution of Parliament in respect of Government monetary policy.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

OMBUDSMAN—The Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962 has become an important addition to the parliamentary checks on departmental administration. The Act created the office of Ombudsman, who is able to investigate, on complaint or on his own initiative, any administrative decision, recommendation, act, or omission of a Government department or related organisation as it affects any individual. Local authorities are outside his jurisdiction. The Ombudsman does not have power to reverse departmental decisions, but he may make his recommendations to the department and to the Minister, and if, in his opinion, no appropriate action is taken he may report to the Prime Minister and then to Parliament. He has very wide powers to call for documents and files. The Government cannot refuse information, except in matters relating to the security of the State or to Cabinet proceedings.

JUDICIARY—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrate's Court. Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are other courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration concerned with awards and orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956. Following each population census, which is normally taken every 5 years, the boundaries of European electorates are revised. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time by Proclamation alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, and, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census. The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is defined in section 2 (1) of the Electoral Act 1956.

The term “European population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris;

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise;

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel;

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment;

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital;

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1969 are in force;

  7. Persons detained pursuant to convictions in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new electoral districts for Europeans. The commission is constituted by virtue of section 15 of the Electoral Act 1956 and comprises seven members. Four of these, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Director-General of the Post Office, are official members. Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government, and one to represent the Opposition. The seventh member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The European population of the South Island is divided by 25 and the quotient so obtained is the quota for the South Island. Then the European population of the North Island is divided by the quota for the South Island, and the quotient so obtained is the number of European electoral districts in the North Island. In applying the quota the commission may make an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 5 percent of the quota to enable districts to be adjusted to meet considerations of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any serviceman aged 20 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

Franchise—Since 1969, persons 20 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 20 years and must (a) be a British subject or Irish citizen, (b) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (c) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (d) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Broadly speaking the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents. Persons of more than half Maori ancestry register in one of the four Maori electoral districts and persons of half Maori ancestry have the option of registering on either a European or Maori roll.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General Powers—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. The Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 are the main governing Acts for territorial local authorities. There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special local Bill. The extent to which the foregoing privileges are used may be gauged from the fact that the annual Local Legislation Act usually contains 40 to 45 sections, while about 15 local Acts are passed each year.

Number of Local Authorities—The number of local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1972 was 625 made up as follows: county councils, 108; borough (including city) councils, 135; town councils (independent), 9; town councils (dependent), 6; regional authority, 1; river boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 8; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; land-drainage boards, 36; electric power boards, 39; water-supply boards, 2; urban drainage boards, 4; transport board, 1; local railway board, 1; power and gas boards, 2; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; underground water authorities, 3; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 140; independent fire boards, 60; independent harbour boards, 17; and hospital boards, 30. Borough and county councils also function as fire authorities in 213 cases, as harbour boards in 8 cases, as underground water authorities in 2 cases, and as county pest destruction boards in 39 cases. In addition, there were 22 district councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1954. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the geographical boundaries of a county, are regarded as separate entities.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966, elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. The next triennial general elections are due in 1974. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. On any proposal relating to loans or rates, a rate paying or a freehold qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities, by Government, or, in the case of fire authorities, by insurance interests, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 20 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who, being British subjects, possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. Plural voting on the basis of the value of rateable property is permitted in elections for county councils and several types of special-purpose authorities. Where pest destruction boards rate on the basis of livestock or acreage, plural voting is also permitted.

Voting Procedures—Generally speaking, franchise can only be exercised by personal attendance at the polling booth, but the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966 was amended in 1970 to permit county councils to use postal voting. Other local authorities are able to use this method only on approval being granted by Order in Council. At the 1971 elections 59 counties and 6 boroughs used postal voting. In every such case election participation was appreciably higher than the national average. To a lesser extent use was also made of spread voting where voting is possible at polling booths over a period of up to 6 days instead of being confined to the single day.

Boroughs—For the constitution of a borough there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per acre. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties are now governed under the Counties Act 1956. With increasing settlement the original 63 counties were gradually subdivided until they reached 129 in 1920, although the number of councils formed and actively functioning never exceeded 126. The number of counties has since been reduced by amalgamations and mergers by the Local Government Commission. At April 1972 there were 109 counties constituted, of which 108 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely populated county in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

County Towns and County Boroughs—County councils may, under the provisions of the Counties Act 1956, declare areas within counties to be county towns. To qualify, the areas concerned must have a population of at least 200, with an average density of not less than one person to the acre or not less than 60 houses with an average density of not less than one house to 3 acres. After the constitution of a county town the county council is required to appoint a county town committee of not less than three nor more than seven members, to advise it on the administration of the county town. The county council may conduct a poll in the county town to ascertain the wishes of the electors of the county town in respect of the persons to be appointed to this committee. There was a total of 98 county towns at April 1972. The Counties Amendment Act 1968 contains provisions for the constitution of county boroughs. This unit of local government can only be formed from an existing county town or borough or town district. It remains an integral part of the parent county, but the county borough council, which is a fully elected body, has a statutory right to exercise some, but not all of the powers of the county council within the district of the county borough. The minimum population required for a county borough is 1,500. At April 1972 there were 9 county boroughs.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. Where it remains subject to county control (mainly for roads) it is a dependent town district. Town districts on reaching a population of more than 500 may become independent. The constitution and powers of town districts have been brought into closer relationship to boroughs over the years, and independent town districts are now constituted under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Act requires that the area be not more than 2 square miles, within which no two points are more than 4 miles distant, having a minimum population of 500 and with a density of population of not less than one person to the acre. The number of town districts in April 1972 was 15 (9 independent and 6 dependent). With the more recent legislation providing for the creation of county towns and county boroughs no further town districts are likely to be set up. None has been created since 1954.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most authorities may pay their chairman an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors and council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. Ordinary members of territorial authorities may be paid for each meeting attended. All local authorities may reimburse members for expenses incurred whilst travelling on official business.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those of territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of urban fire authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as and perform the functions of special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in fire fighting, water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, land drainage, and underground water usage.

Local Government Commission—The Local Government Commission Act 1967, which replaced the Local Government Commission Act 1961, set up a revised Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908.

The Act provides that the commission shall consist of a chairman with knowledge of local government, one member with a special knowledge of finance and economics, and another member with a special knowledge of administration.

The functions of the commission are to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any locality will best provide for the needs and continued development of the locality, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment, and that districts shall be of such size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The commission has a duty to prepare local government area schemes to cover the whole of New Zealand by 31 December 1972 or as soon as possible thereafter. These schemes are to come into force as final schemes after the hearing of objections to publicly notified provisional schemes. These schemes will have no immediate effect on the local authorities in the local government area, but will set the general pattern to which individual local schemes will be required to conform.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning—Regional Planning Authorities may be established under provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953. As provided in the Act the authorities consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. Every local authority within the region, other than the constituent councils, is entitled to be represented by at least one associate member. The Regional Planning Authority may also appoint any person who may be possessed of special knowledge, or representatives of any department of State, to be associate members. Authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Northland and Marlborough.

Finance for administration purposes is provided for by way of a maximum rate of one-sixtieth of a cent in the dollar on the rateable capital value of those portions of the councils' territories inside the regional area. The Act also makes provision whereby any of the constituent councils may enter into and carry out agreements for the execution of combined works.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority. Every regional planning scheme is intended to be a guide to councils engaged in the preparation of district planning schemes and to public authorities and all persons in relation to conservation and development within the region. Regional schemes are required to be reviewed at intervals of not more than 10 years.

District Planning—Every district scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

While a district scheme is being prepared a council may refuse its consent to the carrying out of any development that would be in contravention of the scheme and falls within the definition of a “detrimental work”, but the owner or occupier affected may appeal against such a decision to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board. The Minister can require the council to exercise these powers where the development would or might adversely affect Government works or the public interest, and local authorities have similar rights in respect of their works. Any appeal proceedings lie against the Minister or the local authority concerned.

In the period before a district scheme becomes operative, any change of use of land that detracts or is likely to detract from the amenities of the neighbourhood is required to have the prior consent of the council. Where an application is made to the council for consent, the applicant and every person who claims to be affected by the proposed use has a right to be heard by the council and may appeal to the Appeal Board against the council's decision.

When completed and recommended by the council, copies of a district scheme are submitted to the Minister of Works and to adjoining councils and to local authorities within the area covered by the scheme for consideration, particularly in relation to their public works. When the Minister and each local authority is satisfied that all their respective public works have been properly provided for in the scheme and have certified accordingly, the district scheme is publicly notified for inspection for 3 months. Any owner or occupier of land affected may object to any provision of the scheme, and the Minister, other local authorities, professional, business, sporting or other such organisations, may also object to the scheme on grounds of public interest. In the event of an objection not being sustained by the council the objector may appeal to the Appeal Board whose decision is final.

When a district scheme has been finally approved and made operative the council and all local authorities having jurisdiction in the district are bound to observe, and enforce observance of, the requirements of the scheme. The provisions of an operative regional planning scheme are also obligatory, but a constituent council has a right of appeal to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board where a provision of a proposed or operative district scheme conflicts with the regional scheme; the Minister has, incidentally, a similar right of appeal so far as the regional scheme conflicts with the public interest.

By 31 March 1972 there were 144 operative schemes with a further 85 schemes at the recommendation stage; although 23 councils had yet to submit schemes, more than 90 percent of the population are living in areas where councils have brought down recommended, proposed, or operative district schemes.

Operative district schemes may be changed at any time, and must be reviewed when any part of the scheme has been operative for a period of 5 years. Before reviewing the scheme the council submits a statement of its objectives and policies to the Minister, Regional Planning Authority, and to the local authorities within the district for consideration in relation to their own policies and public works. The council then prepares the review which is publicly notified for inspection for 3 months and is open to objection and appeal in the same way as the original scheme.

Chapter 3. Section 3
POPULATION

POPULATION GROWTH—New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million is expected to be reached in the mid-1970s.

Population has two sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand, as in every young country, the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand born to 49.8 percent overseas born), and each succeeding census until 1961 recorded an increased proportion of the population as having been born in New Zealand. In 1966 it dropped from 86 to 85.2 percent, partly as a result of international travel and tourism; more New Zealanders were overseas and more tourists were in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate, with a low point of 8.68 per 1,000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1,000 in 1947 and 1961. The 1966 figure of 13.57 was the lowest since 1944. In more recent years it has been 13.74 in 1968, 13.81 in 1969, 13.25 in 1970, 14.10 in 1971, and 13.26 in 1972. Like the low birth rate of the thirties, the fall in the birth rate in the sixties is a feature that New Zealand shared with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States. In recent years the birth rates in Australia and New Zealand have stabilised.

Details are given in the following table.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural Increase
* Non-Maori population.
 (thousand)
1901–1905*..  ..  ..  109.440.768.7
1906–1910*..  ..  ..  127.846.081.7
1911–1915*..  ..  ..  138.049.089.0
1916–1920..  ..  ..  142.566.176.4
1921–1925..  ..  ..  148.359.089.4
1926–1930146.564.681.9146.364.382.0
1931–1935139.866.273.6138.466.372.1
1936–1940150.976.774.2159.478.680.8
1941–1945188.685.3103.3191.687.0104.6
1946–1950239.988.0151.9244.988.1156.8
1951–1955258.593.1165.4263.694.2169.4
1956–1960295.0101.5193.5300.4102.9197.5
1961–1965320.0110.5209.5317.9112.1205.8
1966–1970306.9118.6188.3308.4120.2188.2
1971–1972127.849.678.2128.249.179.1
  Totals 1916–1972…  …  …  2,489.9987.91,502.0

Migration, however, has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods and the recession conditions of 1968–69. Gains from external migration are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years*
Migration Gain
Calendar Years
Migration Gain

* March years ended in years listed.

† Excess of departures.

 (000)(000)
1901–1905..  45.4
1906–1910..  41.0
1911–1915..  35.6
1916–1920..  14.9
1921–1925..  50.1
1926–193027.424.6
1931–1935−2.1†−9.9†
1936–194011.912.4
1941–19451.32.1
1946–195027.432.6
1951–195566.669.1
1956–196049.244.3
1961–196563.970.7
1966–19706.06.5
1971–197218.533.0
Total 1901–1972472.4

Most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for 1967, 1968, and 1969 calendar years.

CENSUS STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Niue Island and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately. The Cook Islands are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

PRESENT POPULATION—The following table gives a summary of population. A 50-year time series is given in the statistical summary towards the back of this Yearbook.

TerritoryDateMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes population of Kermadec Islands 9 (males) and Campbell Island 9 (males).

† Provisional.

New Zealand*31 March 19721,453,1691,456,7472,909,916
Island Territories—
     Tokelau Islands21 February 1972†7378621,599
     Niue Island27 September 1971†2,5082,4804,988
Cook Islands  1 December 1971†10,84010,38721,227
Ross Dependency23 March 1971190–         190

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included 6 years of international war, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns.

Date of CensusTotal
Population
Intercensal
Numerical
Increase
Intercensal
Percentage
Increase
Average Annual
Percentage
Increase

* Numbers overseas not available.

† Includes members of the New Zealand armed forces overseas at census date.

March 1901*815,85372,6469.81.9
April 1906936,304120,45114.82.8
April 19111,058,308122,00413.02.5
October 19161,149,22590,9178.61.5
April 19211,271,664122,43910.72.3
April 19261,408,139136,47510.72.1
March 19361,573,810165,67111.81.1
September 19451,702,298128,4888.20.8
September 1945†1,747,679173,86911.01.1
April 19511,939,472237,17413.92.4
April 1951†1,941,366193,68711.11.9
April 19562,174,062234,59012.12.3
April 1956†2,176,224234,85812.12.3
April 19612,414,984240,92211.12.1
April 1961†2,417,543241,31911.12.1
March 19662,676,919261,93510.82.1
March 1966†2,678,855261,31210.82.1
March 19712,862,631185,7126.91.4
March 1971†2,864,113185,2586.91.3

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1963–70 are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations Statistical Yearbook.)

CountryAverage Annual
Percentage Increase
Australia2.0
Canada1.7
Denmark0.7
France0.9
Germany, West1.0
India2.1
Ireland, Republic0.5
Japan1.1
Netherlands1.2
New Zealand1.5
Norway0.8
Singapore2.3
South Africa2.4
Sweden0.8
Switzerland1.2
Thailand3.1
United Kingdom0.5
United States1.1
U.S.S.R.1.1
Western Samoa2.5

INTERCENSAL RECORDS—Intercensal estimates of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration. The figures in the tables following have been revised in line with 1971 Census results.

The figures exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearPopulation at End of YearIncrease During YearMean
Population
for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
19671,367,8741,358,0402,725,91449,1361.82,694,680
19681,377,0181,375,6442,752,66226,7481.02,735,207
19691,386,7701,390,4402,777,21024,5480.72,760,077
19701,407,0071,408,9802,815,98738,7771.42,788,839
19711,430,1081,430,7652,860,87344,8861.62,831,222
19721,453,1691,456,7472,909,91649,0431.72,876,388
Years Ended 31 December
19671,373,5731,371,3902,744,96333,6451.22,727,658
19681,385,3801,387,5532,772,93327,9701.02,753,512
19691,399,8391,404,2202,804,05931,1261.12,780,101
19701,425,4351,426,7022,852,13748,0781.72,819,602
19711,448,4491,450,6182,899,06746,9301.62,864,392

The figures given in the preceding table are for total population inclusive of New Zealand Maoris.

The following table shows the New Zealand Maori population.

YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean
Population
for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1967104,770101,707206,4775,1722.6203,757
1968107,440104,415211,8555,3782.6209,169
1969109,886107,083216,9695,1142.4214,377
1970112,322109,781222,1035,1342.4219,424
1971115,037112,537227,5745,4712.5224,718
1972118,412115,991234,4036,8293.0230,760
Years Ended 31 December
1967106,711103,684210,3955,3052.6207,834
1968109,239106,360215,5995,2042.5213,087
1969111,715109,039220,7545,1552.4218,138
1970114,340111,768226,1085,3542.4223,365
1971117,516115,010232,5266,4182.8229,104

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2001 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels and difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

In the absence of up-to-date marital status specific population data (the latest available data specific as to marital status being from the 1966 Census of Population) these projections are based on fertility assumptions relating to age-of-mother-specific birth rates only. In the department's judgment this will not significantly impair the validity and utility of the projections. A full description of the projection assumptions is contained in the footnotes to the table.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population* Assuming Net Annual Immigration† of
5,00010,00015,000
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*The base population for these projections is the estimated population as at 31 March 1971. These projections are based on the following assumptions:

(a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the alternative trends in age-of-mother-specific birth rates as described in ‡ and § below;

(b) That 1965–67 Life Table Mortality Rates (Total Population) apply throughout the projection period.

† The assumed net immigration is taken to commence from the projection base point of 31 March 1971.

‡ The projection based on “Constant Fertility” assumes a continuance of the most recent (1971) experience with regard to age-of-mother-specific birth rates.

§ The projection based on “medium” fertility assumes the continuation of recent general trends in age-of-mother-specific birth rates, whether increasing or decreasing, for 5 years, with a subsequent continuation of those general trends, somewhat flattened, until 1986. The “high” and “low” assumptions are relative to the “medium” assumption and are based on trends, above and below the “medium” trend respectively, which are considered to be maxima and minima in the light of the assessed reasonably expected range of values which may eventuate. Because of the uncertainty in projecting recent fertility experience for longer than 15–20 years ahead, birth rates which make up the “high”, “medium” and “low” fertility assumptions have been kept constant from 1987 until 2001 at the levels projected for 1986.

 (thousand)
1971 (base)1,4301,4312,8611,4301,4312,8611,4301,4312,861
 Constant Fertility Assumption‡
19761,5511,5513,1021,5651,5633,1291,5801,5753,155
19811,6921,6923,3841,7221,7173,4391,7521,7423,494
19861,8501,8483,6971,8961,8873,7831,9431,9263,869
19912,0162,0124,0282,0802,0664,1462,1442,1214,265
19962,1902,1844,3732,2732,2544,5272,3562,3254,681
20012,3802,3704,7502,4832,4584,9412,5862,5475,133
 High Fertility Assumption§
19761,5511,5513,1021,5651,5633,1281,5801,5753,155
19811,6951,6953,3901,7251,7203,4451,7551,7453,500
19861,8581,8563,7141,9051,8953,8001,9511,9343,886
19912,0302,0264,0572,0952,0814,1762,1602,1354,295
19962,2122,2054,4172,2952,2764,5712,3792,3474,725
20012,4112,4004,8112,5152,4895,0042,6182,5785,196
 Medium Fertility Assumption§
19761,5441,5443,0881,5581,5563,1141,5721,5683,140
19811,6671,6683,3361,6971,6933,3901,7271,7173,444
19861,7981,7993,5961,8441,8373,6811,8901,8753,765
19911,9301,9303,8611,9931,9833,9762,0562,0364,092
19962,0662,0654,1312,1462,1334,2792,2272,2014,427
20012,2082,2054,4142,3072,2894,5962,4062,3744,779
 Low Fertility Assumption§
19761,5361,5373,0731,5501,5493,0991,5651,5603,125
19811,6381,6403,2781,6671,6643,3321,6971,6893,385
19861,7361,7393,4751,7811,7763,5571,8261,8143,640
19911,8281,8333,6611,8891,8833,7731,9501,9343,884
19961,9191,9243,8431,9961,9893,9852,0732,0544,127
20012,0072,0124,0202,1012,0924,1932,1952,1714,366

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1880 to 1968 and projections through to 2000.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in Volume 1, Increase and Location of Population, of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationTotalPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandNorth IslandSouth Island
1901431,462384,391815,85352.947.1
1906521,894414,410936,30455.744.3
1911610,595447,7131,058,30857.742.3
1916698,982450,2431,149,22560.839.2
1921791,918479,7461,271,66462.337.7
1926892,679515,4601,408,13963.436.6
19361,018,036555,7741,573,81064.735.3
19451,146,292556,0061,702,29867.332.7
19511,313,869625,6031,939,47267.732.3
19561,497,364676,6982,174,06268.931.1
19611,684,785730,1992,414,98469.830.2
19661,893,326783,5932,676,91970.729.3
19712,051,363811,2682,862,63171.728.3

The population of the North Island increased at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island between the 1966 and 1971 Censuses. At the 1971 Census the North Island population was 2,051,363, including 213,577 N.Z. Maoris, and the South Island population 811,268, inclusive of 13,837 N.Z. Maoris. The increase since the 1966 Census was 158,037 for the North Island and 27,675 for the South Island.

Between the 1966 and 1971 Censuses, births in the South Island numbered just over 82,000, and deaths almost 38,000, giving a net natural increase of just over 44,000. The fact that the total population increase is under 28,000 indicates a net migration outflow from the South Island during the intercensal period. This is in contrast to the 1961–66 intercensal period when a small net migration inflow of approximately 5,000 was recorded.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and the populations of the statistical areas at the 1971 Census and an estimate at 1 April 1972.

Statistical AreaArea
(Square Kilometres)
Population Census
23 March 1971
Estimated
Population
1 April 1972
Northland12,63996,19196,500
Central Auckland5,569698,400719,128
South Auckland–
     Bay of Plenty36,744422,299431,300
East Coast10,87847,34247,600
Hawke's Bay11,033133,250135,500
Taranaki9,713100,895101,200
Wellington28,153552,986558,800
     Totals, North Island114,7292,051,3632,090,028
Marlborough10,93031,64232,200
Nelson17,89768,83869,400
Westland15,56622,86122,600
Canterbury43,431398,830405,988
Otago36,441182,749182,200
Southland29,681106,348107,500
     Totals, South Island153,946811,268819,888
     Totals, New Zealand268,6752,862,6312,909,916

Statistical Divisions and Urban Areas—Statistical divisions and urban areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a statistical division is a population of 75,000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven statistical divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The division, like the urban area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, urban areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Maps of statistical boundaries are available at Government bookshops.

Previously there have been 18 statistically defined urban areas; there are now 24 urban areas. The additional areas result from splitting the Auckland, Wellington, and Hutt urban areas and adding Masterton. Adjustments of urban area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban centres.

In the following table the populations of statistical divisions and urban areas are given.

Statistical Division (S.Div.)
and Urban Area (U.A.)
1966 Census1971 CensusPercentage IncreaseEstimated
Population
1 April 1972
1961–19661966–1971
Auckland S. Div.—
     Northern Auckland U.A.86,297107,96534.325.1113,900
     Western Auckland U.A.75,79289,94637.318.793,800
     Central Auckland U.A.281,192286,7874.42.0287,900
     Southern Auckland U.A.124,886165,04854.732.2174,700
     Remainder S. Div.45,50448,6541.26.948,828
                                             Totals613,671698,40019.313.8719,128
Hamilton S. Div.—
     Hamilton U.A.68,48580,81223.918.083,800
     Remainder S. Div.55,78655,1942.0−1.155,100
                                             Totals124,271136,00613.09.4138,900
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
     Napier U.A.38,38243,60117.013.644,800
     Hastings U.A.40,65545,51214.111.946,700
     Remainder S. Div.7,8747,8204.0−0.77,900
                                             Totals86,91196,93314.411.599,400
Palmerston North S. Div.—
     Palmerston North U.A.52,39357,06513.98.958,200
     Remainder S. Div.23,55123,6673.70.323,700
                                             Totals75,94480,73210.56.381,900
Wellington S. Div.—
     Upper Hutt Valley U.A.27,39830,98620.913.131,700
     Lower Hutt Valley U.A.88,33792,00314.54.292,900
     Porirua Basin U.A.37,62447,85835.727.249,300
     Wellington U.A.132,005136,7826.13.6137,600
     Remainder S. Div.13,56116,40318.021.017,300
                                             Totals298,925324,03213.58.4328,800
Christchurch S. Div.—
     Christchurch U.A.257,505275,96812.17.2280,500
     Remainder S. Div.24,95426,6426.96.827,000
                                             Totals282,459302,61011.67.1307,500
Dunedin S. Div.—
     Dunedin U.A.108,779111,0593.62.1111,600
     Remainder S. Div.7,0866,681−2.9−5.76,600
                                             Totals115,865117,7403.11.6118,200
Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division
Urban Area1966 Census1971 CensusPercentage IncreaseEstimated
Population
1 April 1972
1961–19661966–1971
Whangarei31,00134,02932.29.834,600
Tauranga33,82240,34927.219.342,300
Rotorua33,61339,75231.518.341,300
Gisborne28,11630,16111.27.330,700
New Plymouth35,68038,7808.78.739,700
Wanganui38,17437,9826.90.538,000
Masterton19,11620,14712.85.420,400
Nelson34,45937,99412.310.338,900
Timaru27,94628,9595.83.629,300
Invercargill46,93950,68112.08.051,500
                                                  Totals328,866358,83415.29.1366,700
          Totals, 24 urban areas1,748,5961,930,22615.710.41,974,100
          Totals, 7 statistical divisions1,598,0461,756,45314.39.91,793,828

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughEstimated
Population
1 April 1972
Approximate
Area in Hectares
North Island—
     Kaitaia3,580526
     Kaikohe3,370544
     Whangarei (city)31,3004,354
     Dargaville4,1301,133
     Helensville1,290532
     East Coast Bays17,1501,558
     Takapuna (city)24,2001,328
     Devonport11,000445
     Northcote9,730540
     Birkenhead16,7001,266
     Henderson5,940517
     Glen Eden6,970503
     New Lynn10,100564
     Auckland (city)151,9007,489
     Newmarket1,22074
     Mt. Albert26,300983
     Mt. Eden20,300598
     Mt. Roskill34,0001,862
     Onehunga15,600760
     One Tree Hill12,950983
     Ellerslie5,160301
     Mt. Wellington20,4001,650
     Howick12,800621
     Otahuhu9,940558
     Papatoetoe (city)22,100907
     Manukau (city)111,20062,262
     Papakura18,3001,380
     Pukekohe7,7901,405
     Waiuku2,980593
     Tuakau1,840442
     Huntly5,280785
     Cambridge6,5401,071
     Ngaruawahia4,040450
     Hamilton (city)77,6005,555
     Te Awamutu6,980713
     Te Kuiti4,840675
     Taumarunui6,6901,815
     Thames5,8101,103
     Paeroa3,500574
     Waihi3,060539
     Te Aroha3,2001,126
     Morrinsville4,450476
     Matamata4,130378
     Putaruru4,620395
     Mt. Maunganui9,2701,411
     Tauranga (city)29,5003,806
     Te Puke3,490532
     Rotorua (city)32,6002,667
     Taupo11,2501,446
     Whakatane9,9701,123
     Kawerau7,470923
     Murupara2,790287
     Opotiki2,610299
     Gisborne (city)28,7002,628
     Wairoa5,480649
     Napier (city)41,4002,435
     Hastings (city)30,6001,709
     Havelock North7,630514
     Waipawa1,700692
     Waipukurau3,590420
     Dannevirke5,610526
     Woodville1,520427
     Waitara5,200652
     New Plymouth (city)35,1002,316
     Inglewood2,110284
     Stratford5,400816
     Eltham2,320647
     Hawera8,150514
     Patea1,940575
     Ohakune1,400841
     Raetihi1,360388
     Wanganui (city)35,7502,997
     Taihape2,770778
     Marton4,680573
     Feilding9,880855
     Foxton2,810306
     Palmerston N. (city)52,9004,302
     Levin13,400877
     Otaki3,800663
     Upper Hutt (city)20,200876
     Lower Hutt (city)58,8004,927
     Petone9,3601,044
     Eastbourne4,7701,273
     Porirua (city)31,2003,268
     Tawa11,550550
     Wellington (city)136,4007,434
     Pahiatua2,610291
     Eketahuna710384
     Masterton18,7001,433
     Carterton3,780512
     Greytown1,720442
     Featherston2,140307
     Martinborough1,370433
        Totals, North Island
cities and boroughs
1,488,440176,385
South Island—
     Picton2,900426
     Blenheim15,2501,012
     Nelson (city)29,8004,762
     Richmond6,0101,052
     Motueka3,9001,021
     Westport4,940308
     Runanga1,390487
     Greymouth7,8401,068
     Hokitika3,350273
     Rangiora4,970357
     Kaiapoi4,080318
     Riccarton7,120339
     Christchurch (city)166,80010,635
     Lyttelton3,2301,036
     Ashburton13,5001,054
     Geraldine1,950301
     Temuka3,360395
     Timaru (city)28,6002,262
     Waimate3,220312
     Oamaru13,0501,148
     Port Chalmers2,980410
     Dunedin (city)82,70016,560
     St. Kilda6,420249
     Green Island6,220736
     Mosgiel8,480652
     Milton2,170204
     Kaitangata1,070518
     Balclutha4,640509
     Tapanui860121
     Lawrence610249
     Roxburgh750208
     Naseby11076
     Alexandra3,670452
     Cromwell980321
     Arrowtown270134
     Queenstown2,280416
     Gore8,780946
     Mataura2,540515
     Winton2,140231
     Invercargill (city)47,9004,384
     Bluff3,240866
     Riverton1,330403
       Totals, South Island cities
and boroughs
515,40057,726
        Grand totals, all cities
and boroughs
2,003,840234,111

Town Districts—The population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b)—is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town DistrictEstimated Population 1 April 1972Approximate Area in Hectares
* Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a) Town Districts not forming parts of Counties
North Island—
     Kawakawa1,460229
     Hikurangi1,020389
     Warkworth1,480577
     Ohura520330
     Manaia920206
     Waverley1,100202
     Hunterville610320
   Totals, North Island7,1102,253
South Island—
     Wyndham720275
     Otautau960198
   Totals, South Island1,680473
               Grand totals8,7902,726
(b) Town Districts forming parts of Counties*
North Island—
     Russell (Bay of Islands)660431
     Ohaupo (Waipa)340518
     Kihikihi (Waipa)1,220212
     Patutahi (Cook)330516
     Kaponga (Eltham)490226
   Totals, North Island3,0401,903
South Island—
     Edendale (Southland)610282
   Totals, South Island610282
               Grand totals3,6502,185

County Towns—The following table lists those county towns with populations of 1,000 or more at 1 April 1972. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county towns are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

County TownEstimated Population 1 April 1972Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
     Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1,31049
     Paihia (Bay of Islands)1,060168
     Glenfield (Waitemata)25,1001,860
     Kelston West (Waitemata)9,810656
     Green Bay (Waitemata)3,090191
     Titirangi (Waitemata)9,2301,119
     Orewa (Waitemata)2,480633
     Raglan (Raglan)1,070372
     Tokoroa (Matamata)16,050760
     Katikati (Tauranga)1,240828
     Mangakino (Taupo)1,820261
     Edgecumbe (Whakatane)1,200121
     Ashhurst (Oroua)1,290125
     Paraparaumu (Hutt)9,7702,764
     Paekakariki (Hutt)2,0302,456
     Pukerua Bay (Hutt)1,370834
     Plimmerton-Paremata (Hutt)4,5901,073
     Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)5,6805,464
South Island
     Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,640283
     Halswell (Paparua)3,970204
     Fairfield (Taieri)1,300134
     Ranfurly (Maniototo)1,000391
     Te Anau (Wallace)1,780395

County Boroughs—The following table lists the population of county boroughs as at 1 April 1972. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county boroughs are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

County BoroughEstimated Population 1 April 1972Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
     Wellsford (Rodney)1,600554
     Otorohanga (Otorohanga)1,950227
     Ngongotaha (Rotorua)2,030503
     Bulls (Rangitikei)1,970405
     Waikanae (Horowhenua)2,5101,060
     Shannon (Horowhenua)1,660342
     Wainuiomata (Hutt)17,25026,613
                    Totals28,97029,704
South Island
     Hornby (Paparua)8,460491
     Sockburn (Paparua)6,0501,066
                    Totals14,5101,557
          Totals, county boroughs43,48031,261

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 4,786 persons at 1 April 1972.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties at 1 April 1972 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts, county boroughs, and county towns which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population 1 April 1972Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
     Mangonui7,1302,481
     Whangaroa1,920622
     Hokianga4,1801,588
     Bay of Islands13,3302,131
     Whangarei13,3002,675
     Hobson5,3201,929
     Otamatea6,1501,093
     Rodney7,4401,256
     Waitemata111,2101,554
     Waiheke2,370155
     Great Barrier Is.270285
     Franklin16,9001,419
     Raglan9,1902,411
     Waikato15,5801,655
     Waipa15,0101,129
     Otorohanga9,9001,976
     Waitomo6,1103,375
     Taumarunui6,0404,851
     Coromandel3,4601,137
     Thames3,9201,039
     Hauraki Plains5,230603
     Ohinemuri4,070624
     Piako11,4001,168
     Matamata30,5402,556
     Tauranga15,9701,829
     Rotorua17,5302,681
     Taupo14,4707,244
     Whakatane14,5804,196
     Opotiki3,8003,124
     Waiapu4,8102,818
     Waikohu3,2602,650
     Cook8,4002,841
     Wairoa5,7704,128
     Hawke's Bay21,2004,846
     Waipawa3,5401,347
     Patangata2,9701,696
     Waipukurau1,180331
     Dannevirke3,8101,414
     Woodville1,490404
     Clifton2,0501,176
     Taranaki8,820588
     Inglewood2,920521
     Stratford5,2202,157
     Egmont5,670622
     Eltham3,000534
     Waimate West2,420215
     Hawera4,440495
     Patea2,8801,531
     Waimarino1,5102,147
     Waitotara2,8201,209
     Wanganui2,8801,189
     Rangitikei14,4004,486
     Kiwitea1,800930
     Pohangina900671
     Oroua4,830492
     Manawatu6,470692
     Kairanga5,770461
     Horowhenua12,4701,404
     Hutt53,1401,357
     Pahiatua2,170741
     Akitio920831
     Eketahuna1,390824
     Masterton4,0602,390
     Wairarapa South2,5401,140
     Featherston2,9602,471
     Totals, North Island counties591,200112,535
South Island—
     Marlborough9,3606,639
     Awatere1,6403,878
     Kaikoura3,1002,344
     Golden Bay3,3402,618
     Waimea15,8007,511
     Buller3,1805,035
     Inangahua2,1402,440
     Grey4,3203,957
     Westland5,71011,440
     Amuri2,6804,273
     Cheviot1,520875
     Waipara2,6702,476
     Ashley2,9301,241
     Rangiora4,050263
     Eyre2,570459
     Oxford1,570814
     Malvern6,4405,046
     Paparua28,320445
     Waimairi63,500115
     Heathcote7,78034
     Mt. Herbert700171
     Akaroa1,520437
     Chatham Islands700963
     Wairewa680438
     Ellesmere7,5901,200
     Ashburton11,1506,176
     Geraldine4,4501,995
     Levels4,800680
     Mackenzie7,2307,456
     Waimate5,2303,558
     Waitaki8,2206,249
     Waihemo1,690878
     Waikouaiti3,910828
     Taieri8,1902,331
     Bruce3,5401,344
     Clutha5,6702,717
     Tuapeka4,0603,584
     Maniototo2,6003,471
     Vincent3,9407,568
     Lake3,14010,025
     Southland26,7709,589
     Wallace12,3609,656
     Fiord1407,861
     Stewart Island4001,746
     Totals, South Island counties301,300152,825
               Grand totals, all counties892,500265,360

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to “developed” countries at advanced stages of economic development.

In the circumstances the 1971 Census figures understandably showed a continuing decline in the population of rural areas and in many cases also of small and intermediate-sized towns. Seventy-two counties recorded smaller populations than in 1966. Of 58 small towns (1,000 to 4,999 population) 22 declined in population compared with 7 which showed declines between 1961 and 1966. Six intermediate towns (5,000 to 9,999 population situated outside urban areas) showed decreases on this occasion as against only two in 1966.

The following table indicates the urban movement of the total population—the urban content has been taken as the population in the 24 urban areas, plus that of all boroughs, town districts, county towns, and townships with population of 1,000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent
* Excludes shipping.
1926937,30466.9464,37033.1
19511,406,51672.7527,07827.3
19561,600,80873.8568,80626.2
19611,840,20276.4569,21723.6
19662,119,08579.3553,02320.7
19712,328,87681.5528,60918.5

The following table indicates the urban movement of the New Zealand Maori population.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent
* Excludes shipping.
19269,81515.453,80484.6
195133,52929.082,05471.0
195647,63034.789,45265.3
196176,79246.090,24054.0
1966122,94261.178,15338.9
1971159,49770.267,80129.8

In the process of urbanisation some cities and areas have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of Auckland, the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the urban areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40,164, in 1971 comprised 194,942 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of the past 35 years has been a movement of population from the central or “inner” areas to the perimeter or “outer” areas as families in decayed areas have moved to State rental houses and as residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. In recent years there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Sizes of Centre
(City, Borough,
Town District,
or County Town)
Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
19261961196619711926196119661971
1,000–2,499  634544437.53.02.42.4
2,500–4,999  234641406.26.85.55.0
5,000–9,999  113534355.99.98.88.8
10,000–24,999  1221232313.314.913.512.8
25,000 and over  412192224.132.440.944.6
Total11315916116357.067.071.173.6

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island.

Sex Proportions—The census of 23 March 1971 showed that females outnumbered males by 919 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males at the last six censuses have been:

CensusExcluding N.Z. Armed Forces OverseasIncluding N.Z. Armed Forces Overseas
19451,044991
1951991989
1956989987
1961990988
1966992991
19711,0011,000

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand, depending largely on educational and employment opportunities. The following figures give the number of females per 1,000 males at the Census of 1971.

Statistical areas
     Hawke's Bay1,029
     Central Auckland1,021
     Otago1,019
     Canterbury1,014
     Nelson1,004
     East Coast1,000
     Wellington998
Urban areas
     Timaru1,102
     Hastings1,077
     Wanganui1,074
     Gisborne1,070
     Dunedin1,067
     Central Auckland1,062
     Napier1,062
     New Plymouth1,055
     Nelson1,055
     Palmerston North1,048
     Hamilton1,047
     Christchurch1,045
     Taranaki988
     South Auckland-Bay of Plenty974
     Northland967
     Marlborough959
     Westland945
     Southland942
     Tauranga1,044
     Northern Auckland1,044
     Whangarei1,040
     Porirua Basin1,023
     Masterton1,021
     Wellington1,016
     Invercargill1,014
     Rotorua1,013
     Lower Hutt Valley1,009
     Southern Auckland1,002
     Western Auckland984
     Upper Hutt Valley915

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon intensive land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and large areas of hilly country which cannot be closely settled, while the growth of mechanisation in farming tends to reduce the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations.

Nevertheless, economic development is providing employment for a growing labour force. More extensive mechanisation, further advances in science and technology, and increases in productivity, wealth, and consumption have paved the way for further specialisation of production and more concentrated urbanisation.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical area basis from 1926 to 1971 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea in Square KilometresPersons Per Square Kilometre
192619451951196119661971
Northland12,6394.35.36.06.87.47.6
Central Auckland5,56942.459.668.692.4110.2125.4
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36,7443.95.66.79.510.611.5
East Coast10,8783.13.53.84.34.34.4
Hawke's Bay11,0336.47.28.310.411.312.1
Taranaki9,7137.47.98.910.310.410.4
Wellington28,15310.012.413.916.818.619.6
          Totals, North Island114,7297.810.011.514.716.517.9
Marlborough10,9301.71.92.12.52.72.9
Nelson17,8972.32.63.23.53.83.8
Westland15,5661.41.51.61.61.61.5
Canterbury43,4315.05.86.57.98.79.2
Otago36,4414.14.04.44.85.05.0
Southland29,6812.22.42.63.23.53.6
          Totals, South Island153,9463.33.64.14.75.15.3
          Totals, New Zealand268,6755.26.37.29.010.010.7

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—All persons of half or more Maori ancestry are defined as Maoris.

The growth rate of Maoris in the population approaches twice that of the population taken as a whole; an average annual increase in 1966–71 of 2.5 percent as compared with 1.4 percent for the total population. (Nevertheless the growth rate showed a slight fall when compared with the previous intercensal periods.)

The population growth rate among the Maoris is predominantly a result of natural increase, whereas in the total population natural increase is normally supplemented by sizeable increments from migration.

When studying growth rates of the Maori population, however, it should be noted that, as a result of intermarriage, there are increasing numbers of Maori children (half or more Maori) who have one parent not counted in the Maori population, i.e., if a full Maori male marries a full European female or vice versa, the resulting progeny are all counted in the Maori population; this undoubtedly contributes to the high Maori percentage increase.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance.

A statement of N.Z. Maori population is now given for each census from 1901.

YearNew Zealand Maori PopulationIntercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
* Includes members of New Zealand armed forces overseas at census date.
 numberpercent
190145,5493,4358.21.6
190650,3094,76010.52.0
191152,7232,4144.81.0
191654,9972,2740.50.1
192156,9873,9907.51.6
192663,6706,68311.72.2
193682,32618,65629.32.6
194598,74416,41819.91.9
1945*100,04417,71821.52.1
1951115,67616,93217.12.9
1951*115,74015,69615.72.7
1956137,15121,47518.63.5
1956*137,34121,60118.73.5
1961167,08629,93521.84.0
1961*167,39030,04921.94.0
1966201,15934,07320.43.8
1966*201,47934,08920.43.8
1971227,41426,25513.12.5
1971*227,74126,26213.02.5

Of the 227,414 Maoris at the 1971 Census, 213,472 were in the North Island. Most Maoris used to live in rural communities. A marked change has, however, taken place during and since the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 Census only 8,249 Maoris (10 percent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1971 Census the comparative figure was 132,970 (58.5 percent); the largest concentration is in Southern Auckland urban area, where 20,675 Maoris were enumerated in 1971.

The Maori population, which until recently was not greatly affected by external migration, is a much younger population than the non-Maori.

The following table for 1966 shows the high proportion (50.3 percent) of Maori children under 15 years compared with the total population (32.6 percent), and the low proportion of people in the older age groups.

Age Group (Years)Percentage in Age Groups (1966 Census)
New Zealand MaoriTotal Population
Under 1550.332.6
15–199.89.2
20–4429.231.1
45–597.515.1
60 and over3.212.0
          Totals100.0100.0

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, so that arrivals and departures have both been greatly swollen. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last 11 years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the armed forces, etc., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of
Arrivals
Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
196272,50060,156132,65661,36752,457113,82418,832
196378,61365,259143,87271,86358,370130,23313,639
196489,37074,776164,64681,95667,206149,16215,484
1965104,42185,870190,29198,14780,153178,30011,991
1966121,10698,833219,939114,00093,918207,91812,021
1967136,275114,131250,406128,228107,743235,97114,435
1968136,760122,621259,381143,259124,212267,471−8,090
1969136,457119,279255,736142,653123,931266,584−10,848
1970156,645136,760293,405157,829137,636295,465−2,060
1971190,437161,859352,296185,598158,853344,4517,846
1972217,606190,675408,281211,048186,382397,43010,851

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews.

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 39: Travel and Tourism.)

YearLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
Assisted SubsidisedTotal (includes others)N.Z. Residents Returning*Long-term Visitors*N.Z. Residents Departing*Long-term Visitors Departing * 
* Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay,
12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
1966–674,097575......38,999......21,128
1967–682,764256......30,660......28,472
1968–69490198......23,225......29,802
1969–70382535......26,825......29,822
1970–715383,18217,73512,2369,40639,37711,23422,2354,69638,165
1971–724834,18320,26114,57810,26045,0999,33922,9795,22837,546

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term migrants are shown in the following table.

YearAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other CountriesTotal
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
1966–6713,24376928416,7348577142467921711,3273,86238,999
1967–688,26969522614,9465685412086601989573,39230,660
1968–696,7588011749,3293934713174781421,3153,04723,225
1969–708,8541,0642109,3877554852815401871,7163,34626,825
1970–7113,8041,71819413,2761,0627956695333312,1614,83439,377
1971–7216,0832,13527315,2091,1817844456495162,4135,41145,099
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
1966–678,6168231026,5651595942564213551,1462,09121,128
1967–6814,0241,227917,3162675862713883201,5042,47828,472
1968–6916,8811,090845,9891685742033633971,2722,78129,802
1969–7015,268941846,8372526602563994081,4923,22529,822
1970–7118,8501,1021119,3095298483127534351,4434,47338,165
1971–7217,6308061709,4424377584425797691,7374,77637,546

Ages—The following table gives the age-distribution of long-term arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1972.

Age, in YearsPermanent ArrivalsPermanent DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalsMalesFemalesTotals
Under 155,2434,89610,1393,4273,2726,6993,440
15–191,6712,1133,7841,8642,3374,201−417
20–245,0065,25110,2576,3505,98412,334−2,077
25–448,6806,79015,4706,1384,56510,7034,767
45–642,0442,1414,1851,3511,4272,7781,407
65 and over5307341,264321510831433
     Totals23,17421,92545,09919,45118,09537,5467,553

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrantsEmigrants
1967–681968–691969–701967–681968–691969–70
              Commonwealth Countries
United Kingdom—
     England and Wales11,7326,9047,5694,4824,3734,134
     Scotland2,0829641,041835772747
     Northern Ireland233165201168140147
     Other or undefined24189183025
Australia4,0532,8483,5072,6582,2761,844
Canada325337502266197167
India262213173117111123
New Zealand7,0837,5888,71716,54918,95319,569
Pacific Islands—
     Cook Islands and Niue4773176641407286
     Western Samoa134195210151100119
     Fiji185220167154128153
     Other Pacific19922726111297112
Other670567580343287335
               Totals, Commonwealth countries27,43720,58623,68125,99327,53627,561
               Other Countries
Austria574338604135
China948556403820
Denmark633147385832
Germany261169181124140119
Greece1016344637254
Hungary212832436336
Ireland, Republic of301155181161155134
Italy132921295572119
Indonesia5250125444449
Netherlands711493578451489402
Switzerland1197552775552
United States502659992657419615
Yugoslavia1519410011112184
Others658602589555499510
               Totals, other countries3,2232,6393,1442,4792,2662,261
                    Grand totals30,66023,22526,82528,47229,80229,822

POLICY—British and Australian citizens may migrate freely. Clearly identifiable migration links have existed for many years with India, China, Greece, and Yugoslavia, and New Zealand continues to accept immigrants from these areas principally on a family relationship basis. Since the Second World War there has been built up a strong association with the Netherlands, and many thousands of Dutch immigrants have settled here. With those from Scandinavia and other West European countries they have spread throughout the country and contribute much to the economic and cultural life.

The Pacific is a special situation. The Islands, being our nearest neighbours apart from Australia, must be regarded in some measure as our responsibility. Those born in the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands are New Zealand citizens and may migrate at any time. Western Samoa, as a former trust territory, holds a special place in our policy. The Samoans take full advantage of the opportunities offered, the inflow at present being about 1,500 a year.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION—Two immigration schemes financially assisted by the Government are in operation—the subsidy scheme, which involves a contribution by employers to immigrants' fares and the assisted passage scheme. The contribution made by migrants under each scheme is the equivalent of £10 sterling for single persons and £20 for married persons.

The subsidy scheme operates from Britain, the United States, France, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The scheme has not been formally approved by the Italian Government but nationals of that country who apply spontaneously to come to New Zealand are permitted to use the scheme. There is no quota on the subsidy scheme. Single people and married men between the ages of 18 and 45 years may be sponsored and there is no limit on the number of dependent children. No specific skill level is required of migrants from Britain but migrants from other countries must be above the unskilled level.

Employers wishing to take advantage of the subsidy scheme are obliged to provide employment, arrange suitable housing in New Zealand, and meet one-quarter of the cost of migrants' fares either by sea or air; the Government meets the remaining three-quarters. The cost is approximately the same for both methods of travel.

A system of matching skills of immigrants with specific vacancies in New Zealand has been developed by the Chief Migration Officer, New Zealand House, London, for British and most Western European migrants, and similar registers have been established by the New Zealand Immigration Attaché in the Hague for Dutch workers, and by the New Zealand Consul-General in Los Angeles for American migrants. Employers interested in recruiting migrants with certain skills may file details of their vacancies through the Department of Labour in Wellington. The department will also arrange for vacancies to be advertised, if required by employers. In addition, the department holds interview reports for a large number of skilled tradesmen in a variety of occupations and these can be made available to interested employers.

The assisted passage scheme, which operates only from Britain, is limited to 500 migrants a year and they must possess minimum skills (usually at tradesman level) in specific occupations approved by the Secretary of Labour. Single persons and married couples (without dependent children) between the ages of 18 and 45 years are eligible. Married couples and single persons in some occupations must have employment and housing guaranteed before acceptable application.

Applications for both schemes must be made to the Department of Labour, Wellington; the Chief Migration Officer, London; or New Zealand overseas posts in North America or Western Europe.

The number of assisted immigrants (excluding displaced persons, and Hungarian and Czech refugees) arriving in the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchBritishDutchAustrianGermanDanishSwissGreekOtherTotal

* Includes 106 from United States.

† Includes subsidy scheme migrants not shown in previous years; their total was 4,183; see a preceding table on long-term migration.

19623,47484141023,584
19634,283423327137104,532
19644,17161651413054,347
19654,30091251129344,400
19663,963197827184,042
19674,0209910361124,097
19682,7322451742,764
1969485221490
1970377212382
197153243539
1972†4,5564344637111*5,148

Refugees—New Zealand has continued to accept refugees including families sponsored by the churches. From November 1968, 100 Czech refugees had arrived by 1969 and these were followed in 1970 by a further 25. In 1970–71, 42 Indonesian refugees arrived. In 1972 the first Asian refugees arrived from Uganda.

IMMIGRATION—The legislation respecting immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Act 1964, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour.

Under the Immigration Act all persons other than New Zealand citizens must be in possession of an entry permit before they may land in New Zealand.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants should first write to or call on the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, P.O. Box 6310, Wellington, New Zealand. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch, at Rarotonga by the High Commissioner, at, Niue by the Resident Commissioner, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, Fiji, Geneva, The Hague, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Melbourne, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Ottawa, Paris, Rome, Saigon, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tokyo, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singaporean, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Persons born in the Cook Islands and the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. They are required to obtain formal exit permission from the High Commissioner or Administrator respectively if they wish to proceed to New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION—The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizens of all Commonwealth countries are recognised as British subjects.

New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, as do alien wives and children of New Zealand citizens. Other aliens acquire it by naturalisation. To be eligible for New Zealand citizenship, an alien or a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or a minor) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period; (b) be of full age and capacity; (c) be of good character; (d) have sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship; (e) intend to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is 5 years, for registration it is generally 3 years but can be reduced to 1 year.

A person who acquires New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation must take the oath of allegiance, a person who acquires it by registration may be required to take the oath. Ceremonies are held at which applicants, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance and are presented with their certificates of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. During the 1971–72 year there were 80 such ceremonies, at which 984 persons took the oath of allegiance.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage, or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact may be withdrawn.

The following table shows the number of persons, by country of birth, who were granted citizenship in the latest 2 years ended 31 March. Of the total of 1,498 in 1970–71, 197 were wives of New Zealand citizens and 139 were children.

Country of Birth1970–711971–72
NaturalisationRegistrationTotalNaturalisationRegistrationTotal
Australia16161515
Austria61710313
China394584434083
Denmark20525459
Fiji14748110110
Germany111627252146
Greece12921172340
Hong Kong1202142125
Hungary12820211031
India1001001102103
Indonesia1562181119
Ireland881111
Italy8917819
Kenya991212
Malaysia10102020
Netherlands129142271194123317
Poland191635272047
Romania1081812416
South Africa15324793140
Switzerland11819101020
Tonga26832427
U.S.S.R.415448
United Kingdom379379246246
United States4913101929
Western Samoa553994217596
Yugoslavia282250553792
Other countries349112542107149
               Totals4361,0621,4985281,1051,633

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at any particular date does not constitute the total number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows, by country of nationality, the number of males and females on the register.

Country of Nationality1 April 19711 April 1972
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Afghanistan1511615116
Albania11–     1111–     11
Austria352134486344133477
Belgium533992524092
Bulgaria6557064771
Burma4544939342
Chile10818121123
China1,0268131,8399897911,780
Czechoslovakia94561509858156
Denmark493281774494289783
Estonia181634161430
Finland88691578467151
France9011220297121218
Germany522437959526443969
Greece7127491,4616897181,407
Hungary304165469294148442
Indonesia1145516912375198
Israel1251711415
Italy457214671613227840
Japan83109192103145248
Korea34842441155
Latvia55531085651107
Lebanon242347232144
Lithuania172138161834
Nepal1151614721
Netherlands7,4515,50112,9527,3865,52612,912
Norway1035716010655161
Philippines402363442266
Poland402304706381281662
Romania18927201333
South Africa93107200102128230
Spain391150411253
Sweden76711478077157
Switzerland518304822544324868
Thailand8812421292130222
Turkey171532171633
United States1,7721,0942,8662,0521,2223,274
U.S.S.R.77801577077147
Vietnam944814210752159
Yugoslavia1,0375721,6091,0065581,564
Other countries61541155953112
Stateless18826221032
               Totals16,60911,76428,37316,95611,95928,915

Gains in numbers on the register for any nationality occur for several reasons—mainly, (a) immigrants of 16 years of age and over who arrive during the year, (b) registration (on reaching the age of 16) of children whose parents may have arrived in previous years but are still registered aliens.

Reductions in the numbers of registered aliens in the main come from naturalisations, deaths, or departure overseas.

Five years residence in New Zealand is necessary before an alien can qualify for naturalisation.

STATISTICS OF THE POPULATION CENSUS—Publications resulting from the Census of Population and Dwellings are listed towards the back of this Yearbook. Additional figures from the Census of Population of 23 March 1971 may be published in Latest Statistical Information at the end of this Yearbook.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1966 is summarised in the following tables.

Age (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedNot SpecifiedTotal
 Males
16–1997,8771,66610115199,705
2018,9982,2201316021,292
21–2447,43228,058285306023776,102
25–2922,65660,9836638930623084,927
30–3410,96063,93573617551920476,529
35–399,62973,05587631686716884,911
40–448,04770,4209655691,20318181,385
45–496,35962,6398649381,33214072,272
50–545,81959,2737371,4681,35212968,778
55–595,03052,2506282,1421,2899961,438
60–644,02740,7104642,8671,0108049,158
65–693,08528,7832583,5926906036,468
70–742,03518,0841463,7984033124,497
75–791,50611,6131024,5452552418,045
80–848575,626443,9511142410,616
85–893961,927232,17130144,561
90 and over1213185719521,170
               Totals, 1966244,834581,5606,81927,3729,4351,834871,854
               Totals, 1961212,976527,8425,78827,2918,5151,545783,957
 Females
16–1986,4219,149811234695,712
2013,1107,429811072420,661
21–2423,14548,5316491101283472,597
25–299,74670,7261,0493154622182,319
30–344,99565,7679555096202172,867
35–394,71271,2211,0709869711878,978
40–444,86469,4391,1702,0341,2612778,795
45–494,94162,3771,0433,6121,5202373,516
50–545,34655,4368325,9971,5882769,226
55–595,58144,0636138,5641,4583760,316
60–645,15131,94841011,3221,1006249,993
65–694,70422,43429714,7077744542,961
70–743,98013,67815715,6915152934,050
75–793,0817,1318714,8783022425,503
80–842,0222,8554010,6881061915,730
85–89963848135,3953297,260
90 and over33114011,747672,232
               Totals, 1966183,093583,1728,54896,57710,853473882,716
               Totals, 1961159,086526,9967,20287,6089,410282790,584

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status195619611966
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married27.720.827.220.128.120.7
Married66.666.267.566.766.866.1
Legally separated0.80.90.70.90.81.0
Widowed3.810.93.511.13.211.0
Divorced1.11.21.11.21.11.2
               Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

DEPENDENT CHILDREN—Married men, widowers, and widows were asked at the Census in 1966 to state the number of their living children under 16 years (including stepchildren and children adopted by them). Married women, divorced, and legally separated persons were not asked to supply the information as this would have created the risk of duplication of children counted.

The numbers of persons having dependent children are now shown. The category “nil” includes those cases where members of the family were 16 years of age and over, as well as those cases where there were no children in the family.

Number of
Dependent Children
Under 16 Years
1961 Census1966 Census
Married MenWidowersWidowsMarried MenWidowersWidows
Nil204,73524,82380,574233,82024,89289,258
190,5241,1673,32393,2291,1123,322
299,9326011,790106,6696141,839
368,16632987073,9263411,015
435,45015545940,400169498
515,2478220317,40082247
66,935371148,03138114
73,16620503,8782355
81,60613211,9391035
9 and over1,3178151,5451415
Not specified7645618972377179
          Totals527,84227,29187,608581,56027,37296,577

The numbers of dependent children in each of the three groups in 1966 were: dependent on married men, 883,239; dependent on widowers, 5,058; and dependent on widows, 14,771, a total of 903,068 dependent children out of a 1966 Census total of 922,349 children under 16 years of age. The difference is accounted for mainly by the exclusion of children whose parents were legally separated; those whose parents were divorced and had not remarried; children who had lost both parents; and ex-nuptial children (the last two classes excluding cases of adoption). It should be noted also, that some children listed by married men, widowers, and widows were, in fact, not counted in the 922,349 at 1966 Census, in so far as they were domiciled outside New Zealand. These remarks also apply to earlier censuses.

Comparable numbers of dependent children in the three groups in 1961 were: dependent on married men, 802,711; dependent on widowers, 4,932; and dependent on widows, 13,716; a total of 821,359 out of a total of 840,443 children under 16 years.

Between the 1961 and 1966 Census the total number of dependent children of married men increased from 802,711 to 883,239, a rise of 10 percent. The number of married men increased by 53,718 or 10.2 percent. Those recording “nil” dependent children increased by 14.2 percent, while those with dependent children increased by 7.7 percent.

Married men with two children recorded the largest numerical increase, rising from 99,932 to 106,669, this representing a 6.7 percent increase. The greatest percentage increase, however, was recorded by married men with seven children, this group increasing from 3,166 in 1961 to 3,878 in 1966, a rise of 712 or 22 percent.

The next table shows within each group, the average number of dependent children, firstly for all persons within the group, and then for persons with dependent children in that group.

Average Number of Dependent Children1956 Census1961 Census1966 Census
Married men—
     Per person1.421.521.52
     Per person with dependent children2.382.492.54
Widowers—
     Per person0.180.180.18
     Per person with dependent children2.092.042.10
Widows—
     Per person0.160.160.15
     Per person with dependent children2.012.002.07

HOUSEHOLDS—There were 716,104 households in permanent private dwellings at the Census in 1966. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age.

Type of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsNumber of Households with Occupancy of
1234567 or more
* While not strictly an “extended family”, other groupings are included, mainly consisting of such relationships as a mother and widowed daughter.
One-family-only households—
     Complete432,338125,44478,93695,91867,85636,69327,491
     Incomplete with child absent24,7005,0394,8235,1733,9322,3773,356
     Incomplete with one parent absent37,49118,3009,5235,1242,5181,059967
Totals494,529148,78393,282106,21574,30640,12931,814
Family with related persons only present (e.g., married children, grandchildren, parents)31,272 1,345*7,2576,3166,2264,3215,807
Family plus related persons, but with non-related persons present58,26811,56512,56612,3929,41812,327
One-person households89,38489,384
Other households42,65127,4029,1223,8621,363521381
Grand Totals716,10489,384177,530121,226128,95994,28754,38950,329

Of the 716,104 households at the 1966 Census of Population and Dwellings, there were 432,338 complete one-family-only households, that is, a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age.

In the following table these complete one-family-only households are analysed by distribution of the occupants and the occupational status of the head of the household.

Occupational Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
* Including relative assisting heads and not specified but who are in the labour force.
Actively Engaged Head—
     Employer41,0127,3297,23110,1278,2724,9203,133
     Own account39,9117,8936,6929,6217,8934,6093,203
     Wages or salary302,73271,38358,60774,21450,92926,81620,783
     Unemployed1,1243792022191438398
               Totals*385,07487,08472,77894,22867,27636,45827,250
Not Actively Engaged Head—
     Retired45,58437,3255,8981,541485174161
     Dependent on public or private support1,6801,035260149956180
               Totals47,26438,3606,1581,690580235241
          Totals, all heads432,338125,44478,93695,91867,85636,69327,491

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1966 by the age group of the head of the household.

Age Group of Head (in Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child*2 Children*3 or More Children*
* Unmarried children of any age living at home.
Numbers
Under 219781,09617119
21–249,2706,8873,628991
25–4420,73728,21159,82197,020
45–6453,68936,35930,85033,283
65 and over40,7706,3831,448727
          Totals125,44478,93695,918132,040
Percentages
Under 2143.248.47.60.8
21–2444.633.117.54.8
25–4410.113.729.147.1
45–6434.823.620.021.6
65 and over82.712.92.91.5
All ages29.018.322.230.5

The following tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the number of unmarried children of any age living with their parents on Census night 1966. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, usually indicating at least one other income recipient in the family.

Income of HeadHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
      $
Under 60025,7184,4971,545767353420
    600–1,3999,9262,7971,731970534604
1,400–2,19938,08225,71425,48116,4209,4778,696
2,200–2,99930,32027,23938,29926,90114,19710,324
3,000–3,99910,6079,50915,02411,4815,7883,576
4,000–7,9998,4437,24711,1038,9874,8752,933
8,000 and over1,7991,5922,3382,0491,302743
               Totals (including not specified)125,44478,93695,91867,85636,69327,491
Total Income of HouseholdHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
     $
Under 60023,9921,477854567314405
    600–1,3998,6091,9251,100630345452
1,400–2,19923,51115,88916,02810,7706,3165,676
2,200–2,99923,98921,29429,81121,00311,3168,017
3,000–3,99920,54414,44618,41713,4886,8144,616
4,000–7,99922,25421,01025,55918,0089,4896,689
8,000 and over2,5452,8954,1493,3902,0991,436
               Totals (including not specified)125,44478,93695,91867,85636,69327,491

The following table shows persons living alone in 1966 by age and marital status; those not actively engaged in the labour force totalled 52,062.

Age Group (in Years)Marital StatusTotal*
Never MarriedMarried†Legally Separated or DivorcedWidowed

* Includes those who did not specify marital status.

† In some cases the partner was temporarily absent on census night.

Males
Under 21878402921
21–241,5423012431,873
25–445,4671,8451,0881688,582
45–645,2382,4712,0012,22811,971
65 and over2,2611,7046776,18810,866
          Totals15,3866,3613,7928,58734,213
Females
Under 214135231469
21–24466169263665
25–442,2695575151973,545
45–645,5961,9402,1698,99018,717
65 and over4,8421,58795824,35631,775
          Totals13,5864,3053,67133,54755,171

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1961 and 1966 Censuses.

Religious Profession Number of AdherentsPercentage
1961 Census1966 Census19611966 
Anglican (Church of England)835,434901,70134.633.7
Presbyterian539,459582,97622.321.8
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)364,098425,28015.115.9
Methodist173,838186,2607.27.0
Baptist40,88646,7481.71.7
Protestant (undefined)45,10046,0901.91.7
Ratana23,12627,5701.01.0
Latter Day Saints17,97825,5640.80.9
Brethren25,76423,1391.10.9
Christian (undefined)12,13021,5480.50.8
Salvation Army15,45417,7370.60.7
Congregational9,37712,1010.40.4
Church of Christ10,48510,3010.40.4
Seventh Day Adventist8,2209,5510.30.3
Jehovah's Witness5,9447,4550.20.3
Lutheran4,8175,7300.20.2
Ringatu5,3775,6050.20.2
Atheist3,3595,4740.10.2
Agnostic2,2884,9600.10.2
Hebrew4,0064,1040.20.2
Eastern Orthodox3,3283,6050.10.1
Hindu2,0743,5990.10.1
Undenominational1,5143,0690.10.1
Assemblies of God1,0602,0280.1
Undenominational Christian2,1701,9680.10.1
Apostolic Church1,3991,8410.10.1
Rationalist9561,6960.1
Christadelphian1,4981,6280.10.1
Christian Scientist3,7191,1610.2
No religion (so returned)17,48632,7800.71.2
All other religious professions14,38623,4990.60.9
Object to state204,056210,8518.47.9
Not specified14,19819,3000.60.7
               Totals2,414,9842,676,919100.0100.0

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. It is probable that the “Not specified” group includes a number of persons objecting to the question.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Estimates of age distribution for later years are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age (Years)1961 Census1966 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19611966
  0–4149,032143,041292,073156,954149,689306,64312.111.5
  5–9133,880127,821261,701152,816146,441299,25710.811.2
10–14125,339119,829245,168136,498130,001266,49910.210.0
1521,16820,33341,50125,62124,32949,9501.71.9
16–1974,15670,562144,71899,70595,712195,4176.07.3
2018,69118,01336,70421,29220,66141,9531.51.6
21–2461,35260,007121,35976,10272,597148,6995.05.6
25–2973,60070,173143,77384,92782,319167,2466.06.2
30–3481,92375,976157,89976,52972,867149,3966.55.6
35–3981,02477,846158,87084,91178,978163,8896.66.1
40–4471,23272,764143,99681,38578,795160,1806.06.0
45–4971,20370,290141,49372,27273,516145,7885.95.4
50–5464,30761,836126,14368,77869,226138,0045.25.1
55–5953,42451,258104,68261,43860,316121,7544.34.5
60–6441,57344,68286,25549,15849,99399,1513.63.7
65–6931,39639,41370,80936,46842,96179,4292.93.0
70–7425,92532,56558,49024,49734,05058,5472.42.2
75–7919,05423,85542,90918,04525,50343,5481.81.6
80–8410,33614,09224,42810,61615,73026,3461.01.0
85–893,7315,4229,1534,5617,26011,8210.40.4
90 and over1,0301,8302,8601,1702,2323,4020.10.1
               Totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919100.0100.0
Under 15 years408,251390,691798,942446,268426,131872,39933.132.7
15–64 years713,653693,7401,407,393802,118779,3091,581,42758.359.0
65 years and over91,472117,177208,64995,357127,736223,0938.68.3
Minors (under 21 years)522,266499,5991,021,865592,886566,8331,159,71942.343.5
Adults (21 years and over)691,110702,0091,393,119750,857766,3431,517,20057.756.5

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table gives broad ethnic origins.

Ethnic GroupCensus
195619611966
Non-Maori2,016,2872,216,8862,426,352
Maori137,151167,086201,159
Other Origins—
     Pacific Islanders—
          Cook Island Maori2,3204,4998,663
          Samoan3,7406,48111,842
          Niuean8481,7282,846
          Tongan9171,0431,389
          Other2785891,531
              Sub-totals, Pacific Islanders8,10314,34026,271
     Chinese6,6678,3339,982
     Indian3,0874,0276,655
     Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1,0551,0571,049
     Fijian4797461,323
     Other races1,2332,5094,128
               Sub-totals, others12,52116,67223,137
                    Totals2,174,0622,414,9842,676,919

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 percent of the total population; for 1966 the proportion dropped to 85 percent, partly as a result of the growth of travel and tourism internationally.

The following table classifies persons by country of birth.

Country of BirthCensus
195619611966
New Zealand (excluding Cook Islands and Niue)1,863,3442,074,5092,279,994
United Kingdom206,181218,649244,601
Australia35,91635,41243,374
Netherlands12,54417,84420,461
Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland)8,4238,8108,448
Pacific Islands—
     Cook Islands and Niue2,7454,7887,852
     Fiji2,2733,0385,384
     Tonga7687771,005
     Western Samoa2,9954,4507,447
India4,4684,7535,368
China3,8834,1944,218
Other countries, and born at sea30,52237,76048,767
               Totals2,174,0622,414,9842,676,919

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1956 Census1961 Census1966 Census
NumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified Cases
  0–477,54525.672,68521.7103,06426.5
  5–942,72214.164,46819.356,87714.6
10–148,8482.942,31312.761,35115.7
15–1910,8113.68,1472.438,95710.0
20–245,2361.710,3623.18,2122.1
25–2917,7905.94,3611.39,3802.4
30–3439,09412.918,3815.54,9871.3
35–3920,9286.932,8279.814,9363.8
40–4424,8688.220,5016.131,4568.1
45–4923,4107.719,3035.815,6554.0
50–5413,9344.620,5646.217,3114.4
55 and over18,0885.920,5916.127,3607.0
Not specified7,4445,9727,379
               Totals310,718100.0340,475100.0396,925100.0

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the continents and selected countries at 1 July 1970 are shown in the following table. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Demographic Yearbook.)

Continents and CountriesAreaPopulation
Continents (1969)sq km (000)million
     Europe4,929460.0
     Asia27,5321,988.0
     U.S.S.R.22,402240.0
     Africa30,313345.0
     North America21,515314.0
     South America20,565186.0
     Oceania8,51118.9
               Totals, World135,7673,552.0
Selected Countries
Europe—
     Belgium319.7
     Czechoslovakia12814.5
     Denmark434.9
     France54750.8
     Germany, West24861.7
     Germany, East10817.2
     Ireland, Republic of702.9
     Italy30153.7
     Luxembourg20.3
     Netherlands3413.0
     Norway3243.9
     Spain50533.3
     Sweden4508.0
     Switzerland416.3
     United Kingdom24455.7
     Yugoslavia25620.5
Oceania—
     Australia7,68712.6
     Fiji180.5
     New Caledonia190.1
     New Zealand2692.8
Asia—
     Sri Lanka6612.5
     China9,561759.6
     India3,268550.0
     Indonesia1,492121.2
     Japan370103.4
     Khmer Republic1816.7
     Korea, North12113.9
     Korea, South9831.8
     Malaysia33210.7
     Singapore0.52.1
     Thailand51435.8
     Vietnam, North15921.1
     Vietnam, South17418.3
Middle East—
     United Arab Republic1,00033.3
     Iraq4359.4
     Israel212.9
     Lebanon102.8
     Jordan982.3
     Syria1856.1
Africa—
     Congo2,34516.7
     Ghana2399.0
     Kenya58311.3
     Libya1,7601.9
     Malawi1184.5
     Nigeria92455.0
     Rhodesia3895.2
     South Africa1,22120.1
     Tanzania94013.3
     Zambia7534.3
North America—
     United States9,363204.8
     Canada9,97621.4
South America—
     Argentina2,77724.3
     Brazil8,51295.3
     Chile7579.8
     Peru1,28513.6

Chapter 4. Section 4
VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning; along with net migration it is the major component of population growth. In recent years the rate of natural increase in New Zealand has been higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 11 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase
Rates per 1,000
Mean Population
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori

* Excluding late registrations under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951; these totalled 244 in 1971.

† Includes registrations under section 14.

196165,39021,78243,6087,770†1,3856,38517.9738.12
196265,01422,08142,9337,6091,2246,38517.2736.43
196364,52722,41642,1118,0321,1986,83416.6037.49
196462,30222,86139,4417,8811,1686,71315.2335.46
196560,04722,97637,0717,7761,2176,55914.0733.43
196660,00323,77836,2257,7431,2916,45213.5131.87
196761,02223,00738,0157,9961,2226,77413.9432.59
196862,11224,46437,6488,0891,3246,76513.6832.75
196962,36024,16138,1998,1611,3306,83113.7431.31
197062,05024,84037,2108,1931,3996,79413.2030.42
197164,46024,30940,1518,3641,4216,94314.0129.62

In the 10 years to 31 December 1971 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of population a total of 389,004.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are for 1971 are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural
Increase
* Rates for 1970.
Mexico41.39.232.1*
Israel27.07.020.0*
Singapore22.85.417.4
Hong Kong19.05.014.0
New Zealand22.58.514.0
Australia21.78.713.0
Japan19.26.612.6
Ireland, Republic22.810.612.2
Spain19.88.611.2*
Netherlands18.88.410.4
Canada17.27.39.9
United States17.39.38.0
Italy16.89.67.2
Norway16.99.97.0
France17.110.76.4
Switzerland15.19.16.0
United Kingdom16.211.64.6
Sweden14.110.23.9
Belgium14.512.22.3
Germany, West12.811.71.1

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Births statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social security purposes.

Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live birth statistics but are now excluded: late registrations totalled 244 in 1971.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean
Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
196265,0147,60926.1643.41
196364,5278,03225.4444.06
196462,3027,88124.0641.63
196560,0475,77622.7939.63
196660,0037,74322.3738.25
196761,0227,99622.3738.47
196862,1128,08922.5637.96
196962,3608,16122.4337.41
197062,0508,19322.0136.68
197164,4608,36422.5036.51
197263,482 21.76 

REFINED BIRTH RATE—“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the legitimate birth rate per 1,000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total births per 1,000 of all women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1,000 Women“Crude” Birth Rate
per 1,000 Mean Population
Married Women
16–44 Years
Total Women
15–44 Years
1926176.992.121.23
1936155.179.018.07
1945186.5106.524.58
1951190.8123.025.62
1956191.7128.1x25.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.2x114.4x22.44

The percentage of married women in the child-bearing ages was 68.2 in 1966 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The following diagram shows birth and death rates and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

The period since the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1961, when the level dropped; this experience was also shared by Australia, Canada, and the United States. In recent years the rates have been more stable at a lower level.

CountryBirth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
19641965196619671968196919701971
New Zealand24.122.822.422.422.622.422.022.5
Australia20.619.719.319.420.020.320.521.7
Canada23.521.419.318.117.717.617.617.2
United States21.019.418.417.817.417.718.217.3
(Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.)

The decline of the birth rates over the period from 1961 was the subject of discussion by demographers, notably at the World Population Conference in 1965. This change in fertility pattern has coincided in time with increasing use of oral contraceptives; their greater effectiveness in birth control appears to have a significant influence on fertility, on at least a short-term basis. Demographers have emphasised the need for further research, stating that it is important to study demographic variables involved in the recent decline in the birth rate, including changes in age distribution, timing of marriage and birth, past success in achieving the desired family size, and changes in the desired number of children. In New Zealand, changes in the proportion of women in the child-bearing groups were not of a nature to have any significant effect on the downward trend in the birth rate.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates for the non-Maori population during the latest 11 years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19612.0281.964
19621.9701.908
19631.8551.796
19641.7531.698
19651.6241.571
19661.5791.534
19671.5661.521
19681.5411.498
19691.5201.481
19701.4611.423
19711.4701.432

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN—Statistics for the latest 6 years are given in the following table.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births
per 1,000
Female Births
MalesFemales
* Excludes 244 births registered under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.
196630,87929,3091,054
196731,09730,0721,034
196831,95530,3291,054
196932,02830,5361,049
197031,92430,2831,054
1971*32,99631,4641,049

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (live births only) during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

YearTotal BirthsTotal CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsMultiple Cases
per 1,000 of
Total Cases

* Includes one case of quadruplets.

† Excludes births registered under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.

196660,18859,5885895*9.97
196761,16960,5655907*9.86
196862,28461,603666810.94
196962,56461,921627810.26
197062,20761,548647610.61
1971†64,46063,793649910.31

There were 63,793 confinements in 1971 resulting in live births; of these, 658 produced multiple living births and in a further 24 cases 1 of the twins was still-born. The ratio of multiple confinements with live births to total live confinements was 1:94. In six additional cases both twins were still-born.

YearCases of TwinsCases of Triplets, Quads, and QuinsTotal
Multiple
Cases
Rate per 1,000
Confinements
Both Born
Alive
One Born
Alive One
Still-born
Both
Still-born
TotalAll Born
Alive
One Born
Alive Two
Still-born
Two Born
Alive One
Still-born
All
Still-born
Quads, all
Alive
Quins, all
Alive
Total

* Excludes births registered under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.

† The nine cases of triplets in 1971 comprised two cases where there were two females and one male; four cases where there were two males and
one female; one case all males; and two cases all females.

1967590196615511762210.3
196866618669071869811.3
19696271186468865410.6
19706472156736667911.0
1971*6492466799†968810.8
Average of
5 years
6361966617766810.8

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still-born.

YearStill-birth Cases per 100 of Total
Cases (Including Still Births)
Single CasesMultiple Cases
* Excludes births registered under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.
    19671.164.18
    19681.173.58
    19690.972.91
    19701.043.83
    1971*0.984.36
Average of 5 years1.063.77

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1971 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother,
in Years
Age of Father, in Years
Under 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases
* Including 9 cases of triplets and 20 cases where 1 of twins was still-born.
 Single Births
Under 212,4464,3791,0421573593218,074
21–243876,8318,4601,58728881365317,678
25–29257958,5116,0751,2943021063311117,153
30–342577813,5512,371721181402517,730
35–392472721,161879268533832,723
40–4471911938122475213849
45 and over172817255
                        Totals2,86012,06418,84911,6615,2682,380846225101854,262
 Multiple Births
Under 21193591165
21–24449841531156
25–2911198842262224
30–341154740951118
35–3931793234
40–441921114
45 and over33
                        Totals249620615083341533614
          Grand Totals2,88412,16019,05511,8115,3512,414861228104854,876*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1971 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother
in Years
Number of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial
Cases
0123456–910–1415 and
Over
* This number represents 54,262 single cases and 614 multiple cases.
Under 216,0601,8272242718,139
21–248,3766,3022,41858012924517,834
25–294,2705,6594,4711,91762228515417,378
30–341,0461,4992,0541,526802412485257,849
35–392713084415114412584467642,756
40–44718897115136104181664862
45 and over753486148358
                         Totals20,10115,6889,7084,6802,1391,0891,2851751154,876*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1971.

Age of Mother
in Years
Total MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 208,13910,5591.30
20–2417,83431,5341.77
25–2917,37842,8612.47
30–347,84926,9923.44
35–392,75612,5994.57
40–448624,6535.40
45 and over583856.64
            Totals54,876129,5832.36

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1971) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1967, 2.57; 1968, 2.53; 1969, 2.50; 1970, 2.44; and 1971, 2.36.

FIRST BIRTHS—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been reduced proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial
Cases
Total Nuptial
First Cases
Proportion of
First Cases to
Total Cases
First Cases Within
1 Year After Marriage
First Cases Within
2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to
Total
First Cases
NumberProportion to
Total
First Cases
* Excludes 244 registrations under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.
 percent percent percent
196652,68117,22232.698,33948.4212,68373.64
196752,84517,56433.248,28747.1812,62171.86
196853,58017,96033.528,16045.4312,57370.01
196953,87418,33134.037,97543.5112,35767.41
197053,32618,82835.317,79141.3812,45566.15
1971*54,87620,10136.638,37541.6613,25965.96

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage
in Years
Percentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964196919701971
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8543.5141.3841.66
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.9024.7724.30
210.2411.2811.5611.4215.4815.4815.74
36.167.885.955.078.378.848.69
43.967.183.302.823.894.394.55
5–95.497.365.053.564.154.614.55
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.700.530.51
                         Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother,
in Years
Percentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964196919701971
Under 208.907.339.0819.6420.5520.4520.65
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6751.3351.2751.17
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2821.0721.1521.24
30–3413.1014.6110.396.004.794.845.21
35–393.795.363.922.571.641.711.35
40–440.991.341.020.810.570.560.35
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.050.020.03
                         Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1969, 23.42; 1970, 23.46; and 1971, 23.40 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 10 years, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. The percentages in recent years are higher than those for Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and United States but lower than those for Sweden. Meaningful international comparisons can only be made with caution; some of the difficulties are discussed in a supplement to the January 1967 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberPercentage of
Total Live
Births
* Excludes registrations under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.
19625,2428.05
19635,6988.81
19646,1899.91
19656,55410.89
19666,96011.56
19677,78312.72
19688,09413.00
19698,12712.99
19708,30013.34
1971*8,98113.93

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for census years are as follows. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44
Years of Age
Ex-nuptial
Births
Ex-nuptial Birth Rate
per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961138,0183,33224.14
1966171,3226,96040.63

In 1971 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements was 8,917. Of these 8,849 cases were single births, 64 were twins, while there were 4 cases of twins in which 1 child was still-born. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 8,981. From the following table, it will be seen that of the 8,917 mothers, 4,546 or 50.98 percent, were under 21 years of age.

AgeNumber of
Mothers
     11
     12
     136
     1444
     15217
     16554
     17863
     181,024
     19971
     20867
     21747
     22611
     23488
     24–291,606
     30–34585
     35–39249
     40–4478
45 and over7
          Total8,917

Legitimations—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The numbers of legitimations registered in each of the latest 5 years were as follows: 1967, 1,387; 1968, 1,310; 1969, 1,386; 1970, 1,513; 1971, 1,749.

The Child Welfare Act 1925 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants196919701971
No.%No.%No.%
Legitimated by marriage of parents231325443364
Remaining with mother
(parents cohabiting)
1,808251,778251,85523
Remaining with mother
(parents not cohabiting)
1,856251,950272,17827
Placed with relatives247323433194
Placed with strangers
with view to adoption
2,337322,302322,40930
Placed with strangers,
no expressed wish to adoption
184312721161
In children's home or other
institution on a long-term basis
431491461
Committed to care of Social Welfare37-28-34-
Not traced470629747389
Died11029711191
                                   Totals7,3231007,1161008,150100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the latest 5 years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19671,8031,7103,513
19681,8541,9263,780
19691,9241,9643,888
19701,9721,8653,837
19712,0091,9673,976

Of the 3,976 adoptions registered in 1971, 1,866 were children under the age of 1 year, 1,150 were aged 1 to 4 years, 428 were aged 5 to 9 years, and 532 were aged 10 years or over.

Over recent years there has been a small but steady increase in the number of adoption orders made by the court. The statistics for 1971 continued that trend, a total of 3,976 adoptions being finalised, compared with 3,837 in 1970. Social workers of the former Child Welfare Division were concerned with 3,231 or 81 percent of these; Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the division, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 3 years.

Status of Children Adopted196919701971
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial2,9772,8312,674
Nuptial473495506
Not known*503651
                         Totals3,5003,3623,231

In 1971, 83 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 94 percent were aged less than one year at the time of placement for adoption. Seventy-nine percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1971.

AgeNuptialEx-nuptialNot KnownTotal
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year3432,506232,872
1–5 years471036156
6 years and over3712150
Not known*795321153
                                   Totals5062,674513,231

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship196919701971
Strangers2,4992,2862,176
One parent and spouse652739738
Relative or close friend349337317
                                                       Totals3,5003,3623,231

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4c relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate was 1.01 per 100 births in 1971.

The registration of still births during each of the latest 5 years were as follows.

YearMale Still
Births
Female Still
Births
TotalMale Still Births
per 1,000 Female
Still Births
Percentage of Still Births to
Living
Births
All Births
19673773587351,0531.201.19
19683793737521,0161.211.19
19693272986251,0971.000.99
19703543176711,1171.081.07
19713383226601,0501.021.01

The rate of masculinity for still births in 1971 was 1,050 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,049 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptial births among still-born infants was, in 1970, 14.16 and among infants born alive, 13.93.

Of the total of 660 still births in 1971, 559 were non-Maori and 101 Maori; of the Maori total 60 were males and 41 females.

4 C—DEATHS

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of
Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
195016,7151,36918,0849.3112.099.47
195517,9531,27219,2258.959.568.99
196019,5241,36820,8928.818.568.79
196521,7591,21722,9768.926.208.72
196721,7851,22223,0078.655.848.43
196823,1401,32424,4649.116.138.88
196922,8311,33024,1618.995.998.68
197023,4411,39924,8409.036.268.81
197122,8881,42124,3098.696.208.49
1972  24,801  8.50

Crude death rates do not reflect the true levels of mortality which exist in populations which have different age structures. The Maori population has a very much higher proportion of those at younger ages who do not contribute many deaths to the total and conversely relatively few persons at older ages when the rate of dying is high. The effect of this is to produce a very deflated crude rate.

In the following table for 1966 adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex.

RaceAll Ages Rates
per 10,000 Mean
Population
Age-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate
Adjusted to
Non-Maori
Population
Under
5 Years
5–14
Years
15–24
Years
25–44
Years
45–64
Years
65 Years
and Over
 Males
Maori71.3144.182.410.122.536.3217.41,041.4
Non-Maori100.445.24.714.420.0131.4822.8
 Females
Maori55.8140.466.48.18.034.2200.2814.4
Non-Maori80.933.03.14.912.469.9583.0
 Both Sexes
Maori63.7144.474.59.115.335.2209.29352
Non-Maori90.739.23.99.816.3100.4685.0

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the respective crude rates for each sex separately for the latest 11 years in the total population.

YearDeaths per 1,000 of Mean PopulationMale Deaths
to Every 100
Female Deaths
MalesFemalesTotal
19629.807.978.89124
19639.757.918.84124
19649.737.938.83124
19659.587.868.72123
19669.827.908.86125
19679.297.578.43123
19689.807.958.88123
19699.587.788.68123
19709.647.958.81121
19719.377.608.49123
1972  8.50 

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the last 12 years gives the following averages: March quarter, 4,949; June quarter, 5,779; September quarter, 6,730; and December quarter, 5,672.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1971 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were July, August, and June, with totals of 2,336, 2,330; and 2,108 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January) February had the least number of deaths, 1,638, followed by November with 1,815.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1971 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 15914751,066
  1–413095225
  5–97941120
10–146641107
15–1918668254
20–2418069249
25–2912064184
30–3412197218
35–39166106272
40–44293179472
45–49430310740
50–546673931,060
55–591,0505601,610
60–641,4477442,191
65–691,7159352,650
70–741,7471,2342,981
75–791,5581,5523,110
80–841,4621,7003,162
85–899641,4362,400
90–94349627976
95–9981141222
100 and over112940
             Totals13,41310,89624,309

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1971.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total
Deaths
Percentage of
Maori Deaths in
Total Deaths
per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 51,0042874.3920.2022.23
5–14186410.812.8818.06
15–24421821.845.7716.30
25–449432034.1214.2917.71
45–645,16044122.5431.037.87
65 and over15,17436766.3025.832.36
                              All ages22,8881,421100.00100.005.85

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1,000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and
Over

* Per 1,000 live births in this case.

† Non-Maori figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
1901†78.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
1911†63.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
1921†53.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
1931†38.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18130.57
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
195131.691.870.751.821.953.157.5720.4647.52121.66
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
196919.701.230.491.421.492.717.3720.1749.12141.57
197018.481.130.571.551.673.117.3920.6149.76141.81
197117.911.070.461.441.332.897.3420.6948.39137.67
Females
1901†63.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
1911†48.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
1921†42.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
1931†25.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
195123.091.590.540.891.302.275.6713.8532.80109.79
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
196913.950.790.310.490.811.994.8310.7327.40102.58
197014.860.840.350.600.722.064.8910.6627.96104.48
197115.100.820.280.560.911.874.7110.3725.47100.05
Both Sexes
1901†71.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
1911†56.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
1921†47.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
1931†32.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
195127.541.730.651.361.632.716.6717.0339.93115.26
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
196916.891.010.400.961.152.366.0915.3937.21117.43
197016.720.990.471.081.202.606.1315.5537.87118.41
197116.540.950.371.011.122.396.0215.4335.94113.96

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of non-Maori persons of each sex is shown in the following table.

YearMalesFemales
 age (years)
190141.6437.68
191146.1742.37
192148.4546.97
193154.1455.48
194158.6559.60
195161.5865.25
196163.8067.32
196664.5769.89
196763.7569.40
196864.6269.63
196964.6570.10
197064.4070.19
197164.7570.04

The average age of death of Maoris in 1971 was 43.32 and 44.66 years for males and females respectively. The age composition of the Maori population is quite different as explained previously.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1966 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1965–67.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident, as is the improvement in life expectancy once the first year of life is survived. Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1965–67 and Life Annuity Tables.

Exact Age
(Years)
Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
068.6774.84
169.0274.91
268.1474.00
367.2073.06
466.2572.11
565.2871.15
1060.4266.24
1555.5761.33
2050.8956.46
2546.2651.60
3041.5646.75
4032.2337.16
5023.4128.09
6015.8219.68
709.8112.39
805.636.70
903.053.32
1001.601.71

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. However, over the 1960–62 to 1965–67 period, higher rates of mortality have occurred for males for most ages beyond childhood, resulting from a higher prevalence of organic diseases (heart disease, cancer) and accidents. This has resulted in a marginal decrease of life expectancy at most ages, while for females, life expectancy has increased, though at a reduced rate. The next table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled since 1880 for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1880–9254.4444.5514.9557.2646.3916.39
1891–9555.2945.4715.0658.0947.1916.55
1896–190057.3746.3415.3359.9547.9116.54
1901–0558.0946.7415.4060.5548.2316.64
1906–1059.1747.2015.5161.7648.7716.77
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1965–67 and Life Annuity Tables.

Exact Age
(Years)
Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
061.4464.78
162.5665.41
261.8364.64
360.9663.77
460.0762.88
559.1661.95
1054.4357.10
2045.1347.48
3036.1538.12
4027.4929.10
5019.4321.03
6012.8915.09
708.3510.20
804.536.44

Life expectancy at birth for a Maori male increased by 2.39 years in the interval 1960–62 to 1965–67, with that for females increasing by 3.41 years. These increases are larger than those over the period 1955–57 to 1960–62, when they were 1.82 years for males and 2.69 for females. This shows the continuing improvement in Maori life expectancy.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter at all except the highest ages than that of the non-Maori population, but the differences are being gradually reduced. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 7.23 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.06 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1960–62, the differences were 10.12 years and 13.14 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1967.)

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy
at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales

* Excluding full-blooded Aborigines.

† Both sexes.

Australia*1965–6767.6474.16
Canada1965–6768.7575.18
Denmark1967–6870.675.4
England and Wales1967–6968.774.9
France196868.075.5
Netherlands196871.076.4
New Zealand1965–6768.1974.30
Norway1961–6571.0375.97
Scotland1967–6967.0673.21
Sweden196771.8576.54
United States196866.674.0
U.S.S.R.†1967–6870.070.0

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1964. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

In 1950 seven crematoria were in existence in New Zealand; by 1960 eight had been established and were situated at Auckland, Hastings, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. A further seven have been established since and in 1970 there was a second crematorium in Auckland and Christchurch and also crematoria in Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, New Plymouth, and Timaru.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered has more than doubled since 1950. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths
Registered
CremationsRate per
100 Deaths
Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016,7151,7991,4543,25319.46
195517,9532,4212,0324,45324.80
196019,5242,9582,5825,54028.38
196522,9764,2053,4937,69833.50
196623,7784,5253,8408,36535.18
196723,0074,6523,7618,41336.57
196824,4645,0454,0779,12237.29
196924,1615,1034,2169,31938.57
197024,8405,4184,4749,89239.82
197124,3095,4454,5519,99641.12

Numbers and rates of cremations for statistical areas in 1971 are shown in the following table

Statistical AreaDeaths
Registered
CremationsRate per
100 Deaths
Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
Northland759704811815.55
Central Auckland6,0991,6951,4903,18552.22
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty2,94851334685929.14
East Coast40536185413.33
Hawke's Bay1,23923420243635.19
Taranaki85015711527232.00
Wellington4,4711,1119752,08646.66
Marlborough27942377928.32
Nelson600927316527.50
Westland24677145.69
Canterbury3,7191,0178471,86450.12
Otago1,80344336580844.81
Southland8912828566.29
                    Totals24,3095,4454,5519,99641.12

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The accuracy of death data even in medically certified deaths will be affected by two factors—the proportion of deaths in hospitals where diagnostic equipment is available and the proportion of deaths in which a post-mortem report is available for reference.

In recent years in approximately one-third of all deaths, a post-mortem was conducted. In the cases of deaths certified by doctors, 20 percent of non-Maori and 12 percent of Maori deaths were followed by an autopsy. In the cases certified by coroners almost all deaths are subject to autopsy.

The Eighth (1965) Revision of the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death replaced the Seventh (1955) Revision with effect from 1 January 1968.

Total deaths and the rates per million of total population for the latest 3 years, classified according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes for Tabulation of Mortality, are contained in the following table. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table as there were no deaths from these causes in the years shown.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of
Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Bacillary dysentery and amoebiasis11
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases476950172418
Tuberculosis of respiratory system735527262010
Other tuberculosis, including late effects274844101716
Whooping cough1
Streptococcal sore throat and scarlet fever1
Meningococcal infection7113341
Measles7125342
Syphilis and its sequelae898333
All other infective and parasitic diseases1017183372529
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms
of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue
4,1884,4604,4861,5161,5821,591
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms of
unspecified nature
423837151313
Diabetes mellitus417366372151130132
A vitaminosis and other nutritional deficiency12154451
Anaemias744145271516
Meningitis343443121215
Active rheumatic fever825312
Chronic rheumatic heart disease29229424910610488
Hypertensive disease402387354145137126
Ischaemic heart disease6,6996,7886,9322,4242,4072,459
Other forms of heart disease1,109905881401321312
Cerebrovascular disease3,0703,2133,3101,1111,1401,174
Influenza512142318768
Pneumonia1,3791,3961,195499495424
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma9431,023987341363350
Peptic ulcer121117107444138
Appendicitis141517556
Intestinal obstruction and hernia889090323232
Cirrhosis of liver79107104293837
Nephritis and neophrosis11296128413445
Hyperplasia of prostate646667232324
Abortion11
Other complications of pregnancy,
childbirth and the puerperium, delivery
without mention of complication
131914575
Congenital anomalies349320303126113107
Birth injury, difficult labour and other
anoxic and hypoxic conditions
177148176645262
Other causes of perinatal mortality316327332114116118
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions123146104455237
All other diseases2,0192,0201,864731716661
Motor vehicle accidents582649674211230239
All other accidents778937895282332317
Suicide and self-inflicted injuries2782712371019684
All other external causes575951212118
                                                                           Totals24,16124,84024,3098,7448,8108,621

In a variety of conditions and in external causes of death the mortality rate for Maoris is very much higher than the non-Maori experience. Much of this disparity is concealed, however, by crude rates which are calculated by dividing the total population into the number of deaths from any particular disease or circumstance. With two populations so very dissimilar in age structure (at ages under 5 years non-Maoris are seven times more numerous than Maoris, but at ages 75 years and upward they are 85 times as numerous), it is necessary to resort to an adjustment of Maori rates so that the figures for any condition become directly comparable in any particular year. This has been done in the following table by firstly calculating age-specific rates for the Maori and then applying these to the non-Maori population, age group to age group. This computation provides an “expected” number of Maori deaths in each age group and these added together and then divided by the non-Maori population give an adjusted rate. In addition to the rates expressed per million of population the absolute numbers of deaths in the two races are furnished for the same 50 causes.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRates per Million of Population
(Non-Maori: Crude Rate—Maori:
Adjusted Rate)
1970197119701971
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Bacillary dysentery and amoebiasis11
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases5415321821391249
Tuberculosis of respiratory system42131611161716128
Other tuberculosis, including late effects371133111415313114
Whooping cough1
Streptococcal sore throat and scarlet fever1
Meningococcal infection923351
Measles573222915
Syphilis and its sequelae7262323225
All other infective and parasitic diseases6386518247625114
Malignant neoplasms,
including neoplasms
of lymphatic and
haematopoietic tissue
4,2681924,2842021,6442,5011,6502,550
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms
of unspecified nature
35335213301339
Diabetes mellitus3293733438127624129543
Avitaminosis and other
nutritional deficiency
1414532
Anaemias4014321531737
Meningitis231129149451137
Active rheumatic fever1132316
Chronic rheumatic heart disease24252216339352283342
Hypertensive disease3533432331136483124440
Ischaemic heart disease6,5832056,6912412,5363,2762,5773,951
Other forms of heart disease84263841403241,236324708
Cerebrovascular disease3,130833,231791,2061,5751,2441,352
Influenza1932121274353844
Pneumonia1,2901061,098974979944231,093
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma96261909783711,0013501,341
Peptic ulcer10891016421343990
Appendicitis114116421444
Intestinal obstruction and hernia83783732333271
Cirrhosis of liver101699529383852
Nephritis and neophrosis8313112163211743126
Hyperplasia of prostate66643252565
Abortion14
Other complications of pregnancy,
childbirth, and the puerperium,
delivery without mention of complication
12713154055
Congenital anomalies28733273301119310598
Birth injury, difficult labour and
other anoxic and hypoxic conditions
117311403645805494
Other causes of perinatal mortality2735427953105139107139
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions1415968544837106
All other diseases1,9071131,7441207351,2106721,422
Motor vehicle accidents56782569105218452219585
All other accidents8469180392326502309713
Suicide and self-inflicted injuries261102325101638934
All other external causes4019429151041665
                                                                 Totals23,4261,41422,8841,4259,02316,2428,81416,627

Age-specific rates and Maori age-adjusted rates have been published for a comprehensive list of diseases in Maori-European Standards of Health, one of a series of special reports issued by the Department of Health.

The comparatively poor state of health of the Maori is shown by the excess in the Maori adjusted rates for most diseases. As can be seen in the table, the absolute numbers of Maoris dying from any cause of death is small. This is because the Maori population has a high proportion of young people, and most diseases which cause death develop at the older ages.

The susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and communicable disease is well known. Again there is a Maori excess mortality in cancer and diabetes. The disparity is also very noticeable in acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease; in certain other forms of degenerative heart disease and hypertension; in both acute and chronic chest conditions, and in gastro-intestinal and kidney infections. Recent health surveys have indicated that an inclination towards overnutrition, combined with a racial predisposition to excess weight, may underlie the early development of degenerative conditions and the high incidence of metabolic disorders.

In addition to the greater susceptibility to disease processes, the Maori shows a much higher accident rate. Especially accident prone is the Maori child and young adult, while proportionately many more Maoris are involved in road fatalities.

Cancer—Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than any other cause except diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, cancer is a leading cause of death at all ages, even among children and adolescents.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand was issued in 1971 by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. This report covers mortality from cancer from 1958 to 1969, and also surveys all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant disease. This classification was introduced in New Zealand in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions*.

In 1971 there were 4,486 deaths from cancer, of which 202 were Maori. While the 1971 non-Maori crude cancer death rate of 172.8 was twice as high as the Maori crude rate of 90.4 (both per 100,000 of population), these figures are misleading as a measure of the incidence of malignant disease in the two groups. When allowance is made for the comparatively few persons in the Maori population at older ages where cancer is most frequently diagnosed, it is seen that Maori cancer mortality is markedly higher than non-Maori cancer mortality. This fact is no indication at all that in general the Maori is more prone to cancer (in cancers of the intestines in both sexes and in two sites in the Maori female, the cervix and the lung, the incidence appears to be higher), but that there is more delay in reporting the symptoms of cancer by Maoris and that more cancer in Maoris goes untreated.

* The 1965 Revision of the International Classification transferred Polycythaemia Vera and Myelofibrosis into the malignan categories but these are not included in cancer figures.

A summary of numbers, crude rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of
Deaths
from Cancer
Crude Death
Rate per
100,000
Standardised
Mortality
Ratios
Number of
Deaths
from Cancer
Crude Death
Rate per
100,000
Standardised
Mortality
Ratios*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
 MalesFemales
19501,431148.2991,286134.697
19551,660151.31041,511142.2100
19601,724144.31011,566132.592
19652,034153.01121,783135.395
19672,037148.91091,815133.493
19682,225161.31171,844133.993
19692,282164.11191,875134.693
19702,436173.61282,024143.599
19712,479175.91262,007142.395

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age structure of the population. The standardised mortality ratio for males has risen from 96.2 in the 5 years 1944–48, to 103.4 in 1954–58 and 124.0 in 1969–71. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as discussed later, is mainly attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The mean standardised mortality ratio for females in 1944–48 was 98.0 compared with 95.2 in 1954–58 and 96.0 in 1969–71 (indicating that there has been a slight fall in death rates since 1944).

A classification of cancer deaths according to age subdivisions, ethnic origin, and sex is now given. Ninety-one percent of deaths from cancer during 1971 were at ages 45 and upwards, and 57 percent were at ages 65 years and upwards.

Age Group,
in Years
RaceDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per
100,000 of
Population
at Ages
Percentage
of Total
Deaths
at Ages
NumbersRate per
100,000 of
Population
at Ages
Percentage
of Total
Deaths
at Ages
* All ages crude rate.
Under 5Non-Maori118.32.0107.92.2
Maori525.73.1210.71.6
  5–14Non-Maori217.718.3145.420.0
Maori38.410.312.98.3
15–24Non-Maori198.46.1156.913.5
Maori418.57.1314.211.1
25–44Non-Maori11637.519.713344.536.7
Maori1458.511.726108.431.0
45–64Non-Maori787307.223.5665253.536.8
Maori45446.418.544458.822.1
65 and overNon-Maori1,4221,433.518.51,071792.914.3
Maori1321,495.314.9231,150.015.0
                         All agesNon-Maori2,376183.3*18.91,908146.7*18.5
Maori10391.2*12.59989.7*16.5

Cancer contributes substantially to the total of non-Maori deaths at all ages. In the non-Maori female from 25 to 64 years one death in three is a cancer death and for males the proportion is one death in five.

For Maoris the proportions of cancer deaths to total deaths are very much lower than the proportions for non-Maoris, by reason that the competing risks from other diseases are so very much higher. Whereas in the non-Maori easily the highest numbers of cancer deaths occur at ages upwards of 65 years, the highest numbers in the Maori are at ages from 45 to 64 years. This is partly because of the lower life expectancy which results in fewer Maoris coming through to old age.

A summary of all cancer deaths occurring in New Zealand during 1971 by location of the disease is shown in the following table. Figures by site for Maoris have not been separated as the numbers are so small for most sites. Rates for Maoris tend to be higher in cancers involving the digestive tract, the respiratory organs, and the female genital organs.

Site of DiseaseNumbersRates per Million of
Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Buccal cavity and pharynx592685421830
Oesophagus553085392130
Stomach19912832714191116
Intestine, except rectum262259521186184185
Rectum1151032188273100
Larynx221231618
Lung, bronchus, and trachea68013581548296289
Bone and connective tissue25133818913
Skin534295383034
Breast14244251301151
Cervix, uteri94946733
Other and unspecified parts of uterus49493517
Prostate22922916281
All other and unspecified sites5315421,073377384380
Leukaemia and aleukaemia11572187825166
Lymphosarcoma and other
neoplasms of lymphatic and
haematopoietic tissue
147932401046585
                                                  Totals2,4932,0114,5041,7691,4261,597

There is considerable variation in the numbers and rates for different sites in both males and females. The site principally involved in the male is the lung and bronchus and one male cancer death in every four relates to this site. Cancer of the stomach is very much more common in the male than the female but the position is reversed in cancer involving the intestines. The leading site in the female is the breast, which contributes one-fifth to total female cancer deaths.

The world-wide phenomenal increase over the last 30 years in cancer of the lung and bronchus (excluding trachea and pleura) is accepted as being associated with cigarette smoking and atmospheric pollution. The following table shows the increase in deaths from cancer of this site in each group and in each sex over the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Deaths from
Cancer of Lung and Bronchus
Crude Rate per 100,000
of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale
19613867018534.06.221.16.1
19624225817536.35.019.15.8
196344868181237.85.819.513.4
19644597119937.95.919.99.7
196546957201338.14.720.313.6
19665226924642.05.623.36.0
196749278171639.06.216.015.5
196859791311247.07.228.311.3
1969619104261348.48.123.111.9
1970650132301750.210.226.615.4
1971643121351449.69.331.012.7

The crude rates for the Maori conceal the true relative incidence of lung cancer. Adjusted to the non-Maori population structure, the Maori rates exceed the non-Maori rates, the greatest margin being in the female.

While cancer is undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence it is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. The following table shows the movement in the standardised mortality ratio, the standard population employed being that of New Zealand 1950–52.

SiteMaleFemale
1963–651966–681969–711963–651966–681969–71
Buccal cavity and pharynx645988858764
Oesophagus779688839083
Stomach676460635651
Large intestine, except rectum101111126848889
Rectum12095113868489
Biliary passages and liver138125157957896
Pancreas1009210310910696
Larynx838770264632
Lung, bronchus and trachea189211241158177162
Skin (including melanoma)103117141126142128
Breast1121252598100103
Uterus, all parts767169
Ovary, fallopian tube10797111
Prostate108104112
Kidney1051131117277100
Bladder, urinary organs11411310710193104
Brain, nervous system126110142917281
Lymphosarcoma and reticulo-sarcoma12192113118115104
Hodgkin's disease117148110130122116
Leukaemia and aleukaemia124112120134131129

The upward trend in the total male cancer death toll can be ascribed chiefly to the steep rise in lung and bronchus cancer, already commented upon. The total female rate has risen slightly in more recent years possibly attributable to the rise in female lung cancer.

Heart Disease—Diseases of the heart are the leading killer in New Zealand, accounting for 36 percent of all male deaths and 31 percent of all female deaths in 1971. In accordance with the increasing numbers of the population in the older age groups, the total numbers of deaths from heart disease have steadily increased. However, when allowance is made for the general ageing of the population by employing the standardised mortality ratio it is seen that, although a rise to 6 percent above the 1950–52 level occurred in males in 1968, there was a fall to below the 1950–52 level again by 1971. The female rate in 1971 was 30 percent below the 1950–52 level used as the standard for the mortality ratio.

A disease phenomenon of recent years has been the rapid increase in deaths assigned to coronary heart disease, and in 1971 no less than 28 percent of all deaths were due to this single disease entity. During the 10 years from 1960 to 1970 there has been a rise of 26 percent for both males and females in this form of heart disease. It is a matter of conjecture as to whether the real incidence of coronary heart disease in the community has risen to this extent or whether it is due, in part at least, to increased recognition of the condition.

The numbers of deaths and standard mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, for the last 11 years are shown in the following table, males and females separately.

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised
Mortality
Ratio*
NumberStandardised
Mortality
Ratio*
NumberStandardised
Mortality
Ratio*
NumberStandardised
Mortality
Ratio*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
19614,289953,223823,1751421,785146
19624,396963,205793,1871411,828146
19634,6281003,302803,4951531,980156
19644,7371023,322793,6371572,082161
19654,7101003,394793,6191542,159163
19664,9411043,496793,8931642,275169
19674,8511003,446763,8451592,254164
19685,2171063,506764,3721782,581183
19694,9191003,500744,1501672,549178
19704,886993,405724,2281692,560177
19714,938983,413704,3131722,619176

Coronary heart disease is predominantly a disease of old age in both sexes, although in the male sex there are appreciable numbers of deaths which occur in middle age. There are marked differences in the mortality from the disease both between the sexes and between the two ethnic groups at various age periods.

The following table averages both the numbers and the age-specific rates for coronary heart disease in both non-Maoris and Maoris over the latest 5 years 1967–1971.

RaceAges 35 to 44 YearsAges 45 to 54 YearsAges 55 to 64 YearsAges 65 Years and Over
Average
Number of
Deaths
Each Year
Average
Rate per
10,000 of
Population
at Ages
Average
Number of
Deaths
Each Year
Average
Rate per
10,000 of
Population
at Ages
Average
Number of
Deaths
Each Year
Average
Rate per
10,000 of
Population
at Ages
Average
Number of
Deaths
Each Year
Average
Rate per
10,000 of
Population
at Ages
 Males
Non-Maori1036.841930.01,00588.72,517258.3
Maori1110.72033.63797.453244.5
 Females
Non-Maori241.7966.831627.21,997150.6
Maori44.21525.42266.133170.8

For non-Maoris at ages 35 to 44 years male coronary heart disease rates exceed female rates by almost 4 to 1, the ratio decreasing as age advances to a ratio of under 2 to 1 at ages 65 years and upwards.

The absolute numbers of Maori deaths from the disease are small but when related to the population at risk produce fairly similar rates to the non-Maori population in the male sex.

Maori women have a very much greater chance of dying from a coronary condition than non-Maori women, the risk being over twice as great at ages 35 to 44 years, almost four times greater at ages 45 to 54 years and twice as great at ages 55 to 64 years. Hypertensive forms of heart disease are also very much more common in Maori women in middle age while both sexes in the Maori have a higher mortality from rheumatic valvular heart disease.

INFANT MORTALITY—Infant mortality concerns deaths of children under 1 year of age. Statistics for non-Maoris and Maoris are given in the following table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Live Births
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60
19551,0023631,36520.0962.5124.52
19601,0903301,42019.6644.5022.59
19659402341,17417.9729.7919.51
19678622401,10216.2429.6918.02
19689392251,16417.3627.4518.69
19698552021,05715.7624.3216.89
19708152251,04015.1127.1716.72
19718472231,07015.0826.1716.53

Male rates of infant loss are about 41 percent above female rates and this tends to counterbalance the male excess in births.

When international infant death rates are compared it is seen that Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries have the lowest rates in the world. The following table sets out the rates for a number of countries in 1970. It is pointed out, however, that definitions and practices are not precisely alike in all countries.

CountryDeaths Under 1 Year
per 1,000 Live Births
in 1970
Sweden11.0
Finland12.5
Netherlands12.7
Norway12.7
Denmark14.1
Switzerland15.1
New Zealand16.7
Australia17.9
England and Wales18.2
France18.2
Germany (East)18.2
Ireland19.2
Scotland19.6
United States19.8
Belgium20.5
Czechoslovakia22.9
Germany (West)23.6
Austria25.9
Bulgaria27.3
Italy29.2
(Source: World Health Statistics Report, Vol. 125, No. 6.)

One out of every four infant deaths is a Maori infant death and the Maori rate of loss is nearly twice that of the non-Maori. The excess in the Maori rate is largely due to infants who die between the end of the fourth week of life and the first birthday. This is illustrated in the following table showing numbers and rates of infant deaths by race and age for the year 1971.

RaceUnder 1 Day1 Day and
Under 1 Week
1 Week and
Under 28 Days
Total Under
28 Days
28 Days and
Under 12 Months
Total Under
1 Year
Non-Maori28721371571276847
Maori603619115108223
All races347249906863841,070
Rates per 1,000 Live Births
Non-Maori5.113.791.2610.164.9115.08
Maori7.044.222.2313.4912.6726.17
All races5.363.841.3910.605.9316.53

The explanation of the higher rate for Maoris between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

The rates per 1,000 live births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last 11 years.

YearNon-MaoriMaori
Under 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsUnder I Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 Months
19616.92.03.31.65.39.83.14.23.129.5
19626.22.03.01.25.66.63.42.52.523.8
19635.82.43.01.35.36.33.43.02.517.5
19646.62.32.11.35.27.71.61.61.817.3
19655.82.02.81.46.05.72.52.22.317.1
19665.91.82.01.45.16.52.02.41.515.5
19675.91.52.31.45.24.62.82.82.217.2
19686.21.72.51.55.45.22.11.82.116.2
19695.31.52.41.35.25.71.64.41.011.7
19704.81.62.21.15.37.01.93.72.413.4
19715.11.72.11.34.97.01.62.62.212.7

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates.

Causes of Infant Mortality—In the following table are shown the absolute numbers and the rate per 1,000 live births of the principal causes of infant mortality during 1970 and 1971, for non-Maoris, Maoris, and both groups combined.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
1970197119701971
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis1801622.27.72.91.96.22.5
Congenital anomalies2212073.63.13.63.32.33.2
Birth injury, including asphyxia, anoxia or hypoxia58760.81.90.91.11.51.2
Complications of pregnancy and childbirth, including conditions of placenta and umbilical cord2432173.94.23.93.34.03.4
Anoxic and hypoxic conditions not elsewhere classified901001.41.81.41.42.71.5
Immaturity, unqualified29190.41.20.50.30.50.3
Other and undefined causes2192893.07.13.53.88.93.4
               Total causes1,0401,07015.127.216.715.126.216.5

PERINATAL MORTALITY—Perinatal deaths comprise still births and deaths in the first week of life. Numbers and rates are shown in the following table. The still births and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for the first week of life is calculated per 1,000 live births.

CauseNumberRate
19701971
19701971Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
Still births67164810.611.310.79.910.29.9
Deaths under 1 week5595968.511.28.98.911.39.2
          Perinatal deaths1,2301,24419.122.619.618.721.419.0

MATERNAL DEATHS—Improvements in the standard of antenatal care and obstetrical skill, as well as advances in medical science, have reduced the numbers of deaths from septic abortion, puerperal sepsis, and toxaemia, and deaths from complications of childbirth are few. Maternal deaths during the latest 3 years are given in the following table.

Cause196919701971
Pre-eclampsia, eclampsia and toxaemia unspecified24
Abortion11
Complications of—
     Pregnancy224
     Delivery263
     Puerperium777
               Totals142014

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 6 percent of the total deaths and again the Maori rate is higher than the non-Maori. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the 3 latest years classified according to the Intermediate List of the 1965 Revision of the International Classification which has made no changes in the categories listed. In this table falls on board ship and from horseback are included as transport fatalities.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
* Includes drowning from water transport.
Motor-vehicle accidents582649674209230235
Other transport accidents354342131515
Accidental poisoning375441131914
Accidental falls337440454121156158
Accidents caused by machinery483844171315
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material343328121210
Accidents caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation647212
Accidents caused by firearms91917376
Accidental drowning and submersion*123147135445247
All other accidental causes133118118484241
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)31342511129
               Totals1,3751,5791,585494562553

Drownings are a leading cause of accidental death in New Zealand. Included in the preceding table for 1971 are 62 deaths from drowning due to accidents in water transport.

Transport Accidents—The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last 11 years are as follows. Road accidents are further analysed in the section on Roads and Road Transport.

YearDeaths Due to AccidentRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
RailwayMotor VehicleAircraftRailwayMotor VehicleAircraft
196126393130.111.620.05
196227408110.111.640.04
196316416200.061.640.08
196426428300.101.650.12
196514551260.052.080.10
196613567160.052.110.06
196715620120.052.270.04
196810548160.041.990.06
19695582170.022.090.06
197011649200.042.310.07
197112674120.042.350.04

Non-transport Accidents—The 1965 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for the latest 3 years, according to this classification.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)26232835094116122
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)515358181920
Mine and quarry7124241
Industrial place and premises272832101011
Place for recreation and sport2656149208
Street and highway251922977
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)121113445
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)116142139425049
Other specified places11410093413532
Place not specified725757262020
               Totals712806782256286273

Approximately 40 percent of fatal non-transport accidents occur in or about the home.

Water Accidents—The following table shows drownings during 1971.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55–1516–3031–50Over 50Totals*

* Includes victims of unspecified age.

† Public and private.

Boating accidents2812628
Rivers and streams8654427
Seas and beaches1853724
Harbours13239
Pools, ponds, etc.123
Lakes and lagoons123
Household bath112
Swimming pools and baths†2114
Other33
               Total1720252120103

Falls are the chief cause of home fatalities, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. This is clearly illustrated in a special report on domestic accidents issued by the Department of Health in 1970. Another important cause of death in the home is asphyxia from regurgitation of food and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes; this is the principal hazard of the first 6 months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed respiratory infections. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between 1 and 2 years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the vicinity of the home.

Accidents with tractors are the main feature of fatalities on farms. Later sections deal with statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Suicide—There were 232 suicidal deaths of non-Maoris in 1971–147 males and 85 females—the death rate per 100,000 of population being 17.6 for males and 6.4 for females. For Maoris there were 5 suicidal deaths—2 males and 3 females—the death rates per 100,000 of population being 1.7 for males and 2.6 for females.

Rates per 100,000 of population showing the age distributions, averaged over the years 1969 to 1971, are shown next for the total population, by age groups.

Sex5/910/1415/1920/2425/2930/3435/3940/4445/4950/5455/5960/6465/6970/7475/7980 +
Males0.21.37.013.911.110.715.124.923.726.023.220.127.932.636.029.9
Females3.96.05.65.47.66.412.516.916.619.312.212.65.06.1

These figures show the typical increase in the suicide rates with increasing age and the fall in the rates after the age of 75.

The next table presents the average, over 3-yearly periods, of standardised mortality ratios of suicides, standardised on years 1950–52=100.

Annual Average DuringMalesFemales
1953–5593102
1956–5897120
1959–619999
1962–6483136
1965–6795142
1968–7098147
197178137

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnised. Marriage by an officiating minister may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a Magistrate may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during the last 21 years are now given.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population
195217,0618.55
195317,2248.41
195417,5578.38
195517,7958.32
195617,5318.03
195717,6147.89
195818,3058.01
195918,3157.84
196018,9097.96
196119,4268.01
196219,5727.88
196319,8567.83
196420,7208.00
196521,7028.23
196622,9498.55
196723,5158.62
196824,0578.74
196924,9718.98
197025,9539.20
197127,1999.50
197226,8689.21

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1971 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Australia9.2
Austria6.4
Belgium7.8
Canada8.8
Finland8.2
France7.9
Germany, East7.7
Germany, West7.0
Hungary9.1
Ireland, Republic7.3
Israel9.1
Italy7.5
Jamaica4.4
Japan10.5
Netherlands9.3
New Zealand9.5
Norway7.6
Spain7.4
Sweden4.9
Switzerland7.0
United Kingdom8.4
United States10.6
Yugoslavia8.9

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
196721,23021,3698568621,4291,28447,030
196821,67521,8119058471,4771,39948,114
196922,16822,3399811,0231,8221,60949,942
197023,00323,1101,0021,0351,9481,80851,906
197124,01424,1951,0001,0492,1851,95554,398

The nature of the marriage according to marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
196720,351242637257408191761212456
196820,764248663251413241796186495
196921,142270756231498252966255601
197021,8262619162615142271,023260665
197122,8142559452485022501,133292760

During the years 1938–40 there were 95 male divorcees who remarried for every 100 female divorcees who remarried. In the period 1967–71 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938–40, but with a changed social outlook the position in 1967–71 was that 100 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period of years. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1971 one bride in every three was under 20 years of age, the proportion of grooms being one in eleven.

Of the persons married in 1971, 11,178 or 20.55 percent, were under 20 years of age; 27,920 or 51.33 percent, were returned as 20–24 years; 7,449 or 13.69 percent, as 25–29 years; 3,586 or 6.59 percent, as 30–39 years; and 4,265 or 7.84 percent, as 40 years of age or over.

The following table relates to the 1971 year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 202,0563901412,461
20–245,8098,534536479314,938
25–297133,168968154261135,043
30–341016255072306224111,560
35–39231602231651094626752
40–44762871331069788580
45 and over84371901422381,2731,865
               Total brides8,71712,9822,4068204544191,40127,199

The following table shows since 1950 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 21*21–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotals
* Under 20 and 20–24 respectively from 1971.
Males
1950–545.0535.4231.2110.955.863.567.95100.0
1955–597.1836.6829.4411.214.812.977.71100.0
1960–6410.9541.9923.499.044.502.627.41100.0
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.0
197016.3446.9118.776.172.912.156.75100.0
19719.05*54.92*18.545.742.762.136.86100.0
Females
1950–5425.7838.6516.856.964.122.595.05100.0
1955–5932.9935.7113.766.113.652.495.29100.0
1960–6439.6335.1910.134.423.052.215.37100.0
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.0
197045.7233.609.253.141.711.594.99100.0
197132.05*47.73*8.853.011.671.545.15100.0

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
196028.5625.11
196128.2924.90
196227.9324.61
196327.9324.63
196427.7424.45
196527.4324.24
196626.7623.65
196726.5323.45
196826.3323.29
196926.4523.56
197026.3623.45
197126.2523.40

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in years
196724.3041.6756.6721.5037.9050.20
196824.1540.5355.3621.4036.8149.64
196923.9041.0257.0621.3637.0350.45
197023.8540.3756.8521.2636.1350.07
197123.6640.3357.6421.1936.0250.91

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1971 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; the modal age for bridegrooms in 1971 was 21 years.

Marriage of Minors—Of every 1,000 men married in 1971, 90 were under 20 years of age, while 320 in every 1,000 brides were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years.

In 2,056 marriages in 1971 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 6,661 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 405 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
1967201645591,1111,8453,6991,85415.737.88
1968141645311,0841,9313,7241,79315.487.45
1969291976571,1751,9974,0552,05816.248.24
1970271936791,2262,1154,2402,12516.348.19
1971342517181,4582,4619.05
Brides
19675451,1992,2483,2453,73210,9697,23745.6430.78
19685501,2392,2583,2953,69711,0397,34245.8930.52
19696241,3382,2873,3643,68611,2997,61345.2530.49
19706261,4392,4573,5203,82511,8678,04245.7230.99
19716971,6072,7563,6578,71732.05

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 27,199 marriages performed in 1971, Anglican clergymen officiated at 6,974, Presbyterians at 6,134, Roman Catholics at 4,199, Methodists at 2,010, and clergymen of other churches at 2,023, while 5,859 marriages were solemnised by Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the 7 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
1965196619671968196919701971
Anglican25.7125.8926.1426.6425.9526.3925.64
Presbyterian23.6223.5423.8123.4623.8523.5222.55
Roman Catholic15.4515.3315.4515.8315.3315.2415.44
Methodist7.738.178.197.968.007.697.39
Others8.257.737.958.127.857.207.44
Before Registrars19.2419.3418.4617.9919.0219.9621.54
          Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1966, 33.7 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 21.8 percent Presbyterian, 15.9 percent Roman Catholic, 7.0 percent Methodist, and 21.6 percent were of other religion or of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was 3,926 in February 1972 and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church861
Anglican (Church of England)693
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand653
Methodist Church of New Zealand339
Baptist210
Salvation Army201
Ratana Church of New Zealand131
Brethren119
Latter Day Saints115
Ringatu Church61
Assemblies of God43
Associated Churches of Christ39
Jehovah's Witness45
Seventh Day Adventist41
Apostolic Church30
Liberal Catholic Church22
Christian Revival Crusade14
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference15
Absolute Reformed Maori Church of Aotearoa11
Congregational Union13
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi14
Commonwealth Covenant Church10
Reformed Churches of New Zealand9
Evangelistic Church of Christ10
Elim Church6
Others221
               Total3,926

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organisations.

DIVORCE AND OTHER MATRIMONIAL PROCEEDINGS—From 1 January 1969, some important changes have applied in the principal legislation on grounds for divorce; the period of 3 years was reduced to 2 years for separation by agreement and decree of separation or separation order, and in cases living apart and unlikely to be reconciled the period of 7 years was reduced to 4 years. This amendment to the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963 has had an accelerating effect on divorce statistics since 1969.

Divorce—A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of several grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Petitions filed and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearDissolution of Marriage*Judicial Separation
Petitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees AbsolutePetitions FiledDecrees for Separation
* Includes nullity cases which are usually very few; they totalled only two in 1970 and one in 1971.
19612,2231,8241,733233
19622,1861,7901,755206
19632,1381,8421,905157
19642,2341,9161,894145
19652,4402,0501,81461
19662,3512,0992,064131
19672,5542,2632,047131
19682,6882,3812,172152
19694,1083,4962,99610
19703,7873,2983,13621
19714,0723,5223,3472

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the two latest years.

GroundsPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19701971197019711970197119701971
Adultery514506328377363371249284
Desertion163169109133143155117102
Separation by agreement9149851,0331,097744810811890
Separation by Court order or decree2038791132740102114
Living apart308307281307279285275269
Non-consummation727145476
Other912151266811
               Totals1,9352,0191,8522,0531,5671,6711,5691,676

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

In 739 of the 3,347 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1971 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 694 cases, 2 in 821 cases, 3 in 536 cases, and 4 or more in 557 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the latest 5 years.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsHusbands' Decrees Absolute GrantedWives' Decrees Absolute Granted
1967196819691970197119671968196919701971
Under 5939812816418457102138182188
5–9266295410427478264296462489538
10–14215217291191310236205303305341
15–19188167222219221156175216206197
20–29217223317332350224239278296325
30 and over82981331391284957989187
               Totals1,0611,0981,5011,4721,6719861,0741,4951,5691,676

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last 5 years were as follows: 1967, 3,388; 1968, 4,099; 1969, 5,604; 1970, 5,927; and 1971, 6,635.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1971.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and over (Including not Stated)Total
Husbands
Under 554192581771037375
  5–9156522164663121551,015
10–147331515352211918651
15–19212161152819117417
20 and over4843926379371013889
               Totals3521,684753242115711303,347
Wives
Under 51721361988329375
  5–947335866342424361,015
10–14274262393324118651
15–1911621641211319417
20 and over212470138421629889
               Totals1,2471,4423031388541913,347

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 40 such decrees in New Zealand each year and the principal ground is non-consummation.

CONCILIATION PROCESSES—Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the principle was introduced of having specialist magistrates to exercise jurisdiction in domestic matters. The Act aims to encourage by all practicable means the conciliation of married couples who institute court proceedings. Domestic proceedings became a separate division from civil and criminal proceedings in Magistrates' Courts. (See Section 8: Justice.)

There is a Court Conciliation Centre in Auckland providing a full-time conciliation service for cases referred by the Magistrates' Courts. A similar service on a part-time basis is provided in Wellington. In 17 other centres local marriage guidance councils make available to the courts in their areas their more experienced counsellors to provide trained help to those involved in domestic proceedings. Through these agencies it is possible to offer specialist help in over 80 percent of cases in this category.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. In 1959 an adviser in marriage guidance was appointed to the staff of the Justice Department. At the same time an advisory committee was set up to keep Government informed and to organise, with the assistance of appropriate professional groups, a programme for the selection, training, and accrediting of voluntary marriage counsellors.

There are now 24 councils affiliated with the National Marriage Guidance Council and these provide counselling centres staffed by over 100 accredited counsellors and some 60 counsellors in training. Accredited counsellors, in many centres, assist the courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. (See also Section 8, Justice.)

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. There are also seven directors employed by the larger of the local councils. These appointments, made over the last 4 years, were necessary because of the rapid development of the Marriage Guidance Service.

Educational work includes the conducting of courses for young couples in preparation for marriage. Secondary schools have been assisted by local marriage guidance councils with the arranging of courses in personal relationships. In many cases tutors are recruited and trained by local councils.

The marriage guidance service is readily available to those whose marriages are in difficulty. There is a growing acceptance by the public of the importance of this service and a greater readiness of people in trouble to make use of it.

Chapter 5. Section 5
HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A— HEALTH

GENERAL—Responsibility for the nation's health is undertaken by a partnership of central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations and private citizens, with Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, are imposing a current emphasis nationally and locally on environmental health.

Public health services have to do with environmental health, communicable diseases and quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, food and nutrition, health education, family health, dental services and certain aspects of nursing. In the case of environmental health the concern of the Department of Health and local authorities is with matters such as the provision and protection of public water supplies, sewage treatment and disposal, food hygiene and housing standards. Its objectives are the maintenance of a healthy environment by the application of the principles of preventive medicine.

The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must, under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1958, appoint a sufficient number of qualified health inspectors. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Scheduled communicable diseases must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when established, vaccines are provided free and the general practitioner encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

The health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour, including co-operation in accident prevention. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, and raise standards of first-aid services. Agricultural health includes attention to the safe use of agricultural chemicals.

Food and drug administration aims to protect the consumer. There is an extensive programme, backed by legislation, to govern packing, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Appropriate legislation also ensures satisfactory standards in the composition and description of drugs, proprietary medicines and treatments, restraint on quackery in advertising of proprietary medicines and treatments and restraints on some drugs to prevent drug dependency. Special environmental problems, including radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Maternal and child health responsibilities include licensing and supervision of maternity hospitals; medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; inspection of schools and child care centres; immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.; and the administration of regulations bearing on home safety.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary, and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years. Dental health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general, in hospitals (departmental, public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm; or in any other places where the Department of Health has statutory responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible to the chief medical officer for the day-to-day administration of the services provided. The department reviews nursing services in public and departmental hospitals, district nursing services, and public health nursing services.

Nursing education is provided in 55 schools of nursing in New Zealand. As at 31 March 1971 there were 6,993 students undertaking basic nursing programmes. The Department of Health organises and controls the School of Advanced Nursing Studies.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs over 300 well-qualified nurses. Infant welfare occupies a high proportion of their time, but other work includes child health programmes in schools.

Scientific support for State health activities comes from the National Health Institute, the Medical Research Council, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the research institutes of the Department of Agriculture. Standards of professional education are established by the appropriate professional councils or boards on which the department is represented, while training is conducted by universities (doctors, dentists, engineers, etc.); hospital boards or the department (nurses, midwives, physiotherapists, health educators, laboratory technicians, radiographers, dietitians); and polytechnics (health inspectors, pharmacists).

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health Medical, Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiological Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers and Gasfitters Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

In addition to the Health Act 1956, the following Acts are administered by the department:

  • Burial and Cremation Act 1964

  • Children's Health Camps Act 1953

  • Clean Air Act 1972

  • Dental Act 1963

  • Dietitians Act 1950

  • Food and Drug Act 1969

  • Hospitals Act 1957

  • Human Tissue Act 1964

  • Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968

  • Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966

  • Medical Practitioners Act 1968

  • Medical Research Council Act 1950

  • Mental Health Act 1969

  • Narcotics Act 1965

  • Nurses Act 1971

  • Occupational Therapy Act 1949

  • Opticians Act 1928

  • Physiotherapy Act 1949

  • Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964

  • Poisons Act 1960

  • Radioactive Substances Act 1949

  • Social Security Act 1964 (Part II)

  • Tuberculosis Act 1948

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H. 31).

A general history of public health services may be found in Challenge for Health, by F. S. Maclean (Government Printer, 1964), while philosophy and policy are discussed in Health Administration in New Zealand (Institute of Public Administration. 1969).

The net expenditure of the Department of Health in the three latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1969–701970–711971–72

* Mostly grants to hospital boards.

† Mostly grants of Medical Benefits under Social Security Act.

 $(000)
Administrative services1,6412,3542,494
Dental services7,5648,5929,576
Hospital services*141,158168,436207,233
Family health services3,8304,9225,404
Medical research6101,1861,167
Medical services†42,83749,70553,126
Public health services2,5193,9766,089
Welfare services2,5312,7793,711
               Totals202,690241,950288,800
               Less departmental receipts9801,1031,099
               Net expenditure201,710240,847287,701
Expenditure as percentage of gross national product4.24.44.6

Information on hospitals, medical care services, and medical benefits is given in Section 5B, Hospitals and Medical Services.

The Government provides a subsidy of $1 for $2 on the total cost of approved works for main water supply facilities, sewerage reticulation, and sewerage disposal. The previous limitation of $100,000 subsidy on approved projects was removed in 1972 and it is expected that about $8.8 million will be required in a full year to meet subsidies on a number of major schemes now being put into effect by local authorities.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provisions and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses, are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for health inspectors.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the public at large by the application of principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to prevent the growth of air pollution; (c) to provide physical services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor radiation exposure of the population from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective; and (d) to conserve hearing and detect its early deterioration.

Air Pollution—Air pollution has been a growing health problem with advancing urbanisation and the rising consumption of energy for industrial activity and transport. The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of all sources of air pollution, both existing and potential. Placing considerable emphasis on co-operation among Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, the Act in effect imposes on every person an obligation to minimise his interference with the air environment.

It provides for a technical advisory body, the Clean Air Council, which as its first task will advise the Government on the desirability of immediate regulations to control pollution from motor vehicles. The Act also seeks to integrate the work of local authorities in pollution control by making available to them the specialist technical knowledge that only Central Government can provide. General provisions in the Act provide for the control of industrial sources of pollution to a standard as high as that attained in any other country. Special provisions concern the setting up of clean air zones. They are a recognition that in some parts of the country, where ventilation by natural process is poor, the smoke from domestic fires is an important air pollution problem. The clean air zone provisions make it possible for a local authority to tackle this problem where it has the support of local residents. The Act comes into effect in stages from April 1973 to April 1975.

A general duty is imposed by the Act on occupiers of industrial or trade premises to take certain steps designed to reduce air pollution. Certain provisions apply in respect of locomotive engines, aircraft, hovercraft, and motor vehicles, and power is taken to make regulations designed to minimise the emission of air pollutants from these sources. Special provision is also made for ships. Standards may be prescribed in respect of the emission of air pollutants by any trade, industry, process, fuel burning equipment, or industrial plant. Failure to observe these standards will be an offence unless the occupier of the relevant premises is exempted by the Director-General of Health.

There are 26 classes of process requiring registration and they include the control of odours and the supervision of rendering processes. Most registrable processes are governed by the requirement to adopt the best practicable means to control noxious discharges and emissions, but there are limiting standards for lead and acid gases. All new installations or extensions of these registrable processes require approval by the Department of Health.

Some 250 works are registered and regularly inspected by chemical inspectors. Industries not registered are the responsibility of local authorities. New industrial plant being established in New Zealand is required to meet standards as rigorous as any in the world for industrial sources of air pollution. To date over 80 local authorities have been gazetted as smoke control areas.

The Smoke Restriction Regulations 1964 were enacted with a view to giving local authorities stricter control of industrial smoke emissions. These regulations apply until March 1975.

DRUGS—The definitions of “drug” in the Food and Drug Act 1969 establish groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs, that is those substances or mixtures whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are required, before being introduced commercially, to be “acceptable”, according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way, in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health. He may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A new therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (permitted sales) Regulations 1970. Drugs already on the market prior to 1 April 1970 are exempted from this provision until 31 March 1973.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be “cleared” for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a “therapeutic drug”.

As in the case of food, the Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements and publicity is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, phenacetin, and paracetamol.

NARCOTICS—Under the Narcotics Act 1965, and the Narcotics Regulations 1966, the Director-General of Health is the competent authority for the purpose of the international conventions and for the oversight of the legitimate distribution and use of narcotics within the country. Written approval of the Minister of Health is required for the import or export of cannabis, desomorphine, heroin, ketobemidone, etorphine, and acetorphine, including their salts, and preparations containing them. The import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of narcotics is strictly controlled. Balanced quantitative records of transactions and stock are generally required to be kept. There is an extensive system of notification to medical officers of health of narcotics supplied and a system of control of habituated persons.

To curb illicit drug abuse, a National Drug Intelligence Bureau has been set up jointly by the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advisory services on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—The objective of the occupational health programme is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children, etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with health hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964.

Occupational Disease—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled m the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances is controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for “Restricted Poisons” must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely, lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the National Radiation Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department is developing industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Workers' Compensation Board in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Audiology Centre—The National Audiology Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required to maintain the primary X-ray standard for New Zealand and also reference standards for the accurate measurement of radioactive substances used in clinical work. Control of radiation sources is effectively obtained by licensing operators at each place where ionising sources are used, and the Electrical (X-ray) Wiring Regulations 1944 provide for the compulsory registration of all X-ray plants in the country. The importation and use of radioactive materials is strictly controlled, and requests for such materials on overseas suppliers must be authorised by the laboratory, which acts as the procurement agency for most of the radioisotopes required.

The laboratory operates a field service whereby trained physicists regularly visit all places where ionising sources are used. During these visits measurements are taken, protection problems discussed, and everything possible is done to ensure that persons associated with the ionising sources adopt safe working habits. Apart from the obvious groups, e.g., medical and dental users, the laboratory is also concerned with specialised equipment, such as mass X-ray units, X-ray apparatus used in schools, radar and television equipment, X-ray diffraction units, electron microscopes, research accelerators, etc.

Air, rainwater, and soil are monitored for radioactive contamination from fall-out.

MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and postnatal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the three St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own antenatal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, antenatal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, the medical and nursing professions, and the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society). All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Child Health—The Department of Health provides a preventive child health service. Infants are examined by doctors at three stages between birth and 3 months of age and another medical examination is undertaken before the end of the first year for those requiring further investigation. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. Where necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and from pre-school record cards and by consultation with teachers and parents refer children for examination by medical officers. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children at school entry and in Form 1.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Protection by two doses of the oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with her child at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria and tetanus) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 10 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for pre-school children.

TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL—The department's programme for control of tuberculosis is based on adequate case-finding and notification procedures, the proper treatment and surveillance of notified cases, investigation and control of contacts. This calls for close co-ordination of the staff and services of hospital boards (which are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis) and officers of the Department of Health who deal with the social and epidemiological aspects of the disease. The latter involves supervision of tuberculosis families, tracing of contacts, and the maintenance of tuberculosis statistics.

Mass miniature radiography is an established feature of the department's case-finding programme. At 31 December 1970 there were 6,043 persons on the tuberculosis registers in the health districts; new cases notified in 1971 totalled less than 600.

B.C.G. vaccination is also undertaken by the department and, in particular, is offered to the contacts of registered cases, secondary school children in the North Island and hospital workers possibly exposed to infection.

Over the past decade, there has been a steady decrease each year in new notifications particularly in the younger age groups together with a marked decrease in mortality.

HEALTH EDUCATION—Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. All the health education officers are women and several hold the diploma in health education issued by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. Daily newspapers and national periodicals carry advertisements of health subjects. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 78,000 and is issued free to the public 4 times a year. It gives health information and publishes various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—There are 14 dental districts and 3 schools for the training of school dental nurses at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

The School Dental Service, directed by dental officers and staffed by 1,341 trained school dental nurses, provided systematic treatment for 597,134 pre-school and primary school children in the year ended 31 March 1972. A further 154,897 children under 16 years of age received regular treatment from private dentists under the social security (dental benefits) scheme, and from a limited number of salaried dental officers.

School Dental Service—Briefly, the functions of the service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of pre-school children) by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier when possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the adolescent service.

Two years are devoted to the theoretical and practical training of school dental nurses. Approximately 500 student dental nurses can be trained at the one time. The course is carefully graduated and is in the hands of a staff of dental surgeons and dental tutor sisters. During the period of training student dental nurses reside in hostels controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a school dental nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the principal dental officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately 500 patients. She is visited at regular intervals by the principal dental officer and by a dental nurse inspector who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions when necessary and sodium fluoride treatment. The aim of the service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsavable, less than 3 for every 100 saved by conservative treatment.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age is provided by private dentists as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care up to within 3 months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960.

Dental Health Education—The dental health education activities of the department include the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, filmstrips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media.

Officers of the service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the School Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental Research—Dental research is directed by the dental research committee of the Medical Research Council. The staff consisting of a director, three professional assistants, and three associated workers are primarily engaged in a long-term programme of research in dental problems.

Dental Bursaries—The Government grants bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are the equivalent of the bursary that would be payable under the University Bursary Regulations plus $350 a year. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a hospital board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding 3 years.

Fluoridation—Approximately half of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped civilians has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Basically, public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from Government and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

A civilian rehabilitation centre is established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, for the treatment and overall restoration of those injured in employment or road accidents. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are in course of development at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also being carried out at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, the Palmerston North Hospital and in many of the psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Disabled Re-establishment League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the league is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Napier, and Invercargill.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, and Health, advise Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to live with their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is also situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are now operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

MEDICAL STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the compilation of the statistics included in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. The centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study. The centre publishes Trends in Health and Health Services, an annual statistical survey.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The National Health Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories.

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1972 research was in progress in many fields, including the following: dentistry; experimental endocrinology and metabolism; human genetics; hydatids; Island Territories research; toxicology; electron microscopy; renal physiology; cardiology; hypertension; environmental physiology; coronary disease; immunology and genetics of tissue transplantation; mechanisms of action of psychotropic drugs; diabetes; molecular biology of bacterial viruses; menrology; biology; pathology; rheumatic diseases; human nutrition; maternal and infant health; tumour virology; vector biology and control.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Cancer Society of New Zealand and medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $1.2 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, the Massey University, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, Palmerston North, Southland, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 80 full-time workers. A further 135 workers are employed by other institutions under project grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1972 was 4,971, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

DOCTORS IN ACTIVE PRACTICE—A report made in 1970 by the Joint Committee on Medical Graduate Needs assessed that in 1968 the doctors in active practice in New Zealand totalled 3,182 and that they were engaged as follows:

Type of PracticeDoctors

* Specialties.

† Non-specialist psychiatrist medical officers.

‡ Includes preventive and social medicine and medically qualified teachers in non-clinical subjects.

§ Hospital boards, armed services, student health, trainees and
industry, Government (other than Department of Health), family planning associations, research, etc.

General practice1,335
Surgery*303
Medicine*290
Registrars296
House surgeons247
Psychiatry90
Anaesthetics88
Pathology85
Radiology83
Obstetrics and gynaecology82
Ophthalmology50
Health administration—
     Department of Health36
     Hospital boards22
     Medical Officers in Department of Health—
          Psychiatric hospitals†48
          Other35
Medical education not included elsewhere‡26
Other§66
               Total3,182

On the basis the doctor to population ratio in 1968 was 1:866. For Australia in 1966 the ratio was reported by the World Health Organisation as 1:840 and for selected other countries in 1965 as: Sweden 1:910; England and Wales 1:870; Canada 1:820; United States 1:700.

Medical graduates from the University of Otago have totalled 114 annually; from 1973 this total will be supplemented by graduates from the University of Auckland. Medical graduates are expected to reach 200 a year by 1977.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there is constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of private dentists holding annual practising certificates at 1 September 1970 was 901 and in addition there were 150 dentists in Government, hospital, research, and university employment.

Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians has been constituted and 310 dental technicians are on the register.

Nurses—Under the Nurses Act 1971 is constituted the nursing council. The council controls nursing education programmes, conducts examinations and effects registrations.

Provision is made in Nurses Registration Regulations 1966 for 3-year programmes for registration as nurse and maternity nurse, male nurse, psychiatric nurse, and psychopaedic nurse. Provision is also made for 18-month programmes for registration as maternity nurse and community nurse, and 6-month programmes for registration as midwife and, where registration has already been obtained as nurse, as maternity nurse.

Physiotherapists—Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board. The board's functions are the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, the approval of physiotherapy training schools, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, administered by the Otago Hospital Board, and the final year is spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

Occupational Therapists—Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Wellington, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 200 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board, which is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school.

Opticians—The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes. The board deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 270 opticians registered, but not all are engaged in active practice.

Plumbers—The Plumbers and Gasfitters Board consists of 10 members—the Director-General of Health as chairman, a registrar (deputy chairman), and representatives of the Department of Education, the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), and a nominee of a borough council or drainage board.

The Board is concerned with the registration of plumbers and gasfitters. It issues annual licences and limited certificates for plumbers and gasfitters. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against registered plumbers and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

In New Zealand, except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing as defined in the Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964 can only be performed by registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of registered plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—There are now 2,420 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to serve 12 months' practical training before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1,166 pharmacies in New Zealand. A survey in 1971 showed that on average there were 1.46 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 250 pharmacists work outside the retail trade in hospitals, Government departments and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946—see later headings.

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health and medical services not rendered by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $2.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for age beneficiaries and children up to 9 years the fees may be $2.00 and $2.75 respectively. The department pays a fee of $5 for an initial consultation with a recognised specialist physician, psychiatrist, neurologist, neurosurgeon, or paediatrician, and of $3.50 in the case of other recognised specialists. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist and, in the case of inter-specialist referral, with the prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of social security beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants for whom the fee is $2. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is also payable. In 1972 immunisation benefits were introduced; they apply to children and adolescents up to their sixteenth birthday; the benefit is $1.50 if the vaccine is administered by a doctor, or $1.25 if administered by a registered nurse in his employ.

Most doctors (91 percent) make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of doctors providing general and specialist medical services in March 1971 was 2,075 and the cost per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1971 was $3.99; the average population per active practitioner was 1,354.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed for their use by medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1972 totalled 20,031,566 or 7 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $1.68, the cost per head of population being $11.76.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits, paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 October 1971 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $9.00 a day, with a minimum of $18.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $5.50 a day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear, part payment by the patient is required.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $9.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days. Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive fees at the rate of $8 for the day or days of labour and $5.40 per day for each of the 14 days succeeding the birth of the child, or $1.60 per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—Free X-ray diagnostic services comprise the following:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists is covered by the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Department of Health a fee of 50c.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognised for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than 6 weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation except in the case of certain specified diseases, illness, etc., approved by the Director-General of Health, when the period of treatment on any one recommendation may be extended up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Home-nursing services are provided free of cost under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes. Assistance in this connection is restricted to the following classes:

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reasons of accident, sickness, etc.

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity.

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise.

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic or by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than—10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—Individual electrical hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

  2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy these conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by hospital boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding $26 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding 5 years, the hospital board may pay half (or up to a maximum of $13) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
* Mainly on account of hospital benefits.
 $(thousand)
Maternity benefits—
     Private hospital fees379331341377394
     Medical practitioners' fees1,6301,6972,5422,6703,317
     Mileage fees34387282105
     Obstetric nurses' fees34234
               Totals2,0472,0692,9563,1333,821
Medical benefits—
     Mileage fees230209191181159
     General medical services8,2898,2109,0999,7859,692
     Specialist medical services1,2561,286
Special arrangements, purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers329366406534660
               Totals8,8488,7859,69511,75611,797
Hospital benefits—
     Private hospitals4,0274,1404,5905,2915,915
     Approved institutions355386421495526
     Private hospital loans31300446801390
     Grants towards operating costs of Karitane hospitals2823284039
               Totals4,4414,8495,4876,6276,870
Pharmaceutical benefits—
     Chemists21,76523,96826,69730,15432,479
     Medical practitioners180205278168206
     Institutions327285332462550
               Totals22,27224,45827,30830,78333,236
Supplementary benefits—
     Radiological services673677708787757
     Laboratory services3,1433,6304,1425,3356,584
     Physiotherapy services222237227234242
     Dental services2,6832,5132,3392,8002,799
     Domestic assistance3555495355
     Intellectually handicapped45468389105
     Other5483807795
               Totals6,8557,2417,6289,37510,637
          Grand totals44,46247,40253,07461,67566,361
          Recoveries*1816161322
          Net totals44,44447,38553,05861,66166,339

ACCOMMODATION SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1972 religious and welfare organisations provided 6,315 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 1,037 old people's home beds, while approximately 4,300 of their hospital beds (38 percent) are required for care of the elderly sick, either on a short-stay or long-term basis.

For the elderly who are ambulant and able to care for themselves but have a housing need and whose resources are limited, local authorities are encouraged and assisted by Government to build specially designed flats. These flats enable many elderly people to retain their independence for longer than would otherwise be the case (see Section 19, Building Construction and Housing). Some 770 flats have also been provided by religious and voluntary organisations for this category of elderly persons, generally in conjunction with their residential accommodation.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. At 31 December 1971 the number of meals delivered daily by the meals-on-wheels service was 3,551; the service is operated by 28 hospital boards.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $7,200 per bed for old people's homes and $8,600 for a geriatric hospital, capital cost limits per bed of $9,000 and $12,000 respectively, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations may be granted 100 percent of the approved capital cost of providing accommodation for old people. In addition, since April 1966, the policy has been widened to provide a 50 percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 75 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1971–72, subsidies amounting to $4,089,101 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 620 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1972, subsidies totalling $22,147,969 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 5,429 old people.

In a survey of one group of old people's homes in 1971 it was found that residents fell into the following age groups: 70 years and under, 4 percent; 71–75 years, 7 percent; 76–80 years, 23 percent; 81–85 years, 30 percent; 86 years and over, 36 percent.

Housing of Elderly—Local authorities provide flats for elderly persons under a scheme administered by the Department of Health (see Section 19).

Services for the Intellectually Handicapped—Since 1954 there has been a subsidy of up to 50 percent on the capital cost of approved buildings and furnishings acquired for the purpose of providing short-stay homes for intellectually handicapped children. In 1963 Government also extended the capital subsidy to include hostels built by the Intellectually Handicapped Children's Society for children who are attending occupation groups run by the Department of Education. In 1966 the cost of land and professional fees (architect and quantity surveyor) were included in assessing subsidy on hostels and sheltered workshops with a maximum subsidy on hostels of $2,400 per bed. In addition, a maintenance subsidy of $1.60 per day is paid in respect of these children under 16 years of age. Since 1968 there has been a capital subsidy of $400 per place for day care centres. In 1969 Government approved subsidies of 50 percent of salaries of staff for day care centres, sheltered workshops, and of approved branch administrators. In 1970 the capital subsidy for hostels was increased to $2,880 per bed.

The administration of this policy is the responsibility of the Departments of Health and Social Welfare. The administration of capital subsidies for sheltered workshops and day care centres for the intellectually handicapped was transferred to the Social Welfare Department in 1970. That department also pays the salary subsidy for approved staff employed at day care centres and sheltered workshops.

The total amount expended on special subsidies for short-stay homes, hostels, sheltered workshops, and day care centres during the year ended 31 March 1971 was $308,885. In addition, $111,233 was paid by way of operating costs during the same period.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among more important of these organisations are the Plunket Society, the Children's Health Camps Board, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations, the New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, and the New Zealand Epilepsy Association.

The Plunket Society—the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children—is concerned with the welfare of babies. The society trains its own infant-welfare nurses, conducts infant-welfare clinics, and maintains Karitane hospitals throughout the country for premature babies or difficult feeders. In rural areas where there is no Plunket clinic, public health nurses do infant-welfare work.

The Children's Health Camps Board maintains six health camps for children with physical health problems and minor emotional disorders. The federation works in close co-operation with the Department of Health. A portion of the finance for the federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health-stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance and first-aid work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and subcentres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary-aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where these are required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of patients suffering from tuberculosis. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance of patients.

The New Zealand Epilepsy Association, with a Dominion Council and 11 branches, helps epileptics and their families in every possible way. It issues pamphlets, gives lectures, shows films, and fosters medical research. Social workers are employed by branches who can afford to do so. A residential hostel, Park Lodge, for young men and women who have regular employment or who require short-term accommodation for special reasons, is maintained in Auckland. The association is affiliated to the International Bureau for Epilepsy.

5 B—HOSPITALS AND MEDICAL SERVICES

GENERAL—The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on or determines in respect of boards the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 30 hospital boards and over 150 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients.

Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc., in advising, inspecting and reporting on such services in hospitals; and generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, boards, committees and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to local authorities and religious and welfare organisations which provide special housing, home and hospital beds for the elderly, and administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

Private Hospitals—Hospital benefits are paid to patients in registered private hospitals according to the nature of the treatment given: For surgical and maternity treatment, $9 per day; for medical (including psychiatric) treatment, $5.50 per day.

Loans are made to private hospitals where the need for such beds is established.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres. The Health Services Research Unit, headed by a medical practitioner in the Department of Health, has the task of applying techniques such as operational research and work study to problems of management in the health services, particularly in hospitals, and ascertaining in what ways efficiency can be improved.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1972 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, and old people's homes) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General14,0454.811,111.93.8
Maternity2,9791.01,848.20.6
Total hospital beds17,0245.912,960.14.5
Non-hospital beds1,1760.4986.60.3
               Totals18,2006.313,946.74.8

In addition to the 17,024 hospital beds in public institutions there were 3,920 (3,683 general and 237 maternity) in the 152 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1,000 of population becomes 6.1 for general beds and 1.1 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.3 to 8.5. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1972 was 199, comprising 77 general hospitals (3 of which were also old people's homes), 2 homes for cripples, 16 non-acute hospitals, 4 convalescent hospitals, 78 maternity hospitals, 22 old people's homes, and 1 children's home.

The following statistics for the latest three March years relate to all public institutions including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Item1969–701970–711971–72
Beds of all descriptions for patients or inmates17,87417,96418,200
Beds per 1,000 of population6.46.36.3
Average beds occupied per 1,000 of population5.04.94.8
Persons who were inpatients or inmates331,460341,417348,139
Number per 1,000 of population who were inpatients or inmates118.9119.6119.8
Attendances by outpatients (including dental treatment)3,235,8903,491,9103,739,624
Attendances per 1,000 of population1,160.41,223.11,287.3

The supplement to the annual report of the Director-General of Health on hospital statistics contains further detail on public institutions.

General Hospitals—In the following table the figures relate only to general hospitals under the control of hospital boards.

YearInpatients TreatedAverage Number of Occupied Beds per DayAverage Turnover of Patients Treated per Occupied BedAvailable BedsOutpatient Attendances (Including Dental)
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
1966–67256,58595.110,004.43.724.812,9894.82,711,1221,005.3
1967–68269,09898.210,243.93.725.413,0214.72,833,3771,033.5
1968–69276,248100.110,334.03.724.913,0454.72,923,5051,059.7
1969–70279,400100.010,438.53.725.813,4304.83,022,7821,082.2
1970–71287,112100.610,448.73.726.613,5064.73,266,8861,144.3
1971–72292,956100.810,400.23.627.513,6094.73,479,4631,197.7

Private Hospitals—The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1972 was 152, providing 237 maternity, 33 psychiatric, and 3,650 beds for general cases. There were 5,170 confinements in private hospitals in the year to 31 March 1971.

Census of Public and Private Hospitals—A census of public and private hospitals was held on 23–24 March 1971 at the same time as the national census. The numbers, percentages, and rates per 1,000 population of patients in hospital at that time together with the data obtained from similar censuses, held in 1961 and 1966 are shown in the following table.

The percentage of private patients increased from 17.6 percent in 1961 to 18.9 percent in 1966 and to 21.4 percent in 1971.

The rates for patients in public hospitals at the times of the censuses decreased slightly for ages below 45 years, showed little movement for years between 45 and 79 years, and considerable increase for patients aged 80 years and over.

A somewhat similar picture is shown for private hospitals. The rates for age groups below 65 years showed very little change during the 10 years, those for patients aged between 65 and 79 years increased a little, and those for patients aged 80 years and over increased very sharply indeed, being twice as high in 1971 as they were in 1961.

In terms of numbers, the proportion in 1971 of patients aged 80 years and over was 19 percent or nearly 1 in 5 for public hospitals, and 46.5 percent or nearly 1 in 2 for private hospitals.

Full information of the hospitals census is being compiled for publication in special reports.

 196119661971
Age GroupPatientsPercentRate*PatientsPercentRate*PatientsPercentRate*†

* Rate per 1,000 population in age group.

† Based on 1970 mean population.

Public Hospitals
  0–141,62817.22.01,76416.32.01,65814.71.8
15–247808.22.39178.52.18697.71.8
25–441,40214.82.31,49713.92.31,45912.92.2
45–642,02721.44.42,33921.64.62,53122.54.7
65–792,26124.013.12,52923.413.92,61323.213.4
80†1,35914.437.31,76016.342.32,14119.050.1
               Totals9,457100.03.910,806100.04.011,271100.04.0
Private Hospital
  0–1423511.70.32369.40.32167.00.2
15–24723.60.2612.40.1993.20.2
25–4421210.50.42218.80.32116.90.3
45–6433816.80.737915.00.833811.00.6
65–7955727.73.260624.03.378225.44.0
80†59929.716.41,02140.424.61,42846.533.4
               Totals2,013100.00.82,524100.00.93,074100.01.1

STAFF—The numbers of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards in the latest 5 years were as follows.

Category of StaffAt 31 March
1968196919701971†1972

* Includes duplication where persons provide medical services at more than one institution.

† This is the first year that all staff have been published as full time, equivalent previous years part-time staff was counted as full time, hence reduction in staff.

Institutional medical1,890*1,923*1,947*1,309*1,383*
Other professional and technical2,8173,0843,3322,8963,150
Nursing14,37015,18515,74014,35015,237
Other treatment staff592631656873954
Domestic and other institutional staff9,76910,04610,1269,63310,074
Administrative staff645702712690700
Domiciliary services1,0181,0921,182561593
Farm and garden1618671814
Other non-institutional233193180117137
               Totals31,35032,87433,94230,447†32,242

FINANCE: Institutional Operating Expenditure—The average operating expenditure per occupied bed, relating to hospitals of all types (excluding psychiatric hospitals) and to general hospitals, is shown in the following table.

YearTreatmentInstitutional AdministrationHeat, Light, Power, and WaterHousehold ExpensesBuildings and GroundsMiscellaneousTotal
All Institutions
 $     $     $     $     $     $     $     
1966–672,803.6399.8342.41,342.6209.43.85,101.6
1967–682,935.7399.7341.51,233.7186.03.15,099.7
1968–693,141.5423.8359.61,365.8195.04.75,400.4
1969–703,475.2486.7384.51,357.4221.65.35,930.7
1970–714,088.6609.8419.91,626.1266.67.07,018.0
1971–725,200.1749.1488.61,921.7313.06.08,678.5
General Hospitals
1966–673,069.0454.2362.81,409.8219.84.05,519.6
1967–683,226.9464.9362.71,293.0185.42.85,535.7
1968–693,481.5487.1381.81,338.3204.74.65,898.0
1969–703,857.6558.0411.11,409.1230.45.16,471.3
1970–714,561.0703.4454.61,703.3276.66.97,705.8
1971–725,856.6874.4544.82,027.5339.15.89,648.3

Each of these averages includes the direct expenditure on each activity for labour, materials, and incidental expenses, but excludes overheads such as depreciation and interest on capital.

For 1970–71 the average daily expenditure for individual inpatients treated in hospitals classed as general hospitals was $21.11 and the average total expenditure for each inpatient was $280.43.

Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is as under.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
* Includes payments from sinking funds.
 $(000)
1966–679,0216,75483,591
1967–6813,5666,72490,433
1968–6923,5667,931106,070
1969–7019,1709,436115,797
1970–7119,20010,043124,878
1971–7220,11810,574134,425

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in commitments plus an allowance for normal growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable special allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of population and average occupied beds. Major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Item of Expenditure1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
* Includes payments to sinking funds.
 $(thousand)
Institutional operating expenses77,43483,09191,882109,610135,579
Extramural relief94118153205266
Grants to private hospitals, etc.134129124126181
Other grants1812161318
Transport of patients8269429201,1901,296
Domiciliary services1,7171,7622,0232,2892,885
Administration2,0422,1722,3422,7763,397
Superannuation6066477189101,859
Other expenses2,2321,0492,2113,7227,478
Interest on loans4,3014,9615,7946,1826,748
Repayment of loans*6,2467,0888,1079,25110,241
Capital works other than “loan”3,1083,4003,7824,3954,915
               Totals, excluding loans98,758105,371118,072140,669174,863
Loan works14,10915,17915,46515,63922,353
               Totals112,867120,550133,537156,308197,216

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—The total expenditure on psychiatric hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last 11 financial years are shown in the next table. This expenditure was incurred by the Department of Health until 31 March 1972, since which date psychiatric hospitals have become the responsibility of hospital boards.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureAverage Cost per Occupied Bed
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$    
19629,8802069,674965
196310,99920810,7911,059
196412,10921211,8971,143
196513,78368613,0971,258
196614,77869214,0861,353
196717,33069916,6311,610
196818,55955618,0031,743
196919,90136219,5391,919
197021,87348821,3852,106
197126,00658925,4172,521
197230,06758529,4813,034

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. Expenditure for the last five financial years has amounted to $2,137,000 in 1967–68, $2,429,000 in 1968–69, $2,640,000 in 1969–70, $3,261,000 in 1970–71, and $3,962,000 in 1971–72.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. After tabulation in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases, this information is published annually in the Department of Health publication Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data. According to the census of non-psychiatric hospitals conducted by the Department of Health in 1966, patients in public hospitals comprised 81.1 percent of hospital patients, the provisional figure for the 1971 census is 80.4 percent.

Patients Treated—The following table shows the number of patients treated in public hospitals for the latest 6 years for which figures are available.

YearRemaining on
1 January
from
Previous
Year
AdmissionsDischargesDeathsTotal Number of Indoor PatientsRemaining on 31 December
* Excludes 51 patients shown as remaining in Buchanan Ward, Greytown, on 31 December 1965.
19658,667221,772210,39411,267230,4398,778
19668,727*228,087216,32211,626236,8148,866
19678,866234,521222,91011,299243,3879,178
19689,178242,713230,27612,254251,8919,361
19699,361244,347231,90712,026253,7089,372
19709,372252,819240,69812,291262,1919,202

Principal Diseases and Disabilities—The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases treated, in public hospitals in 1970. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is published annually in Part III—Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Medical Statistics Report.

Although there is little overall difference in the totals of males and females, there is a well-defined pattern when figures for each sex are compared, age group by age group. In all ages under 15 years there is a preponderance of males. This difference is common to most disease groups but is more marked in diseases of the digestive, genito-urinary, musculoskeletal, and respiratory systems, in congenital malformations, and in accidental injuries. For the ages between 15 and 54 years there are more females than males. This age group covers the child-bearing ages in women, and the higher proportion of female patients is a reflection of this fact. Apart from conditions associated with pregnancy, abortion, delivery, and the puerperium, female patients considerably outnumbered male patients in both malignant and non-malignant tumours, in diseases of the thyroid gland and the genito-urinary system and in symptomatic conditions. In the age groups from 55 years upwards the males once more predominate, except for 75 years and over, particularly in diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1970
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases2,446391.6
Tuberculosis1,098484.4
Zoonotic bacterial diseases23
Other bacterial diseases3764612.2
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system20610.5
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthem610142.3
Arthropod-borne viral diseases5159.8
Other viral diseases1,523130.9
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases22
Syphilis and other venereal diseases14610.7
Other spirochaetal diseases94
Mycoses8533.5
Helminthiases14121.4
Other infective and parasitic diseases23562.6
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx3093912.6
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum2,70375127.8
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system1,85455630.0
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast2,3481847.8
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs2,87040714.2
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites2,03961330.1
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue1,49928018.7
Benign neoplasms4,019250.6
Neoplasm of unspecified nature29162.1
Diseases of thyroid gland776111.4
Diseases of other endocrine glands2,7091555.7
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency45351.1
Other metabolic diseases658355.3
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1,665342.0
Psychoses2,513823.3
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders3,910130.3
Mental retardation15132.0
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system3564312.1
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system1181311.0
Other diseases of central nervous system2,9782217.4
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia91760.7
Inflammatory diseases of the eye85710.1
Other diseases and conditions of the eye4,025120.3
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process3,43220.1
Active rheumatic fever60991.5
Chronic rheumatic heart disease8168310.2
Hypertensive disease1,3271118.4
Ischaemic heart disease8,5131,55418.3
Other forms of heart disease3,60477621.5
Cerebrovascular disease5,4592,03437.3
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries2,40944118.3
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system6,260922.2
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)4,187240.6
Influenza982505.1
Pneumonia6,07668311.2
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma6,3393715.9
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract11,429
Other diseases of respiratory system1,6721197.1
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws2,1211
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum2,253994.4
Appendicitis5,719140.2
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,284410.8
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum3,9161213.1
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas4,4051733.9
Nephritis and nephrosis839688.1
Other diseases of urinary system3,7541223.2
Diseases of male genital organs3,220752.3
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium2,18730.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs9,0593
Complications of pregnancy2,4691
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium1,18920.2
Abortion4,866
Delivery1,66950.3
Complications of the puerperium59650.8
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,26630.1
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue88791.0
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,57360.4
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever4,176972.3
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint4,601180.4
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,601150.6
Congenital anomalies5,9262063.5
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality2,7741866.7
Symptoms referable to systems or organs12,255300.2
Senility and ill-defined diseases2,3361747.4
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk4,0841583.9
Fracture of upper limb4,219130.3
Fracture of lower limb6,0643435.7
Dislocation without fracture1,07710.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1,07950.5
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)9,2861101.2
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis594589.8
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk1,86860.3
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,44540.3
Laceration and open wound of multiple location216
Superficial injury37910.3
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface2,37240.2
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice93430.3
Burn1,906271.4
Injury to nerves and spinal cord33710.3
Adverse effect of medicinal agenta3,261200.6
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source1,47680.5
Other adverse effects1,995291.5
Special admissions without sickness3,586
               All conditions250,30712,2904.9

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay of patients in public hospitals in 1969 is shown in the following table.

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsAverage Stay (Days)
Infective and parasitic diseases (except tuberculosis)6,43912.6
Tuberculosis1,31767.0
Malignant neoplasm and neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue13,20920.8
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms of unspecified nature4,0609.0
Diseases of thyroid gland84912.9
Diabetes mellitus2,22826.1
Other endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases1,48019.2
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1,84113.7
Psychoses2,40729.5
Other mental disorders3,80414.3
Diseases of the eye5,0588.5
Diseases of ear and mastoid process3,0267.8
Other diseases of the nervous system4,16940.5
Active rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease1,46732.8
Ischaemic heart disease8,24821.7
Hypertensive disease and other forms of heart disease5,02325.8
Cerebrovascular disease5,38867.0
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries2,45438.2
Diseases of veins and lymphatics and other diseases of circulatory system5,98012.4
Acute respiratory infections and influenza4,6877.7
Pneumonia5,42617.3
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma5,21915.4
Hypertrophy of tonsils and adenoids9,8313.5
Other diseases of respiratory system3,84212.6
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands and jaws2,0263.2
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach and duodenum2,45915.2
Appendicitis5,7298.7
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,3149.5
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum3,77614.1
Diseases of liver, gall bladder and pancreas4,15314.9
Diseases of urinary system4,50514.6
Diseases of male genital organs3,18912.0
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube and parametrium1,9747.7
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs8,8556.9
Delivery and complications of pregnancy and the puerperium (except abortion)5,61710.1
Abortion4,5143.9
Diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissues5,62111.3
Arthritis and rheumatism except rheumatic fever3,95239.1
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint4,47320.9
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,42810.9
Congenital anomalies5,80116.7
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality2,59718.4
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions13,53719.3
Fractures13,65221.2
Intracranial injury (except skull fracture)8,5104.6
Lacerations and open wound5,9427.3
Burns1,89719.4
Toxic or adverse effects of medicinal and other substances4,7494.7
Other injuries and adverse effects8,4288.9
Special admissions without current complaints or reported diagnosis3,1867.4
               Total244,33616.1

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1970.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage or All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
     Railway990.214.51,4340.2
     Motor-vehicle traffic10,55222.211.8124,90821.5
     Motor-vehicle non-traffic2420.58.72,1100.4
     Other road vehicles1,7523.76.511,3552.0
     Water2010.412.82,5790.4
     Aircraft330.115.34600.1
               Total transport12,87627.111.1142,84624.6
Non-transport—
     Accidental poisoning2,4235.12.15,1790.9
     Accidental falls11,63224.519.3224,11338.6
     Other accidents12,67326.78.7110,23319.0
               Total non-transport26,72856.312.7339,52558.5
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures2,7725.816.545,7417.9
Late effects of accidental injury1,2642.720.726,1254.5
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2,2684.87.116,1332.8
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons1,3492.85.97,9711.4
Legal intervention
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted1940.45.19990.2
Injury resulting from operations of war290.124.87180.1
                    Grand totals47,480100.012.2580,058100.0

Most cases come under the heading “Non-transport—Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on. Of these most occurred in the home.

The second largest group is “Accidental falls”, which has an aggregate stay greater than any other group. This is due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost one in every four patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprise the third largest group, and have the second largest aggregate stay. It is interesting to note that there were almost three times as many admissions to hospital and almost three times as many beds occupied by people injured in non-transport accidents as there were in motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 11c Roads and Road Transport.

Patients discharged from, or dying in public hospitals in 1970 after treatment for accidents sustained in the home are given in the following table.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsDays Stay
Accidental poisoning by—
     Drugs and medicaments1,0782,550
     Petroleum products and other solvents431777
     Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods167266
     Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants127209
     Other solid and liquid substances401684
     Gases and vapours1652
Accidental falls5,122110,680
Blow from falling object1041,242
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments1,4498,877
Accidental burns1,18423,868
Accidents caused by foreign bodies6181,545
Accidents caused by machinery30323
All other and unspecified accidents1,38910,962
               Totals12,176162,035

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
195910,02021,12847.4
19609,76820,89246.8
196110,28921,78247.2
196210,43622,08147.3
196310,78422,41648.1
196410,88322,86147.6
196511,26522,97649.0
196611,62623,77848.9
196711,29923,00749.1
196812,25424,46450.1
196912,02624,16149.8
197012,29124,84049.5

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1970 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year7,2045,19812,402
  1–4 years11,1938,17419,367
  5–9 years10,8587,98618,844
10–14 years7,9455,76313,708
15–19 years9,61010,58620,196
20–24 years8,84812,03020,878
25–29 years5,4179,32814,745
30–34 years4,5347,61712,151
35–39 years4,6256,43111,056
40–44 years5,3456,81012,155
45–49 years5,8487,08312,931
50–54 years6,1336,56212,695
55–59 years7,5386,08413,622
60–64 years7,8345,80813,642
65–69 years7,3735,67113,044
70–74 years5,6395,37511,014
75–79 years4,1764,7828,958
80–84 years2,9493,5926,541
85 years and over2,1152,9255,040
               Totals125,184127,805252,989

PATIENTS IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which will continue to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, etiological factors, domicile, race, and length of stay.

In 1967 the statistical system was enlarged to include, in addition to people treated as inpatients in psychiatric hospitals, people treated in psychiatric inpatient units in public hospitals. The system was further enlarged in 1969 with the inclusion of alcoholics treated at Rotoroa Sanatorium. These developments provide more comprehensive data about treatment of people with psychiatric disorders in the community, but the greater coverage prevents strict comparability with statistical data published for past years.

At the end of 1971 there were 10,476 people on the registers of psychiatric hospitals of the Department of Health, 124 in psychiatric units of public hospitals, and 91 in Rotoroa Sanatorium, a total of 10,691. There were 11,046 registrations during the year (excluding transfers and changes of status), of which 9,050 or 82 percent were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied psychiatric hospital beds was 9,807, which was 362 fewer than in 1970. The average number of resident patients per 100,000 mean population has declined steadily over the last 27 years.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100,000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and public hospitals.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPatients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
All Patients
19427,926483.445928.08,385511.4..     ..     
19478,439469.359132.99,030502.2..     ..     
19529,070454.380740.59,877494.8..     ..     
19579,850441.294542.310,795483.5..     ..     
196210,267413.21,23549.711,502462.9..     ..     
196710,415381.61,68161.612,096443.2..     ..     
196810,270372.61,93870.312,208442.91344.9
196910,245368.02,04973.612,294441.61585.7
197010,169360.61,66359.01.1,832419.61545.5
19719,807342.41,44450.411,251392.81314.6

First Admissions—In 1971 there were 3,248 first admissions (1,794 male and 1,454 female) to psychiatric hospitals, 1,414 (499 male, 915 female) to psychiatric inpatient units, and 10 males to Rotoroa Sanatorium, a total of 4,672. The number of informal patients (3,869) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (803) by more than four to one.

The numbers and rates of first admissions together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of informal patients in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearsInformal PatientsNon-Voluntary PatientsAll Patients
TotalRateTotalRateTotalRate
* Average over 5 years.
1935–39*21213.394359.21,15572.5
1940–44*23614.499660.81,23275.2
1945–49*50227.91,15164.51,65392.4
1950–54*73336.61,37168.52,104105.1
1955–59*1,06647.51,40062.72,466110.2
1960–64*2,600103.81,12445.53,724149.3
1965–69*3,626133.397635.94,602169.2
19704,127146.486930.84,996177.2
19713,869135.180328.04,672163.1
YearsPercentage of First Admissions in Total AdmissionsPercentage of Informal Patients in First Admissions
* Average over five years.
1935–39*80.118.3
1940–44*76.719.0
1945–49*75.630.1
1950–54*74.034.7
1955–59*67.543.0
1960–64*61.169.8
1965–69*50.578.8
197042.982.6
197142.382.8

NOTES—For 1962 and subsequent years, informal patient totals include voluntary patients. Since 1967 the figures include psychiatric inpatients in public hospitals. The figures from 1969 include patients in Rotoroa Sanatorium.

Diagnosis—The three leading diagnoses in 1971 were: depressive neurosis, 831 cases; other personality disorders, 608 cases; and schizophrenia and paranoid states, 538 cases. These three diagnoses accounted for 42.3 percent of first admissions.

The numbers of first admissions to each division of psychiatric care by short list diagnoses are shown for 1971.

DiagnosisAll HospitalsMental HospitalsPublic Hospital Psychiatric UnitsRotoroa Sanatorium
Senile and pre-senile dementia20819612
Alcoholic psychosis766313
Other organic psychoses21518431
Schizophrenia and paranoid states538354184
Depressive psychosis466306160
Other functional psychoses22413688
Depressive neurosis831415416
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders26016199
Alcoholism4824442810
Other personality disorders608368240
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children18710384
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition867610
Mental retardation3073007
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)18414242
               Totals4,6723,2481,41410

Numbers and rates of first admissions by diagnosis are shown in the following table.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Senile and pre-senile dementia3102642081119373
Alcoholic psychosis647576232727
Other organic psychoses183279215669975
Schizophrenia and paranoid states600565538216200188
Depressive psychosis654496466235176163
Other functional psychoses153195224556978
Depressive neurosis857986831308349290
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders33931626012211291
Alcoholism438457482157162168
Other personality disorders516567608185201212
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children111146187405265
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition1169186423230
Mental retardation401325307144115107
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)3342341841208364
               All cases5,0764,9964,6721,8231,7691,631

The first admission rates for senile and pre-senile dementia, for depressive psychosis, and for other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders decreased during the latest 3 years. In the period 1969–1971, the rates for alcoholism increased largely, but not solely, because of the admission of patients from the beginning of 1969 under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act.

Readmissions—A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

Diagnosis—In the following table the numbers and rates of readmissions are shown by short list diagnoses.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Senile and pre-senile dementia12511576454127
Alcoholic psychosis136125125494444
Other organic psychoses271275274979796
Schizophrenia and paranoid states1,7562,0541,799631727628
Depressive psychosis919897815330318285
Other functional psychoses492557540177197189
Depressive neurosis701853666252302233
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders256266204929471
Alcoholism1,0011,1621,222360411427
Other personality disorders680760741244269259
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children4482102162936
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition168152148605452
Mental retardation799899886287318309
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)170141130615045
               All cases7,5188,3387,7282,7002,9522,698

Discharges—There are three principal ways of being discharged from mental hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a mental hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 12,053 discharges in 1971. Of these 9,443 were outright discharges, 2,259 were discharges on leave, and 351 were discharged “not committed”.

The principal diagnoses were: schizophrenia and paranoid states 2,410 cases; all forms of alcoholism 1,850 cases, depressive neurosis 1,459 cases, and other personality disorders 1,352 cases.

The following table shows the number of discharges for 1971 by short list diagnoses.

DiagnosisOutright DischargeLeaveNot CommittedTotal
Senile and pre-senile dementia109351145
Alcoholic psychosis112614177
Other organic psychoses321976424
Schizophrenia and paranoid states1,605784212,410
Depressive psychosis1,1758731,265
Other functional psychoses6081362746
Depressive neurosis1,4262851,459
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders443154462
Alcoholism1,086577101,673
Other personality disorders1,152123771,352
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children264156285
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition165383206
Mental retardation868262111,141
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)1091198308
               Totals9,4432,25935112,053

Duration of stay—Over half (50.9 percent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission, 27.6 percent left in the next 2 months, and a further 9.9 percent were discharged in the subsequent 3 months. The average stay of all discharges was 36 weeks.

Deaths—In 1971 there were 545 deaths in psychiatric hospitals, and 3 in psychiatric units of public hospitals. In addition 55 people died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile and pre-senile dementia, 192 cases. Next came schizophrenia and paranoid states, 85 cases, and other organic psychoses, 74 cases.

In 1971 94 people died during the first month in hospital, and a further 56 deaths occurred in people who had been in hospital for over 1 month but under 3 months.

Staff—The pattern of staffing at 29 February 1972 is compared in the following table for psychiatric and general hospitals. (Source: Differential Pay Scale for Psychiatric and Psychopaedic Nurses: first report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Hospital and Related Services, December 1972.)

Staff establishments were higher, as there were numbers of unfilled vacancies.

GroupPsychiatric HospitalsGeneral Hospitals*
NumberPercentage of Total Nursing StaffNumberPercentage of Total Nursing Staff
* Statistics for one hospital board not included; covers 87.2 percent of nursing staff.
Matron and assistant843.02611.8
Supervisor431.52541.8
Charge nurse/ward sister37913.49767.1
Tutor321.12501.8
Staff nurse/staff sister56720.02,68419.6
RCK/RM/RMN Karitane511.81,3419.7
               Sub-total (percent)40.841.8
Assistant nurse43615.5
Hospital aide58620.82,25116.3
Trainee or student nurse62722.24,25030.7
Student community nurse160.61,40210.2
Others1361.0
                    Totals2,821100.013,805*100.0

5 C—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF POPULATION

GENERAL—Increasing interest is being shown in the heights and weights of New Zealanders—adults as well as children. Medical and health experts have formed the impression that the heights of persons in New Zealand have increased significantly over the past 50 years. It is likely that weights have also increased.

Most recent New Zealand figures certainly show that the above impression is justified, at least as far as school children are concerned. They also show that maturity judged by the development of secondary sex characteristics in both male and female children occurs on the average at an earlier age.

In the interests of continued medical research it is important that statistical material be made available on this and other aspects of growth and development. The statistics in this section have been assembled for future research purposes as much as for current interest and use by manufacturers and educational authorities.

CHILDREN—Surveys of heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand have been made from time to time—namely in 1913, 1925, 1934, 1954 and now more recently in 1969. Each successive survey has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages, in some decades more marked than others. The 1969 survey shows that the very marked gain in both heights and weights which occurred between 1934 and 1954 now tends to be slowing down, especially at the lower age levels, although a significant gain in weights at the higher age levels still seems to be continuing.

In 1954 the survey covered 22,078 boys and 21,845 girls selected on a nation-wide sample basis. Compared with the 1934 survey it was found that for both boys and girls the average heights and weights had increased fairly uniformly on a geographic basis, that is, for main urban areas, minor urban areas and rural areas; they also applied to both non-Maoris and Maoris. (Other evidence indicated that the increases were primarily due to earlier maturity rather than to changes in racial characteristics.)

In the 1969 survey the total number of school children included in the sample was 24,852, taken from 19 health districts in proportion to the populations of the districts. Approximately equal numbers, about 2,000, were sampled from each age group from 5 to 15 years. Roughly one-sixth of the children were Maoris and five-sixths were, in the main, Europeans but included small numbers of Indians, Chinese, Samoans and other Pacific Islanders of the same Polynesian stock as the Maoris themselves. The number of Maoris was chosen again in relation to the total Maori population in each district.

As previous surveys had shown little significance in the difference of heights and weights between urban areas and rural districts no attempt was made during the 1969 survey to obtain separate figures for geographical groupings although, in selecting schools, allowance was made in the choice so as not to overload the figures in the direction of either urban, rural, or socio-economic groups.

Information from the three latest surveys is related in the following table. It should be noted that in 1934 the age was related to the nearest birthday and is therefore overstated in relation to later surveys where the age is that of last birthday, that is, in 1934 some of the children at given ages were relatively younger than those at the given ages in 1954 and 1969, i.e., children whose average age was 6 years in 1934 are compared with children whose average age in later surveys was 6 1/2 years.

Age (Years)Survey YearAverage HeightAverage Weight
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
  in.in.lblb
5193443434241
195444.444.045.744.2
196944.243.944.843.9
6193445454645
195446.746.450.549.6
196946.646.349.949.2
7193447475049
195449.148.756.155.2
196949.148.855.955.8
8193449495554
195451.350.862.061.3
196951.250.762.261.1
9193451516160
195453.352.969.068.3
196953.352.968.167.8
10193453536665
195455.355.276.077.1
196955.255.174.976.3
11193454557273
195457.157.682.6586.8
196957.258.183.589.3
12193457577882
195459.260.092.098.4
196959.560.293.499.3
13193459598894
195461.761.8103.7109.9
196962.062.2105.7111.7
141934616197101
195464.1562.8117.5119.8
196964.863.2120.2120.3
1519346262103108
195466.163.45129.35124.9
196966.663.9132.6128.2

In a comparison of Maoris and non-Maoris in 1954, the Maori boys and girls were found to be on average shorter than non-Maori boys and girls, the difference amounting to a little under an inch at most ages. In weight, however, Maoris were shown to be heavier than non-Maoris. At the younger ages the difference was negligible being less than half a pound, but from 9 years onwards the difference was marked—at 11 years it was 2 lb, at 12 years 3 lb for boys and 7 lb for girls, and at 15 years 6 lb for boys and nearly 11 lb for girls.

In the 1969 survey the weight increases for each year of age for both non-Maoris and Maoris of either sex show a growth spurt beginning at about 10 years of age in both races but reaching its peak slightly earlier in Maoris of both sexes.

Curves for the average increases in height showed a peak at ages 10–11 years for Maori and non-Maori females, a peak at ages 11–12 years for Maori males and a broader range of increase from 10–14 years for non-Maori males. In all cases a sharp decline was shown after the peak. Thus height, as with weight, showed a maximum increase at the onset of maturity, with the Maoris slightly in advance of non-Maoris and girls slightly ahead of boys.

There is no evidence at the moment that this forward movement in growth or maturation has ceased.

Maoris and non-Maoris—In a comparison between Maoris and non-Maoris it was shown by the 1969 survey that for males up to 11 years of age non-Maoris were consistently taller than Maoris—the maximum height difference of 0.63 in. occurring at age 8 years. From the age of 12 to 15 years Maoris were seen to be taller, the greatest difference of 0.50 in. being at 13 years of age so that by age 15 years Maoris were taller by only 0.01 in. This difference in Maori and non-Maori heights would seem to be mostly in the trunk measurements.

With girls in the 1969 survey non-Maoris were taller than Maori counterparts up to the age of 9 years—the maximum difference of 0.61 in. occurring at age 6 years. For ages 11 and 12 years Maoris were taller than non-Maoris, the greatest difference being 0.79 in. at age 12 years. At age 13 to 15 years non-Maori girls were again taller, the greatest difference being 0.71 in. occurring at age 15 years.

This difference in height patterns shows a slight change from the 1954 survey in which both Maori boys and girls tended to be shorter than non-Maoris at all ages. In all, however, these height differences between the races were small enough to suggest that Maoris and non-Maoris were approaching similar heights at each age.

In the case of weight, however, the picture is rather different. Both males and females, Maoris in each age group were heavier than non-Maoris, except at age 16 years where female non-Maoris were heavier by 0.07 lb and non-Maori males were minimally heavier than their Maori counterparts. For males at other ages, the difference showed a gradual increase from the age of 5 years to a maximum difference of 6.75 lb at the age of 15 years. With females, the same pattern was evident but the maximum difference of 11.86 lb occurred a year earlier at the age of 12 years decreasing to 5.95 lb at the age of 15 years.

Thus Maori children were seen to be consistently heavier than non-Maori children of the same age, more predominantly so for females in whom the maximum difference occurred a year earlier than in the males. From studying the ratio of average height to weight it can be postulated that at all ages Maoris were consistently heavier per inch of height than non-Maoris.

A detailed report on the 1969 survey has been published in the special report series of the Department of Health entitled Physical Development of New Zealand School Children 1969 which is available in Government bookshops.

International Comparison—In the following table New Zealand figures are set alongside those of other national surveys. The New Zealand figures are compiled by combining Maori and non-Maori figures using appropriate weighting factors. (11.5 percent of New Zealand children aged 5 to 15 in 1969 were Maori.)

In height New Zealand school children of 1969 compare very closely with Canadian children of the same year; the only marked difference is that New Zealand girls weighed consistently more than their Canadian counterparts. American children in 1963 do not appear to have differed greatly in height from New Zealand children in 1969, but were heavier, the difference being greater in boys. Comparison with the United Kingdom 1965 figures shows only slight differences in weight but New Zealand girls tended to be heavier.

The results of surveys will be affected to some extent by the time of the year at which they were made; growth in height is greater in the spring whereas weight tends to show a spurt in the autumn months.

Average AgeBoysGirls
U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965
Median Height (Inches)
646.045.045.445.045.545.045.144.6
748.547.547.847.548.047.047.546.9
850.749.550.149.550.149.049.749.1
952.851.552.251.852.351.551.751.3
1054.654.054.253.754.553.553.853.6
1156.556.056.255.856.557.556.556.0
1258.558.058.358.059.058.559.258.5
1360.860.560.760.361.661.061.361.0
1463.663.563.562.963.062.562.762.8
1565.966.065.965.963.763.063.563.6
Median Weight (Pounds)
6494546.746464446.045
7545151.951524951.750
8615657.755585457.255
9676363.761656162.761
10746969.867736870.068
11817677.474827980.178
12908686.583928891.589
131019597.494104100103.8101
14115113111.2107115111114.2113
15128124124.5121122116121.4120
NOTE: New Zealand figures are interpolated median heights and weights.
Source: Department of Health

The various surveys show that New Zealand school children have exhibited a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries. The growth spurt appears at 11 and 12 years in girls and between 12 and 14 years in boys and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. There are no previous national statistics for New Zealand but it is probably that in line with other countries the development of secondary sex characteristics and the menarche are occurring earlier than in past years. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have been multifactorial and to include better housing and education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes in height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity assumes importance when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

In a study made in 1966 for the School of Physical Education at the University of Otago, Miss Kathryn McQuarrie showed that for Norwegian and Swedish children similar increases in heights and weights to those of New Zealand children had been recorded, and that for Japanese children the increases were relatively greater. It is of interest to note that for Norwegian and Swedish boys and girls over a period 50 years, there have been close correlations with the changes for New Zealand boys and girls, though in more recent years the New Zealand children have become relatively heavier.

ADULTS: RNZAF Survey 1960—In 1960 a survey was made of the height, weight (stripped), and age of the officers and men of the Royal New Zealand Air Force in New Zealand, Fiji, and Singapore. There were about 4,200 personnel involved; they had all been judged by the medical officers as fit, without any concern for apparent overweight. To an extent the RNZAF personnel would have constituted a select sample.

The average height was found to be 5 ft 8 in.; for those over 40 years of age the average was between 5 ft 7 in. and 5 ft 8 in.; for those under 30 years of age the average was between 5 ft 8 in. and 5 ft 9 in.

The average weight in pounds related to height and age of the officers and men is shown in the following table.

Height (in.)Age Group (Years)
17–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 +
 Weight (lb)
63131132137139140141142
64135136141143144145147
65139140145147148149152
66142144149151152153156
67146149153155156157161
68150153157159160161165
69153157160163164165169
70157161164167168169174
71161165168171172173178
72164169172175176177183
73168173176178179180187

A detailed analysis of the 528 persons in the age group 20–24 years gave the following statistics.

Height (in.)Number of PersonsWeight (lb)Number of Persons
     6321207
     64712513
     654413020
     664813528
     676714044
     6810214551
     697915083
     708215548
     714716037
     723516548
     73917036
     74517526
     75118023
       18519
       19012
       19533
  and over 
Totals528Totals528

As a guide to medical examiners on height-weight relationships the following table is used by the New Zealand Army; it reflects the rather heavier build of Maoris.

Height (in.)20–24 Years25–29 Years30–34 Years35–39 Years40–45 Years
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
 Weight (lb)
60128140132143137147141150145152
61132143137148141151145154148156
62136147141152145155148157151160
63140151145156148158151160154163
64143155148159151161155164157166
65146159151162155165158167160169
66150163155166158168160169163171
67154167158169161171163172166173
68158170161172164174166175168176
69162173165176168177169178170179
70165176168179171180172181173182
71168178172182174182175184176185
72172181176185178184179187180188
73176183179188181186182189183190
74179185182191183188184190185191
75182186184193185190186191186192
NOTE—All weights equal stripped weights, in pounds.

Likewise the following table used by the New Zealand Army sets out approximate height-weight relationships of New Zealand women; it does not provide any information on average height and average weight.

Height (in.)18–19 Years20–24 Years25–29 Years30–39 Years40–49 Years
Weight (lb)
60104120121129135
61107122123131137
62110124125133139
63114126127135143
64118128130137145
65121130133140146
66125132136143147
67130135140146148
68135139145149151
69140143148152153
70144146153157158
71149151157163164
72154157162170171
NOTE—Clothing would add 6 lb to the above net weights.

Other Surveys of Military Personnel—A study of the medical examination records of 10,742 compulsory military trainees in 1950–52 was made by H. C. A. Somerset and included in a thesis “Some Investigations into Dimensions of Physique and their Relationship to Rorschach Responses” submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington, These trainees, all youths and mostly aged 18 years, showed an average height of 68.38 inches and an average weight of 142.5 pounds.

In 1965 a study “The Physiques of Royal New Zealand Air Force Men” was made by J. E. Lindsay Carter and Maurice L. Rendle. The personnel measured were 458 regular servicemen of the RNZAF aged 16 to 52 years and constituting a haphazard sample from all trades and ranks up to and including wing commander. The typical RNZAF male was described as 68.6 inches tall and weighing 153.5 pounds. This sample would include some older men who tend to be heavier.

A study of Maori somatology was made by Sir Peter Buck using as his subjects the remnants of the Maori Battalion after the First World War. According to Buck, the weight and height of the men was fairly representative of the race as a whole, the average being, if anything, rather on the low side. The average height of 424 men was found to be 67.3 inches and the average weight of 384 men was 163.9 pounds. (Sir Peter Buck's study covered a wide range of other physical characteristics and was published in the Journals of the Polynesian Society in 1922 and 1923.)

Comparative Studies of Adults—Examinations of conscripts in Sweden have shown an increase in mean height of no less than 2.3 cm or nearly 1 inch (from 174.4 to 176.7 cm) from 1940 to 1960 (Official Statistics of Sweden).

In an article in the British Medical Journal of 24 October 1953 by E. M. B. Clements it is stated that there is no clear evidence to show that the mean height of men in Britain had increased since 1880.

Other studies by McCane, 1962, and Tanner, 1962, have led to the conclusion that during the past century the growth in height of the population of western Europe has increased by approximately 1 centimetre each decade, with no signs of ceasing. (2.54 centimetres equal 1 inch.)

A report in Newsweek of 29 July 1968 of studies at Vassar and Smith Colleges shows that between 1920 and 1968 the average height of 18-year-old boys increased from 69.0 in. to 70.2 in. and their average weight from 126.6 lb to 144.8 lb. For 18-year-old girls the average height increased from 62.4 in. to 64.4 in. and the average weight from 116.2 lb to 126.2 lb.

For purposes of comparison, some United States averages are given in the following table; they are based on a nationwide sample of 6,672 persons aged 17 to 79 years selected for the health examination survey conducted from October 1959 to December 1962 by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. (Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1966.)

ItemAge Group (Years)
17–1920–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475–79
Men
     Height in.68.268.769.168.568.267.466.965.9
     Weight lb168160171172172166160150
Women
     Height in.63.063.863.763.562.962.461.561.1
     Weight lb142129136144147152146138

Chapter 6. Section 6
SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL SECURITY AND CHILD WELFARE

GENERAL—Social services are continually evolving as a collective response to the changing needs of society. The operative basis for social security administration has been the acceptance by the community of responsibility for income maintenance and medical treatment of those who are handicapped or otherwise in need.

Social welfare policies and programmes have received increased emphasis at the personal level in New Zealand in recent years, and measures of co-ordination between Government and voluntary agencies have been strengthened. The social and cultural committee of the National Development Conference in 1969 recommended that the possibility of establishing one Government department responsible for all aspects of social welfare be given further consideration, as it would provide greater co-ordination and a more efficient service.

Following this an inter-departmental committee set up by the Minister of Social Security produced a plan for the merger of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education. The Department of Social Welfare Act 1971 established a new department on this basis from 1 April 1972.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori and Island Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Child Welfare Act 1925; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; and the Rehabilitation Act 1941.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Ministry may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, advisory, training, and research services as necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy and finance, and steps are being taken to strengthen the policy formation and advisory units and to provide a stronger research section to support the policy-forming units of the department. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information are to be established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To provide income security to safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income as reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment or other circumstances at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide supplementary assistance for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each 2 years at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers' Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems. With the establishment of the new department it is hoped to evolve more comprehensive policies of family care, preventive work, and community participation.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in foster homes licensed under the Infants Act 1908.

Added emphasis is to be given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Coordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to Government on rehabilitation.

SOCIAL SECURITY DEVELOPMENT—Social security is a comprehensive plan of State assistance by a system of cash benefits and free or subsidised medical and hospital provisions for the safeguarding of health. The principal objects of the legislation which came into operation on 1 April 1939 were: (a) to substitute a system of extended cash benefits on a contributory basis for the system of non-contributory civil pensions, e.g., old age, widows', and other pensions; (b) the inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits. The governing legislation is now the Social Security Act 1964.

Universal family benefits were introduced on 1 April 1946, since which date each mother has received a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property.

There is reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and with the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Under the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 the classes of benefits cover the following: age pensions and age benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits. The Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity between the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and New Zealand to cover age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', family, sickness, and unemployment benefits. A Royal Commission to inquire into social security began hearing submissions in December 1969. Its report was published in March 1972 as parliamentary paper H.53. A section of the report was reprinted as a special article in the 1972 issue of the Yearbook entitled Evolution of Social Security in New Zealand.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. It has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is contributory, because it is financed from taxation; it acts with the progressive income tax structure in redistributing income. But any person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in three main cases (superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of contributory tax paid.

  2. All the classes of benefit (other than family, miners', superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and supplementary assistance are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 65 years and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test. Mothers' allowances introduced in 1945 for those receiving widows' benefit, and the domestic purposes benefit and family maintenance allowance (1968) similarly recognised the importance of the family unit.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cluster of available cash and medical benefits gives a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to self help and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely the income-tested age benefit for men over 60 years and some women over 55 years, superannuation for people over 65 years, and the benefits for widows with dependent children or over a prescribed age recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Contribution through taxation is compulsory. The right to “contract out” on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare (who are often the same person).

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Act dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5B).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Child Welfare Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out was originally provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the fund was derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also made provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time. Social security tax and income tax were combined in the tax deduction tables prepared for the operation of the PAYE system from 1 April 1958. (An assessment for accounting purposes of the social security proportion was made until 31 March 1969, when this calculation was discontinued.)

On 1 April 1964 the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account in connection with a rearrangement of Government accounts.

From 1 April 1964 the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5B—Hospitals and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed six types of social security assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Supplementary assistance for those beneficiaries whose incomes and resources, including any social security benefit, cannot meet their particular needs or reasonable commitments.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public and subsidised private hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 65 years of age.

Social work and counselling help with personal problems of beneficiaries or potential beneficiaries. Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Cash benefits—$(thousand)
     Superannuation76,37480,60588,819101,009114,575
     Age57,49560,83367,00376,17388,441
     Widows'11,99512,62213,74215,93618,026
     Orphans'127137150179213
     Family71,45268,26672,31870,40273,886
     Invalids'5,2965,5146,0936,9858,017
     Miners'118106999594
     Unemployment2,1763,3021,4651,0042,683
     Sickness5,1565,5896,0737,1368,333
     Emergency2,2373,0774,0255,9488,613
     Supplementary assistance2,5202,7642,7033,1644,171
     Advances for repairs to homes7369546161
     Employment subsidy for disabled civilians68885
     Capitalisation of family benefit7,2377,7907,48610,6496,619
               Total, cash benefits242,262250,682270,038298,749333,737
Medical benefits—
     Medical8,8488,7859,69511,75611,797
     Hospital4,4414,8495,4876,6276,870
     Maternity2,0472,0692,9563,1333,821
     Pharmaceutical22,27224,45827,30830,78333,236
     Supplementary6,8557,2417,6289,37510,637
               Total, medical benefits44,46247,40253,07461,67466,361

During the year ended 31 March 1972 $188,554,640 or 58 percent of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance, advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) was paid without an income test.

Administration expenses for the year ended 31 March 1972 were $7,843,075 as compared with $6,587,916 the previous year.

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet National Income at Factor CostExpenditure*
Medical BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population†

* Excluding capitalised family benefits.

† Prior to 1965 benefits were paid to public hospitals when beneficiaries were receiving treatment.

 $(million)$     
Amount
19622,31545.966.9115.4228.293.47
19632,50447.564.6118.6230.792.34
19642,74248.468.5126.2243.195.32
19653,00236.565.9132.8235.390.46
19663,26139.670.2137.3247.093.31
19673,37042.266.8150.7259.796.35
19683,46844.471.4163 5279.3102.04
19693,64947.468.3174.5290.2105.03
19704,05153.172.3190.2315.6112.10
19714,65661.770.4217.6349.7123.52
19725,39266.373.9253.2393.4136.77
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income
19622.02.95.09.9
19631.92.64.79.2
19641.82.54.68.9
19651.22.24.47.9
19661.22.24.37.6
19671.32.04.57.7
19681.32.14.78.1
19691.31.84.78.0
19701.31.84.77.8
19711.31.54.77.5
19721.21.44.77.3

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of persons in respect of whom social security cash benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1972 was 1,315,074, or 4,519 per 10,000 of population. For the previous year the corresponding figures were 1,299,788 and 4,544 respectively. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force at 31 March for the 3 latest years and the annual value at 31 March were as follows.

Class of BenefitNumber in Force at 31 MarchAnnual Value at 31 March 1972
197019711972
 $(000)
Superannuation142,867146,299149,190122,950
Age98,905102,797106,68195,371
Widows'15,66315,89916,54018,557
Orphans'315319306191
Family408,397414,195420,96178,505
Invalids'8,3428,5578,6868,661
Miners'98917794
Unemployment9837152,935
Sickness5,8766,3066,863
Emergency5,2666,4228,177
Supplementary assistance12,88713,96817,120
               Totals699,599715,568737,536

In addition there were 1,071 pensions at 31 March 1972 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities”. This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

CASH BENEFITS—A summarised account of the changes in cash benefits from the inception of the social security scheme to 1957 was given on pages 205–206 of the 1958 issue of the Yearbook, and from 1957 to 1968 on page 176 of the 1969 issue. Since 1939 the original provisions have been considerably amended and enlarged to correct anomalies and to cover more comprehensively the needs of the people. In addition the rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living.

More recent increases for age, invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
 $$
14 May 19691.501.00
15 April 19701.000.50
  2 Sep 19702.001.00
  9 June 19712.001.25
16 Feb 19722.001.10
  5 July 19724.003.90

Persons employed outside New Zealand are deemed to be resident in New Zealand, where they are liable for the payment of income tax on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included.

The receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widow's pension does not affect a person's eligibility to receive a social security benefit.

The Director-General may, in his discretion, refuse to grant any benefit or terminate any benefit or reduce any benefit where the applicant (or in the case of family benefit the father or mother of the child) is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand, or has deprived himself of income or property to qualify for a higher rate of benefit than would otherwise have been the case.

Persons Wholly Dependent on Social Security—At the 1966 Census of Population and Dwellings there were 18,507 heads of households not in the labour force with no income apart from social security benefits and whose spouse also was without income.

Of the persons living alone at the 1966 Census there were 27,242 without income except for social security benefits. (Other such persons with limited incomes were as follows: $2-$199, 4,932; $200-$599, 8,696; $600-$999, 6,708; $1,000-$1,399, 7,389.)

SUMMARY OF RATES OF SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS—The list below gives a summary of the annual and weekly rates for cash benefits. (These rates were increased from 6 June 1973).

BenefitAnnual Rate†Weekly Rate†
16 February 19725 July 197216 February 19725 July 1972
* Any of above benefits with dependent children
Superannuation—$  $  $  $  
     Unmarried person8891,09217.1021.00
     Married person80691015.5017.50
Age—*
     Unmarried person8891,09217.1021.00
     Married couple if both eligible (each)80691015.5017.50
     Married woman whose husband is not eligible80691015.5017.50
     Married man whose wife is not eligible1,6121,82031.0035.00
Widows'—*
     Widow8891,09217.1021.00
Orphans' (each child)4945209.5010.00
Family (each child)781561.503.00
Invalids'—*
     Unmarried person, 18 years or over8891,09217.1021.00
     Unmarried person under 18 years75483214.5016.00
     Married man with wife included1,6121,82031.0035.00
     Married woman80691015.5017.50
Miners'—*
     Unmarried person8891,09217.1021.00
     Married man with wife included1,6121,82031.0035.00
     Miner's widow8061,00815.5019.40
Sickness—*
     Unmarried person under 18 years without dependants13.5016.00
     Unmarried person 18 years and over17.1021.00
     Married man with wife included31.0035.00
     Married woman 18 years and over15.5017.50
Unemployment—*
     Unmarried person under 20 years without dependants13.5016.00
     Unmarried person 20 years and over17.1021.00
     Married man with wife included31.0035.00
     Married woman 20 years and over15.5017.50
     Solo parent and 1 child1,66432.00
     Solo parent and 2 children1,82035.00
     Each subsequent child651.25
     Married couple and 1 child1,97638.00
     Each subsequent child651.25
Supplementary Assistance ..     ..     .. According to circumstances
Emergency ..     ..     .. According to circumstances

All statutory benefits except superannuation, family, and miners' are subject to an income test as follows (see under respective headings effect of income test on sickness and unemployment benefits).

A widow with a dependent child has an income exemption of $884 a year, while a widow without a child, or an age or invalids beneficiary has an exemption of $676 a year. Income over the exempted amount and up to $1,300 a year reduces the benefit by $1 for $2 and income above $1,300 by $3 for $4.

An orphan's benefit is reduced by $3 for $4 for income in excess of $260 a year.

Superannuation Benefits—Every person over the age of 65 years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualification is entitled to a superannuation benefit without regard to financial circumstances. The superannuation benefit is for income-tax purposes subject to withholding tax of 90c a week for a married beneficiary and $1.60 for an unmarried beneficiary. The residential qualification is, in general, a period of residence in New Zealand of 20 years. Allowances are made for occasional absences and for special circumstances such as service overseas with the armed forces, on missionary work, and with Volunteer Service Abroad.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other cash benefit except a family benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person concurrently.

Since 1960 the amount of the superannuation benefit has been equal to the age benefit.

Age Benefits—Every person who has attained the age of 60 years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to residential qualifications.

Age benefits are payable, in the discretion of the Director-General, to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to engage in regular employment.

The basic rate for a male recipient is doubled when his wife is ineligible for any benefit.

Age beneficiaries may surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

At 31 March 1972, 8,553 husbands received benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of (a) persons who were granted age benefits during the calendar year 1972 (including transfer from widows' and invalids' benefits), and (b) total age beneficiaries at 31 March 1972.

Age in YearsPersons Granted Age Benefits During 1972Total Age Beneficiaries at 31 March 1972
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
601,7183,1424,8609961,7112,707
615671,0981,6651,7123,5255,237
624775791,0562,0714,2006,271
634776561,1332,4154,6967,111
644612857462,5664,7677,333
       Totals, 60–643,7005,7609,4609,76018,89928,659
65–691,6709302,60012,79417,44030,234
70–743705609308,02211,21219,234
75 and over2404707106,80221,29428,096
            Totals5,9807,72013,70037,37868,845106,223

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit. No widow under 50 years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit. The term “children” may include (in the discretion of the Director-General) any child who is being maintained by the applicant and was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

Other classes of women (not being widows) may receive benefits as if they were widows. Any married woman who satisfies the Director-General that she has been deserted by her husband and has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1969 may be granted a widow's benefit as though she were a widow, provided that she would have been able to qualify for widow's benefit if her husband had died on the date he deserted her. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of a maintenance order or otherwise, are required to be paid to the department and any balance over and above the amount of the benefit is paid to the beneficiary. Benefits for deserted wives may be continued after divorce.

Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

“Special” benefits are paid to married women whose husbands have been patients in mental hospitals for at least 6 months.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' (including “special”) benefits in force at 31 March 1972.

StatusWith One Dependent ChildWith Two or More Dependent ChildrenWithout Dependent ChildrenTotal
Widows2,7903,0439,61315,446
Deserted wives2004993951,094
               Totals2,9903,54210,00816,540

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death, or whose last surviving parent cannot be found. A stepchild or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organisations. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the benefit may be continued until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of 18 years.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1972 was 306 (in respect of 418 children).

Family Benefits—Family benefits are payable irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is $3 a week for each child, having been increased from $1.50 on 5 July 1972, and is normally paid to the mother of the children.

The term “children” includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include—

  1. Any child who has attained the age of 16 years, unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time day pupil at a school or college, or is by reason of some physical or mental defect totally incapacitated from earning a living. In such cases the Director-General may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of 18 years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.

  3. Any child in respect of whom any other benefit or pension (other than a war pension or allowance in respect of his own disablement) is payable out of public moneys.

The Director-General may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely—

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Director-General is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Director-General nor in respect of any child in a psychiatric hospital.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child of a marriage or a child who has commenced his first year of secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts at 31 March 1972 was 148,200 and the amount lodged during the year was $27,381,810. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1972 was 420,961 covering 1,002,056 children, compared with corresponding figures of 414,195 and 1,000,451 at 31 March 1971. Included in the total were 3 incapacitated children over the age of 16 years; and at the end of 1971 school year there were 63,100 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The following table gives the number of family benefits in force at 31 May 1972 classified according to the number of children for whom the benefit was paid.

Number of Children in Each CaseNumber of Benefits at 31 May 1972
1125,598
2135,775
389,301
443,945
517,050
67,678
73,339
81,624
9720
10 or over444
               Total425,474

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.25 per family in 1950–51, 2.30 in 1952–53, 2.33 in 1954–55, 2.36 in 1956–57, 2.39 in 1958–59, 2.45 in 1960–61, 2.51 in 1965–66, and 2.38 in 1971–72.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $1.50 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of one or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $2,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $75 a week for a family with one child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedNumber of Children ConcernedCapitalised Value of Benefits
  $(000)
19629,73916,98811,919
19638,88414,93110,503
19648,13713,6049,756
19658,28814,07410,162
19667,48512,9869,250
19676,62111,2838,238
19686,55310,8117,901
19697,70812,7449,212
19708,37314,88910,696
19717,89514,43510,370
19725,3089,9207,031

Invalids' Benefits—Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of 16 years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of any congenital defect.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding 2 years in the aggregate, if the Director-General is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment of the eyes.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife. If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the Director-General: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The Director-General may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The rates of benefit may be reduced having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife in excess of $10 a week. For personal earnings of the applicant exceeding $10 a week the deduction is 10c for 10c of the excess. For income which is not earnings in excess of $10 a week the deduction is 10c for 20c up to $25 a week and thereafter 15c for every complete 20c.

The number of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1971 and 1972 were 9,857 and 28,249 respectively, 6,132 persons being granted a benefit in 1970–71 and 18,112 in 1971–72. At the end of March 1972 2,935 benefits were in force, compared with 715 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit or a dependent wife was included in 5,857 of the benefits granted during 1971–72 and in 873 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1972.

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 16 years who is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of $31 a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first 7 days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman is entitled to receive a sickness benefit only if the department is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The rate of benefit is reduced by 10c for every complete 20c of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of $10 a week but not in excess of $25 and 15c for every 20c in excess of $25 a week.

The number of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1971 and 1972 were 39,108 and 39,805 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits was 35,528 in 1970–71 and 35,349 in 1971–72.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1971 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 410,5002,96013,460
    5–85,8002,3408,140
    9–122,7801,7904,570
  13–253,7203,8907,610
  26–381,0809802,060
  39–51320200520
  52–77330150480
  78–10320050250
104 and over32090410
               Totals25,05012,45037,500

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data were obtained from an analysis of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1971.

Disease or InjuryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases1,3204804.8
Neoplasms4901301.7
Allergic, endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases5102001.9
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs60500.3
Mental, psychoneurotic, and personality disorders2,5001,55010.3
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs9601903.0
Diseases of the circulatory system2,3104307.3
Diseases of the respiratory system2,2505607.5
Diseases of the digestive system3,37074011.0
Diseases of the genito-urinary system4802902.0
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy5,66015.1
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue9501502.9
Diseases of the bones and organs of movement1,4803805.0
Congenital malformations70300.3
Senility, and ill-defined conditions1,7107306.5
Accidents, poisonings, and violence6,59088019.9
               Totals25,05012,450100.0

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Emergency benefits are paid to separated women and women who lose the support of de facto husbands of long-standing unions, wives of prisoners, unmarried mothers, etc. In return, the department has the authority to recover maintenance from the husbands where this is legally possible.

Supplementary Assistance—Supplementary assistance is available to social security beneficiaries and others who have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other resources, and are unable to help themselves. Continuing grants are made where the applicant's continuing commitments, e.g., food, fuel, rent, are in excess of the income received by this applicant, and lump sum grants may be made to meet some non-recurring expense. An analysis of these grants showing purpose and amounts of grants, is given in the parliamentary paper H. 9.

Relationship to Wages—In the following table standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings. (Source: Royal Commission of Inquiry.)

Year Ended 31 MarchStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award Wage†Percentage of Average Weekly Earnings‡
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

* Standard rate includes age, widows', miners', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids, sickness, and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years of age). Superannuation benefit became payable at half the shown married rate from 30 March 1960, while the higher rate for unmarried beneficiaries was extended to superannuation beneficiaries from 12 October 1960. A married superannuation beneficiary receives half the married rate.

† Relates to adult males only and is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are “weighted” according to their relative importance in the survey.

‡ In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

 $    $    %    %    %    %    
19464.008.00....31.663.1
19474.008.00....30.460.8
19484.509.00....30.961.8
19494.509.00....29.559.0
19505.0010.00....30.961.7
19515.7511.50....30.06.00
19525.7511.50....28.156.3
19535.7511.50....26.452.8
19546.7513.50....28.456.7
19557.0014.00....28.056.0
19567.5014.00....28.853.7
19577.9014.80....28.653.6
19588.2515.50....29.455.2
19599.0016.00....31.355.7
19609.5017.00....31.155.6
19619.5017.00....29.652.9
19629.5017.00....28.951.7
19639.7517.50....28.551.2
196410.0018.00....28.351.0
196510.6019.20....27.750.1
196610.6019.2029.152.826.748.4
196711.7521.5030.655.928.051.2
196811.7521.5030.054.827.249.7
196912.2522.5029.253.626.448.5
197013.2524.0029.553.526.347.6
197114.7527.0026.648.724.745.2
197221.0035.0033.255.431.151.8

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand non-income-test superannuation benefit) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia for a limited period, although the department may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1972 comprised 579 age benefits, 41 widows' benefits, 41 invalids' benefits, 4 sickness benefits, and 9 unemployment benefits, a total of 674 compared with 563 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

United Kingdom Residents in New Zealand—In New Zealand the agreement applies to former residents of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Isle of Man who claim age, superannuation, widows', orphans', family, invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act. Permanent residence in New Zealand is a requirement for age, widows', superannuation, invalids', and orphans' benefits.

The agreement modifies the residential requirements of the Social Security Act and enables persons who formerly lived in the United Kingdom to be treated as if they resided in New Zealand during any period they lived in the United Kingdom. This does not, however, apply in respect of any period an applicant for age or superannuation benefit resided in the United Kingdom before reaching the age of 16. Though the normal qualifying age for a grant of age benefit in New Zealand is 60 years, no man claiming age benefit by virtue of the agreement is entitled to receive it till he reaches 65 years.

The United Kingdom continues to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions to persons in New Zealand who are qualified under the national insurance scheme and, in such cases, New Zealand, where necessary, supplements the national insurance pensions to bring them up to the rate of the appropriate New Zealand benefit. There is no supplementation in cases where the national insurance retirement or widow's pension is equal to, or greater than the corresponding New Zealand social security benefit. Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1972 comprised 6,520 superannuation benefits, 4,369 age benefits, 272 widows' benefits, 2 orphans' benefits, 114 invalids' benefits, 6 sickness benefits, and 7 unemployment benefits, a total of 11,290 compared with 10,384 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The United Kingdom scheme is a contributory scheme, and payment of benefits is dependent upon the satisfaction of specified contributory conditions. Persons who formerly lived in New Zealand are treated as if they had paid contributions under the national insurance scheme for each week during which they were resident in New Zealand. The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of an age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand otherwise than by virtue of the Reciprocal Agreement, who leave New Zealand wholly or mainly for a visit to the United Kingdom, will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefits for the period of their absence. If the absence exceeds 1 year but not 2 years, on return to New Zealand consideration is given to paying arrears of benefit for the first 6 months of the absence. If they apply for, and receive, national insurance pensions while in the United Kingdom, the amount paid by the United Kingdom will be deducted from the arrears of social security benefit payable on their return.

CHILD WELFARE—Child welfare increasingly means involvement with social problems. There is no specific statutory requirement that the Department of Social Welfare should undertake preventive work, but it is clear that the earlier assistance is given to prevent children becoming delinquent or suffering through neglect or ill-treatment, the more likelihood there is of it being successful. Welfare policy has developed along these lines and the department provides care, protection, and treatment for all kinds of children in need. There is a general realisation in the community that the whole of society is affected by the problems which social workers grapple with. Most of the children with whom social workers are involved suffer from disabilities other than those manifested in delinquency and, like children born out of wedlock, the majority of children are brought to notice through no fault of their own.

Previously a part of the Department of Education, the Child Welfare Division has been amalgamated with the Social Security Department to form the Department of Social Welfare. The Child Welfare Act 1925 provides for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children, While this Act is the general statutory authority, the Infants Act 1908, the Adoption Act 1955, and the Child Care Centre Regulations 1960 provide the legislative basis for other particular aspects of the work.

Besides clerical officers, child welfare activities involve 290 social workers and 516 institution workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's Court; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Infants Act 1908; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance in many of these duties from 140 honorary social workers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Welfare of Children—Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. In the year ended 31 December 1971, 17,744 cases were handled. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. The higher number of such births in recent years has had its effect in the adoption situation. However, over half of these children born each year remain with their mothers or with both parents who are cohabiting or who subsequently marry, and not all the remainder are made available for adoption. In fact only 30 percent of children born out of wedlock in 1971 were available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. Further details are given in section 4B, Births.

The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto marriages and in the proportion of mothers willing to undertake the sole care of a child. It has also to be recognised that because speedy placements for adoption have been more difficult to effect over recent years some mothers may have been obliged to keep children they would otherwise have offered for adoption.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement fox' adoption of a child under 15 years or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Under Part V of the Infants Act 1908 any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 7 days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1970 social workers were visiting 452 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $2 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 50 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.) have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result, it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children's Courts—Children's Courts are presided over by stipendiary magistrates who are authorised to exercise jurisdiction in these courts. Very wide discretionary powers are given to Children's Courts. Wherever practicable the hearings are conducted in premises apart from the Magistrate's Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child for the purposes of the Act is a person up to 17 years of age.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not, under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After the court has heard the complaint or the charge and considered the social worker's report, the child—according to the needs of the case—may be committed to the care of the Director-General of Social Welfare, or placed under the supervision of a social worker for a period (usually 1 year or 2 years), or discharged with an admonition. Occasionally, orders for the payment of restitution may be made against either the child or parent, and fines also may be imposed. Alternatively, if the case warrants it, the child may be sent to borstal or to a detention centre or be placed on probation.

Appearances before the Children's Courts in the 3 latest calendar years and the rates per 10,000 children aged 10 to 17 years are given in the following table:

Reason for AppearanceNumberRate
196919701971196919701971
For offences against special Acts, regulations, or bylaws694860995161923
For more serious offences6,3358,2349,755141179208
               Subtotals7,0299,09410,750157198231
On “complaints” under the Child Welfare Act1,3461,5712,044
               Totals8,37510,66512,794

The decisions made in Children's Courts are shown in the summary below for the three latest calendar years.

Decision196919701971
Committed to the care of the Director-General of Social Welfare8391,0451,176
Placed under supervision of social workers3,0653,7534,176
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine3,0644,0215,200
All other decisions1,4071,8462,242
               Totals8,37510,66512,794

A new approach to the problem of delinquency was the establishment throughout New Zealand in 1959 of a youth aid section of the New Zealand Police. The aim is to detect delinquency at an early stage and, by close co-operation between social workers and specialist police officers, to deal with the less serious offenders without court action. The police, after consultation with social workers, decide whether or not there will be a prosecution. For those not being prosecuted appropriate action is taken, for example, in the form of a warning from the police or continuing informal supervision by social workers. During the year ended 31 December 1971, 10,978 cases were dealt with under this scheme without prosecution, an increase of 26 percent over the previous year's figures.

State Wards—Where a child's circumstances or behaviour causes such concern that it is in his best interests for him to be removed from his own home, a magistrate in a Children's Court may make an order committing the child to the care of the Director-General of Social Welfare. This means that the legal guardianship is transferred from the parents to the Director-General, and the child is taken from home. However, continuing efforts are made to keep the child in touch with his own family and, if possible, to return him home eventually. Many of the children who are committed to the care of the Director-General and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed immediately in foster homes and go to school or work. Those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Director-General. Some few reside in private institutions and some are in boarding schools.

Of the total of 16,356 children under the control and supervision of the Director-General of Social Welfare and his officers at 31 December 1971, 5,515 were under the guardianship of the Director-General and were placed as shown in the following summary.

Category*NumberPercentage of Total
1970197119701971
* The categories within this summary have been amended from previous years. For purposes of comparison the 1970 figures have also been revised.
Residing in individual private homes (foster homes, employers' or relatives homes)3,7243,9347271
In institutions administered by the Department of Social Welfare or Department of Justice (including those temporarily admitted)9961,0991920
In hospitals (including psychiatric hospitals)17613732
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)17218734
In private institutions11915033
Attending university or teachers' training colleges188
               Totals5,2055,515100100

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Department of Social Welfare administers several different types of institution. There are long-term training institutions for disturbed and delinquent adolescents. They are essentially open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Three other small institutions provide separately for girls and boys of primary school age who are so difficult or disturbed as to require special educational and social training. A small hostel for girls at Wellington provides for some who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel. There are 12 girls' homes and boys' homes in the larger centres and two reception centres (at Auckland and Hamilton) which provide remand facilities, temporary care, and observation. Children not requiring institutional care but presenting behaviour and personality problems beyond the capacity of most ordinary foster parents are provided for in “Family Homes”. These are private houses owned by the department and occupied rent-free by specially selected married couples who receive board payments and agree to care for children on a long-term basis as a condition of the tenancy. These homes are also used to provide transit accommodation in areas in which there is no receiving girls' home, or boys' home. Of the 78 homes in operation at 31 March 1972, approximately a third were used as hostels for working adolescents and for children being discharged from institutions.

Children Under Supervision—Children placed by the courts under supervision of social workers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the social worker arranges placement elsewhere—e.g., in employment. Magistrates have the authority to order that part or all of the period of supervision be spent in an institution. Most children placed under supervision respond well; where they do not they may appear before the court again and be committed to the care of the Director-General. There were 4,013 children under supervision at 31 December 1971.

Preventive cases, numbering 3,815 at 31 December 1971, consist of children who, without any court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by social workers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

WELFARE OF MAORIS AND PACIFIC ISLANDERS—The legislative basis of the Maori welfare programme is the Maori Welfare Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori welfare organisations consist of two statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Maori and Island Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The main organisation in the non-statutory group is the Maori Women's Welfare League. It was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3,000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, women's and other organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of the higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The primary function of the New Zealand Maori Council is to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department, through the activities of its welfare division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with him.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their associations for the promotion of welfare. The subsidy granted in the financial year ended 31 March 1972 amounted to $38,366.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department, again primarily through its welfare division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties. Special responsibilities are accepted for the housing, employment, educational, and welfare needs of Tokelau Islanders arriving under the official resettlement scheme.

An inter-departmental committee fosters and finances research into social and educational aspects of Maori and Islander welfare.

Maori welfare officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, truant officers, and so on. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary function is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori welfare officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the welfare officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of the time of the welfare staff is occupied in informing Maori parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities.

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

GENERAL—The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in two world wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of war service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY—All pensions payable to or on account of former members of the armed forces, the mercantile marine, and the Emergency Reserve Corps are governed by the War Pensions Act 1954.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances, from October 1972. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost-of-living basis. (From 1 April 1973 there was an increase of 50c a week for total disablement and war widow's basic pensions.) Increases as for social security were made on 6 June 1973.

PensionWeekly Rate
* Family maintenance allowance is payable in addition to these pensions and allowances.
$    
Disablement pension—
               Total disablement17.20
     Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement10.40
Economic pension*—
     Unmarried person21.00
     Married person17.50
Wife's pension*17.50
War widow's pension—
     Basic pension12.60
     Economic pension21.00
     Mother's allowance—
          One dependent child11.00
          Two dependent children14.00
               Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child
Orphan's pension11.05
Child's pension3.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—
     Basic pension12.60
     Economic pension*21.00
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
     Basic pension4.00
     Economic pension*18.75
War service pension and war veteran's allowance*—
     Unmarried21.00
     Married male17.50
     Married female17.50
     Age supplement (each)1.50
     Gratuity (veteran's widow)33.60
* Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)—
     Solo parent and one child32.00
     Solo parent and two children35.00
          Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child
     Married couple and one child38.00
          Increased by $1.25 for each subsequent child 

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds 313 a week or $676 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, $15 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions to Dependants (other than Wives or Children)—In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family. The parents of a male member of the forces are included in the definition of dependant in every case, without proof of pre-service dependency.

Economic Pensions—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify as applicants for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent, unable by reasons of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determination of the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the age, sickness, or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

SUPPLEMENTARY ASSISTANCE—Supplementary assistance is available on a similar basis to social security supplementary assistance. During the year ended 31 March 1972 there were 489 grants totalling $72,668, compared with 714 grants totalling $72,457 in the previous year.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During 1971–72, 1,491 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $135,665 for the year. The 1970–71 figures were 1,881 bursaries and $153,194.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research for the benefit of ex-servicemen and the community in general.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1972 the department dealt with 3,730 applications for war pensions. Of these, 777 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 2,825. Of these, 653 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pensions Board dealt with in 1971–72 was 131, of which 29 were upheld.

Summary of Disabilities for Which Pensions Granted 1939–72—The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1972.

Class of Disability or DiseaseType of ServiceTotalPercentage of Total
Overseas (1939–45)K ForceJ ForceNew Zealand
Infections and infestations2,0639281632,3263.7
Nervous system9,83344131,75611,64618.3
Eye, ear, and nose7,427107221,6639,21914.5
Circulatory and blood system2,7461031,0853,8446.0
Metabolism and endocrine system445211806281:0
Respiratory system3,83931541,2465,1708.1
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,54633101,9037,49211.8
Digestive system4,78839131,2416,0819.5
Generative system355111264830.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues8,409126302,21310,77816.9
Skin2,59131125573,1915.0
Areolar tissue50229810.1
Tumours and neoplastic growth2302582900.5
Malformations31011324430.7
Amputations (not including fingers and toes)5144305480.9
Urinary tract652831658281.3
Debility4461095550.9
               Totals50,24453317012,65663,603100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces (1,104) and war service pensions (1,698), at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–43)K ForceWar VeteransSouth AfricanMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
196213,84524,67620914,7491729817853,711
196313,10424,73720315,1851627817453,454
196412,55624,52118414,3501425821251,870
196511,94624,62916713,8941223829550,974
196611,38924,71619013,4881121837750,200
196710,67624,50820412,8451023538648,657
196810,16024,49723912,642720641947,990
19699,50724,37726112,366725944246,994
19708,83624,25425512,032625842345,839
19713,25024,04423011,7015261042344,689
19727,64023,27523710,183426649041,861
Expenditure $(000)
19626,5835,8762612,25011842224,780
19636,3786,4181812,72010841725,573
19646,7566,9672712,928101042926,731
19656,5867,1262213,3489943727,142
19666,5077,8292313,2999854827,728
19676,5718,0183313,6368955628,336
19686,3998,3104213,5218955828,352
19696,1258,5174613,58249410228,389
19706,3039,4345414,19541057130,077
19716,2099,8246015,10251277331,292
19726,53011,9077015,43051477334,036

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following: (a) travelling allowances of $1 a week paid to 997 pensioners at 31 March 1972; (b) clothing allowances, of which 1,098 were being paid at 31 March 1972; (c) gallantry awards. The following are not included: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $235,413 in 1971–72; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $46,218 in 1971–72; (c) loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities cost $102 in 1971–72; (d) funeral grants which cost $48,152 in 1971–72; and (e) loans towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners (16 loans in 1971–72 totalling $22,415).

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Social Welfare Department which are given in Section 6A.

Pensions paid in respect of the two World Wars and the Korean war are shown by class in the following table.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
19676,6268953,1411410,676
19686,1867813,1761710,160
19695,6396633,193129,507
19705,1065823,135138,836
19714,6834983,06098,250
19724,1874193,02777,640
Second World War, 1939–45
196721,2279531,89543324,508
196821,1579372,00439924,497
196920,9979652,04537024,377
197020,8629532,09234724,254
197120,5809562,19431424,044
197220,2565042,22429123,275
K Force
196719284204
196822595239
1969244863261
19702361054255
19712141015230
1972226614237

The next table shows the number of disability pensions in force at 31 March 1972, classified according to percentage of disablement.

Percentage of DisablementFirst World War 1914–18Second World War 1939–45K ForceTotal
* Includes “over 100 percent” disablement which is a special rate pension for total blindness or other serious disablement.
100*8781,853192,750
90–9947125172
80–891654652632
70–7937289071,269
60–691926508850
50–594221,358101,790
40–495661,617202,203
Under 401,54513,29816015,003
               Totals4,18720,25622624,669

Numbers of economic pensions at 31 March 1972 are now given, together with the totals as at 31 March 1972.

Class of PensionFirst World War 1914–18Second World War 1939–45K Force
Disablement64065313
Widows2,1911,5201
Widowed mothers31792
               Totals at 31 March 19722,8342,35216
                   Totals at 31 March 19713,0723,12113

REHABILITATION—The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments made provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen, and an extensive programme was promoted by the Rehabilitation Board, the National Rehabilitation Council, and the Rehabilitation Department. Under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953, regulations were made for the rehabilitation and protection of servicemen and dependants of servicemen who served overseas in connection with any emergency under the United Nations Charter or otherwise.

The Rehabilitation Board determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

Rehabilitation Assistance—All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K force ceased on 31 March 1965.

Resettlement assistance is available to ex-servicemen with minimum service of 6 months in the Southeast Asia area. Closing dates for housing and furniture loans have been set at 5 years from the date qualifying service ceased. Applications for subsidised trade training, and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the 2 latest years ended 31 March was as follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1971Year Ended 31 March 1972
 $(000)$(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance3326
Trade training—
     Payments to Disabled Re-establishment League, etc.109
     Training of blinded ex-servicemen814
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans)1,894
Loans—
     Interest concessions1,1881,045
     Loans authorised3,8033,815
Reserve Fund contributions5353
Suspensory loans, etc.1
               Totals6,9904,962

6 C—SUPERANNUATION

GENERAL—Superannuation for all Government employees is available under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1956.

Local Government employees and employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950 which also authorises certain schemes for members of the general public.

There are also a considerable number of private superannuation funds and some information about them is given at the end of this subsection.

The Government has announced proposals for a national superannuation scheme involving the whole labour force which it proposes to phase in over four years from 1974.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948. Its revenues consist of contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Revenue Account and other funds, and interest earned on investments.

The fund is administered by a board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director-General of Education, the Director-General of the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, five members appointed on the nomination of the various employee organisations, and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—Membership of the Superannuation Fund is now available for all employees of the State. These include employees of departments of State under the control of the State Services Commission, and also those employed in the Education Service, the Railways Department, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, and Prisons Service, also for members of the Judicature (judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Arbitration), Maori Land Court judges, magistrates, and members of Parliament. A contributor to the fund who enters the service of the Government of Western Samoa or of the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation may, if the board agrees, continue to contribute to the fund. In addition, the fund has continued to be the vehicle for the superannuation scheme for the Cook Islands and Niue Public Services.

Compulsory membership also applies to any person, other than a married woman, who has become permanently employed in the Government service after 1 January 1964, and who is at least 17 and less than 25 years of age.

Contributions—Those who decided not to join the adjustment scheme which commenced on 15 June 1969 (see under Benefits), pay contributions ranging from 5 percent to 10 percent of salary, depending on the age at which contributory service began. The rate of increase is in 1 percent steps for each 5 years of age, 5 percent being the percentage for those who join when under 30 years of age.

Those who have not opted out of the adjustment scheme and those who have begun their contributory service after 31 December 1969 pay 1 percent of salary additional to the above rates.

An alternative modified scheme, applicable to both situations, was introduced in 1955 under which contributors may elect to contribute only 60 percent of contribution rates and receive only 60 percent of the standard benefits.

Benefits—Upon retirement a contributor entitled to a retiring allowance may elect to accept a refund of his contributions, or an allowance. If he chooses the latter he may vary the normal allowance by electing to; (a) take an increased allowance to age 65, reducing thereafter, (b) surrender a portion of the allowance to provide after his death an annuity for his widow or other approved dependant, (c) surrender not more than one-quarter of his retiring allowance and to receive in lieu a lump sum payment equal to nine times the amount of the allowance surrendered.

Standard retiring allowances are computed at the rate of one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, to which is added an equal amount by way of employer subsidy. However, the latter is not permitted to exceed one-third of the annual salary. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is taken to be the average of that received during the 5 years immediately preceding retirement, although in special cases (i.e., the first computed portion of the retiring allowance is less than $300) the average salary received during the last 3 years may be used if it results in a more favourable computation.

A scheme for adjusting retiring allowances in accordance with increases in the cost of living (as measured by the Consumers' Price Index) was introduced as from 15 June 1969. Annuitants qualify for these adjustments as from their sixtieth birthday or their date of retirement, whichever is the later (although there is provision for earlier qualification in the case of those who retire medically unfit). For those who had retired before 15 June 1969 their adjustments will be based on 60 percent of cost-of-living movement. For those who were contributing at that date and came into the adjustment scheme (see under Contributions) their adjustments will be based on 60 percent of cost-of-living increases plus a proportion of the additional 40 percent based on the relationship between the period during which they pay the additional contributions involved and their total period of contributory service. Those members with contributory service commencing after 15 June 1969 will receive adjustments based on 100 percent of cost-of-living changes.

Retiring allowances and other benefits are paid in advance in instalments every 28 days. No recovery is made should the beneficiary die during the benefit period.

When a married contributor dies, his widow may elect to receive a refund of his contributions or an allowance at half the rate of the allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired on the date of his death. The widow of a superannuitant may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half the rate of his retiring allowance, disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance for an approved dependant. Widows' annuities are included in the cost-of-living adjustment mentioned above, with the qualifying age reduced from 60 to 55 years.

The amount of the widow's annuity cannot be less than $390 ($234 in the modified scheme). In addition, $78 per annum ($46.80 in the modified scheme) is paid for each child under 16 years of age (or 18 if still receiving full-time education) left by a deceased contributor or superannuitant. The widow's benefit is payable only during widowhood but is reinstated if after remarrying she again becomes a widow.

When a female contributor or superannuitant dies leaving a husband who can satisfy the board that he was totally or partially dependent on her immediately before her death, a widower's annuity, calculated on a similar basis to the widow's benefit, may be paid.

Variation of General Conditions—As stated above, membership of the fund is compulsory for the Police, members of the Prisons Service, and for the armed forces. Members of the Police and Prisons Service are obliged to retire at age 60 and, to enable late entrants to obtain the equivalent of 40 years' service for superannuation purposes, there are special provisions for the computation of their allowances. Where contributory service commenced after age 25, each year in the Police and Prisons Service is deemed to be one year and one-seventh. Where contributory service commenced after age 20 but before age 25, a lesser proportion is added. An increased rate of contributions is payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Members of the armed forces may qualify for a retiring allowance after 20 years' service irrespective of age, while for the general service qualifications range from 40 years' service to 65 years of age in accordance with date of entry into the fund. As from 20 April 1972 a special cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced for the armed forces. Participating members will pay an extra 0.7 percent of salary additional to the rate payable under the main adjustment scheme (see under Contributions). In return for this they are now entitled to cost-of-living adjustments reflecting movements in the Consumers' Price Index since retirement, although they do not receive the actual initial adjustment at an earlier time than any other superannuitant (see under Benefits).

Prior to the implementation in 1962 of equal pay for women in the State Services, female contributors could retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching 55 years of age. Those employed at 1 April 1962 may still do so but women who have joined the fund since then have to satisfy the same retiring allowance qualifications as do males.

Members of the Judicature contribute at the rate of 8 percent of their salary. Their retiring allowances are based on a scale which varies according to length of service. The result of the formula is that after 10 years' service a pension equal to six twenty-fourths of the annual salary at date of retirement is payable, increasing by one twenty-fourth of that salary for each year over 10. The allowance, however, is not to exceed sixteen twenty-fourths of that salary. A widow of a judge is entitled to half her husband's retiring allowance subject to a minimum of 15 percent and a maximum of 25 percent of the husband's final salary.

Magistrates and judges of the Maori Land Court contribute 9 percent of their salary. Their retiring allowances are based on one thirty-sixth of the annual salary at the date of retirement for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. The widow's benefit is calculated in the same way as for judges' widows.

Members of all the groups mentioned above are entitled to a retiring allowance at any stage if they become substantially unfit for further duty. The allowances are based on the period of contributory service completed and are computed in the normal manner.

Members of Parliament contribute 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary. A member qualifies for a pension if he retires from Parliament having completed not less than 9 years service as a member, or not less than 8 years when he has served throughout the duration of not less than three sessions. The allowance is payable from age 50 onwards. The allowance is computed at the rate of one thirty-second part of an ordinary member's salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. The standard provisions for widows', widowers', and children's benefits apply.

STATISTICS—At 31 March 1972 there were 109,015 contributors who paid $29,014,929 for the year into the fund. The pensioners at the same time numbered 28,348 and were entitled to $33,266,760 a year, made up as follows.

Class of PayeeMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
 $(000)
Retired for age or length of service14,7063,37318,07927,593
Retired for ill-health8992091,108875
Widows and dependent widowers7,8757,8754,698
Children6786081,286100
               Totals16,28312,06528,34833,266

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1972 amounted to $203,664,935. Total assets, which amounted to $204,556,061 included—investments $195,186,600; interest due and accrued, $2,441,248; contributions in course of transmission, etc., $1,270,961; and cash in hand and at bank $5,657,252.

The average effective interest earnings of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1971 was 5.23 percent.

The total revenue of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1972 was $67,955,128 including members' contributions $29,170,223, interest on investments and on contributions $9,642,106, other items $1,470 and subsidy $29,141,329. The total amount expended during the year was $41,281,804 including retiring and other allowances $35,464,113, and refunds of contributions $5,817,691.

In the Parliamentary Superannuation Account revenue was $132,623 including contributions $63,131, subsidy $63,131, and interest $6,361. Expenditure on retiring and other allowances was $84,887 while refunds of contributions totalled nil.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments, and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund
* Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1968100,75313,7115,83119,53124,396125,776
1969103,45114,5106,57420,17325,405138,319
1970105,00017,5727,27722,74130,250151,901
1971107,85723,5908,25528,06231,084174,944
1972109,01529,1709,64229,14133,267203,665

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911 with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the public. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950 and its amendments.

The fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The board now provides five distinct services:

  1. Public Fund—It provides pension schemes for individual members of the general public and schemes for members of approved friendly societies, employees of firms, trade unions, etc.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—It administers superannuation schemes for employees of all local authorities, quasi-government organisations and other approved organisations.

  3. National Farm Workers Superannuation Scheme—It administers an employer subsidised superannuation scheme for farm employees.

  4. National Superannuation Scheme—It administers an employer subsidised superannuation scheme for employees of firms and companies.

  5. Local Authorities Investment Pool—It controls the investment pool into which local authorities may temporarily invest otherwise idle funds.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under the schemes and in most cases provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of contributions. However, no State subsidy is payable in the National Farm Workers Superannuation Scheme and the National Superannuation Scheme. The Government guarantees minimum interest earnings instead. The trading quasi-government organisations in the local authorities schemes themselves meet the subsidy which is payable by the State in the case of the local authorities.

The State meets all administration expenses.

Public Fund—Membership of the public part of the National Provident Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years, and under the age of 60 years.

There are two schemes. The Level Premium Scheme, which is not at present available to new contributors, permits a contributor to purchase a predetermined amount of pension from age 60 years by the payment of fixed, regular contributions, with the first $20 per week of pension attracting the State subsidy of 25 percent of contributions. After 5 years' membership contributors qualify for ancillary benefits in the form of incapacity allowances and widows' and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which is currently available, enables members to purchase a pension by making contributions of any amount as and when they like. At the end of each 12-monthly period the total contributions made during the periods are applied towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years. Only the first $1,000 of contributions in any 12-monthly periods attracts State subsidy while, as in the Level Premium Scheme, the subsidy is limited to the first $20 per week of pension purchased. There is a widow's benefit provided.

In both the schemes the contributor, when he reaches 60 years of age, may defer uplifting the pension (but to not later than age 65) and the pension ultimately payable increases 10 percent for each year of deferment. At the same time he may elect to continue contributing and thus further increase the ultimate benefits.

When the pension becomes payable the following options are provided:

  1. Both schemes—Up to one-quarter of the pension may be surrendered in exchange for a lump sum equivalent to nine times the amount of annual pension forgone.

  2. Level Premium Scheme—The contributor may elect to receive a joint and survivorship pension with wife (husband). This means that the pension is immediately reduced but continues unchanged until the death of the surviving spouse.

  3. Annual Single Premium Scheme—The contributor may elect to surrender portion of his pension to provide an additional amount for his widow or an annuity for an approved dependant.

Local Authorities Superannuation—There are uniform superannuation conditions for the employees of all local authorities in New Zealand, although slight variations are made to suit the special needs of particular groups, e.g., nurses and firemen. The schemes embrace the staff of quasi-government organisations, e.g., producer boards, but again there are special variations when required (e.g., aircrew of the National Airways Corporation and of Air New Zealand). The schemes also cover teachers in private schools.

The standard benefits and contributions are substantially the same as those for the Government Superannuation Fund (see section on that fund). As there is provision for transfer to and from the Government superannuation scheme the result is that State and local authority employees have a wide range of transfer without loss of accrued superannuation rights.

A scheme for adjusting retiring allowances in accordance with increases in the cost of living (as measured by the Consumers' Price Index), similar to that introduced in June 1969 for current and retired State employees, was introduced on 1 April 1971 for employees and annuitants of local authorities and other approved contributing employers. The scheme is applicable to all contributing employees, and annuitants where their former employer has agreed to participate and meet the costs of the subsidies involved. In all other respects the scheme is similar to that introduced in the Government Superannuation Fund.

National Scheme for Farm Employees—This scheme, which is employer-subsidised, was prepared with the co-operation of the Federated Farmers of New Zealand and is designed to meet the special needs of farm employees who are accustomed to serve more than one employer during their working lifetime. The basis of the scheme is contributions by the employees matched by the employer. They are accumulated with interest and bonus (with the State guaranteeing a minimum return of 4 percent) and used to purchase an annuity on retirement (normally between 60 and 65 years of age). At this stage the employee may take a quarter of the proceeds in a lump sum, or up to the whole proceeds if the money is needed for housing purposes. The scheme includes a benefit for widows while, unlike other schemes within the fund, a withdrawing contributor receives interest, at the rate of 3 percent, on his personal contributions as they are refunded. Interest on contributions to this scheme are currently accumulating at 6 percent a year. Pensions may be adjusted each year if the cost of living increases, subject to Reserve fund adequacy.

National Superannuation Scheme—This scheme was introduced in 1969. It is based on the same principle as the national farm workers superannuation scheme. It is divided into subschemes for each of 14 different occupational groups. The scheme permits an employee to vary his contribution rate from time to time as his financial circumstances change, to transfer his interest in the scheme from one employer to another or to cease contributions without loss of his accumulated superannuation rights.

Employers may subsidise staff into the national scheme without the usual requirements of a trust deed, but may still claim the subsidy as a cost for taxation purposes. Interest on contributions to this scheme are currently accumulating at 6 percent a year. Pensions may be adjusted each year if the cost of living increases, subject to Reserve fund adequacy.

Contributions to the National Provident Fund schemes may be claimed as a special exemption from income, for income tax purposes within the limits allowed by the Inland Revenue Department for superannuation contributions and life assurance premiums.

Investment Pool—Nearly 600 local authorities and other approved bodies are now paying money into the fund for investment. Since the inauguration of the pool in 1955 the total amount invested in the fund has been $1,187.1 million and the total amount withdrawn $1,088.8 million, leaving a balance of $98.3 million invested in the fund as at 31 March 1972. The following table shows the various terms for which the money is invested in the fund and the different classes of local authorities supporting the pool as at 31 March 1972.

Class of Local AuthorityAt Call3–6 months6–12 months1 and under 2 years2 and under 3 years3 and under 5 yearsSinking FundsTotal
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Cities and boroughs13.3800.7761.4014.1701.1926.3464.18331.448
Counties3.0670.1280.5910.5120.4572.1301.1037.988
Electric power boards1.9020.0240.7110.3470.0865.5172.36210.949
Fire boards0.2940.0010.0220.0050.0450.0960.1060.569
Harbour boards1.3170.2410.4910.1030.6594.9420.9868.739
Hospital boards4.2151.3943.3292.3570.6441.5707.63121.140
Sundry local authorities0.9970.4420.6860.3620.1441.7390.9405.310
Other approved bodies4.4490.6450.4601.0251.5993.97512.153
               Totals29.6213.6517.6918.8814.82626.31517.31198.296

About one-half of the pool is made up of short-term money which cannot be expected to be retained by the fund for very long and, as a result, a considerable portion must of necessity be invested in readily realisable short-term Government stocks. From the longer-term money has developed a “hard core” from which it has been possible for the fund to augment substantially its normal investable income for lending to local authorities.

Investment of Funds—The following table shows the details of investment of all funds, i.e., including pool moneys.

Class of SecurityInvestments at 31 March
197019711972
 $(000)
Government stock84,77673,77658,174
Local authority debentures145,284169,618197,276
Mortgages1,5111,4301,433
Company shares and debentures478478474
Western Samoan Government stock224224348
               Totals232,273245,526257,705

Other Statistical Information—The numbers of contributors at 31 March 1972 were as follows.

FundMalesFemalesTotal
Public fund25,9823,94929,931
Local authorities13,3973,69717,094
               Totals39,3797,64647,025

Summarised statistics are set out for the last 3 years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197019711972
New contributors5,1355,4927,336
Total contributors at end of year41,84943,02147,025
Pensioners and other beneficiaries7,7328,0038,266
Income—$(000)$(000)$(000)
     Contributions8,89611,46417,298
     Interest7,6947,7399,129
     State subsidy1,8662,2383,553
               Total income (including State subsidy)18,45621,44129,980
Outgo—
     Pensions (includes capitalisation of retiring allowances)3,9784,2775,132
     Other benefits1,6161,7671,752
     Total outgo5,5946,0446,884
Funds at end of year126,579141,976165,071
Investment Pool at end of year113,647109,15298,296
 %%%
Effective earning rate of fund6.186.196.24

6 D—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

GENERAL—The earlier popularity of friendly societies in this country is shown in the following table.

YearMembers
188318,843
189026,013
190040,257
191068,006
192074,210
1930107,167
1940104,446
195074,991
196066,347
196565,325
196664,525
196764,053
196863,106
196962,416
197061,463
197160,849

This popularity can be readily understood, for the lodges provided not only a social centre for their members, but also benefits that were of very great value. These benefits were usually a sickness benefit, a death benefit and, what was often regarded as the major attraction, provision whereby, for a small sum, the member, his wife, and children could obtain the services of a doctor without charge and to obtain any medicines, free of cost, that might be prescribed. Auxiliary benefits to assist with hospital expenses were also introduced. Membership of the societies was profoundly affected by the introduction of the Social Security Act in 1938. In 1938 membership exceeded 113,700; between 1938 and 1945 the impact of the introduction of social security and the war caused a fall in membership of over 30,000—about 27 percent. Losses since then have been at a lower rate—below 2 percent per year. The problem for the societies has been their inability to attract new members in sufficient numbers to cover losses by deaths and withdrawals. Most of the funds are invested in first mortgage and have been maintained by increased earnings from interest and extensions of insurance activities.

Friendly societies are governed by the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. All societies and branches must register with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also furnish annual statements of their finances.

Lodges and Members—The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of OrderRegistrationsLodge Members*
196919701971196919701971
* Membership figure relates to “actuarial” societies only.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows23022722229,56928,88728,575
Independent Order of Oddfellows1781771756,3136,1636,076
National Independent Order of Oddfellows111232118
Ancient Order of Foresters10093918,5328,4728,361
United Ancient Order of Druids13313212911,09610,88610,658
Independent Order of Rechabites3230301,9591,9011,858
Order of Sons of Temperance3332842671,255
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111464340
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society6868664,3184,5584,761
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australia999276265247
Isolated friendly societies747575
Working-men's clubs282828
Specially authorised societies85107122
               Totals94295195262,41661,46360,849

During the year 2,274 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 694 by clearance; 1,294 died, 700 left by clearance, and 1,588 by arrears, etc. Membership has dropped to half in the last 30 years.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (687 in 1971) for which returns were received and tabulated by the Treasury.

Mortality and Sickness—In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last 5 years no account has been taken of age incidence.

YearDeaths of MembersPer 1,000 Members at RiskDeaths of Members' WivesPer 1,000 Members at Risk
19671,35120.802894.45
19681,34320.902684.17
19691,42022.372313.64
19701,41522.592503.99
19711,29420.942113.41

The number of members sick during 1971 was 6,397 equal to 10.8 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1971 was 178,211 weeks, equal to 27 weeks 4 days per sick member and 3 weeks for each member at risk.

Funds of Friendly Societies—The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1971 amounted to $35,698,374 made up as follows.

FundsAmountAssetsAmount
 $(000) $(000)
Sickness and funeral funds18,071Investments at interest29,774
Surplus appropriation funds, etc.4,239Value of land and buildings5,489
Management funds, goods, etc.1,299Cash not bearing interest5
Distress, loans fund, etc.12,089Value of goods128
  Other assets125
  Owing by management funds177
               Total35,698               Total35,698

The net income from investments credited to the sickness and funeral funds for 1971 amounted to $1,094,305 the average rate being $6.32 percent, as against $6.16 percent in 1970.

The following table shows the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies.

YearTotal FundsAverage Capital per Member
 $(000)$    
196221,964330.62
196323,045348.62
196423,759362.88
196525,580391.58
196627,133420.51
196728,642447.17
196830,309480.29
196931,623506.65
197033,592546.54
197135,698586.67

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions, so that the number of such societies registered has risen to 122.

The following statement shows the disposal of the funds of these societies in 1971.

FundsValueAssetsValue
 $(000) $(000)
Members shares and deposits14,636Personal loans6,451
Reserve funds734Mortgages5,174
Other354Other investments626
  Included in assets of societies subject to valuation3,473
               Total15,724               Total15,724

Medical Care Societies—The provision of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least two are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 150,000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purpose and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

Chapter 7. Section 7
EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

7 A—EDUCATION

GROWTH OF EDUCATION—Since 1945 education has been marked by extensive growth. In 1945, school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328,000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1971 the combined enrolments had risen to 898,000 or 31.5 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for more pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the last 25 years pupils in primary schools have doubled and pupils in secondary schools more than trebled (with an eightfold increase in sixth and seventh forms), while the number of students in universities more than doubled and students receiving technical education quadrupled.

At the same time education has grown more intensive and education expenditure has expanded from 6 percent of total Government expenditure in 1945–46 to 15.4 percent in 1971–72.

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity—and few countries have a larger proportion of their populations in schools, colleges, and universities.

ADMINISTRATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools, and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The original Education Act of 1877, which was mainly concerned with the provision of State primary education, created the Department of Education and prescribed the constitution and functions of education boards and school committees. As far as the structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of State primary school administration, but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative functions of the three authorities. The general tendency over the first 50 years of the national system of education was for final power and responsibility to shift from the school committees to the education boards and from the education boards to the department, but since 1930 this tendency has been arrested.

An Advisory Council on Educational Planning was set up in 1969 to advise the National Development Council and the Minister of Education on the implementation of the National Development Conference recommendations on education and on priorities in educational development.

The Department of Education determines educational policy, sees that standards are maintained throughout the country on an equitable basis, and is responsible for the curriculums in State primary and secondary schools. The curriculums are designed to meet the needs of New Zealand children growing up in their own country. Curriculum revision is a continuing process, originating with an expert team in the department, and evolving by consultation with practising teachers through curriculum committees, trial procedures, and discussion.

The control and management of State primary schools are the responsibility of the ten education boards, and local secondary school boards control State secondary schools.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings. Regional offices of the department are situated in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

There are a number of private primary and secondary schools in New Zealand conducted either by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—Statutory boards (i.e., education boards administering State primary schools and governing bodies of secondary schools) are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for maintenance of schools and building of new schools, and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee, elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations. They are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Boards—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by boards of governors.

School Certificate—A School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of three years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to six and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he is successful.

Sixth Form Certificate—A new certificate was introduced in 1969 to replace the Endorsed School Certificate. Sixth Form Certificates are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year in at least four subjects beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the Universities Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Private Schools—There are a number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 Central Government has made grants to independent schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion is to rise to a maximum of 35 percent over 7 years. Associated government controls are approval before new independent schools can be built and the requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to independent schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that over the last two decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the expenditure from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest March year.

Item1971–72
$(000)
Programme—
     I—Administration and General7,581
     II—Pre-school Education2,414
     III—Primary and Secondary Education—
          Administration and support services44,113
          State primary education101,812
          State secondary education66,062
          Assistance to private schools4,977
          Special education3,735
                    Sub-total220,699
     IV—Higher Education-
          University education57,341
          Teacher training26,248
          Senior technical education14,575
                    Sub-total98,164
     V—National Library2,116
     VI—Child Welfare6,820
          Total337,793

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities, from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following table gives Government expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has therefore increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure. Much of the increased spending has, of course, been a direct consequence of roll growth.

Year Ended 31 MarchEducation Expenditure*As Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure

* Including Child Welfare and National Library Service.

† About 78 percent of present current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.

 $(million)percent
194613.62.416.05.16.0
195125.45.030.46.37.5
195644.812.857.66.98.8
196169.817.887.67.69.5
196384.019.6103.68.610.7
196492.422.0114.48.610.6
1965103.027.0130.08.811.1
1966113.628.0141.68.911.1
1967126.432.0158.49.511.9
1968142.132.5174.610.412.7
1969157.130.9188.010.712.8
1970175.233.9209.110.812.9
1971223.244.4267.612.014.3
1972287.4†50.4337.813.115.4

Over the years, 1965–71, spending on education was divided as follows: State primary education 40 percent; State secondary education, 24 percent; universities, technical institutes, teachers colleges, 27 percent; other spending 9 percent.

The average annual compound rates of growth for types of education are shown in the following table.

Type of EducationExpenditureAverage Annual Compound Rate of Increase
19511971
* For 1966 year, not previously costed.
 $(million)percent
State primary171029
State secondary76412
Universities24416
Teacher training22013
Technical5*1121
All State education3026812

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to national income and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of National IncomeExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
* Provisional.
 $(000)percent$     
196187,1063.936.47
196293,6584.038.34
1963102,8324.141.16
1964113,5744.144.54
1965128,9884.349.59
1966140,5094.453.08
1967157,2094.758.33
1968173,0495.063.27
1969186,0165.067.40
1970207,3425.174.35
1971265,5545.793.79
1972335,0516.2*116.48

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of national income is given in the following table for selected countries. (Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.) Educational expenditures in many countries have been rising twice as fast as national income.

CountryPublic Expenditure on Education as Percentage of National Income
19551965
Austria3.984.79
Belgium3.996.48
Canada3.507.63
Denmark4.006.98
France3.736.05
Germany, West2.803.84
Italy3.796.48
Netherlands4.417.53
Norway4.276.98
Switzerland3.584.31
United Kingdom3.325.21
United States4.076.28

Australia's figure for 1965–66 (4.36 percent) was very similar to that for New Zealand.

International comparisons need to be treaded with reserve because of the differing education systems and expenditure measures.

EDUCATION BUILDINGS—The increases in school population coupled with the increasing urbanisation of the population and the development of new housing areas has led to a continued expansion of the school building programme. Figures for additional classrooms completed in recent years are shown below. The figures do not include classrooms to replace obsolete accommodation.

YearPrimarySecondary
1962602457
1963521330
1964501305
1965500266
1966479264
1967528304
1968559295
1969578302
1970603376
1971666451

Since 1955 the “block” principle has been used in the planning of schools, giving improved teaching facilities and amenities at a lower cost. Development has continued with the design of new secondary schools in the light of changing needs.

Education boards are able to plan and build primary schools within specified limits or “white lines” defined on the one hand by a building code which lays down minimum requirements for each type of building, and on the other by the upper limit placed by the Government on the amount of money which it is prepared to allocate to any particular project. This provides for considerable flexibility in planning allied with cost control.

Further development has also taken place in the design and provision of relocatable classrooms.

In 1970–71 building expenditure was estimated at $14 million for primary schools and $14.1 million for secondary schools.

University Buildings—University buildings in use in 1965 had an area of 2 million sq ft; estimated requirements for 1980 are 8 million sq ft for teaching, library, administration, and student union buildings. Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works—buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been: 1963–64, $3.9 million; 1964–65, $6.2 million; 1965–66, $7.6 million; 1966–67, $11.1 million; 1967–68, $13.8 million; 1968–69, $10 million; 1969–70, $9.9 million; 1970–71, $11.5 million.

During 1971, the Government approved a building programme for the 5 years ending on 31 March 1976 setting out the University Grants Committee's latest assessment of the needs of the universities for capital works. Partly because of the rise in building costs and the balances still to be spent on jobs under construction the total of the 5-year programme rose to almost $150 million. New works included in the programme were teaching buildings for the growth of the existing universities and for the expansion of medical education, together with preliminary provision for land purchase, site works, and for buildings and equipment at the projected new university at Albany in Auckland.

The Government's policy of offering a subsidy on money raised by the universities and other bodies who wish to build and run halls of residence for university students has been in operation since 1963. By the end of 1971 it had resulted in the building of 15 new halls with 2,190 places and the extension of a number of existing halls to provide a further 292 places. This means that, in the 9 years since the policy had been in operation, 2,482 new places had been added to the 2,000 already in existence at a cost in subsidies of $5.7 million. Although the expanded and new halls have been valuable additions to the universities, it must be borne in mind that, during the same period, the university rolls have increased from 16,999 to 34,089. In 1965 the subsidy rate was set at a maximum of $2,880 a student place.

Technical Institute Buildings—There is a 5-year building programme for technical institutes which is kept under review by the Technical Institutes Works Committee. For the period 1970–75 expenditure is estimated to amount to $46.8 million. For 1970–71 provision was made for capital expenditure of $4.3 million for land, buildings, furniture, and equipment.

Teachers Colleges—The 5-year building programme for teachers colleges is estimated to cost $30.9 million for the period 1970–75.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution196619671968196919701971

* About half are adults attending hobby classes.

† Full time 21,211; part time 7,998.

‡ Includes 1,911 overseas students.

§Students for Diploma in Teaching not shown in other tables.

Preschool
     Play centres10,14311,80213,43615,04216,76717,674
     Kindergartens19,96420,88622,05022,93324,33625,530
               Totals, pre-school30,10732,68835,48637,97541,10343,204
Primary
     State primary376,502387,227393,445395,929394,597389,122
     Intermediate45,16948,64051,66454,74160,00167,131
     Chatham Islands125143170180203160
     Correspondence9399439401,0621,1731,170
     Private primary56,05054,91053,78252,40750,90451,009
     Departmental special schools471549565622634631
     Foundation for the Blind719993888991
     Special classes7,5788,3879,1829,7459,9369,962
               Totals, primary486,905500,898509,841514,774517,537519,276
Secondary
     State secondary130,328136,431146,409150,562153,022156,849
     District high schools5,7765,4916,0135,3114,7753,990
     Correspondence449380480518505603
     Private secondary25,58526,23227,02027,91028,44129,267
               Totals, secondary162,138168,534179,922184,301186,743190,709
Technical
     Technical institutes—
          (a) Part-time students12,16112,58412,69213,56313,47514,701
          (b) Full-time students1,2111,3441,4851,6611,8822,236
     Technical Correspondence Institute13,24712,63913,33414,16515,20315,456
               Totals, technical26,61926,56727,51129,38930,56032,393
Miscellaneous Technical
     Part-time students*60,68260,31462,29569,23272,73466,374
     Agricultural colleges—
          Short courses344493525356280270
               Totals, miscellaneous technical61,02660,80762,82069,58873,01466,644
Universities
     Internal students22,37724,43126,79429,209†31,90834,089
     External students1,9251,8822,0272,2852,5383,168
               Totals, universities24,30226,31328,82131,494‡34,44637,257
Teacher Training
     Teachers colleges5,0225,1566,0966,9127,5877,791
     Kindergarten training centres229243273311321363
     Correspondence school§7119601,1871,2481,1221,155
               Totals, teacher training5,9626,3597,5568,4719,0309,309

The growth in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

OVERSEAS STUDENTS—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1970 are shown in the following table.

Country of Origin UniversitiesTechnical InstitutesTeachers CollegesSecondary SchoolsTotalCombined
MFMFMFMFMFM 
Pacific
     Fiji2875110264613836495459
     Samoa59131129556312686212
     Tonga229341420393372
     Cook Islands1034222725433073
     Niue522119181129
     Tokelau Islands1778715
     Other islands1211513233503585
               Totals396771732822207195648297945
Australia67812813762399
South-east Asia
     Malaysia1,034208382385167441,2472801,527
     Singapore10639427511746163
     South Vietnam692012712192
     Thailand43264717116444108
     Hong Kong23469291342
     Other countries245152142648
               Totals1,299302613286201701,5704101,980
India Sub continent4682325481866
Asia (remainder)2141354271138
North America341811225474390
Central and South America71229312
West Indies112134
Africa47111121501363
United Kingdom4515132462066
Europe1083113131225
               Totals1,973453854637324403222,5358533,388

Projected Students—A projection of school rolls was made by the Education Committee of the National Development Conference in 1969 based on policies and trends at the time and is set out in the following table. Accelerated growth in students at tertiary institutions was forecast.

RollState PrimaryState SecondaryUniversities†Technical† InstitutesTeacher Training

* 1964–65 figure—1963–64 figures not available.

† Equivalent full-time students.

Annual Increase—number
     Actual—
          1963–64393,100125,50017,0006,914*4,536
          1967–68446,000142,30024,4309,0905,156
     Projected—
          1972–73479,500176,70034,80012,5009,560
          1978–79527,000216,30047,20016,00011,730
Annual Rate of Increase—percent
     Actual—
          1963–64 to 1967–683.23.29.57.13.3
     Projected—
          1967–68 to 1972–731.54.47.36.613.2
     Projected—
          1972–73 to 1978–791.63.45.24.23.5
     Projected—
          1967–68 to 1978–791.53.96.25.37.8

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS—Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*Other Examinations†University Entrance*University Entrance ScholarshipTechnician Certification AuthorityTrades Certification Board

* Includes Certificate of Attainment.

† Includes Teachers' Certificates. Technological, Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants, Public Service Shorthand Typists Examinations.

‡ Provisional.

196112,6441,3195,791285404,588
196215,4521,3286,403318664,976
196317,1441,4767,6844231014,875
196418,3471,6288,3325901515,306
196519,1161,6549,2625441825,694
196619,4901,3719,2339582616,170
196721,7761,5619,7621,0663476,756
196838,9921,86910,9881,0964308,559
196940,8442,74712,6261,18648511,450
197042,5442,65413,2041,35659012,136
197145,0782,20013,7571,52063012,600‡

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
196615,3157,6301,398
196716,6518,3071,455
196818,8039,4871,501
196921,58010,6981,953
197022,60210,8152,389
197123,61511,3722,385

SPECIAL EDUCATION—A comprehensive range of education services has been developed for handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in an ordinary classroom.

Special classes for children who are backward (mildly mentally retarded), physically handicapped, deaf, visually handicapped, or maladjusted are established at ordinary primary schools, and are administered by the education boards. The boards also administer special schools for intellectually handicapped (moderately or severely mentally retarded) or severely physically handicapped children, classes in hospitals, schools in psychiatric hospitals, and speech clinics. Reading clinics have been established in some major centres to complement the help given in ordinary schools to those pupils who find learning to read particularly difficult.

Special classes for backward pupils are also provided in selected secondary schools, and classes for deaf pupils have been established in secondary schools in four cities. Most of these classes are administered by the boards of governors of the secondary schools concerned.

The Department of Education itself administers six residential schools—two for deaf children, two for backward children, and two for maladjusted children. The department also provides the teaching service in Social Welfare Department institutions for socially maladjusted children and the education service in adult penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice. The Department of Education also administers two important special education services—the advisers on deaf children provide guidance for the parents and teachers of deaf children, and the Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic, advisory, and counselling service for children whose scholastic or social progress is causing concern. Approximately 22,000 children were assisted by the staff of the Psychological or Visiting Teachers Services in 1970. The Psychological Service maintains close links with all other social and educational services for children, with the visiting teachers working with primary schools in city areas, and with the guidance counsellors on the staff of an increasing number of secondary schools.

In 1970, approximately 1,000 teachers were employed in the special education services, which enrolled some 8,000 children in special classes and schools at primary or secondary level and provided part-time tuition in speech and reading clinics for some 3,600 children.

The following table shows the number of pupils receiving special education at public primary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) at 1 July 1971.

GroupBoysGirlsTotal
Blind and partially seeing7166137
Deaf and partially hearing406266672
Physically handicapped213167380
Health camp schools141122263
Hospital classes304256560
Speech clinics (part time)2,5711,0983,669
Intellectually handicapped8666521,518
Mentally backward1,6511,0312,682
Educationally retarded286116402
Maladjusted—
     Adjustment classes and special schools17055225
     Social Welfare Department institutions9680176
               Totals6,7753,90910,684

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 years are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local free kindergarten associations, which are voluntary bodies formed for the purpose, or at play centres controlled by play centre associations.

The Government makes grants available to kindergarten teachers in training, and accepts responsibility for the cost of sites and buildings for training centres and for their running costs. The salaries of kindergarten teachers and full-time training centre staff are paid by the Department of Education. Loans for kindergartens are available from the Government for one-third of the capital cost of land, buildings, and equipment, with the Government contributing the remaining two-thirds of the cost by direct grant. Subsidies of $2 to $1 on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, buildings, and initial equipment for free kindergartens are available from the Government for kindergarten associations not wishing to apply for loans. In July 1970 there were 24,336 children enrolled at 305 free kindergartens.

Play centre associations receive from the Government annual maintenance and liaison grants in respect of play centres which meet a required standard of equipment, and a small establishment grant towards initial costs is paid to new centres. In July 1970 there were 576 recognised play centres for approximately 16,767 children.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—At the age of 5 years a child may enter, and at 6 years must enter, a primary school or, if living in an isolated area, must enrol with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms I and II, may be taken at an intermediate or a Form I-VII school. On completing instruction in Form II, after usually 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form III of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers character training, oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming), health education, music, and, for some children in Form II, French. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metal-work instruction is given to boys, and girls are taught homecraft and sewing.

Teachers have the assistance of specialist teachers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, and music. Itinerant specialists are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers and advisers on deaf children.

Textbooks are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at End of YearPupils for First Four Weeks of Third Term
Average of Mean Weekly RollAverage AttendanceAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll
19662,265454,604442,665415,64793.8
19672,273468,021460,982432,03493.7
19682,294478,530465,818433,90693.2
19692,259481,847472,482444,44694.1
19702,257486,438475,213447,64694.2
19712,268487,926477,094448,32394.0

The changes which have taken place in the size of schools in the latest 20 years may be seen from the following table. Twenty years ago over half the schools had rolls of 70 and under, but over the period many small rural schools have been consolidated.

Number of Public Schools195019601970
Roll 70 and under1,159880830
Roll 71 to 350505716743
Roll 351 and over244432638
               Totals1,9082,0282,211

In each of the education districts are located inspectors of primary schools who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary school inspectors at 1 July 1970 was 98, allocated as follows: Auckland, 23; South Auckland, 16; Hawke's Bay, 7; Taranaki, 4; Wanganui, 7; Wellington, 13; Nelson, 3; Canterbury, 14; Otago, 7; Southland, 4. In addition, there were six inspectors in the Head Office, and three inspectors in the Auckland office of the department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age in Years19691970Percentage of Total Pupils
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal19691970
  529,40628,01757,42328,10226,57454,67612.611.8
  630,01228,48058,49229,58128,06857,64912.812.5
  730,11228,73058,84229,75528,45958,21412.912.8
  829,65828,12357,78130,27428,78359,05712.612.8
  928,22027,07755,29729,31528,46157,77612.112.5
1028,05027,03955,08928,32226,77955,10112.011.9
1125,71624,45150,16727,57026,26853,83810.911.7
1224,82122,69047,51124,80522,85247,65710.410.3
139,5636,60316,1669,9016,75516,6563.53.6
147533811,1346744011,0750.20.2
1586871736857125
16 and over11396209103114217
               Totals236,510221,774458,284238,470223,571462,041100.0100.0

The next table gives the number of State primary schools in each education district as at 30 September 1970, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll NumbersEducation DistrictTotal Schools
AucklandSouth AucklandTaranakiWanganuiHawke's BayWellingtonNelsonCanterburyOtagoSouthland

* Includes one normal intermediate school.

† Includes three normal intermediate schools.

1–81146
9–24120102726277492515207
25–3037275643105584
31–70701014139562918854648533
71–1103765111921215291114233
111–15025298618975108125
151–19017186658129384
191–2301615455831110986
231–270161323482155169
271–310221044914298688
311–350169428296258
351–3901792661511310483
391–4301412271015234271
431–47024172251935582
471–500121335222333
501–5402022224112101276
541–580121313546*1146
581–62014612414234
621–6606211336224
661–70010121721
701–7401122219
741–780413513
781–82041128
821–860213
861–900112
901–1020
1021–106011
Normal schools43231215
Intermediate schools and departments43†20*47*715*310*5*3117
               Totals446390115154198236633151641302,211

In addition, there were 4 State primary schools in the Chatham Islands and 42 special schools for handicapped children.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1970 there were 69,118 Maori children attending State schools and 2,570 attending private schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or other Polynesian children. A report by the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education was published in 1970.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 105 intermediate schools and 2 intermediate departments at the end of 1970 numbered 57,594. Of all children in Forms I and II of State primary schools at 1 July 1970, 56.2 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest three years were as follows.

Age, in Years196819691970
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10240415655291474765308440748
118,1508,82616,9768,2239,03017,2539,42410,45219,876
1212,11211,46123,57313,18512,13125,31613,91612,94326,859
134,8333,2258,0585,0393,4288,4675,5333,7259,258
14406219625382188570340192532
15332053262955181230
16 and over7512314112
               Totals25,78124,17149,95227,14925,28152,43029,54027,76557,305

The average roll at September 1970 was 57,551 and the average attendance for the month was 54,335.

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last 6 years. The figures include Maoris at private church schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsRoll at End of YearAverage Attendance*Teachers
BoysGirlsTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Average attendance as at September.
196634028,31828,70457,02253,9482251,4461,671
196734227,88628,08855,97452,6572341,4271,661
196834427,30627,64654,95251,5602331,4051,638
196934426,70527,04553,75050,8332411,4181,659
197033826,05826,17452,23249,5902521,4041,656
197133126,23826,34952,58749,0862421,3851,627

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 263 at the end of 1971, with 44,861 pupils and 1,300 teachers (113 males and 1,187 females). The remaining private schools comprised 53 church schools of other denominations, with 258 teachers and 6,326 pupils, and 15 undenominational schools, with 69 teachers and 1,400 pupils.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools in existence during each of the latest 6 years.

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
196518678112376
196619471115380
196719471115380
196819670116382
196920466116386
197021061115386
197122357115395

District high schools are State primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial practice, and domestic science. In 1970 25 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 25 schools only girls, with 160 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. There were 57 State secondary schools with over 1,000 pupils. Only one secondary department of a district high school had a roll of over 200.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to the Department of Education. In 1970 there were 51 inspectors.

The number of secondary school pupils in Forms III to VII at the end of each of the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearState Secondary SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsCorrespondence SchoolsTotal
1966123,3425,29925,038450154,129
1967130,5645,22825,733367161,892
1968138,1205,48726,693519170,819
1969142,4094,82927,553562175,353
1970146,0484,57228,033535179,188
1971150,7323,53828,965652183,887

The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at the end of 1971 were: State secondary schools, 78,678 boys and 72,054 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, 1,710 and 1,828; private secondary schools, 14,415 and 14,550; and full-time pupils of Correspondence School, 295 and 357.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1970, 17,174 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 15,361 pupils attending State secondary schools and 1,813 pupils attending private secondary schools.

Maori pupils receiving secondary education in private secondary schools at the end of 1970 included 893 pupils attending 8 Maori private secondary schools. Of this number, 195 pupils were holders of Maori post-primary scholarships, awarded by Government and tenable at a secondary school with approved boarding accommodation. A further 47 Maori post-primary scholarship holders were attending other private secondary schools and 131 were enrolled at State secondary schools.

Thirty State and private schools give instruction in Maori language. This includes the Correspondence School.

Academic Bursaries—Bursaries up to an annual value of $200 may be granted to pupils of above-average ability in order to obtain tuition in all of the subjects of their chosen course of study for the School Certificate Examination. The bursary, limited to 490 awards each year, is tenable for up to 3 years subject to satisfactory reports on the pupil's progress.

Secondary School Bursaries—Bursaries, of a maximum annual value of $200 and tenable for a period of up to 2 years, may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a sixth form course at a secondary school (State or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under 18 years of age and must either have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form or have passed the University Entrance Examination or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical Bursaries—Bursaries up to an annual value of $200 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any secondary school a 2-year course preparatory to a specialised course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building construction, commerce, or home science. The bursaries are tenable at secondary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of 2 years. Applicants must be under the age of 17 years at the commencement of the specialised course.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1971 there were 37 State secondary school hostels.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education in 1970, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of AttendanceAll SchoolsPercentAttainmentsTotalsPercent
First1,6303.2University scholarship1400.3
Second8,04215.5University bursary2,8565.5
Third16,29131.5Higher School Certificate2,8865.6
Fourth15,41929.8University Entrance6,44812.5
Fifth9,69518.7Sixth Form Certificate5,27810.2
Sixth and over6521.3School Certificate (one or more subjects)12,55124.2
 Other21,57041.7
               Total51,729100.0               Total51,729100.0

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving secondary schools during 1970 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
 numberpercent
Full-time education at university4,0121,9625,97415.117.7911.55
Further full-time education—
     Teachers college3821,7272,1091.446.864.08
     Kindergarten T.C.1711710.680.33
     Technical training3992826811.501.121.31
     Commercial training1071,1921,2990.404.732.51
     Art65941590.250.370.31
Technical traineeships—
     Draughting cadets374574311.410.230.83
     Technical trainees9803211,3013.691.282.52
Health services902,8942,9840.3411.495.77
Office—
     Government6931,2691,9622.615.043.79
     Local authority1003154150.381.250.80
     Private enterprise1,5725,2496,8215.9220.8513.19
Shop and warehouse assistant1,4982,5714,0695.6410.217.87
Skilled trades—
     Government8961281,0243.370.511.98
     Local authority178242020.670.100.39
     Private enterprise5,5841,0156,59921.034.0312.75
Farming2,9062273,13310.950.906.06
Factory and clothing workers1,0991,6282,7274.146.475.27
Domestic work and home1121,2711,3830.425.052.67
Armed forces587646512.210.251.26
Other4,9172,7177,63418.5210.7914.76
               Totals26,55125,17851,729100.00100.00100.00

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 20 years.

The first Form I–VII school was opened in 1962 and by 1970 there were 18 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form I and II pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

The problem of full intermediate-type education has remained, however, for a large proportion of Form I and II children in smaller country districts. To provide for these children, another type of school—the area school—has been introduced. The first of this new type of school was opened in 1969 and was followed by a second in 1970. Area schools may be established in districts where there are no district high schools, or in other centres where there is a district high school which is too small to be replaced by a Form I–VII school. The area school is a unified school providing education from primers to Form V for all children in the immediate vicinity and from Form I–V from contributing schools in a wider area.

Transport and Boarding Allowance—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now 17 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education. A refund of the cost of fares is given in some cases where a suitable public service is available. In addition, free passes on the railway to the nearest State or private school are granted to eligible children living near a railway line but at some distance from a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, district high schools, and private secondary schools.

In areas where there is no organised transport, capitation payments are made to parents for the conveyance of their children to school by car.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1970–71 was $5,953,559 as compared with $5,574,340 in 1969–70.

In certain cases, boarding allowances are granted to pupils living in areas where there are no available or convenient transport services to enable them to attend school.

The expenditure on boarding allowances of pupils attending schools for the last 4 years is given in the table below.

Type of School1967–681968–691969–701970–71
* Now included in State school figures.
 $      $      $      $      
State primary and intermediate12,4088,39613,35211,039
Private primary17,01317,97315,71913,787
State secondary305,866285,336320,270300,281
Maori13,61011,095**
Private secondary168,386168,150199,198203,176
               Totals517,283490,950548,539528,283

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1970, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the three preceding years are also shown.

Type of SchoolNumber of Pupils on RollTotal Pupils Transported to SchoolNumber Receiving Boarding Allowance
State primary schools461,83861,57193
State secondary schools (including district high schools)157,79739,3202,358
Private primary schools50,9042,69784
Private secondary schools28,4412,7461,485
               Totals, 1970698,980106,3344,020
               Totals, 1969694,294111,0574,229
               Totals, 1968685,800107,6944,247
               Totals, 1967666,818106,1374,306

Correspondence School—Correspondence classes are conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness or other causes. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened by a number of teachers visiting pupils in their homes. At a district level, school day and school week-gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small State primary schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government departments, and others who are unable to attend classes at secondary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition, the school enrolls teachers for the Diploma in Teaching courses.

In 1970 there were 7,346 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,177 being in the primary division, 505 full-time and 3,946 part-time students in the secondary division, and 1,126 students taking the Diploma in Teaching course, and 314 students studying for Trained Teachers' Certificates. The staff of the school consists of the principal, deputy principal, 160 teachers, 26 tutors, and 44 clerical personnel.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Yearbook.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers—In 1970 there were nine teachers colleges (North Shore, Auckland Secondary, Ardmore, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin), with staffs totalling 589 (463 males and 126 females). At 1 July 1970 there were 9,858 students in training. This number includes 1,680 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 260 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and 564 Division C students undertook training for secondary teaching. From 1964, Endorsed School Certificate (now Sixth Form Certificate) has been the minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A. Division C students are university graduates or near graduates at the time of admission.

The following table shows the number of students in these two groups at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision CTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19659513,0431802094,383
19669643,2271582044,553
19679323,2961832084,619
19681,1473,7672063345,454
19691,3244,2282323116,095
19701,3624,8172623026,743

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teacher training course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

For students of Division C the course is for 1 year. These students are university graduates or near graduates who train for service in secondary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach home economics subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 190 home economics students in the Auckland and Christchurch Teachers Colleges in 1970. Training is also provided for manual training instructors.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at Christchurch Teachers College.

Secondary teachers' bursaries, although still awarded in some cases, have been largely replaced by secondary teacher studentships. To be eligible for one of these awards an applicant must have reached the age of 16 years on 31 December of the year of application, and must at the time of application have qualified for entrance to the university, or hold some equivalent or higher qualification approved by the Director-General of Education. Students are attached to the teachers college in the appropriate university centre, and a principal lecturer, appointed to each teachers college, supervises the work of the students and guides them during their university courses. Each student, on accepting the award, signs a bond that he will satisfy the stated conditions. One important condition is that if he does not achieve reasonable success in his university studies he will transfer to some other teacher training course at a teachers college and there complete his training as a teacher.

Students awarded a secondary teacher studentship are paid on the following scale: first year $610; second year $769; third year $929; fourth year $1,073. The students may also claim any university bursaries, boarding bursary, or supplementary allowances for which they are eligible under the University Bursaries Regulations 1966. The allowances for the year of post-graduate teacher-training are: with 3-year bachelor's degree or 3-year diploma, $2,627; with master's degree without honours, or bachelor's degree with third-class honours, $2,946; with honours degrees first and second class, $3,091.

In 1970, 635 secondary teacher studentships were taken up. In addition, 25 holders of secondary teachers' bursaries in 1969 qualified to transfer in 1970 to secondary teacher studentships.

There were 18 holders of secondary teachers' bursaries and 1,672 holders of secondary teacher studentships attending university institutions in 1970.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges 1 July 1970 are shown in the following table.

CourseUnder 17 Years17 Years18 Years19 Years20 Years21–24 Years25 Years and OverTotal
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
* Students 21 years and over.
Division A—
     First year50579477056551191024430443326784951,8952,390
     Second year643578031615331041081285325604811,6002,081
     Third year1313959113541314810933473561,1911,547
     Specialist23181031761396372
     One-year course21254912216889
               Totals50639922631,4923191,244283563335266992101,3624,8176,179
Division B—
     First year6241734191111151216072132
     Second year1513121625194115668970159
     Third year31141869391348675161
               Totals625225031384038115552111235217452
Division C25252262613114262302564
     Other Courses3721256418313365639351392
     Total—
          First year53631,04322274513814260712933711101468862,5713,457
          Second year648628881736041291421697631945701,8522,422
          Third year1343960213943121714846514421,2661,708
     Totals—
                    197053691,0912851,6673501,3483286446795951872911,8985,6897,587
                    1969556731,0572891,5823801,135266442818*809*1,8315,0816,912
                    1968450781,0203091,533315884223338646*696*....1,5754,5216,096
                    1967 34699672481,485276698187196488*508*....1,2683,8885,156
                    196632699862771,495304694162189434*380*....1,2463,7765,022
                    1965143809682631,479265538147178470*358*....1,2263,5644,790

NOTE—In addition, the following students were enrolled at teachers colleges in 1970:

 MenWomenTotal
               Division “U” students (secondary teacher studentships)8578231,680
               Division “S” students (primary teacher studentships)75185260
A further 17 students held secondary teachers bursaries.
Classified and included in the above table are three men and four women fee-paying students.

TEACHERS: Primary-school Teachers—The following table shows the number of teachers in State primary schools as at 30 September over the latest 6 years.

YearMaleFemaleTotal
19666,6589,16415,822
19676,6669,65616,322
19686,75010,16716,917
19696,68210,42817,110
19706,55010,58517,135
19716,63410,90217,536

The average number of pupils per teacher (including probationary assistants) in all public primary schools was 31.4 in 1933, 30 in 1940, 29.5 in 1969, and 28 in 1970; but the basis for recent years was September rolls and not average yearly attendance.

In 1971 there were also 1,627 teachers (242 males and 1,385 females) employed in private primary schools.

Secondary-school Teachers—The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the State schools providing secondary education. Totals comprise all secondary teachers at State schools including principals and assistants at State secondary schools, assistants at district high schools, and manual training assistants at manual training centres.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19664,2522,5866,838
19674,3502,7827,132
19684,5093,0407,549
19694,7783,4738,251
19704,9773,6488,625
19715,3863,7759,161

In 1971 there were also 1,321 teachers (693 male and 628 female) employed in private secondary schools.

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Regular exchanges of children's and young people's books are sent on a circulating basis to approximately 2,500 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 1,011,475 requests were filled during the year 31 March 1970.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national radio stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

Audio-Visual Aids—The National Film Library, a branch of the Department of Education, lends films and gramophone records free of charge to schools. It also lends films free-of-charge to other organisations having some educational purpose. Films are also supplied to the education services in Western Samoa, and in the Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, Cook, and Chatham Islands. A branch of the library situated in Auckland supplies films to schools and organisations in the upper half of the North Island and another in Christchurch serves the South Island except Nelson and Marlborough. The rest of New Zealand is serviced from Wellington.

The library contains more than 32,000 films with over 8,000 titles. Up to 7,500 reels of film are issued each week, and of these 80 percent go to schools or colleges. Approximately 2.700 schools and 2,800 other organisations having some educational purposes benefit from this service.

A number of filmstrips are produced each year by the Visual Production Unit. These and selected productions from overseas are available to schools on free loan from filmstrip libraries in the offices of education boards. They can also be purchased by schools for a nominal sum from the Department of Education. More than 1,500 titles are available to primary and secondary schools. Up to 36,000 issues of filmstrips are made each year. Nearly all schools are equipped with filmstrip projectors.

A tape-copying service is also provided by the National Film Library for schools, teachers colleges, and universities. Tapes submitted are transcribed from master tapes held by the National Film Library. The catalogue includes more than 200 master tapes.

A gramophone record library of 2,854 titles and 6,280 records is available for use by schools and teachers colleges. Issues exceed 12,600 records a year.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

School Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published six times in the year while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Bulletins dealing with topics of New Zealand history, geography, and nature study, and family life in other countries, are published every year. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

New mathematics textbooks have been issued to all primary pupils in standard one and above.

Secondary school bulletins are published five times a year and issued free to all State and private secondary schools. They provide background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum, particularly in social studies, science, and literature. Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language, is published three times a year and issued free to secondary pupils studying Maori language.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

A number of publications are published for the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation to accompany the broadcasts to schools.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—There are vocational guidance centres at Auckland, Papatoetoe, Hamilton, Napier, Wellington, Lower Hutt, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Vocational guidance officers see young people, and often their parents, at the centres, as well as visiting the secondary schools throughout the country. In the secondary schools, careers advisers are appointed from among the teachers. They spend part of their time on careers work, in close contact with the vocational guidance officers who keep them informed, by means of careers leaflets and bulletins, with up-to-date particulars about qualifications, entry, and training for some 700 occupations.

Interviews are given to young people at the centres and further interviews are undertaken by vocational guidance officers in schools. Various 1-week courses are conducted, mostly for pupils, by all centres. These include careers courses (visits to and discussions on places of employment), “Living in the City” or citizenship courses for rural pupils, and two residential courses for newly-appointed careers advisers. Short seminars for careers advisers are currently conducted in Auckland and are to be extended to other districts.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—The system of university education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of the development of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates as barristers and solicitors of the court.

The characteristics of university systems vary from country to country. They show marked differences in levels and sources of finance, public or private; in the constitution of the student population and the means adopted to support it; and in the relationships of the universities to other forms of tertiary education. The characteristics of the New Zealand university system are distinguishable from those of other national systems and may be partly explained as reflecting the New Zealand point of view. Thus, in our welfare state, there has arisen a public expectation that most of the finance required for the capital and running needs of the universities, and for a contribution towards the support of students by bursaries, will come from the public purse.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole. In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system that has been in operation since 1950, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to cater for substantially increased student numbers by expanding existing classes and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such new courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities regard as their primary function the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge through study, teaching, and research. They have always endeavoured to perform this function with due regard to the specific needs of New Zealand, through their professional schools and through the general disciplines.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, agricultural, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in public administration and social science. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extra-mural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The University of Waikato offers courses in the schools of humanities, social sciences, and science and, in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education: Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $220 a year and is tenable with a fees and allowances bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships, together with privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, post-graduate scholarships, and post-doctoral fellowships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarships, the Shirtcliff Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, and the National Research Scholarships. Most of the post-graduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

University Bursaries—The system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course is set out in the University Bursaries Regulations 1971.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university either by examination or accrediting, been admitted ed eundum statum, or who, having been granted provisional admission, pass two units in any 1 year. These bursaries provide for payment of tuition fees during their term.

Fees and Allowances Bursaries are awarded to students who hold the Higher School Certificate and are tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the bursar undertakes a full-time course of study in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who in any year is credited with passes in the subjects or units comprising a full-time course will qualify for a fees and allowances bursary.

A fees and allowances bursary entitles the holder to payment of tuition fees plus allowances of $120 in the first year of the bursary, and (subject to the attainment of a defined standard in his university work) $165 in the second year, $210 in the third year, $235 in the fourth year, $300 in the fifth year; and $345 in the sixth and later years.

Bursaries may be extended to assist students undertaking a second course of study, and further extended for study at the master's level.

The holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of $250 a year.

Supplementary Allowances of $100 a year and $60 a year are awarded to students who gain the required grades in the university bursaries examination and who are holding a fees and allowances bursary. A supplementary allowance may also be awarded to a student who gains the requisite grade of pass in the subjects or units of a full-time university course.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to suspension and cancellation. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in the following year he is credited with a prescribed number of passes. Only one such suspension is allowed and subsequent failure results in the termination of the bursary.

Further details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available from vocational guidance centres and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

The Government offers for competition annually four bursaries to students wishing to attend the School of Social Science at the Victoria University of Wellington. Preference is given to candidates nominated by church or other organisations engaged in social work. These bursaries provide for full fees, a bursary allowance of $160, and a boarding allowance of $250 where appropriate.

The total number of University National Entrance, Higher School Certificate, fees, and fees and allowances bursaries current in 1969 was 15,257.

Bursaries, scholarships, and fellowships are also awarded by other Government departments and include medical, dental, physiotherapy, and dietetic bursaries (Department of Health), national research scholarships and national research fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), rehabilitation bursaries (Social Welfare Department), coal-mining bursaries (Mines Department). Study awards are made to selected public servants to enable them to undertake university study. The Department of Education has a system of studentships with generous allowances available for those intending ultimately to qualify as secondary teachers.

The following table gives the number of students, including those taking short courses at agricultural colleges, who received free university education during each of the latest 6 years.

YearJunior University, University National, and Taranaki ScholarshipsSenior University ScholarshipsUniversity National, Entrance, and H.S.C. Bursaries*University and Teachers College StudentshipsOtherTotal
* Includes also fees, fees and allowances, and masters' bursaries awarded under University Bursaries Regulations.
1965266579,2601,8652,85014,298
19662966410,7191,9133,40916,401
19673437212,3191,9683,49318,195
19683697514,6402,0272,89920,010
19693878415,9991,9903,46721,927
19704359718,6201,9403,65224,744

Students—In 1971 there were 34,089 students actually in attendance at the seven universities; 3,393 were graduates, 30,696 undergraduates (948 were enrolled in more than one course). In addition, there were 3,168 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 318 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
196616,3006,0771,27365224,302
196717,5716,8601,21966326,313
196819,1707,6241,27275528,821
196920,7328,4771,38590031,494
197022,3109,5981,4721,06634,446
197123,23410,8551,7551,41337,257

The following table gives particulars of internal students who were taking definite courses at universities, including agricultural college, during the latest 3 years. Additional information is published in Education Statistics of New Zealand available from the Department of Education, Wellington.

Course196919701971
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture1,712831,7951,692941,7861,7131101,823
Architecture489145034882451248941530
Arts and music5,0805,51410,5945,4885,97611,4645,5666,59612,162
Commerce2,8961903,0863,2002533,4533,2563103,566
Divinity225271842220424
Education2433495924107841,1944728641,336
Engineering2,213192,2322,387202,4072,308222,330
Fine Arts133134267128134262132144276
Food Technology117201371142914318236218
Home Science236236230230246246
Law1,9071812,0881,9932132,2061,9102632,173
Medicine and Dentistry1,0412121,2531,0282151,2431,0652421,307
Physical Education791201998712020786127213
Science4,2431,0735,3164,6931,2825,9755,1971,4576,654
Surveying6565109109121121
Veterinary Science270313013073334028654340
Others5823889707393951,1341,1325861,718
               Totals21,0928,56929,66122,8819,80632,68723,93511,10235,037
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than one course36092452571208779701247948
               Totals20,7328,47729,20922,3109,59831,90823,23410,85534,089

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1970 are shown in the following table.

AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
Internal students—
     Full time5,0681,7463021771,6313852,6521,0773,8131,180950622,8871,39317,3036,02023,323
     Part time1,5759422143492913651,3507291,0027723845374175,0073,5788,585
     All internal students6,6432,6885165261,9227504,0021,8064,8151,952988663,4241,81022,3109,59831,908
External students—
     Taking courses at Massey University8849338767355654454232341,1009172,017
     Taking courses at own university5523210654351817454372149521
     All external students14372538767351621088060206881,4721,0662,538
All students6,7862,7605215292,7981,4854,1641,9144,8952,012988663,6301,89823,78210,66434,446
     Overseas students included in total5239521521455287102556877652961041,9734532,426

Selected arts, science, and commerce subjects specified by stages taken by internal students in 1970 are shown in the following table.

SubjectStage IStage IIStage IIIAt Post-graduate level
MFMFMFMF
English1,3371,3953616811883547892
Chemistry2,2955004001222554625329
Physics2,118313218149941649
Pure mathematics2,1754086781703096213722
Education6951,31619935711712614147
Economics1,7513175455619922708
History93080834531718313410057
Accounting1,2431104903240917343
Geography5843852331691391089514
French23948087212371102226
Applied mathematics1,11513993101151932
Psychology738657175141301418933
Political science5422851978578276111
Zoology6083042351171066013532
Philosophy609315102523517208
Anthropology185252511032430109
Sociology36436310210738525027
Geology50884151161086788
German18256331122556722
Botany1901041325956256616
Latin4251142741545
Russian355414201113101
Greek2633111121
Italian155671641267
Chinese153875151
Spanish162121712
Maori studies29157845
Japanese2337151238

NOTE—Students taking any of the subjects at stage I in an intermediate course are included. Excluded are all music special subjects and units, preliminary and reading knowledge subjects in languages, and such other subjects including some advanced specialist subjects, that are not organised by comparable stages I to III, and post-graduate. The subjects tabulated do not cover all arts, science, and commerce subjects taken by internal students. Students taking courses at the University of Waikato are excluded from this table as study at this university is not unit structured.

Internal students by years of university study in 1970 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered*
MFMFMFMF
* Includes 112 external students.
First year4,9481,9578131,4285,7613,385621158
Second year4,0001,6446097224,6092,366465117
Third year3,0681,2475253983,5931,64530468
Fourth year2,3016805583742,8591,05421751
Fifth year1,4082676482752,05654214632
Sixth year or later1,5782251,8543813,43260622027
               Totals17,3036,0205,0073,57822,3109,5981,973453

The ages of internal students at universities in 1970 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Students
MFMFMF
Under 1840039689489489885
182,6651,4962396792,9042,175
193,1871,4123294343,5161,846
203,1671,1633253053,4921,468
212,5176304213012,938931
221,9122895252332,437522
231,2091704701581,679328
24635953661041,001199
25–291,1151811,0563072,171488
30–3427178510185781263
35–398841295137383178
40 and over13166382245513311
Not stated63164
               Totals17,3036,0205,0073,57822,3109,598

Holders of Department of Education bursaries in 1970 by year of bursary, are shown in the following table.

Year of BursaryFees BursariesFees and Allowances BursariesMasters Bursaries
Full-time StudentsPart-time StudentsBursariesBursaries and Boarding AllowancesBursariesBursaries and Boarding Allowances
TotalFTotalFTotalFTotalFTotalFTotalF
First1,6305075382062,1175582,255752505124386116
Second473111168681,6895442,2107031472511219
Third1413988261,4924611,8865661
Fourth58647144575582585
Fifth556482117931036
Sixth and over6118114112715
               Totals2,3636709073175,8861,6487,6132,157652149499135

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1970 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home3,6861542671,8722,1121658806,6732,4639,136389
In halls of residence6491237104054524891,2032,8401,1914,031455155
Boarding8341322453519921142282,3465502,89641997
Sharing flat or house with other students1,560616749311,2662441,4534,5951,5946,18978199
Other, and not known8591201701715168492221,0717715
               Totals6,8144792,0163,7294,9931,0124,28017,3036,02023,3231,770375

Occupations of part-time university students in 1970 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study410174584
On university staff475199674
Teacher6623731,035
Teachers college student7761,7082,484
Government employee8073011,108
Local body employee15371224
In private employment1,4612651,726
Self-employed person10427131
Housewife323323
Full-time student at technical institute6814
Other occupation153129282
               Totals5,0073,5788,585

Totals of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1970 by the nature of the assistance are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
* Includes ASPAC, Commonwealth Medical Aid Programme.
Assisted by the New Zealand Government–
     Colombo Plan28972361
     Island Territories Scholarships501262
     Commonwealth Scholarships22426
     Aid to Africa Scholarships24226
     Others*44
 38990479
Other assistance from—
     Fijian Government62668
     Samoan Government213
     Tongan Government14418
     Other governments (Malaysia, Hong Kong, Mauritius, Victoria)9110
     WHO, UNESCO, CORSO, FAO14115
     MARA Awards17118
     Other44751
 16221183
All assisted overseas students551111662

Examination Performance—The examination performance of undergraduates in 1969 and 1970 is shown in the following table.

Examination Performance19691970
Full-timePart-timeFull-timePart-time
* Or equivalent.
 Percentpercent
Completed university degree or diploma17.08.818.37.6
Passed three degree units*46.82.348.01.4
Passed two degree units*14.217.412.917.6
Passed one degree unit*10.540.69.941.5
Passed none or half degree units*11.530.910.931.9
               Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

There were 19,788 full-time and 6,557 part-time undergraduates at the seven universities in 1969, that is three-quarters were full-time. In 1970 there were 19,976 full-time and 6,910 part-time undergraduates.

It is relevant to the interpretation of these figures to note the following points:

  1. The student who passed all the work of a full-time course progressed at the rate required to gain a degree or diploma in the minimum time, for example, 3 years for the ordinary B.A., or B.Sc. degree.

  2. Although the students who passed two units or the equivalent were not fully successful, they nevertheless achieved a degree of success recognised as sufficient to justify the continuation of a bursary or its reinstatement after suspension.

  3. The figures are for all students who were enrolled on 1 April not only those who actually sat the final examinations. Those who drop out, and are therefore included in the group with no passes to their credit, are no doubt usually students with poor records, but this is not always so. Severe illness, for example, may interrupt the studies of the ablest of students.

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities in 1970 and 1971 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost GraduatePost-Graduate Honours
197019711970197119701971
Agriculture62
Agricultural Engineering34
Agricultural Science9485551632
Architecture443932
Arts1,3591,49810279320331
Commerce3543599123135
Dental Surgery5347126
Divinity1310
Education182421
Engineering (Chemical)32361328911
Engineering (Civil)134134
Engineering (Electrical)82109
Engineering (Mechanical)5075
Engineering (Science)39
Fine Arts13
Home Science14921
Horticultural Science11131123
Law261287331213
Medical Science1111
Medicine and Surgery1101173
Music.162653
Pharmacy2017112
Philosophy110
Science7329223854149129
Social Science34
Technology19143
Veterinary Science24381
               Totals3,4513,922195198555573

In addition, in 1970 doctorates were completed in science (8), medicine (5), philosophy (79), dental surgery (1), and literature (1), while in 1971 there were science (2), medicine (7), dental surgery (2), literature (1), law (2), philosophy (108).

Of those graduating with first degrees in 1971, 55.5 percent completed their qualifications in the minimum time, 23.5 percent in the minimum time plus 1 year, 10.5 percent in the minimum time plus 2 years, and 10.5 percent took over 2 years beyond the minimum time.

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ending with the graduation ceremonies in 1970.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours
     Law221411281
     Science962171110422
     Engineering10331111153
     Other2515122815
               Totals246402313327541
Bachelor
     Arts61335739120714357193751,340696
     Commerce1151310365927034721
     Law116954228135223314
     Science27882226447312516628144
     Engineering101793222234
     Medicine and Surgery10618454181417323
     Agricultural science60127143942
     Other82373111915112750
               Totals1,47151795627536674383843,176950

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1970 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MFTotalMFTotal
Teaching staff—
     Full professor305430911
     Senior lecturer, associate professor, reader, lecturer-in-charge7925584745247
     Lecturer6539775016935204
     Junior lecturer, assistant lecturer1606322363669
     Instructor, demonstrator, engaged in teaching32134545685541
          Totals, established teaching posts1,9422322,174734128862
Other staff—
Technician, research assistant, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching56918575491625
Library staff6023729762329
Administrative staff, clerical, and office staff21565286764147
Groundsman, tradesman, cleaner, etc.3567643278145223
               Totals, non-teaching staff1,2001,1502,35099225324

Of the full-time positions, there were 207 positions filled temporarily and 108 not filled, and of the part-time positions 8 were filled temporarily and 21 not filled.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945, technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 10 to 15 years, technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools, as such, no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 11 technical institutes, supported by the technical departments of 43 high schools throughout the country.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have had the effect of creating a demand for types of education and training that belonged not to the secondary but to the post-secondary school phase of a person's career. The Apprenticeship Act 1948, for example, made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes. At first, this requirement was met through attendance at evening classes, later by day-release classes and, increasingly in recent years, by block courses for which the apprentice is released by his employer to attend a technical institute as a full-time student (usually for 3 weeks). The establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations, gave point and direction to apprentice studies. At the present time, apprentice training accounts for 41 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes.

To provide a teaching service for students for whom technical education was not readily available, the Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946 and from small beginnings, with a staff of half a dozen or so, this institute now employs some 250 full-time tutors.

The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950s and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience.

The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. Experience of this qualification led, in 1950, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority and, during the last 10 years, there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand certificates. The number of New Zealand certificates awarded annually has increased from 29 in 1960 to 590 in 1970. At the present time, technician studies account for 42 percent of the enrolments of technical institutes.

Technical education is being developed through national, regional, and local institutes. Approval for the establishment of a Central Institute of Technology was given in 1957; the institute opened in 1960 and moved in 1972 to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga—a building project costing $5.5 million. Included in this contract is a 500-bed hostel, which will provide living accommodation for the students who will come from all parts of the country to undertake full-time courses of 1 week to 4 years of instruction. Technical institutes have been established in the six main centres of population; and with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of “satellite” institutes has been opened to serve the greater Auckland area. Following a recommendation of the National Development Conference, Government, in 1969, approved the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there was an assured teaching load for at least 10 full-time tutors. The first of the institutes to be set up under this policy—Southland and Nelson—opened in 1971. Since the 1966–67 financial year, more than $10 million has been spent on technical institute buildings alone.

In 1965, Government introduced technical institute bursaries for students attending approved full-time courses at technical institutes. The current rates are $130 boarding allowance and $30 for books.

In 1969 over 90 percent of apprentices received their practical instruction at block courses. This practical instruction is supplemented by instruction in theory at evening classes, where numbers are sufficient to justify local classes, or else by correspondence tuition from the Technical Correspondence Institute. The examinations for apprentices are administered by the Trades Certification Board.

The term “technician” covers a wide field, but national New Zealand certificate courses have been devised for engineering, draughting, draughting (architectural), science, building, quantity surveying, and commerce. In addition, at a lower level, there is a certificate in garage management and courses leading to certificates for radio technicians, telegraph and telephone technicians, engineering technicians, survey technicians, automotive engineering technicians, and forest rangers. The courses for these qualifications, and other courses not on a certificate basis, are devised by the Technicians Certification Authority, which was established under the Technicians Certification Act 1958 to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations appropriate to the needs of persons in occupational groups. The instruction for the New Zealand certificate courses is given at part-time classes, or on a sandwich basis (i.e., regular intermittent periods in full-time classes), or by correspondence tuition from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in the case of science and workshop by short practical courses, usually of 1 week per subject at junior levels and 3 weeks at the senior levels. All these practical block courses are at the Central Institute of Technology. In a few cases the stages can be taken at full-time courses in the technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last two stages of the courses.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include commercial courses for girls, work study and electronic data processing courses, courses in journalism and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations, e.g., the New Zealand Society of Accountants, Chartered Institute of Secretaries, New Zealand Institute of Valuers, etc.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July 1970MalesFemalesTotal Students
N.Z.C.—
     Architectural draughting24832
     Building1212
     Quantity surveying1111
     Science246
     Statistics11
N.Z.C.E.—
     Engineering86288
     Other44
     Plastics11
Trade Certificates—
     Automotive engineering55
     Other66
Other—
     Computers and E.D.P. programming242246
     Diploma of fine arts20828
     Design9632128
     Fashion103444
     Graphic art233154
     Health inspector2929
     Journalism223860
     Maori pre-apprentice252252
     Pharmacy9353146
     Senior business867867
     Other431962
               Totals7631,1191,882
Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1970Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyMalesFemalesTotal Students
Apprentice trade classes2,93519,52921,85361122,464
Technician4,5187,44610,6901,27411,964
Professional2,2817,2598,9096319,540
Other vocational87014,6965,31510,25115,566
Non-vocational2,57839,58310,69431,46742,161
               Totals13,18288,51357,46144,234101,695
Other CoursesStudent-weeksMalesFemalesTotal Students
* Including 283 full-time secondary pupils.
Trade block courses44,89214,49515514,650
Technician block courses4,6371,866581,924
Sandwich courses8,1599331121,045
               Totals57,68817,29432517,619
          All students*..75,51845,678121,196

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—Instruction is now given in 589 technical subjects and so far the institute has published 13 textbooks.

The main function of the institute is to provide technical education from apprentice up to advanced technician level for those who are unable to obtain such education through the usual institutions. In particular, the institute meets many demands for technical education in the building, electrical, and engineering occupations, and also provides courses in agriculture and horticulture, dairy manufactures, management and commerce, mining and fire engineering, surveying, textiles, and valuation. As all students are employed in an industry or profession, their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience.

The work of the Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching given in the other senior technical institutes, and instruction is given in many subjects not taught elsewhere. The institute plays an important role in the education of many of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board. It also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the various examinations of the Technicians Certification Authority in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations.

The number of students on the roll at 1 July 1970 was 15,203. There is an establishment of 245 full-time tutors, besides the principal, and some 60 administrative staff”.

Vocational Training Council—This council was established by the Vocational Training Act 1968. Its responsibilities and activities are- set out in Section 32, Employment.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOUR FORCE—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1966 included a question on the highest educational qualifications obtained. An analysis concerning persons in the labour force is set out in the following table; where persons have more than one qualification they have been included only once in the higher academic qualifications, for example, certificated teachers with a university degree are included in the university qualification group.

QualificationMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes electricians', plumbers', carpenters', joiners', radio and T.V. servicemen's, and motor mechanics'.

† Includes Intermediate grades of Technician Certification Authority examinations, Police, Fire Brigade, and Armed Forces examinations, overseas trade examinations, etc.

‡ Mainly the Proficiency Certificate or Junior Free Place (43,029 male- and 11,308 females) and other primary certificates including the Certificate of Competency (6,531 males and 1,370 females).

University—
     Doctorate89769966
     Master's degree4,0148484,862
     Bachelor's degree14,8762,65217,528
     Diploma3,3886834,071
     Other3,419813,500
Teacher's Certificate7,1649,92517,089
Secondary—
     Higher School Certificate or equivalent, University Entrance Scholarship Examination5,5382,0287,566
     University Entrance25,2599,96835,227
     School Certificate33,87922,53856,417
     Other22,3438,53230,875
     Professional and higher trade16,8959,13526,030
Trade certificate*8,13678,143
Other trade certificate†7,4954987,993
Business college7959,37610,171
Other qualification‡50,47813,61264,090
No qualification541,019190,492731,511
               Totals745,595280,4441,026,039

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT—In 1969 the National Development Conference adopted a number of recommendations on education in relation to national development. Background information to the recommendations is contained in the Report of the Education, Training, and Research Committee available in Government bookshops. An Advisory Council on Educational Planning has been set up as a continuation measure.

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945.

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (48 research reports and 20 shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curriculums of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout the country.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains six local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, and Hamilton.

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. By the end of 1969 the capital resources of the foundation had risen to $2,050,000. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees is empowered to apply the income of the foundation include the education and vocational training of Maoris; the granting of financial assistance or of equipment to schools and institutions at which Maoris are receiving education; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. Although the bulk of the foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals, the major endeavours of the foundation are being concentrated on fostering the greater participation of Maori parents and children in play centres and kindergartens. During the 1971 academic year assistance was granted to 1,920 pupils and students. While 518 grants were of comparatively small amounts for school clothing or equipment, the bulk of the grants were towards the cost of board and tuition of secondary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases Foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards. Financial assistance towards the cost of tertiary studies was offered to 144 students in 1971.

POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 a Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was set up on similar lines to the Maori Education Foundation and is being run by the same staff but with a separate board of trustees. The target for the Foundation was $100,000, including a Government subsidy of $50,000. The aim is to assist children of Pacific Islands families in New Zealand to further their education.

PACIFIC ISLANDS EDUCATION—The Department of Education, in liaison with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, assists other administrations, including those in the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Pitcairn Island, New Hebrides, and British Solomon Islands Protectorate with their educational problems.

As part of the assistance, the Department of Education assumes responsibility for filling about 200 teaching and administration positions in the Pacific. Officers and teachers are inspected and their service, grading, and superannuation rights protected while serving in island positions. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of modern textbooks and apparatus are sent regularly to some territories. The Islands Education Division has also printed books in the vernacular for some areas, and has helped in the development of a system for teaching English as a second language.

In addition, a very important function of the Islands Education Division is to operate and supervise closely a scholarship system which in 1970 enabled 374 island students to obtain in New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers colleges, universities, Government departments, and private firms more advanced education and training than would otherwise be available to them. During the term of their scholarship these students are fully maintained by the Department of Maori and Island Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Each year officers from the Pacific come to New Zealand to undertake special training at in-service courses of 6 months to 1 year.

Increasing numbers of students in island schools are availing themselves of the facility to sit New Zealand examinations. In 1970, 59 schools offered candidates for New Zealand School Certificate, and 26 schools offered candidates for New Zealand University Entrance.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. The council advises the University Grants Committee, the Director-General of Education and other bodies on adult education, co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes occasional papers and reports as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand.

University Extension—Although full responsibility and control of their adult education activities rests with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views and in some cases to seek advice from various community interests.

The typical extension department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may be responsible for planning and developing sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. Two of the North Island universities also have lecturers specialising in work among the Maori people. All six universities now carry out extension work, and show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering approximately 60). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide substantial extension programmes of liberal studies for the general public, there has been a rapid increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

Secondary Schools—The largest amount of organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate Examination, though the bulk of the schools' evening classes remain of a practical hobby nature. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of adult education interests. The National Council is interested in the co-ordination of these wider developments and provided advice and assistance.

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for adult education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation which is heavily involved in parent education, adult education is incidental to their other purposes. The following two organisations, however, have adult education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. Small administrative grants are received from the respective universities with which the councils are associated, together with payment of tutors' fees for a limited number of courses approved by them. District councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This is a national liaison committee of the Country-womens Institute and the Womens Division of Federated Farmers; it has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

Community Centres—Community centres on an experimental basis were opened some 20 or more years ago at Feilding, Christchurch, Westport, Dunedin, and Hawera. These centres received some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community schemes supported by voluntary effort and without professional staff. Community centres in the overseas mould have not spread in New Zealand as was originally expected, and many which exist are merely sets of buildings available for community use.

SECTION 7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

The modern epoch is distinguished by application of science to problems of economic and human welfare … it is distinguished by a climate of human opinion, by some dominant views on the relation of man to the universe that foster science and its application.

               (Simon Kuznets in Modern Economic Growth, Yale University, 1966.)

GENERAL—Economic growth and higher living standards depend on increased productivity and full development of national resources. In an age of technological advancement, progress depends in a large part on the application of research. In past years production, in particular that in agriculture, has been promoted by scientific research.

More than three-quarters of the scientific research in New Zealand is financed from Government sources. The Government supports science as a cultural, educational, and intellectual activity through the schools, universities, museums, and other ways; and itself engages in scientific research for its social and economic values. Industry supports research which may be of short- or long-term benefit to its business and, together with private individuals, supports research for philanthropic reasons.

The importance of the social sciences (e.g., economics, education, sociology, political science, demography) in a world increasingly dominated by science and technology is often overlooked. In a period marked by a rapid advance of scientific and technological progress, most evident in the development of industrialisation and the resulting changes in our culture and society, the social sciences have a vital role to play in making it possible to recognise, understand, and counteract the human and social problems brought about by these rapid changes. Public opinion now also expects that in development processes more attention be given to protecting the quality of the environment.

New developments in instruments and equipment, such as computers, facilitate the work of the scientist, but the analysis and solving of problems in the human interest derive essentially from the efforts of trained minds.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—By far the greatest part of finance for research in the national interest is provided by the Government, and most of this is spent by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, through its 21 divisions and branches, in subsidies to nine grant-aided industrial research associations, and through special research grants to universities and other organisations.

Agricultural research still predominates, but expanding population and development of a broader-based economy have called for increasing industrial research, and there has been growing activity in the natural sciences and in scientific services for other Government departments and the general public. Further information is provided in the DSIR Information Series Bulletins and other publications.

Agricultural and Related Research—Scientific research has strongly influenced the long-continued trend towards more intensive farming, and the drive for intensification has in turn brought increasing sophistication to research.

The Soil Bureau has advanced from fundamental studies of soil genesis and the preparation of soil maps to examination of the balance of plant nutrients and the effect on this balance of man's use of the land.

Pasture improvement studies of the Grasslands and Applied Biochemistry Divisions, and later of the Plant Physiology Division, at first concerned mainly with increasing plant yield per acre, are now seeking more knowledge of the plant substances that contribute to the successful performance of the grazing animal, so that future plant selection can be guided by the yield of these nutrient constituents.

Biological and ecological research into plant pests and diseases by the Entomology and Plant Diseases Divisions seeks for more effective control by biological as well as chemical means.

The current change in research emphasis is evident right through to the end product, of which an ever-increasing variety is being developed. In the breeding and selection of cereals and vegetables (Crop Research Division) and fruit (Plant Diseases Division), account must be takes of storage and processing quality as well as field performance. Research in tobacco and hops is carried out at two special stations in the Nelson district.

A wheat-testing service and technical advice to millers and bakers are provided by the Wheat Research Institute, which is partly financed by a levy on the flourmilling and baking industries.

Competition for pasturage of introduced noxious animals such as rabbits, hares, and deer with economic livestock and the effect on forests and vegetative cover, continue to be problems in intensive land use and conservation. As a basis for more effective control methods, the Ecology Division has intensified its study of these animals, and of bird species that damage farm and orchard crops. The division's work has recently been expanded to embrace environmental research on a broad basis, with the aim of enhancing the quality of living by protecting and improving the natural environment and ensuring that its management is to the benefit of man.

The Botany Division's study of all plant life provides basic information to several other divisions concerned with the role of plants in agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural production.

The increasing sophistication of research applied to agricultural production is nowhere more evident than in the extent to which the Applied Mathematics Division is now involved in the design of experiments so that they yield the maximum information, and interpretation of the results. The volume of research statistics being handled by the division's computer service is rapidly increasing.

Research associations closely associated with the department, and jointly financed by the department and the respective industries, are carrying out work of importance to agricultural production in the following fields: the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers; wool end uses, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of wool, and its handling, storage, transport, and marketing; basic and applied investigations to improve the quality of export meat; the production of milk in relation to the feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals and the manufacture of dairy products, and the building, design, and efficiency of dairy machinery.

Industrial and Related Research—Because of the small scale of many industries in New Zealand, it is even more necessary than in highly industrialised countries that Government should give some form of technical assistance. A number of branches of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carry out research and service work for industry. A Science in Industry Unit co-ordinates and facilitates liaison with industry.

The Chemistry Division laboratories carry out materials and equipment testing for other Government departments and investigate the extraction and processing of natural products and minerals.

In the Geological Survey, emphasis on economic minerals has increased since the establishment several years ago of an economic geology unit, and commercial interest in the development of petroleum, natural gas, and other minerals has been encouraged and assisted.

Assistance to industry by the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is principally in providing servicing equipment beyond the resources of small private enterprises and designing and developing installations and techniques especially for the small-scale units that predominate in local industry. From chemical studies of indigenous timber and by-products of the pulp and paper and fruit industries, several products of potential economic importance in domestic and export markets have been developed. The laboratory is responsible for maintenance of the national standards of length, mass, force, and temperature, and for the changeover of these standards to metric measures.

Departmental geologists, engineering geologists, geophysicists, and chemists played a large part in the development of electrical power from geothermal steam in the volcanic centre of the North Island, and at Kawerau this work led to the direct use of geothermal steam in the pulp and paper industry. Continued geothermal exploration has revealed further extensive fields for geothermal power development.

The Auckland Industrial Development Division of DSIR is fully engaged in meeting an increasing demand from industry for scientific services. These include the application of the results of research and the use of precision measurement and data analysis, particularly in the fields of mechanical engineering, metallurgy, physics, and electronics. Major contributions have been made in the field of medical instrumentation and equipment covered by world patents is currently being manufactured in Auckland for export. Overseas-trained professional staff are available for research on metal cutting and for measurement at high degrees of accuracy of length, roundness, straightness, and concentricity. Excellent facilities for metal analysis and industrial lubricant evaluation have also been established. A continuing study of the behaviour of fruit and vegetables in storage is proving beneficial to the development of our export markets.

The Christchurch Industrial Development Division provides similar services for South Island industry and makes a speciality of electrical engineering and safety equipment testing.

A 3 MeV proton-electron accelerator at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences is being used on work concerned with the development of both primary and secondary industry, as well as the natural sciences. The institute gives advice and assistance in the industrial use of isotopes.

Research associations concerned particularly with manufacturing industries carry out investigations and information liaison services in fellmongery, hide processing, tanning, and footwear manufacture; pottery, ceramics, and structural clay products; laundering, dry-cleaning, and dyeing; and the coal industry and its products.

Scientific Services—Continuous magnetic, ionospheric, and seismological observations are carried out by the Geophysics Division, as well as special projects on natural phenomena, and networks of geophysical and seismological stations are maintained from the Pacific to Antarctica. This division also operates the official New Zealand time service.

Physical, geological, and biological studies in the oceans round New Zealand are carried out by the Oceanographic Institute, with recent emphasis on work likely to help development of mineral resources and the fishing industry.

Chemical work in the investigation of crime and toxicology, and chemical and bacteriological examination of food, drugs, and water supplies form a large part of Chemistry Division's service to other departments.

Because of New Zealand's nearness to the Antarctic and its large dependency there, the work of the Antarctic Division as a co-ordinating agency for scientific studies and exploration in that area is of special importance. The International Geophysical Year 1957–58 had a considerable influence on research in the Ross Dependency, and since that time New Zealand has maintained a permanent scientific base in the Antarctic at Scott Base, with a temporary station at Vanda and a summer station at Cape Byrd.

Scientific and industrial research must become of increasing importance to the country's development, and for the natural scientist New Zealand must continue to offer a fertile field of study, because of the large range of interests and problems it offers in a relatively small area.

AGRICULTURE—In the nineteenth century the process of ploughing up additional areas of virgin soil and sowing it down in imported pastures enabled the number of stock to be increased continually. Very little was done to improve the grasslands once they were established. In the twentieth century, however, especially since 1920, there has also been a huge increase in stock carried—but with very little increase in the total area of land farmed. This achievement in the expansion of numbers of stock carried is fundamental to New Zealand's economy and this result Cockayne, the research pioneer, attributed to seven factors—the realisation that grass was a crop and that the grassland farmer was the most important crop-farmer in New Zealand; the development of agricultural instruction and research devoted mainly to grassland farming; the rise of topdressing to a major factor in grassland farming; research leading to the control of bush sickness; research leading to the development of superior strains of grasses and clovers and their use; better stock management; and drainage.

The general improvement in the productive capacity of the grass and clover plants, which form the basis of our swards, has been the work of the agrostologists and plant breeders, and if we add to their work that of a host of other research workers in closely related fields—animal and field husbandry, irrigation, drainage, plant chemistry, veterinary science, animal diseases, and so on—we have the answer to the phenomenal increase in stock carried over the past 30 years.

The establishment of the Grasslands Division at Palmerston North adjacent to Massey Agricultural College in 1929 marked a great step forward in the progress of grassland research. The seed certification scheme inaugurated in 1929–30 was an immediate result with far-reaching consequences. The extension of plant breeding was an associated development. Another broad field of research was that of fertility in relation to pasture growth and the grazing animal.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is now conducted by the Research Division, which has a staff of approximately 215 scientists and 340 technicians; the headquarters is at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, Hamilton.

A proportion of resources is devoted to servicing activities for farmers and advisory personnel. Chief among these are soil-testing services. In two soil-testing laboratories approximately 30,000 samples of soil from farms are analysed for pH and major elements to provide an estimate of the types and quantities of fertilisers required.

Research work is carried out at seven stations, at smaller experimental centres and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. Of the seven stations, two undertake a range of experimental work embracing plant and animal research; three specialise in research on animal production and animal health, while the other two concentrate on soil fertility and horticultural problems respectively. In addition, there is a field research section whose function is to investigate local problems throughout the country and to test out, where possible, the findings of research stations in different environments. Such work is under the control of a number of research workers located in different parts of the country and is carried out on experimental areas and farms. A biometrics unit provides statistical services for research workers.

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers to agricultural production, considerable work is being done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are very few, if any, soils or areas where it has not been possible to establish pastures satisfactorily with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and in some cases drainage. Problem areas such as sands, peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 3,000 ft) have been successfully and profitably improved, using specialised techniques and often specialised equipment.

From animal production research, targets have been set which are acting as a spur to producers. Six hundred pounds of milkfat or beef per acre; 300 lb of lamb and over 100 lb of wool—these are the levels of production which have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-utilised pastures. Studies of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle have provided valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Recently established projects are also examining the profitability and the problems involved in beef production from animals of dairy breed origin both as an integrated system with conventional dairying and as a separate specialist enterprise.

Animal health research is concerned with most of the important diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, tuberculosis, brucellosis, and hypomagneasemia are all being investigated with the aim of finding more effective methods of prevention and control.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to find answers to existing and changing problems.

OTHER SCIENTIFIC ORGANISATIONS—As may be seen from the tables which are included on the following pages these two departments (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) between them spend, directly, approximately 44 percent of the total national science expenditure, and if their grants to other scientific organisations are included they are responsible for about 48 percent of the total national science expenditure. Another large expenditure is that of New Zealand Forest Service whose science functions are discussed in the section on forestry.

The Meteorological Service (Ministry of Transport), the Department of Health, other Government departments, the universities, the Medical Research Council, private industry, and research associations are the other major areas in which scientific activities are undertaken.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand, the Cawthron Institute at Nelson, was established in 1920. The institute was founded in Nelson as a result of a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the institute has received increasing grants from the Government through the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The grant now amounts to about half the annual income of the institute.

Among the other organisations undertaking research are the various museums, the Carter Observatory, and a number of amateur and near amateur groups, particularly in astronomy.

Medical Research—The organisation of medical research is discussed in Section 5A, Public Health, with particular reference to the Medical Research Council and the National Health Institute. The Medical Research Council funds various units (mainly in Dunedin associated with the University of Otago) and in addition research is carried on by the local medical research foundations and the Cancer Society and the Heart Foundation.

Social Sciences—Most of the research material published in the social sciences has been prepared by such organisations as the New Zealand Council for Educational Research, the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, the Agricultural Economics Research Unit, the Monetary and Economic Council, and the universities. The National Research Advisory Council has compiled an index of current research in the social sciences.

Since 1945 the New Zealand Council for Educational Research has been supported in the main by State funds, supplemented by contributions from educational bodies and business organisations. The council, which is under independent control, has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. There are local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

The New Zealand Institute of Economic Research was founded in 1958 and is an independent non-profit-making incorporated society. Its object is to increase knowledge of New Zealand's economic development through research, education, and the training of research workers. It conducts its research in co-operation with the universities and other agencies.

The Agricultural Economics Research Unit was established at Lincoln College in 1962 with an annual grant from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It also receives grants for particular projects from other sources. The unit has a long-term programme of research in the fields of agricultural marketing and agricultural production and the relationship between agriculture and the general economy.

In addition to these three organisations and the universities a number of Government departments and agencies undertake research work for their own needs.

Government departments which undertake some research in the social sciences for their own requirements include: Education; Justice; Labour; Statistics; Social Welfare.

PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—About 76 percent of the money spent on scientific research in New Zealand comes directly from Government sources.

The expenditure by the various organisation groups is approximately:

Government departments, 65 percent; universities, 12 percent; industry, 13 percent; research associations, 7 percent; other organisations, 3 percent.

The National Research Advisory Council was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science on—

  1. The promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand.

  2. The planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including—

    1. The determination of priorities among research activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. The provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. The association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. The collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals.

  3. The promotion of co-operation with the governments of or organisations in other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters.

  4. Any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any other above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The council has nine members, six (including the chairman) appointed by the Governor-General together with the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is responsible to the Minister of Science who discusses reports or proposals with other Cabinet Ministers whose departments may be affected. This council replaced the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research established in 1926.

At present, Government science activities are distributed amongst 15 Government departments— Agriculture and Fisheries, Defence, Education, Electricity, Forest Service, Internal Affairs, Justice, Labour, Lands and Survey, Maori and Island Affairs, Scientific and Industrial Research, Social Welfare, State Services Commission, Transport, and Works.

Science Budget—A science budget for all Government expenditure on scientific activities, including social sciences, was introduced on 1 April 1970. The formation of a science budget was recommended by the National Research Advisory Council in their 1968 annual report and was approved by Cabinet in that year. The budget, which is both a financial and a manpower budget, contains a forward programme for science.

Research Expenditure—The introduction of the science budget, which incorporates a wider concept of science, has resulted in a revised compilation by the National Research Advisory Council for research expenditure. Because of the new method of compilation the following tables are not strictly comparable with those in previous Yearbooks.

ESTIMATED GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE
Department or AgencyGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Agriculture and Fisheries4,4125,5616,433153155273
Forest Service1,5291,9972,337132021
Scientific and Industrial Research9,73811,70413,8721,1911,3511,769
Transport1,8732,1642,4261515
Works1,2641,3701,481145157150
Other departments3,4504,4215,5371,2062,0972,703
               Totals22,26627,21732,0862,7233,7954,916
Buildings (Government)1,1259221,484
               Totals (Government)23,39128,13933,5702,7233,7954,916
ESTIMATED NATIONAL EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE
Department or AgencyNet Expenditure on SciencePercentage of Total Net Government Expenditure on Science
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)percent
Agriculture and Fisheries4,2595,4126,16021.823.022.7
Forest Service1,5161,9772,3167.88.48.5
Scientific and Industrial Research8,54710,35212,10343.743.944.6
Transport1,8582,1492,4269.59.28.9
Works1,1191,3091,3315.75.64.9
Other departments2,2442,3572,8345.19.910.4
               Totals19,54323,55627,170100.0100.0100.0
Buildings1,1259221,484
               Totals20,66824,41228,654
Less recoveries1,1211,0531,052
               Totals (Government)19,54723,35927,602
Universities3,2994,2774,646
Research associations2,0692,5053,252
Industry3,8484,6507,455
Other organisations9911,0321,238
               Total expenditure29,75435,82344,192
ESTIMATED NATIONAL EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY ACTIVITY GROUPS
Activity GroupNet ExpenditurePercentage of Total Net Expenditure
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)percent
Agriculture10,97112,88815,45836.534.835.0
Forestry2,2513,0723,6047.58.38.2
Fisheries1,2901,2701,3854.33.43.1
Minerals1,4701,8051,9904.94.94.5
Manufacturing2,9454,0715,6589.811.012.8
Building and construction1,1001,3301,5233.63.63.4
Transport3554506111.21.21.4
Natural environment5,2056,4127,42717.317.316.8
Social sciences6037238422.02.01.9
Human health2,2682,9443,4097.58.07.7
Fundamental research5106577371.71.81.7
Other scientific services1,1191,3801,5493.73.73.5
               Totals30,08737,00244,193100.0100.0100.0
GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT
Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on SciencePercentage of Total Government ExpenditurePercentage of Gross National ProductStaff Employed
 $(000)percentpercent 
196919,9731.740.463,288
197023,3911.830.493,525
197128,2731.880.523,629
197233,5701.900.54 

In a study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on reviews of national science policy, the following comparisons are made for 1967 of gross domestic research and development expenditure for economic and social purposes (in U.S. dollars per head of population): United States, $34.5; Netherlands, $25.8; United Kingdom, $24.0; Canada $23.7; Sweden, $22.1; West Germany, $20.4; France, $19.0; Belgium, $14.1; Norway, $10.0; Japan, $9.3; Italy, $5.4; Austria, $2.8.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT—In 1969 the National Development Conference adopted a number of recommendations on research in relation to national development. These recommendations have been dealt with by the National Research Advisory Council, which is a sector council of the National Development Council.

Bibliography—Further information on New Zealand scientific services may be obtained from:

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.34.

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.29.

Medical Research Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.31B.

National Research Advisory Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.41.

DSIR Research 1970: DSIR Information Series Bulletin No. 77.

National Research Advisory Council: Some Aspects of Technical Manpower in New Zealand, N.R.A.C. Publication 2, Wn, 1967.

Callaghan F. R. ed.: Science in New Zealand, Wn, Reed 1957.

Jansen, H. ed.: Directory of New Zealand Science, 4th Ed., 1962, Wn.

McBride, C. P. and de Joux, Christine: Scientific Research in New Zealand, Government Expenditure and Manpower, 1926–66, N.R.A.C. Publication 1, Wn, 1966.

Otago University Science Students' Association: Science Record (this contains the only published list of science research topics studied in all New Zealand universities).

Report of the Committee on Education, Training, and Research to the National Development Conference—May 1969.

Research in the Department of Agriculture: Annual Report of Research Division 1969–70.

R. E. Gibson and N. E. Harcourt: An Index of Current Research in the Social Sciences, N.R.A.C. Publication 3, Wn, 1971.

Chapter 8. Section 8
JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed. In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility of bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibility by the Law Revision Commission, an advisory body set up in 1965 as successor to the Law Revision Committee. The commission is a part-time body with the Attorney-General or Minister of Justice as chairman, and includes a judge of the Supreme Court, a representative of the Parliamentary Opposition, the heads of the three principal legal departments of State (Crown Law Office, Department of Justice, Law Drafting Office), and representatives of the practising legal profession and of the university law faculties. The principal functions of the commission are to prepare programmes for the reform of the law, to indicate the order in which topics should be examined, to allocate the work, to study particular topics from time to time, and to exercise a general oversight over law reform. In addition to the commission there are five standing committees each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the commission or by the Minister and report thereon to the Minister of Justice. The chairman of each committee is a member of the commission.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Law Drafting Office. The ordinances of the 1840s issued when New Zealand was a Crown colony, began a tradition of good drafting that has continued to the present. Allowing for the inescapable complexity of much modern legislation, New Zealand statutes are distinguished by a clarity, accuracy, and simplicity that have been equalled in few other countries.

COURTS—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts. Children's Courts hear cases against children under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and two judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $1,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 17 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was created. It consists of not more than four judges of the Supreme Court assigned to the Administrative Division by the Chief Justice. The Administrative Division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: Broadcasting Authority Act, War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act, Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioner's Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Trade Practices Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

Magistrates' Courts are set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by stipendiary magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 45, there being 43 at present holding office. Justices of the peace can sit as a Magistrate's Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Court of Arbitration, which makes awards governing pay and working conditions in industry, and also makes general wage orders; and the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system (a list was published in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook).

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 15 miles of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. Women have the right to exemption on request.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; judges and members of the Court of Arbitration; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; magistrates; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; nuns; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1971 there were 2,794 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates. These members included 55 women.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries an increasing emphasis is being placed on the reformation and rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside a prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of imprisonment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December were as follows: 1966, 3,821; 1967, 4,166; 1968, 4,318; 1969, 4,868; 1970, 5,204; 1971, 5, 878. In December 1971, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 69.4 percent were on probation.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Wanganui, and Invercargill, and further centres are proposed at Whangarei, New Plymouth, and Papakura. Some of these are available for offenders under 21 years, some for the 17–25 year age group and some for adults generally. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence he is required to attend at a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend. Non-residential centres for adults have been opened at Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Petone, Dunedin and Invercargill. At 31 March 1972 there were 350 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may now impose are as follows—

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding 2 years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals. In particular short-term imprisonment is usually open to objection on several counts. The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967 accordingly provides that no court is to sentence any person to imprisonment for a term of less than 6 months unless, having regard to the nature of the offence and all the circumstances of the case, the court is of opinion that no other punishment than imprisonment is appropriate.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the Supreme Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

Applications filed in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearApplications FiledSentence VariedAppeal Dismissed or Disallowed
1965841074
1966881276
1967821666
19681081494
1969861472
19701041886
197111110101

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 6 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMF
Total Cases
196696611352140304282542867
19671,00081487471911167858736
19681,468538573544341,300391,339
19691,112916032644091,043351,078
1970755178395123677291,0721521,224
19711,0596450831604101,112411,153
Distinct Persons
1966371272071656126317280
1967410332462050229622318
1968432222671368333516351
1969390242411256529717314
19703353121816119733723360
19713633123616147538321404

Of the 394 distinct persons indicted during 1971, 252 were convicted, 3 are awaiting trial, and 118 acquitted, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 21 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 6 years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
19661736504486710815319280
19672284525673613714338318
19682321,025821,33912618936351
1967219790691,07813015925314
1970269898571,22414017545360
19712697701141,15316418060404

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19671968196919701971
* Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder34275
Attempted murder42311
Manslaughter*114966
Traffic offences involving death or injury64431
Assaults and wounding4145485881
Sexual offences5758605864
Other offences against the person159476
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering5280676475
Theft, receiving, and fraud8285788484
Other offences against property310112019
Forgery and uttering614372
Other offences3836254560
               Totals318351314360404
Per 10,000 mean population1.171.271.131.281.41

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19671968196919701971
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)2838346540
Ordered to come up for sentence1516231313
Discharged41069
Fined6648623654
Imprisoned192210171233243
Detention centre (includes periodic)63117
Borstal training91913924
Preventive detention44224
Detained in mental institution1
               Totals318351314360404

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished. It was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act but was again abolished by the Crimes Act 1961. The only crime for which the death penalty may be imposed is treason. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. If the magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to 3 years or a fine of up to $1,000, or both. A magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest 5 years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 27,113 charges against females in the 266,775 total charges and 23,640 females in the 217,760 distinct cases for 1971.

Type of Offence19671968196919701971

* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

† Excludes offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge including excessive blood alcohol; failing to take breathalyser or blood tests; failing to stop after accidents involving injury.

‡ From 1 April 1969 excludes overparking offences and from 1 July 1971 some speeding offences, both being handled by traffic controlling authorities and previously dealt with as court cases.

§ Not offences; included only for administration purposes. Since 1 January 1970 maintenance, separation, and paternity orders have been returned separately under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, statistics for which may be found at the end of this section.

Common assault2,0282,3412,3132,6033,454
Sexual offences677706600558635
Other offences against the person1,1991,1071,4481,6071,356
Theft5,5066,8306,6686,7177,389
Wilful damage1,1641,1791,2311,3171,480
Other offences against property (including forgery)9,31810,2119,53810,55611,767
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)4,9154,9994,1724,1433,738
Offensive conduct or language, and vagrancy4,4424,7985,1685,8476,039
Other offences against good order1,1631,0733,1224,3856,247
Breach of probation631639737880937
Offences relating to dangerous drugs70183170235481
Failing to pay maintenance2,1172,0962,0641,2281,318
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.8509608741,0641,291
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income1,1461,7211,9861,8251,713
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Acts7,0627,4787,0606,0867,254
Deserting merchant ships13913415517395
Other offences5,0645,8966,7046,3366,487
          Sub-totals47,49152,35154,01055,56061,701
Minor traffic offences† ‡187,681203,003171,440159,655179,230
Application for prohibition order§647651605595176
Applications for maintenance, separation order, etc.§1,0771,1771,301136
Application for paternity order§36838940028
               Totals237,264257,571227,756215,974241,107
          Distinct Cases*201,961217,357189,326176,851199,732
Rate per 10,000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences and applications174.1190.1194.3197.0215.4

The next table classifies the result of hearing in all distinct cases heard in 1971.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, Forgery and CurrencyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

* Minor traffic offences accounted for 151,586 of the cases where fines were imposed.

† Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence13325723452460
Imprisonment5561,3991,062316903,423
Detention in detention centre8028387501501
Periodic detention974231994111771
Detention in borstal institution, etc.8249780975761
Released on probation4862,097602156553,396
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required292424331154351,236
Fined*2,8344,667163,01184611,302182,660
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)1834424,3503085465,829
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)979979
Miscellaneous†1241531873197
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out7271,21311,1081,3311,50015,879
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act189522741681481,668
               Total distinct cases5,67112,265181,6474,40913,768217,760

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest 5 years.

Offence19671968196919701971

* Excludes trailers.

† Drop from previous years is due to a change in legislation.

Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death86628110694
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury135135144166206
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death2154
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury23578
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury909812289156
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,3241,4981,2971,6941,803
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug1,1681,4262,2134,2735,736
Exceeding speed limits54,03555,67150,86245,42747,902
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle29,24229,83929,81728,60633,428
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle194238196196139
Incorrect lighting of vehicles6,1787,2536,3245,5985,675
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles14,85215,04911,9877,8329,041
Offences relating to driver's licence12,09414,57615,97717,57219,377
Breaches of parking regulations49,39256,53331,686†26,006†34,355
Other traffic offences21,69423,84425,02128,41829,302
               Totals190,486206,227175,733165,995187,226
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population69.8474.9063.2158.8765.36
Convictions per 1,000 motor vehicles*176.38181.13152.98137.33147.14

The previous table excludes the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1970 only one case concerning reckless, or dangerous driving of a motor vehicle was sent forward and in 1971 one case for drunken driving causing injury.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table.

Period for which Driver Disqualified196619671968196919701971
* In addition there were 5,015 probationary licence holders disqualified.
Under 3 months2,6493,1922,4432,1862,6612,562
3 months and under 6 months3,3764,1665,2305,9966,1464,581
6 months and under 1 year1,2051,4671,3392,3303,3234,663
1 year and under 2 years2,2462,4962,4283,2174,4804,095
2 years and under 3 years4134084945309691,045
3 years and under 4 years9051,0931,3089981,197513
4 years and under 5 years379497519433
5 years and over88135141117122165
               Total disqualifications10,91913,05113,48015,42518,99217,657*

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest 5 years.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19674,7152004,9153.450.151.80
19684,8141854,9993.510.131.82
19694,0011714,1722.880.121.50
19703,9591844,1432.810.131.47
19713,6021563,7582.520.111.31

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include cases of application for prohibition orders of which there were 176 in 1971, 595 in 1970, and 605 in 1969. In addition 4,894 persons were convicted of driving or attempting to drive with excessive blood alcohol concentration in 1971, compared with 3,046 in 1969.

Offences by Women—Of the 266,775 charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1971, 27,113, or 10.2 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 4,610 from the 1970 total of 22,503.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19671968196919701971
Common assault43625565104
Drunkenness165149151184156
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.6029681106104
Theft1,2281,4461,3801,5711,771
Fraud and false pretences454406247386534
Offensive conduct or language158183197251273
Vagrancy260328262271259

Women received into prison under sentence during 1971 numbered 289 compared with 259 in 1970. The principal offences concerned were (with the previous year's figures in parentheses): cruelty to children, 2 (1); burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 18 (17); theft, 59 (47); fraud and false pretences, 18 (9); vagrancy, 41 (67); failing to pay fine, 54 (18); breach of probation, 24 (25); common assault, 9 (9).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the latest 10 years 1962 to 1971 the number of convictions in the Magistrates' Courts (excluding minor traffic offences) increased by 33.8 percent in relation to the population. The trend over most categories of serious crime has been upwards. The rate in proportion to the population “at risk” for convictions against property (including forgery) in the Magistrates' Courts increased by 92 percent. For burglary, breaking and entering 67 percent more were convicted in 1971 than in 1962. For offences against the person (of which common assault, and assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police are the more frequent offences) the rate more than doubled. The phenomenon of increasing serious crime is not confined to New Zealand, and indeed the situation is much worse in many overseas countries.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly, and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only recently.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1960, 22 percent of persons sent to prison were 20 years of age or younger; in 1971 the proportion had risen to 41 percent. Similarly, 54 percent of those imprisoned in 1960 were under 30 years of age, in 1971 the proportion had risen to 75 percent.

Age in Years19601965196919701971
151928255688
1658117165223317
17115228343380474
18121267378454508
19178241312427454
20179238287437509
21–245517227971,0441,215
25–29437459499600701
30–34381313335387421
35–39305271244253298
40–44227227224222254
45–49199158141196205
50–541331269595150
55–599968545858
60–643938301627
65–69131271212
70 and over37414
               Totals3,0573,5203,9404,8615,695

PROBATION—The following figures show the numbers of persons placed on probation during each of the latest 11 years.

YearNumber Admitted to Probation
19611,944
19621,978
19632,162
19642,024
19652,456
19662,773
19673,033
19683,345
19693,794
19704,062
19714,274

The next table gives the number of offenders in each group placed on probation during 1971, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
1 Year15 Months18 Months2 Years2 1/2–3 Years
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Under 20829155573766113431785852,141354
20–2437080162604718137355862169
25–291182958612541415127856
30–39712165014551413219551
40–493491285261629517
50–591491112833711
60–6921126
70 and over112
               Totals1,4383038631,202193757144133153,616658

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—There are 18 institutions serving as prisons or borstals in New Zealand, and 9 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 30 days may be detained at any police station, which is deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1971 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at January 19712,2441212,365
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)10,57467211,246
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)10,30567010,975
Persons in prison at 31 December 19712,5131232,636
Daily average number of prisoners2,5111282,639

A steep and unexplained rise in the number of male inmates began at the end of 1970 and the rate became almost unprecedented in the first half of 1971. For equally obscure reasons the increase then levelled off and the situation reverted to a more level pattern.

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1971, 266 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a court order; 41 were classed as mental defectives and transferred to mental hospitals, while 4,535 persons were not returned to prison after release for hearing of the charge, being acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1971.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft, and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther
Under 213921231857369717712,350
21–24211241737684515421,215
25–292158121983235345701
30–392147172292436345719
40–491724498749260459
50–59124448136103208
60 and over117112343
               Totals132470851,8135172892,3895,695

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1971.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

* Includes detention in a detention centre.

† Includes borstal detention.

‡ Sentenced to life imprisonment.

Under 21305221821*992†1012,350
21–242742404711992362‡1,215
25–291731582071332352‡701
30–391911332101532561‡719
40–491868412353103459
50–597447512736208
60 and over21911243
               Totals1,2248921,8941,559942755,695

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1970 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time of conviction.

SentenceAge in Years
15161718192025–2930–5455–59Total
Borstal training—
     Males82157193208130502822
     Females414201611267
Detention centre11301731258643558
Preventive detention1124

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1971, 87 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 49.3 percent of these had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1971 for criminal offences was 6,395 but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 5,717 (5,406 males and 311 females). The corresponding total for 1970 was 5,417 and there were 4,861 distinct persons (4,602 males and 259 females).

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to nature of sentence imposed for the 5 latest years.

Nature of Sentence19671968196919701971
Imprisonment3,3813,3612,9323,6544,244
Detention centre319344397442558
Borstal training550616609764889
Preventive detention34214
               Totals4,2534,3253,9404,8615,695
       Rate per 10,000 of mean population15.5815.6914.1517.2119.88

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 11 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in JailProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19611,810561,8667.467.69
19621,704561,7606.857.07
19631,744601,8046.867.09
19641,685721,7576.496.76
19651,652501,7026.246.43
19661,897671,9647.077.32
19671,977762,0537.247.52
19682,021722,0937.337.59
19691,963842,0477.057.35
19702,282832,3658.088.37
19712,540922,6328.869.18

PRISONS POLICY: Classification—The key to successful prison work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the three main reception centres, Mt. Eden Prison, Wellington Prison, and Christchurch Prison, and in Wi Tako Prison, an institution for those in prison for the first time.

Every man sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 6 months or more (or in some cases for shorter terms) comes before the classification board which can call upon a chaplain, psychologist, psychiatrist, education officer, probation officer, or any other form of specialist service to assist in defining the offender's character and potential and advise upon the most hopeful form of treatment while he is in prison.

Measures Employed in Treatment: Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some trade skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are full-time teachers in Auckland Prison, Mt. Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Wi Tako Prison, Waikeria and Waipiata Youth Centres, Arohata and Invercargill Borstal Institutions, and part-time teachers in many other institutions. It is their task to seek to improve the general education of those prisoners who have been unable to reach the level of Form II, and also to assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses through a Correspondence School. The interest shown in education is encouraging, since in many cases it fits a prisoner for better employment on his release and thereby helps to reduce the chances of his further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Group Therapy—Group discussions are part of the programme of institutions. These groups of about seven or eight inmates meet regularly with an officer under informal conditions to discuss their problems and attitudes.

The leadership of a group is not confined solely to professional psychologists. Many are led by selected custodial officers who receive subsequent help and guidance from professional staff.

The primary aim of a group discussion is to help inmates to come to a closer understanding of themselves and their problems. At the same time the groups also encourage inmates to form constructive relationships with officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, at Auckland and Christchurch for adult male inmates, and one in Wellington for female borstal inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community.

Release to Work—Under the Penal Institutions Amendment Act 1961, inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependant or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present five parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and four Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for 6 years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate provisions) after the offender has served 3 1/2 years of his sentence, and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the Supreme Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but no more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a magistrate as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearBorstal DetentionImprisonmentHabitual Criminals or Preventive DetentionPerson on ParoleTotal
19671,641154191,706
19681,5924249391,722
19691,6733835171,763
19701,764442291,839
19712,084259162,134

Of the cases coming before the boards in 1971, there were 842 recommendations made for release on probation and 10 persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom and, where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other court, it does not sit when that other court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

The cases heard in the latest 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
196919701971196919701971
* Includes periodic detention.
Dismissed or withdrawn1,1991,3881,541716870947
Admonished and discharged3,3084,1525,2741,9502,5223,102
Committed to care of Social Welfare Department2,2102,8312,9121,0121,2101,270
Placed under supervision6,5297,1198,0693,1163,6573,894
Committed to an institution*9861,4121,899264411567
Fined2,2252,7853,6491,6252,1202,605
Otherwise dealt with1,5311,8152,2946488471,004
               Total cases17,98821,50225,6389,33111,63713,389

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts during each of the latest 11 years. It is shown in two ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19619,1041,35610,4604,6788675,545
19628,0921,3309,4223,7138974,610
19639,0001,41410,4144,1391,0475,186
19649,0991,66510,7644,5471,1955,742
19659,6542,00011,6544,7641,4536,217
196611,5122,45013,9625,5761,6567,232
196712,4762,63815,1145,9721,8417,813
196813,7783,14016,9186,6811,9968,677
196914,8353,15317,9887,2612,0709,331
197017,7853,71721,5029,1082,52911,637
197121,2344,40425,63810,5542,83513,389

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19671968196919701971

* Includes forgery and uttering.

NOTE—Distinct cases figures are included in those for total charges.

Total Charges
Sexual offences137148169144185
Assaults277342463534783
Other offences against the person2335386359
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering3,8644,3124,1184,6876,501
Theft, receiving, and fraud4,7075,3375,4316,3927,590
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1,6711,5622,1663,0193,271
Wilful damage415477471523812
Other offences against property*62126216925207
Offences against good order1,2931,2421,5531,8992,240
Indigent or delinquent child1,7521,9912,1092,3001,922
Other offences9131,3461,2541,0162,068
               Totals15,11416,91817,98821,50225,638
Distinct Cases
Sexual offences107111128116139
Assaults232287386429632
Other offences against the person2232335849
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering1,5151,7441,7111,9752,767
Theft, receiving, and fraud2,1202,3092,4003,0273,529
Unlawful conversion of vehicles5375637338711,233
Wilful damage222215200262399
Other offences against property*34478538233
Offences against good order8498439891,2491,442
Indigent or delinquent child1,6001,6411,8492,0261,771
Other offences5758858171,2421,395
               Totals7,8138,6779,33111,63713,339

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrate's Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount Recovered
 $(000)$(000)
19612,2011282784662,086871
19621,8911442864661,9021,037
19632,0081412564363,0351,865
19641,9671062413451,601889
19652,183982963192,1051,181
19662,555892963252,4191,370
19672,9521662734253,3731,850
19682,9761573405783,5651,917
19692,9351332794693,9762,165
19703,2731143625363,2461,712
19713,8491203936394,4602,569

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1967 to 1971 there were 227 civil appeals, of which 84 were allowed, and also 1 case removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in judgment for the plaintiff.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates' Courts may now hear all claims up to $3,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 11 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for which Judgment Entered
  $(000) $(000)$(000)
196192,3837,39454,2663,8483,434
1962108,6988,92460,5374,6844,102
1963112,6929,52066,6635,1924,472
1964115,9029,44469,0165,1544,554
1965112,81311,52669,6905,2444,644
1966118,97610,99167,8055,4874,934
1967128,51812,35173,5086,2575,425
1968127,51713,78181,1557,5366,393
1969115,01812,70871,4356,9166,102
1970111,39312,93068,1606,8756,100
1971120,38815,32675,0357,5976,663

The average amount claimed in each plaint was $80 in 1961 and $101 in 1971.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is administered by the Crimes Compensation Tribunal, consisting of a judge, or a person qualified to hold judicial office, as chairman and two other members. Compensation may be awarded in respect of any one or more of the following matters:

  1. Expenses actually and reasonably incurred as a result of the victim's injury or death.

  2. Pecuniary loss of the victim as a result of total or partial incapacity for work.

  3. Pecuniary loss to dependants as a result of the victim's death.

  4. Other pecuniary loss resulting from the victim's injury and any expenses which in the opinion of the tribunal it is reasonable to incur.

  5. Pain and suffering of the victim.

The maximum amounts that may be paid in respect of (b) and (c) are the same as those payable under the Workers' Compensation Act. The maximum amount for other pecuniary loss and for expenses is $2,000 and the maximum for pain and suffering is $1,000.

In considering any application for compensation the tribunal may take into account any behaviour by the victim which may have contributed to his injury. It is not the policy of the Act to permit double compensation, and the tribunal is therefore directed to deduct any amount that may be received by the victim or his dependants in consequence of the injury, for example, social security benefits or worker's compensation. However, the proceeds of any accident insurance policy need not be taken into account.

The Act makes provision for recovery from the offender, where appropriate, of any compensation paid to his victim under the scheme. The Secretary for Justice has a discretion to apply to the tribunal for an order requiring the offender to pay to the State the whole or any part of the compensation awarded to the victim or his dependants.

The following table shows the trend of operations under the Act.

Action19671968196919701971
Applications filed3834444067
Cases in which an award made2125323346
Amounts of awards$6,039$11,261$15,605$14,552$28,156

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having his grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $30 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1972, 4,684 applications were granted, 381 were refused, 160 were withdrawn, and 283 lapsed. In the Supreme Court, domestic applications (numbering 198 out of a total of 536 applications) represented 37 percent of all applications made. In the Magistrates' Courts, domestic applications (numbering 5,227 out of a total of 5,440 applications) represented 96 percent of all applications made.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1972 was $207,045; set off against this were contributions of $59,458 from legally aided persons and recoveries of costs of $12,408. The net cost was $135,179. It is estimated that the cost may reach $350,000 in the 1972–73 year.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case. It is expected that legal aid applications will continue to increase as the legal aid scheme becomes more widely known.

The Social Welfare Department is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their “disposable income” and “disposable capital” within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The work of Magistrates' Courts used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of Magistrates' Courts ranks as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There is, for instance a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the hearing of domestic cases. The aim here is to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserves dignity.

Domestic Proceeding—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold.

The first is to empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

In proceedings where the paternity of ex-nuptial children is in question, the important new concept of blood or genetic tests has been introduced. Though such tests can conclusively prove only that the man in question is not a child's father, the court can nevertheless be greatly assisted in arriving at the truth of such matters.

The second major aim of the Act is to encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of warring married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from other proceedings under the Act.

On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

Third, the Act seeks to ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

The last major object of the Act is to deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1971 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

* Custody, 872; guardianship, 127. Custody order in favour of mother, 801; in favour of father, 40; in favour of other parties, 18 and 13 divided.

† Maintenance included in 436.

Separation2,706929
Maintenance3,1291,233
Custody or guardianship1,622999*
Non-molestation608241
Tenancy23083
Matrimonial home899295
Paternity1,072439†
Consent to marry4732
Minors' contracts..169

The following were the grounds for the separation orders: serious disharmony, 745; defendant's conduct, 129; disharmony and conduct, 49; assault, 6. Twenty-two of the applicants were husbands.

Ages at time of marriage of parties separated in 1971 are given below.

Age of Wife (in Years) at MarriageAge of Husband (in Years) at Marriage
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
16–19116195391427373
20–242117910027121340
25–2921440227792
30–3479176847
35–392343214
40 and over1322834
Not known2929
               Totals13939719287324636929

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1971, the age of wife at marriage and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsAge of Wife (in Years') at Marriage
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
Under 1551314
11414111435
227143512153
330253216168
43823412169
53116812361
625226211158
72115821148
82424511156
92415221145
10–1455631915163162
15–193834118243100
20–2426421162188
25 and over14281021156
Not known11516
               Totals3723419247143429929

The next table gives details as to the amounts of weekly maintenance ordered in 1971.

Amount OrderedOrders for Weekly Payments in Support of—
Wife onlyChildren onlyWife and ChildrenTotal Orders
      $
Under 1931022
  1–41039453
  5–9239425142
10–14345756147
15–19212892141
20–242411150185
25–29181200219
30–34112177190
35–39228690
40–4912930
50 and over11112
Not known22
               Totals1542378421,233

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1971 are given next.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789
Number of orders2512831689438201521872
Total children2515665043761901201051692,137

The amount of weekly payments ordered in 1971 in the case of paternity orders are set out below:

AmountNumber of Orders
     $
Under 15
1–24
3–464
5–6178
7–822
8–99
10–1457
15–1943
20–2428
25–299
30–395
Not Known7
               Total orders436

POLICE—The Police Service in New Zealand is a national one maintained by Central Government. The law relating to its establishment and regulation is contained in the Police Act 1958.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police Service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police. Two assistant commissioners, one director of Criminal Investigations and Operations, the other director of Personnel and Management Development, together with a chief superintendent responsible for Administration, are the three most senior officers on his staff.

Apart from criminal investigations and the normal police duties under the statutes, other functional responsibilities include crime prevention, youth aid, training, and coping with armed offenders.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland district, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to chief superintendent.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile and foot ‘beats’ co-ordinated by an effective communications net which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Narcotics Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as registrars and bailiffs at Magistrates' Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Male recruits for the Police, for entry as constables, must be between the ages of 19 and 35 years. Cadets must be between the ages of 17 years and 18 years 3 months. Male recruits and cadets must have a height of not less than 5 ft 8 1/2 in. The term of cadetship at the Police Training School is 19 months and on successful completion of the course and on attaining the age of 19 years, cadets are appointed constables.

Female recruits, who enter as constables, must be between the ages of 20 and 33 years with a height of not less than 5 ft 5 in.

All candidates for entry into the Police must pass a departmental education pre-entry test and also a medical test. They must be of good character, smart, active, and intelligent. Selection is made only after exhaustive inquiries into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. On appointment, male and female constable recruits undergo a 3 months' course of training at the Police Training School, Trentham, where they receive training in their powers and responsibilities as police officers, fitting them to deal with the situations which may be faced on duty.

Examinations are required to be passed for promotion to sergeant and senior sergeant and to commissioned rank. Promotion through the ranks of those qualified by examination is governed principally by merit, seniority being a deciding factor only when equality in merit exists.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch, Detectives are attached to each of the 16 district headquarters and to some of the larger outlying police stations, and they undertake duty, as required, in the investigation and detection of serious crime throughout the country.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1972, inclusive of 91 women police, was 3,302 (2,887 Uniform Branch, 415 Criminal Investigation Branch).

Women Police—At 31 March 1972 the women police consisted of 1 senior sergeant, 3 sergeants, and 87 constables, and these were stationed in cities throughout New Zealand.

Women police receive the same pay as the men, they are called upon to perform similar duties, and they are required to compete with the men for promotion.

Chapter 9. Section 9
DEFENCE

DEFENCE POLICY—The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances; the more substantial objectives in relation to national security involve preserving the security, national interests, and independence of New Zealand; helping to maintain the stability and security of New Zealand's allies; and providing material backing to political efforts to preserve peace and to make collective defence, whether through the United Nations or through regional arrangements, as effective as possible. Defence policy has been elaborated in parliamentary papers A.19 in 1961, A.8 in 1966, and A.5 in 1972. International relationships are discussed in Section 2 of this Yearbook.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the New Zealand naval forces, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen and public servants in the ministry.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Command and Administration—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the boards or officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand armed forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the three services. The Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council is responsible for advising the Minister on important matters of defence policy. It is also specifically required constantly to examine the possibilities of integrating common functions in the services.

Roles of the New Zealand Armed Forces—The roles and missions of the New Zealand armed forces are related to the following tasks:

  1. To provide regular forces for low intensity ground/air/naval operations in a variety of situations in our area of direct strategic concern.

  2. To provide regular forces for maritime reconnaissance/surveillance patrols over New Zealand territory and the surrounding waters.

  3. To maintain forces trained and available for use in a major emergency.

In addition, they discharge, wherever possible, a number of secondary roles, including:

  1. Assistance to the New Zealand community.

  2. The provision of defence aid, including technical assistance, to friendly governments in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.

  3. Contributions to United Nations peace-keeping operations.

Co-operation With Other Countries—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore. In addition, the head and deputy heads of the New Zealand Defence Staff, Washington, are accredited to the Canadian service authorities as advisers to the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa. New Zealand officers are also employed in the SEATO Military Planning Office, Bangkok. The United Kingdom, Australia and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attaches on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington. Several other countries have service attaches accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment is at Auckland and is particularly concerned with research in fields of concern to the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The establishment also carries out metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaption of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment, as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES—The principal statutes governing the armed services are the Defence Act 1971 and the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 2 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows.

Item1970–711971–72
 $(m)$(m)
Personnel63.0776.57
Travel, transport, and communications3.953.82
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental5.706.26
Materials and supplies20.8417.50
Services2.582.58
Other operating expenditure0.690.56
Grants, contributions, subsidies0.04
Capital works2.861.65
Capital expenditure9.3412.23
               Total109.07121.17

About 74 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. Attempts are being made to become more self-supporting logistically.

The memorandum of understanding signed in 1969 between the governments of Australia and New Zealand provides, in effect, for the establishment of an Australian and New Zealand defence production community and has as its aim the maximum reciprocity in defence procurement. Opportunities have thus been opened to New Zealand manufacturers not only in a wider market, but also in the identification of new industrial technologies. Since the signing of the memorandum there has been a small, but steady growth of orders placed in New Zealand for Australian defence requirements. Defence production in New Zealand will promote the enforcement of high standards of quality control to suit the exacting standards demanded by service requirements. The consequent upgrading of technology and industrial skill should be significant.

The industrial spin-off from defence spending will depend in large measure on the response of New Zealand manufacturers to the opportunities provided by the memorandum of understanding with Australia. Should these opportunities be taken, new technological skills will be introduced and the base of manufacturing industry will be broadened with a consequent improvement in the capacity to compete in export markets.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross National Product
* Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percentpercent
196255.566.22.0
196356.166.01.9
196458.205.91.8
196573.946.82.1
196681.206.92.1
196788.587.02.2
196887.116.82.1
196986.346.32.0
197089.726.11.9
1971109.076.32.0
1972121.176.02.0

STRENGTH OF DEFENCE SERVICES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services over the last 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19622,8485,4344,50512,787
19632,8775,0494,05811,984
19643,0355,5594,33812,932
19652,9765,3744,39012,740
19662,9225,5494,38112,852
19672,9345,6204,37812,932
19682,9125,8404,48513,237
19692,9355,7304,49813,163
19702,9755,7824,53013,287
19712,9415,6384,41312,992
19722,9665,4494,22212,637

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal naval vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal naval ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the naval staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Her Majesty's New Zealand ships, as at 30 September 1972 were:

† On loan from U.S. Navy.
Frigate (Leander class)WaikatoOne frigate maintained in the Malaysia/Singapore area as a contribution to the ANZUK force. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed on exercises in New Zealand and overseas and undertake visits to foreign ports and around New Zealand and the South Pacific.
Canterbury
Frigates (Otago class)Otago
Taranaki
Survey shipLachlan
Research shipTui
Ocean minesweepersKiamaTraining and fishery protection.
Inverell
Motor launchesElevenFishery protection, training, survey work, harbour duties, RNZNVR Divisions.

The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the administrative authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and training establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, and dockyard.

The dockyard (administered by a captain superintendent) includes the naval store depot and the RNZN Armament Depot at Kauri Point. The dockyard is capable of refitting ships up to light cruisers.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry training establishment for the Navy and is situated near HMNZS Philomel, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the wireless station for the New Zealand naval station and is situated at Waiouru in the centre of the North Island.

HMNZS Wakefield is the Wellington shore establishment of the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Personnel—Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young men through the following channels:

Artificer apprenticesAges 15 years to 17 years 6 months on day of entry.
Youth/Adult entriesOver 16 years and under 25 years on day of entry.

All new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

There are two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets on the General List. Candidates between the ages of 15 years and 16 years 6 months are eligible for selection as cadet midshipmen; these cadets carry out training at the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, before either proceeding to the United Kingdom for specialist technical training or returning to New Zealand to attend a university degree course at the University of Auckland, followed by technical specialist training. The degree course undertaken is dependent on the specialisations which are: B.A. or B.S.C.—seamen specialisation; B.E. (electrical or marine engineering)—engineering specialisation; B.COM. or LL.B.—supply specialisation.

To cater for the older age group, young men between the ages of 17 years and 20 years on 1 January of year of entry are eligible for selection as midshipmen to attend a university degree course at the University of Auckland followed by professional technical training. On completion of their training they take up appointments as trained officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to officer rank.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the four main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

Strength of the Navy—The strength of the Navy was as follows:

CategoryAt 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972
Regular Forces
     Officers (male and female)328292
     Ratings2,5312,578
     WRNZNS ratings8296
          Total2,9412,966
Non-regular Forces
     Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve officers76
     Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve all ranks299273
     Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve ratings2,5532,225

THE ARMY—The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950, the Defence Act 1964, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1972. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and the Army Reserves.

Personnel are posted to one of the following corps:

  • Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

  • Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

  • Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

  • Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

  • Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment.

  • New Zealand Special Air Service.

  • New Zealand Army Air Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

  • Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

  • Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Legal Service.

  • Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

  • New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff exercises command and administration of the Army assisted in the performance of his functions by the general staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—In New Zealand the Army is organised into two commands, each of which has a functional responsibility nationwide, and is directly responsible to Defence Headquarters for the performance of its functions:

  1. Home Command—Provides the home support for the Army in New Zealand.

  2. Field Force Command—Commands and administers those elements of the Army in New Zealand which have an operational role in the event of mobilisation.

Units deployed to Singapore are under the command of Commander, ANZUK force.

Training—(a) Regular Force—Officers are commissioned on graduation from officer training colleges in Australia and Britain except in the cases of special entry and quartermaster officers who are commissioned from the ranks. Post-graduate and specialist training is received either in New Zealand or overseas.

Regular soldiers are trained at corps schools or depots and in Army units stationed within New Zealand and overseas. In certain cases specialist training is received at overseas training establishments in Australia, Britain, or the United States.

(b) Territorial Force—After completing a full-time basic course of 13 weeks, National Service officers and soldiers are required to carry out annually, for a period of 3 years, a minimum of 20 days' training of which not less than 14 days must be at an annual unit camp.

(c) Training Establishments—Units of the Army are responsible for the continuation training of all members of their units. Certain schools and depots are, however, provided to conduct basic soldier training and other formal courses in specialised fields. The majority of these training establishments are located in Waiouru Camp.

Manning—Manpower for the Army is provided from the following sources:

  1. Regular Force Enlistment

    1. Officers who volunteer to serve in the Regular Force for initial periods of from 5 to 12 years, depending on method of entry.

    2. Soldiers who volunteer for a minimum period of 3 years.

  2. National Servicemen who were selected by ballot, and after initial training posted to units of the Field Force up to 1972.

  3. Territorial Force Volunteers (T.F.V.). Following the abolition of compulsory military training at the end of 1972, the following categories of men are being sought as members of the TFV on a 3-year engagement.

    1. Officers and soldiers currently serving in the Territorial Force on a voluntary basis.

    2. National Servicemen whose compulsory obligation ended at 31 December 1972, and men up to 42 years of age who have had previous military experience.

    3. Men between 18 and 29 years of age with no previous military experience.

The Army is offering an initial training course of 12 weeks, which can be taken at once or in two camps of six weeks. Trainees are paid $57.26 a week for a single soldier, and $61.46 for a married man while in camp.

Applicants for service with the TFV must be British subjects, be medically and dentally fit, and, if a Pacific Islander, must have been granted permission to reside permanently in New Zealand.

Strength of the Army—The strength of the Army was as follows:

CategoryAt 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972
Regular Forces
     Officers (male and female)741742
     Other ranks4,7344,544
     RNZNC and NZWRAC (other ranks)163163
               Total5,6385,449
Non-regular Forces
     Territorial Force (all ranks)11,52711,405
     Officers Reserve913864
     Class A ReserveOther ranks5,2704,689
     Class B Reserve2,0452,076

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was responsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF consists of: (a) the Regular Air Force; (b) the Territorial Air Force; (c) the Air Force Reserve.

There are six RNZAF bases, all located in New Zealand. The RNZAF is divided into two groups, namely, Operations Group which has responsibility for the operational functions of the RNZAF, and Support Group which is responsible for all RNZAF training and certain support functions. Headquarters Operations Group is at RNZAF, Auckland, and Headquarters Training Group at RNZAF, Wigram. In addition, the RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a medium/short-range transport squadron based with the ANZUK force in Singapore; maritime, long-range transport and battlefield support squadrons based at RNZAF Auckland; and a ground attack squadron, a jet operation conversion squadron and a communication transport squadron at RNZAF, Ohakea.

Technical Services—The technical branch of the RNZAF consists of aircraft, armament, and radio divisions. Technical direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated in Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base, Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Supply Support—Spares and equipment required by the RNZAF are provided through the support branch of Defence Headquarters, which is also responsible for the control and administration of catering and movements. Supply procedures and systems are patterned on the Royal Air Force and the United States services, which are also the main sources of supply for technical spares equipment.

Personnel: Regular Air Force, Officers—Candidates for commissions in the general duties (flying) branch are drawn mainly from civil life. Candidates for other officer branches are mostly selected from the ranks. After a probationary period of service, candidates are granted short-service commissions (with the opportunity of qualifying for a permanent commission later). Some personnel are enlisted as officer cadets and on completion of up to 4 years' military and university studies are granted permanent commissions in the general duties, technical, administrative, and supply branches.

Airmen and Airwomen—Service for airmen in the Regular Air Force is mainly through initial engagement of 8 years on the Active List with a Reserve liability of 4 years. Twelve-year engagements are granted to personnel who are selected for administrative and technical training under the New Zealand Certificate (NZC) Trainee Scheme. NZC trainees commence service at the Airman Cadet School, RNZAF, Woodbourne, and over a 4-year period are trained to an advanced level in their Air Force trade and at the same time qualify for the appropriate New Zealand Certificate. For airwomen, the initial term of engagement is normally 3 years with no Reserve obligation. Opportunities exist for both airmen and airwomen to extend their initial period of service.

Non-regular Forces—The non-regular forces of the RNZAF consist of:

  1. Territorial Air Force.

  2. the Air Force Reserve.

The Territorial Air Force is manned by specialist officer branches and the members of the band of the RNZAF. The Air Force Reserve comprises Active Reserve personnel who either have Reserve obligations following service in the Regular Air Force or who volunteer on the expiry of this obligation. The General Reserve has no training obligations in time of peace.

Training: Flying Training—The initial training of all RNZAF aircrew and the basic flying training of pilots, navigators, and air electronic operators is undertaken at the Flying Training Wing at RNZAF, Wigram. New Zealand Navy and Army pilots, and RNZAF flying and navigation instructors are also trained by the Wing.

Ground Training—Airmen complete two levels of training, specialist and advanced. Courses vary in length and advanced training follows approximately 2 to 3 years after specialist training. Both levels of training are conducted at trade training schools. Airman cadets take an education, general service, and basic training course for 12 months at the Airman Cadet School, RNZAF, Woodbourne. Specialist courses in management and leadership for junior and senior non-commissioned officers are held. An increasing amount of training is now conducted at joint service schools and by civilian training establishments.

Officer Training—The RNZAF conducts formal courses of officer training in New Zealand at three levels: indoctrination of officer cadets; junior command and staff training for flight lieutenants and senior command; and staff training for squadron leader and wing commanders. In addition, selected RNZAF officers attend staff colleges in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Each year up to 10 officer cadets are recruited under a university cadetship scheme conducted in conjunction with the University of Canterbury where they study for bachelors' degrees. Officer cadet and university cadet training is carried out at RNZAF, Wigram, and the two levels of command and staff training are carried out at the Command and Staff College, RNZAF, Auckland.

Strength of the Air Force—The strength of the RNZAF was as follows:

CategoryAt 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972
Regular Forces
     Officers (male and female)745700
     Airmen (including airmen and aircrews)3,3973,290
     WRNZAF—airwomen271232
               Total4,4134,222
Non-regular Forces
     Territorial Air Force115116
     Active Reserve551507
     General Reserve1,1231,005

New Zealand Cadet Corps—A reorganisation of the non-regular forces was approved by the Defence Council on 11 March 1970. In general, the reorganisation was in line with the principles of the overall reorganisation of the ministry. By means of the centralised policy control, direction and management, the support of both open units (sea cadet units and air training corps squadrons) and school cadets are rationalised under an organisation known as the New Zealand Cadet Corps. The reorganisation was implemented on 11 May 1970.

The strength of the New Zealand Cadet Corps as at 31 March 1972 was 10,653 cadets with 28 schools, 15 sea cadet corps open units and 41 air training corps open units participating.

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS—The following is a brief account of New Zealand's contributions to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, and of other elements of the New Zealand armed forces serving overseas since the end of 1967.

In 1968 the then British Government had proposed to withdraw British forces from South-east Asia by the end of 1971, disbanding the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. The five powers concerned—Australia, Britain, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Singapore—accordingly examined the establishment of a new basis for defence co-operation. Ministerial meetings were held in Kuala Lumpur in June 1968 and in Canberra in June 1969 to carry forward this collaboration. The New Zealand and Australian Prime Ministers announced on 25 February 1969 that the two countries would maintain forces in the area, subject to the continuing consent of the Malaysian and Singaporean Governments.

The New Zealand Prime Minister said that in the future New Zealand forces in the area would, in general, comprise a battalion, a frigate, and probably medium-range transport aircraft, with the periodic deployment of strike aircraft. He noted that New Zealand military contributions to the area are designed to make a contribution to the security of South-east Asia as a whole. As with existing arrangements they would not be involved in internal security problems and would be deployed on active operations only with the express consent of the New Zealand Government.

Following the British general election in June 1970, however, the new Government announced that some British forces would be retained in the area after 1971. The other four powers, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand, welcomed this announcement. The British Supplementary Statement on Defence Policy, issued in October 1970, announced the composition of the British forces to be maintained in the area.

Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, was terminated on 1 November 1971. It was replaced by the five power defence arrangements, by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the three first-mentioned nations have agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. To facilitate effective control and direction and to ensure efficient and economical logistic support, these forces have been grouped into an ANZUK force. This grouping is essentially an administrative and logistic convenience for the three partners concerned and the ANZUK force as such is in no sense intended to be a five power force.

The force comprises a naval and air component, an Army brigade, and a logistic support group. It is designed to promote stability in the area and to assist in the development of the armed forces of Malaysia and Singapore. New Zealand's contribution to the combined force is a frigate, an infantry battalion, and an Air Force transport squadron. Personnel are also contributed to the ANZUK Support Group.

Thailand: In January 1966 a specialist team of some 15 men of the Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers went to Thailand to provide capital and technical assistance under the Colombo Plan in the building of a road in North-east Thailand, from Borabu towards Buriram, a distance of 170 kilometres. In addition to providing the supervisors and instructors for the project, New Zealand provided much of the equipment for the building of the road. In October 1967 the strength of the team was increased to 21, and the attachment of 2 Ministry of Works overseers to the project was also approved.

Periodic attachments of mechanical engineering staff have been made since the middle of 1969 and the Thai and New Zealand Governments have provided much additional equipment for the project, which was completed in December 1971. The road is proving a valuable asset to the region it serves.

South Vietnam: In June 1964, at the request of the Republic of South Vietnam, an Army engineer detachment was sent to South Vietnam to help in reconstruction and development projects. The team returned to New Zealand in June 1965. The following month, in response to a further request from the South Vietnamese Government, an artillery battery was sent to South Vietnam. In May 1967 this was joined by a reinforced infantry company drawn largely from the battalion in Malaysia. The company, which served with the Australian Task Force, was joined late in 1967 by a further reinforced infantry company from Malaysia, thus increasing the New Zealand forces in Vietnam to some 550 personnel. In May 1967 a joint services medical team was deployed to South Vietnam for operations with United States Agency for International Development.

The Prime Minister announced in August 1970 that as a first step in phasing out New Zealand forces an infantry company comprising 144 men would be withdrawn without replacement later in the year. This change was implemented in November. At the same time plans were made to provide assistance with the training of Vietnamese forces; five personnel were attached to the 1st Australian Army Training Team, Vietnam, in October 1970.

In January 1971 a 25-man Army training team arrived in South Vietnam to participate in a joint South Vietnamese - New Zealand training wing at Chi Lang National Training Centre in Chau Doc Province in the Delta. Courses began in March.

In May 1971, 161 Battery, one of the longest-serving allied units in South Vietnam, returned to New Zealand. On 18 August 1971 the Prime Minister announced that the Government had decided to complete the withdrawal of New Zealand combat units by about the end of 1971. The main elements involved were the remaining infantry company and personnel integrated into the ANZAC force. The services' medical team at Bong Son transferred responsibility to the South Vietnamese in November 1971. The New Zealand Army training team and personnel attached to the Australian Army training team continued to serve in South Vietnam.

In March 1972 a second training team consisting of 16 Army and 2 RNZN personnel left New Zealand to assist a United States Army training group in the training of newly raised Cambodian infantry units at Dong Ba Thin in South Vietnam. The New Zealand team was responsible for carrying out weapons training and medical instruction but was recalled in December 1972 following a change of Government in New Zealand.

United Nations Observers: At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand has provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir since 1951 and in the Middle East since 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir has been four, except for the period of hostilities in mid-1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided nine officers. The number of observers in the Middle East has varied between two and seven with the latter being the strength in 1972.

Aid to Malaysia and Singapore—In addition to direct military help in maintaining security in the area, New Zealand has since early 1964 undertaken a programme of defence aid to Malaysia and Singapore.

Up to 31 March 1972 military equipment valued at approximately $923,720 had been given to Malaysia and $292,971 to Singapore, and a total of 926 Malaysians and 163 Singaporeans had trained or were training in New Zealand. In addition, New Zealand military personnel have been seconded to the Malaysian and Singaporean armed forces to assist with training. In March 1972 there were 14 New Zealand servicemen on loan to the Singapore armed forces.

Provision has been made for the extension of the defence aid programme to Malaysia and Singapore at an estimated cost of $450,000 up to 31 March 1975.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED SERVICES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100,444 went overseas. This total comprised 98,950 troops serving with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in the European, Mediterranean, or Samoan areas; 550 nurses; and 944 others (including 211 British Army reservists, 541 naval personnel, and 192 Royal Flying Corps personnel). In addition, it was known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand and enlisted in British and Australian forces, while others (exact numbers unknown) are known to have joined Canadian and South African forces.

At Armistice date in November 1918 New Zealand had over 56,000 troops overseas, and a further 10,000 were ready to embark or in training.

The troops provided for overseas service represented nearly 10 percent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914 and over 40 percent of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45 years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian naval or military forces.

Second World War, 1939–45—Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—was 194,000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

A total of 104,988 Army personnel served overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and, of these 99,343 (97,893 males and 1,450 females) left New Zealand on or before 15 August 1945, and 5,645 (5,491 males and 154 females) left New Zealand on or after 16 August 1945. (Some detailed tables are given on pages 269–271 of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilisation, there being 151,073 men in the armed forces at that time, representing approximately 43 percent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceAll ServicesFemale Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
In New ZealandOverseasTotal
1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806
19401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
19413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
19425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
19437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
194410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
194510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE—The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the armed forces in the wars, etc., listed. For the Second World War the figures shown for Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as “missing” refers to the number so classified at the end of the period quoted.

Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)Wounded and InjuredPrisoners of WarWounded and Taken Prisoner of WarInternedMissingTotal
* At 4 August 1919 this total comprised 16,688 deaths, 41,315 wounded, and 1 missing.
South African War, 1899–1902228166394
First World War, 1914–18 (up to 12 November 1918)—
     1 N.Z.E.F.16,30241,2623568458,004*
     Samoa22
     Nurses1313
               Totals16,31741,2623568458,019
Second World War, 1939–45 (up to 31 December 1946)—
     Navy573170543800
     Army6,79315,3246,6441,2194630,026
     Air Force4,14925552032234,979
     Mercantile Marine110123233
               Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038
Jayforce (up to December 1948)1111
Korea (up to December 1954)
     Navy213
     Army37801118
               Totals39811121
Malaya (up to September 1960)—
     Army102131
     Air Force527
               Totals152338
Vietnam (up to 20 October 1971)—
     Army35187222
               Totals35187222

PERSONS WITH OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE—Census statistics on overseas war service are now given.

Wars19611966
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Plus any with service in both World Wars.
Overseas service—
     Only in Korean War4,948344,9825,459225,481
     Only in Second World War140,5495,447145,996139,0215,703144,724
     Only in First World War45,8791,06446,94334,30078735,087
     Only in South African War991141,0054504454
     In Korean War and Second World War1,39751,4021,52971,536
     In Second World War and First World War3,274623,3362,616472,663
     In South African War and First World War47054751941195
     In South African War and Second World War*44443535
     Totals with overseas war service197,5526,631204,183183,6046,571190,175

Although the number of First World War veterans declined by 26 percent between the censuses of 1961 and 1966, there still remained 37,979 (37,144 men and 835 women). Of this figure, 27,765 served with the New Zealand forces, and the remaining 10,214 who served with the Australian, United Kingdom, Indian, and other Commonwealth forces will include an unknown number of immigrants who have arrived in New Zealand since 1918.

The number of those with overseas service in New Zealand forces in the Second World War declined from 122,939 (120,885 men and 2,054 women) to 117,631 (115,812 men and 1,819 women) between 1961 and 1966, the decline being accounted for by emigration as well as deaths.

PERSONS WITH WAR SERVICE IN NEW ZEALAND ONLY—In the following table the numbers of persons in New Zealand in 1961 mobilised for at least 28 days in home service only are given.

ServiceMalesFemalesTotal
Home service only, First World War9,1202179,337
Home service only, Second World War84,2788,27592,553
Home service, First World War, and overseas service, Second World War210210
Home service, Second World War, and overseas service, First World War7,754437,797

CIVIL DEFENCE—In 1959, a Ministry of Civil Defence was established within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, and three regional commissioners were appointed to implement Central Government policy within their regions. For civil defence purposes, the North Island was divided into two regions and the South Island formed a third region.

The Civil Defence Act 1962 put into legislative form the concept and machinery of a national civil defence scheme. It provided for the formation of national and regional civil defence committees, advisory planning committees, the appointment of a secretary for civil defence, and a director and deputy director of civil defence.

Various planning committees have been established and are responsible for formulating national civil defence plans for consideration by the National Civil Defence Committee prior to being submitted to the Minister of Civil Defence, who is given power under the Civil Defence Act to approve them as national plans.

These national plans indicate resources available, the particular requirements to be incorporated in regional and local authority plans, and basic procedures for action in a civil defence emergency for communications, fire fighting services, law and order, medical arrangements, public relations, supply and services, traffic control, transport, and welfare and evacuation. A plan for Government Action in Major Disaster outlines the role of Central Government and of individual Government departments.

The preparation of local civil defence plans and the establishment and training of an organisation to implement such plans and make them functional is the responsibility of local authorities. Every local authority is required by the Civil Defence Act to have an operational civil defence plan. The plan must be approved by the Ministry of Civil Defence and up-dated as changes in national plans or conditions in the area affect it.

The Ministry of Civil Defence assists local authorities by conducting training and other courses for their key personnel and also makes officers available to help them run their own courses. Training manuals and operational forms for use by local authorities are supplied by the ministry. The Government pays a $1 for $1 subsidy on certain categories of civil defence expenditure by local authorities. Examples are salaries of civil defence staff and cost of radio equipment, erection of civil defence headquarters, training equipment, first aid training, etc.

There is provision in the Civil Defence Act for the recruitment and training of civil defence police and traffic officers. During a civil defence emergency these recruits are employed on the more routine duties thus releasing the highly trained permanent personnel for more important duties related to the situation. The establishment of civil defence police and traffic officers are 3,500 and 2,000 respectively.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the Security Service which was established on 28 November 1956. Subject to the control of the Minister in charge of the service, functions of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security and, as appropriate, to advise Ministers on matters relevant to security. It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measures for security. Offences under the Act include subversion, espionage, and sabotage. There is a commissioner of security appeals.

Chapter 10. Section 10
LAND REGISTRATION AND VALUATION

10 A—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Practically all title to privately-owned land and interests in land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system administered under the Land Transfer Act 1952. This system was introduced into New Zealand in 1870 and was based largely on the Torrens system of registration of title devised for South Australia.

This land transfer system provides a simple and cheap method of recording the transfer and other dealings with land and at the same time to ensure security of title by a system of State guarantee. The mechanics of recording dealings are provided by the creation of a register, each folio of which is an office duplicate of the owner's title. The folio or title has recorded on it full particulars of the proprietorship to the land, together with any changes which occur through transfer, death, or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land becomes subject. The cardinal principle of the Land Transfer Act is that the register is everything and that the purchaser gets, upon the registration of a transfer, an indefeasible title against the world.

When national or district schemes for drainage, irrigation, water supply, or sewerage which result in improvement to land are undertaken, statutory authority is customarily given to charge part of the cost against the land. These charges are recorded against the titles concerned.

Special procedures are necessary for the registration of dealings with Crown land and Maori land and these are contained in the Land Act 1948, the Maori Affairs Act 1953, and the various related Acts respectively.

The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 provides for settlements of land as “joint family homes” and wide use is made of this procedure year by year. (See Section 19.)

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 12 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
196129,337
196231,743
196329,724
196430,076
196535,258
196639,760
196742,692
196846,118
196942,669
197037,525
197141,639
197239,270

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive rights to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes European land when bought or inherited by a person of less than half Maori blood, or is declared to be so by the Maori Land Court. Provision exists in Part I of the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1967 for the removal of the special status of “Maori land” from land owned by up to four persons and meeting certain other requirements.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exceptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

Although the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1967 has reduced the jurisdiction of the court by giving the Maori people themselves much greater powers in the alienation of Maori freehold land without reference to the court, the court nevertheless in 1971–72 transacted considerable business. Some 319 sales involving a total of 14,800 hectares of a value of $3,205,000 were put through. In the same period 170 leases comprising 13,700 hectares were granted.

In addition to this, the court recorded a further 438 contracts negotiated directly by the owners themselves. There were also 434 meetings of owners authorised and held by the court during this period.

A considerable number of leases and sales of Maori land are to Maoris.

From 1 April 1973 the former succession system has ceased.

ACQUISITION OF LAND—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional planning or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4,000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as a reserve, or public park, or for recreational purposes, or as private open space, or for preservation as an object or place of historical or scientific interest, or of natural beauty, or any proposed such purpose and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. Where there are no regional or district schemes the legislation applies to any land of 4,000 sq metres or over in area and the purchase may not be approved if the land is likely to be required for reserve purposes. The legislation also covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2 1/2 years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that: the land is not required for any reserve, public park, recreation purposes, or for preservation as an object of historical or scientific interest or natural beauty; and that the land is not an island less than 150 kilometres from the nearest part of the coast of the North Island or the South Island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production. Land cannot be taken from any person owning less than the equivalent of two economic farms, and provision is also made for the retention of land for the owner's children. The owner may object to a Land Valuation Committee or the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court to the taking of land. The court may also be called in to assess compensation for land taken if the owner does not accept the Crown's offer.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land and, with certain exceptions, to leases of farm land for terms of 3 years or more. The consent of the court is required to such transactions unless the purchaser or lessee files a declaration with the District Land Registrar within 1 month of the date of the transaction to the effect that he owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and that he has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest 11 years. (1 hectare = 2.47 acres.)

Year Ended 31 MarchUrban PropertiesRural PropertiesAll Properties: Total Consideration
NumberAreaConsiderationFreeholdTotal Freehold and Leasehold
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberConsideration
 hectares  hectares 
 (000)$(m) (000)$(m) $(m)$(m)
196249,3585,657233.47,787569117.28,455126.7360.1
196346,2776,114237.36,78245992.57,28999.1336.4
196451,9426,706299.17,269525111.07,894120.8419.9
196559,9837,368362.78,642643156.69,565173.5536.2
196661,5817,426394.09,281631185.39,927198.6592.6
196759,1516,166394.08,914644184.09,488195.2589.2
196855,8205,710390.57,566451141.28,105151.4541.8
196957,8545,621426.47,329505141.27,801150.1576.5
197063,7286,506530.78,480574184.18,896193.7724.4
197174,0207,122701.79,080628205.09,590217.3918.9
197276,5437,442786.89,106514190.09,499198.6985.4

Urban Land Transfers—The following table shows urban land transfers by consideration groups for March years.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Urban Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$           $(million)$(000) $(million)$(000) $(million)$(000)
 1970–71
Under          2,00011,48213.91.23230.30.911,80514.21.2
    2,000–2,9996,04914.32.4940.22.46,14314.62.4
   3,000– 3,9994,84716.43.4760.33.44,92316.73.4
    4,000–9,99924,292171.87.15764.17.224,868176.07.1
    10,000–  19,99921,023277.513.23464.613.221,369282.113.2
    20,000–  49,9994,007108.127.01183.126.64,125111.227.0
    50,000–199,99967656.182.9302.688.070658.783.2
200,000 and over7627.1356.651.1227.88128.2348.7
          All groups72,452685.39.51,56816.410.474,020701.79.5
 1971–72
Under          2,00010,54012.71.23370.30.910,87713.01.2
    2,000–2,9996,00914.32.41220.32.46,13114.62.4
    3,000–3,9994,99316.93.4830.33.35,07617.23.4
    4,000–9,99922,700158.07.04483.27.223,148161.27.0
    10,000–  19,99924,433327.213.44916.713.524,924333.913.4
    20,000–  49,9995,364143.826.81614.527.95,525148.326.8
    50,000–199,99973961.533.2292.482.576863.983.2
200,000 and over8933.4374.851.5290.89434.8370.3
          All groups74,867767.710.31,67619.111.476,543786.810.3

In general, transactions included in the under $4,000 group would involve vacant sections, although many building sections are now priced above this level.

Urban land transfers involving consideration between $4,000 and $19,999 would be, in the main, residential properties, although the group would include building sections, particularly in the main urban areas.

The range of transactions involving $20,000 or above would represent mainly commercial and industrial properties, although increasing numbers of residential properties will be included near the lower end of the range.

The following table shows urban land transfers by land registration districts.

Registered in Land Registration District1970–711971–72
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
 hectares  hectares 
 (000)$(million) (000)$(million)
North Auckland25,0442.5276.725,7952.7309.6
South Auckland10,1911.081.810,5431.188.0
Gisborne7720.15.77920.16.1
Hawke's Bay2,8090.323.22,7540.324.8
Taranaki1,7540.213.21,7080.214.8
Wellington13,2481.1137.914,3291.2162.2
Marlborough6430.15.67020.15.7
Nelson1,7750.213.32,0130.216.0
Westland3941.54161.9
Canterbury10,7891.094.310,8141.0105.6
Otago4,2500.431.94,3010.432.9
Southland2,3510.216.62,3760.219.2
                    Totals74,0207.1701.776,5437.5786.8

Rural Land Transfers—The following analysis shows transfers of rural freehold properties classified by size groups.

Size Group (Acres)*1970–711971–72
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
* 1 acre = 0.405 hectare.
 hectares  hectares 
 (000)$(million) (000)$(million)
Under 304,66114.751.84,91615.853.6
  30–495298.58.54918.08.6
  50–9999929.624.81,04130.724.9
100–14972435.322.469634.222.2
150–24976760.327.574958.227.0
250–499749105.931.762689.324.7
500 and over651374.138.3587277.629.0
                    Totals9,080628.4205.09,106513.8190.0

The next table; gives average consideration per acre by size group and weighted average price per acre of rural freehold land transfers for the latest 5 years. (The weighted average price is based on total acreages transferred during the period April 1953-March 1966.)

Size Groups (Acres)*1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
* 1 acre = 0.405 hectare.
 $      $      $      $      $      
Under 301,164.941,238.231,300.011,422.641,370.26
  30–49311.08418.23398.66402.04434.78
  50–99307.84315.25305.54339.34328.65
100–249190.06189.33209.13211.06215.72
250–499103.61107.30119.77121.15112.09
500 and over35.2628.8639.1541.4642.29
Weighted overall average price per hectare272.43272.21301.07315.80312.36

The following table shows all rural land transfers, freehold and leasehold, by land registration districts for the year ended 31 March 1972.

Registered in Land Registration DistrictFreeholdLeaseholdTotal
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsideration
 hectares
(000)
$(million) hectares (000)$(million) hectares (000)$(million)
North Auckland2,02476.538.1392.70.72,06379.238.8
South Auckland1,94582.750.3683.81.32,01386.551.6
Gisborne19620.83.0164.40.421225.13.5
Hawke's Bay39635.610.4283.90.942439.611.2
Taranaki50129.011.9404.01.054133.012.9
Wellington1,06086.721.2325.70.91,09292.422.1
Marlborough42415.03.5387.10.546222.04.0
Nelson37621.24.5466.30.542227.55.0
Westland715.20.9171.30.2886.41.1
Canterbury1,11774.227.4255.21.01,14279.428.5
Otago50234.08.6219.40.852343.39.4
Southland49432.910.0232.30.551735.310.5
                    Totals9,106513.8190.039356.08.79,499569.8198.6

10 B—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “land value”.

“Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term “improvements” correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The “capital value” is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the “value of improvements” is the added value given by the “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—are entered on the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE SUPREME COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968, provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the Division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. Land valuation committees for particular localities operate under the general jurisdiction of the Division. There is a right of appeal from a committee's decision to the court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Division's order he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Division at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Division's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act. According to the system of rating in force, special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single-unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for “existing use” properties within the meaning of Section 36 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a long period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*

* Included in previous column.

† Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 in the “land value” basis provided
for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970 which came into effect on that date.

 $(million)
1878199.1125.1
1885226.5..
1888222.3151.0
1891244.4151.7
1897277.2168.8
1902309.6189.7
1906395.4245.9
1907473.3299.4
1909543.0345.5
1911586.2368.1
1913681.1425.9
1915742.1461.4
1916778.3482.6
1917810.9502.2
1918842.8521.8
1919891.1552.0
1920940.2581.8
19211,037.2635.3
19221,089.0658.3
19231,106.8661.6
19241,137.0667.7
19251,174.7678.6
19261,206.5682.1
19271,236.5683.0
19281,262.9670.4
19291,301.8689.5
19301,329.1677.8
19311,335.6663.3
19321,325.7643.6
19331,307.4629.1
19341,300.7619.5
19351,275.2602.3
19361,271.6591.4
19371,264.5575.7
19381,272.7564.7
19391,305.8565.6
19401,321.0557.8
19411,346.2555.1
19421,363.8553.8
19431,368.4553.8
19441,377.6554.1
19451,394.7555.0
19461,420.9558.4
19471,492.8568.5
19481,592.1583.2
19491,778.5614.3
19501,971.8648.9
19512,225.5698.3
19522,629.8788.5
19533,064.7899.6
19543,405.5974.3
19554,136.61,158.2
19564,613.21,288.8
19574,992.71,395.1
19585,354.51,502.3
19595,664.51,610.6
19606,132.51,779.6
19616,497.41,905.7
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
1971†13,305.74,489.0
1972†14,331.35,046.3

Between 1943 and 1950 values were stabilised through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown in this period mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties in 1950 and on rural properties in 1951 was reflected in the general revaluations.

In the following table the gross values and rateable values are analysed in more detail.

As at 31 MarchGross ValuesRateable Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*

* Included in previous column.

† Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the “land value” basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date.

($million)
Counties
19673,828.01,285.03,494.01,225.1
19684,163.31,399.13,795.51,329.2
19694,482.01,486.04,213.91,432.5
19704,855.11,586.24,564.11,525.5
1971†5,193.81,759.94,860.51,685.1
1972†5,516.62,085.85,176.82,015.6
Boroughs
19675,988.21,896.25,307.71,715.5
19686,448.92,084.95,723.61,888.7
19696,839.02,212.66,232.02,047.3
19707,638.52,580.46,953.52,384.9
1971†8,088.02,724.87,379.12,527.4
1972†8,790.82,956.18,029.12,747.8
Independent Town Districts
196719.93.116.62.7
196819.43.016.22.7
196928.76.626.26.3
197022.04.119.33.8
1971†23.84.420.74.0
1972†23.94.520.84.1
Grand Totals
19679,836.13,184.28,818.32,943.3
196810,631.63,487.09,535.33,220.6
196911,349.73,705.210,472.13,486.1
197012,515.64,170.711,536.93,914.2
1971†13,305.64,489.112,260.34,216.5
1972†14,331.35,046.313,226.74,767.5

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task, but by using the principle of valuation equalisation, mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. These gross figures have been compiled, on the level of values as at 31 March 1966; they are recorded in a research paper issued by the department and are shown in the following table.

Territorial AreasCapital ValueUnimproved Value
 $(million)$(million)
Counties4,268.01,469.4
Boroughs and cities6,218.32,105.3
Town districts18.62.9
Miscellaneous4.22.2
                    Totals10,509.13,579.8

A comparison of these totals with the gross values shown for the year ended 31 March 1966, given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1972, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1972.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUnimproved ValueValue of Improvements
 Percentage Distribution
Counties99.330.739.142.337.4
Boroughs0.768.960.757.662.4
Town districts (independent)0.30.20.10.2
                    Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Report on Local Authority Statistics.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. There were 982 registered valuers at 31 March 1972.

Chapter 11. Section 11
TRANSPORT

11 A—SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT—New Zealand is now involved in unit and container techniques which have brought about a revolution in handling methods and a new concept of co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. A Ministry of Transport has been established and its major statutory function is the investigation of the economics of transport. A Transport Advisory Council, chaired by the Minister of Transport, has as its purpose the co-ordination and development of transport generally.

An Exports and Shipping Council was set up in 1964 to promote economy and efficiency in the handling of New Zealand's exports and to speed up the turnaround of ships by streamlining procedures. Streamlining primarily involves a reduction in the number of calls made by overseas ships at New Zealand ports, and such activities arise partly from the need to offset increases in the freight bill following rises in freight rates. (Outward freight on exports exceeds $100 million and inward freight on imports exceeds $70 million.) There is a cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport and affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

A New Zealand Ports Authority has been set up; its approval is required for future large development projects by harbour boards. The authority has designated Auckland and Wellington as the first container ports, and both have installed containerised cargo facilities. A container service to the United States began in August 1971 from the ports of Auckland and Wellington.

In recent years most harbour boards have undertaken extensive port development. New Zealand's first loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) was authorised in 1963 for port development. It involved $5.08 million which was loaned to the harbour boards of Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei.

Facilities for roll-on roll-off vessels have been provided at Wellington, Picton, Auckland, Lyttelton, and Otago.

Additional information to that contained in this section on port, cargo, and shipping statistics may be found in the Report on Transport Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics.

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  tons(000) tons(000) tons(000)
19613,65216,17710,2475,03613,89921,213
19623,60316,45710,6545,46714,25721,924
19633,76416,43311,0766,18914,84022,622
19643,56815,69010,6537,02214,22122,711
19653,45215,4869,7667,21313,21822,699
19663,60516,7839,4278,06313,03224,845
19673,33115,6219,1568,79112,48724,412
19683,49716,5388,7048,63212,20125,170
19693,64817,0708,1508,24111,79825,311
19703,75717,2587,6718,32211,42825,580
19713,55116,7407,7538,50411,30425,244

Up to and including 1963, overseas ships made an increasing number of calls at port while on the New Zealand coast. Since 1964 there has been some reduction in calls as the recommendations of the Exports and Shipping Council have been adopted. Overseas ships have usually made at least three calls on average on the New Zealand coast while loading.

Movements of coastal vessels declined from 1953 to 1962 when the rail-road ferry Aramoana came into operation. The Aramoana displaced other coastal vessels but its daily return trips between Wellington and Picton added to the number of calls at ports. The second rail-road ferry, Aranui, was brought into service in June 1966, and had a similar effect. Since 1967 additional roll-on roll-off freighters specialising in unit cargo loads have operated between all main ports, gradually superseding the more traditional trading vessels. In 1966 the ships sailing between Wellington and Lyttelton provided a roll-on service. Coastal shipping has advanced to the stage where about half the general cargo is carried in units, including containers. Several colliers on the Greymouth-Wellington service have been withdrawn as coal ceded to electricity, oil, and natural gas.

The following table shows for the 3 latest years the total entrances of merchant shipping at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited.

Port196919701971
Number of CallsNet Tonnage
(000)
Number of CallsNet Tonnage
(000)
Number of CallsNet Tonnage
(000)
Parengarenga........12322
Houhora7114251
Awanui467376305
Mangonui264244183
Whangaroa1026141
Bay of Islands661606321150235
Whangarei6172,5216282,6216092,743
Mangawhai........14222
Auckland2,7104,9782,3795,1452,2695,070
Onehunga1908719495215103
Raglan391732144623
Thames284203162
Tauranga5131,6925571,7615561,814
Gisborne107171117226105202
Napier3761,5093811,4092921,141
Taranaki280824373889247796
Waverley765
Wanganui9751100579153
Wellington2,1704,8962,2344,9772,2834,823
Picton1,0781,6811,0281,5731,0501,640
Nelson497506458612453604
Motueka6452515
Tarakohe223131211129232136
Westport1501011429414699
Greymouth713862294015
Jackson Bay1451562010
Lyttelton1,0612,9271,0232,9489902,725
Timaru263751228629227713
Oamaru833474315521
Otago3801,1113651,0213331,061
Deep Cove2459
Bluff4539924811,0444831,051
Halfmoon Bay155451574416246
                    Totals11,79825,31111,42825,58011,30425,244

In the case of Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, Bluff, and Halfmoon Bay the figures are inflated by the recording of inter-island ferry services.

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for the 3 latest years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port196919701971
Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of Vessels
Bay of Islands291523220537232
Whangarei1221,5121131,4511311,563
Auckland9714,4901,0544,6421,0354,634
Onehunga1892214168
Raglan112121
Tauranga4241,6494621,7174461,761
Gisborne321443719338174
Napier2761,3462701,239215993
Taranaki148680146703134632
Waverley765
Wanganui358857
Wellington4992,2815162,3284672,124
Picton26122259725101
Nelson91387103504103490
Westport1069497
Greymouth1
Lyttelton4601,8574651,9204031,672
Timaru136649114518113555
Oamaru2323
Otago221919205829197884
Bluff179858172880167837
               Totals3,64817,0703,75717,2583,55116,740

The inward overseas tonnages of ships in the preceding table are converted to percentages for the major ports in the next table.

Port19671968196919701971
 percent
Whangarei8.38.48.98.49.3
Auckland26.526.726.326.927.7
Tauranga7.89.49.710.010.5
Napier7.07.47.97.25.9
Taranaki4.43.64.04.13.8
Waverley0.4
Wellington15.613.813.413.512.7
Other North Island1.42.11.82.42.5
     North Island71.171.471.972.572.8
Lyttelton11.510.910.911.110.0
Timaru3.54.03.83.03.3
Otago6.25.15.44.85.3
Bluff5.05.35.05.15.0
Other South Island2.73.23.03.53.6
     South Island28.928.628.127.527.2

OVERSEAS SHIPPING: Ports of Arrival and Departure—The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last 3 years.

PortEntered as First CallCleared as Last Call
196919701971196919701971
 net tonnage (000) of vessels
Whangarei1,3281,2581,3271,2951,2881,271
Bay of Islands24512457
Auckland2,8923,0502,9152,2432,1162,163
Onehunga61067107
Raglan 11
Tauranga6796937379401,0461,117
Gisborne71315415550
Napier186115100385399365
Taranaki1318172222224183
Waverley6565
Wanganui776
Wellington812815784560676546
Picton201725402326
Nelson172281281160196303
Greymouth1
Lyttelton389341358262298305
Timaru1048661194107157
Otago8065156249215261
Bluff126180260282283376
                    Totals6,9347,0327,2146,8876,9667,260

As will be seen, in 1971 51 percent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first ports of entry, and 37 percent used one of these two ports as the final departure point. Most of the tonnage at Whangarei comprises overseas oil tankers, whose calls are practically limited to that port.

Passengers—The overseas passenger traffic is concentrated principally at Auckland and Wellington. Small numbers of overseas passengers, however, arrive at and leave from the other ports. The following table gives the numbers of passengers arriving at and departing from each port for the latent 5 years.

PortPassengers Arriving from OverseasPassengers Departing for Overseas
Year Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 March
1967196819691970197119671968196919701971
Auckland31,50724,09722,21719,70123,63228,25023,23424,01121,70124,377
Napier886815777125155159124174118
Wellington22,06418,56711,0698,93110,49314,25717,26310,4358,6669,171
Lyttelton29016075204141207284502589253
Dunedin8164818290923425
Invercargill36751012941139712960180
Other340433258470717443758289394830
                    Totals54,33343,41633,79029,40335,20343,50741,88535,58231,61834,954

Entrances and Clearances of Overseas Vessels—The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the last 11 years (recorded at the first port of arrival and final port of departure only), and distinguishes those entered and cleared “with cargo” from those “in ballast”.

YearWith CargoIn Ballast*Total
VesselsNet Tonnage (000)VesselsNet Tonnage (000)VesselsNet Tonnage (000)
* “In ballast” means (a) inwards—“having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand”, such as cruise ships and vessels to load exports; (b) outwards—“having no cargo loaded in New Zealand”, such as cruise ships, empty tankers, and phosphate ships.
Entered
19618654,1501738041,0384,954
19628504,0551417349914,789
19638834,1461467641,0294,910
19649014,5921698491,0705,441
19658974,6371719871,0685,624
19669154,9812031,1471,1186,128
19677884,1802441,6581,0325,838
19688174,3263772,3191,1946,646
19698394,4673912,4671,2306,934
19709485,1223501,9101,2987,032
19719095,0383872,1761,2967,214
Cleared
19616512,9993801,9241,0314,923
19626803,0643201,8211,0004,885
19637303,0443041,8321,0344,876
19647333,3853191,9731,0525,358
19657433,2803252,2651,0685,545
19667373,2953812,8061,1186,101
19677303,1493272,7371,0575,886
19688793,4453163,1071,1956,553
19699403,8912902,9961,2306,887
19709894,2192832,7471,2726,966
19719564,0353583,2251,3147,260

Direction of Overseas Shipping—Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries are given in the following table.

Country19701971
EnteredClearedEnteredCleared
No.Net Tonnage (000)No.Net Tonnage (000)No.Net Tonnage (000)No.Net Tonnage (000)
Australia4261,7084021,8464592,0154191,886
Canada2516051925160524
Ecuador1020815111377
Fiji64235602274630955289
France273215283729127
French Polynesia2231210843220203
Germany, Federal Republic of1568125511491564
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1379529137820132
Hong Kong19676201656726
Iran1939332544820135587
Japan2611,2562611,2262711,3202921,456
Kuwait2664312277307338167
Nauru19183242293224619172
Netherlands13572751814
New Caledonia4487446036834260
Philippines2661036391557
Singapore86317159188913106
South Africa8318284111038
Tonga9221012713609114
USSR72139919418
United Kingdom133925135936109669125721
United States86473723747942067394
Other countries874451004838658597605
                    Totals1,2987,0321,2726,9661,2967,2141,3147,260

Shipping Between New Zealand Overseas Territories and the Cook Islands—In the tables of overseas shipping no account is taken of ships moving between the main islands of New Zealand and New Zealand overseas territories and Cook Islands. Information on cargoes will be found in section 38, Overseas Territories and the Cook Islands.

SHIPPING ON INLAND WATERS—The only inland water shipping of any consequence is the service running on Lake Wakatipu, operated with the Earnslaw providing tourist excursions. Until 31 December 1968, the service was owned and operated by the New Zealand Railways; from 1 January 1969, the vessel was transferred to private ownership.

REGISTRY OF OVERSEAS SHIPS—The following table shows the country of registry of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the latest 6 years.

Country of Registry196619671968196919701971
 net tons (000)
British Commonwealth—
     United Kingdom2,5442,6252,6302,5462,4222,505
     New Zealand463395366374461417
     Other British Commonwealth46421114111667
          With cargo2,5212,3202,1971,9652,4432,366
          In ballast532742910996556624
               Totals, British Commonwealth countries3,0533,0623,1072,9622,9992,990
               Percentage of total505247434341
Other–
     Italy25030226515813785
     Japan5344688371,0461,1141,104
     Liberia4524665197468671,050
     Norway576364488498366421
     Netherlands375343313341207255
     Remaining countries8888321,1161,1841,3431,309
          With cargo2,4601,8602,1292,5022,6792,672
          In ballast6159151,4091,4711,3541,552
               Totals, other countries3,0752,7753,5383,9734,0334,224
               Percentage of total504853575759
                              Grand totals6,1285,8376,6456,9347,0327,214

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER—The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearSteam and Motor VesselsOther Vessels*Totals
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
* Includes sailing vessels, and barges, dredges, etc., not self-propelled.
1961503241,096120,992422,4712,031545243,567123,023
1962493250,399124,724402,6522,096533253,051126,820
1963496244,047120,603504,0513,505546248,098124,108
1964521251,032122,798534,1803,628574255,212126,426
1965534235,506114,309604,2733,699594239,779118,008
1966556238,149112,520654,3353,720621242,484116,240
1967589223,571103,090685,2444,612657228,815107,702
1968597223,573102,461726,1145,318669229,687107,779
1969625208,98695,282645,4024,599689214,38899,881
1970659210,66795,702695,7264,811728216,393100,513
1971702196,17687,759705,8414,945772202,01792,704

In the table which follows, the vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1971 are classified and listed for the various ports of registry.

Port of RegistrySteam VesselsMotor VesselsOther Vessels*
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
* Includes sailing vessels and barges, dredges, etc., not self-propelled.
Whangarei211,9122663307205
Auckland103,0711,38844575,36734,891465,1224,411
Tauranga75,1472,2591146
Napier1819449143,2561,282
Wellington1311,5124,4418752,13824,18714274226
Nelson275,6732,274
Lyttelton53,5781,253172,32391343410
Timaru61,641588152
Dunedin22,4359952025,11911,820
Invercargill2969368251,21638518585
               Totals3322,3848,894669173,79278,865705,8414,945

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 501 vessels on the Auckland register being only 81 tons.

Of the 772 vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1971 only 65 were classified as employed in the coastal or foreign trade. A great number of vessels are employed exclusively within “restricted limits” or are pleasure craft.

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tons, direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the last 11 years.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage†
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

† Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons (000)
19612,4335,7041582,1641,98312,600
19622,4645,1571162,2312,04512,130
19632,8825,6971092,5502,12013,467
19643,8387,1871033,5042,59317,328
19654,9457,181854,6882,57419,558
19665,5427,942745,2142,67721,523
19675,4076,887525,1052,92720,431
19685,6107,286405,4133,95122,341
19695,6647,527345,4484,59923,305
19706,1938,322616,0354,77025,442
19716,2288,478816,0485,29326,209

From about 1964 the pattern of shipping (and cargo) movements between New Zealand ports has been substantially altered. 1964 saw the opening of the oil refinery at Whangarei and the distribution to other ports of the refined products, currently amounting to some 2 million tons annually, has been by coastal delivery instead of by direct overseas discharge. The emergence of more and more specialised ships, e.g., roll-on roll-off freighters, dry bulk carriers, both in the coastal and overseas services, coupled with the technical improvements in port facilities, has led to the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and the virtual elimination of the small regional port and the traditional small coastal shipping services.

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1971. Loadings of bunker fuels amounting to 380,090 tons are not included.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage†
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

† Transhipments included twice.

 manifest tons
Parengarenga5,42771,52676,953
Houhora1,9011,901
Awanui11,91411,914
Mangonui6,4156,415
Whangaroa1,1921,192
Bay of Islands4,2096027,86632,135
Whangarei248,3533,333,9992,993,202139,3076,714,861
Mangawhai52,30952,309
Auckland1,373,7682,099,51047,787137,922821,8054,528,579
Onehunga121,0815,99366888,97910,370227,759
Raglan29,7911,01826931,078
Thames2642,1492,413
Tauranga494,576342,87924,1491,761,7572,623,361
Gisborne21,6344,9858,94046,58082,139
Napier268,543267,31413,390354,184903,431
Taranaki207,489254,295108,641182,100752,525
Waverley391,598391,598
Wanganui73,8303,7461,47979,055
Wellington1,271,039926,33525,803905,828266,6413,421,449
Picton666,909655648,43430,5081,346,506
Nelson147,30546,90013229,823493,140717,432
Motueka148382530
Tarakohe28,443219,284247,727
Westport2,1589,651195,47957207,345
Greymouth3,33657325,82929,738
Jackson Bay128,5388,550
Lyttelton670,170584,5152,465336,285174,1661,770,066
Timaru135,78671,83754573,350168,311450,374
Oamaru2,50110,04412,545
Otago230,819197,5513,99049,203167,383652,936
Bluff192,762326,50939,049257,025815,345
Halfmoon Bay6,2013,0879,288
                         Totals6,227,9768,478,32581,3906,047,5705,292,79826,209,449

Transhipments—Transhipments have been at a low level for a number of years but the 1971 total of 81,390 tons indicates a growing trend of centralising cargo to meet the special requirements of container vessels using the ports of Wellington and Auckland.

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1971. Transhipments are included.

PortFresh FruitGrainGypsum, Plaster of ParisIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, Kerosene
manifest tons
Whangarei10,24055832200,867
Auckland63,14752,10949,724270,50082,976289,779208,842
Tauranga13,11213,07719255,6814,714
Gisborne2,485
Napier1,45211,152990208,7357,216
Taranaki679,0211,605226,8583
Wellington1,96369829778,52742,6532,394192,542
Nelson7,6331,5504099,903
Westport9,090
Lyttelton23,8172219,78845,70514,577106,25394,057
Timaru9491,08260,618
Otago4331,20615,6482,24864,76126,877
Bluff163514,5094,290156,36547
All other ports1302843,127
                         Totals90,97566,00897,983463,811151,1651,585,341534,298
PortMotor Vehicles and PartsOil, Other MineralsSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Whangarei1,8323,119,9585123,333,999
Auckland212,07212,808175,45675,010649,4242,141,847
Tauranga90055,376342,879
Gisborne32,4974,985
Napier1,07922336,467267,314
Taranaki1,0363015,675254,295
Wellington234,09944,395923,160313,383934,120
Nelson24,4093852,74347,032
Westport5619,651
Lyttelton49,26211,3511123,353197,597585,793
Timaru1,44632247,51571,837
Otago5,6733382362,44181,637201,498
Bluff2,64791148,392326,509
All other ports569248,42912,563
                         Totals535,0273,188,853176,097124,5561,520,2088,534,322

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 80 percent of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1971. Although pastoral products constitute the bulk of New Zealand's exports on a value basis, a number of other types of commodities constitute an important part of the total outward overseas cargo. The following table shows the extent to which ports of loading participated in the handling of the major remaining items.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tons
Bay of Islands7,3411371,31116,7442,315
Whangarei24,47117,848197228226
Auckland40,74015,724172,954155,09622,69215,92260,430
Onehunga18322774052049
Tauranga72,91310,084104,9661,2282,392
Gisborne40215,2785507944,240
Napier1275676,600107,80314,77212,71474,815
Taranaki20,91755,82615,05050,2212,5192,5064,389
Wellington8,7988,25324,84483,33615,8125,20243,131
Picton113,686601285
Nelson2132,3681,0943,413206661304
Lyttelton1,3912,63737,3377,7686,99735,759
Timaru1,512725104,7914,5004,71225,038
Otago18277921,7834,0204,89034,330
Bluff1304,074538115,0109,11010,28448,217
                         Totals176,015100,737349,057715,10081,96969,103333,556
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodWood PulpAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Bay of Islands1827,866
Whangarei62,97633,361139,307
Auckland10,2633049,94711,987761315,479832,299
Onehunga54741698998,17510,550
Tauranga709145,9021,291,70097,34034,5231,761,757
Gisborne2,56317,6185,13546,580
Napier34,0624543180,39421,845354,184
Taranaki121323,8956,653182,100
Wellington182,750682,03390,616284,861
Picton7,11443115,7552,62530,508
Nelson62,466166418,7163,533493,140
Lyttelton1,12820,2027165,01355,875174,823
Timaru218,10611219,339168,856
Otago4,20943476,49220,264167,383
Bluff212945,68023,851257,025
All other ports57391,598391,655
                         Totals123,22332,980156,8362,053,32798,1011,032,8905,322,894

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES—The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the mercantile marine are conducted by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, the regulations relating to these examinations being similar to those of the Department of Trade and Industry with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The Department of Trade and Industry recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: Extra Master, Master, First Mate, and Second Mate Foreign-going ships, First- and Second-class Steam and Motor Engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Department of Trade and Industry. There are examinations for masters and mates, and for marine engineers in both the foreign-going and home trade.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and 1,190 certificates of survey were issued in 1971. The department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 4,330 miles of coastline there are 280 navigational aids. These aids comprise 25 manned lighthouses, 122 automatic lights, 101 day beacons, 16 navigational buoys, 3 fog signals, and 13 radio beacons, and represent a capital investment of $5 million approximately. Their maintenance and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $750,000 annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport along with a number of workshops are used to provide the mariner with reliable navigational aids. Light dues collected from ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The “Xenon gas” light installed on Tiritiri Matangi Island, the main coastal approach light tower to Waitemata Harbour, is of 11 million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a superintendent of mercantile marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the receiver of wrecks for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The number of shipping casualties reported during the year ended 31 December 1971 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that the figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMachinery, Breakdown, and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionsStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger
Cargo434112
Fishing752316253
Dredge, tug, etc.32117
Pleasure craft27101210968
                  Totals4120402613140

11 B—RAILWAYS

RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over some 3,000 route miles links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand and carries a large share of the passenger and freight traffic to and from the towns and cities. Practically all the railway services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over more than 5,000 route miles of highways; and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. A total staff of almost 21,000 people is employed by the department.

Recent years have witnessed notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

The largest railway construction project in recent years was completed with the opening in January 1971 of the 75-acre Te Rapa marshalling yard near Frankton. The massive yard is the first in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the refined electronic devices incorporated in the system make it also the most advanced. Designed initially to handle some 3,000 wagons a day, it will ultimately have a capacity to sort 5,000 daily.

A major project still in the course of construction is the 15-mile Kaimai Deviation, including a 5 1/2-mile tunnel through the Kaimai Hills, which will shorten the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty districts.

A loan of $13.73 million was made available by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development early in 1971 to assist a 6-year railway capital development programme. The loan will meet the overseas content of the cost of wagons and workshops and signalling equipment due for delivery during the first 3 years of the new programme. This loan follows upon an I.B.R.D. loan of $36 million made available in 1965 to cover the overseas content of the cost of a rolling stock re-equipment programme which was completed in 1970 at a cost of $54 million.

BRIEF HISTORY—In 1860 a contract was let by the provincial government of Canterbury for the construction of a railway from Lyttelton to Christchurch, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863*. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867, and meanwhile, in 1865, the Auckland Provincial Council had begun construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

In 1870 the Central Government established an Immigration and Public Works Department which had as one of its main objects the building of a system of railways to open up the country for settlement. By 31 March 1880, 1,182 route miles of State-owned railways were open for traffic, and by 31 March 1900 more than 2,100 route miles in 10 separate sections were in use. The 369-mile trunk line between Christchurch and Invercargill was completed in January 1879, but it was November 1908 before the 426-mile North Island main trunk railway between Auckland and Wellington was ready for traffic throughout.

Other main lines were completed, to link most of the short isolated sections. The last link to be completed was that from Christchurch to Picton, in 1945. Since then, between 1950 and 1957, 63 miles of branch lines have been built in the North Island to serve the extensive man-made forests.

In 1957 the main highway between Blenheim and Nelson was deemed, for the purpose of calculating passenger fares and freight charges, to be a “notional railway” connected at Blenheim to the railway system.

Over the years since the railways were first built, vast improvements have been made and many sections reconstructed at considerable expense to ease gradients, shorten distances, and reduce curvature. Several of these major railway deviations involved the boring of long tunnels, such as those on the Wellington-Tawa deviation, opened in June 1937; the Turakina-Okoia deviation, opened in December 1947; and the Rimutaka deviation between Upper Hutt and Featherston, opened in November 1955.

* A special article in the 1963 issue of the Yearbook (pp. 1175–1195) outlined the first 100 years of railway development in New Zealand.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route mileage of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1972 was 2,987–1,625 miles in the North Island and 1,362 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 4 miles of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was provided over a total of 161 route miles, of which 129 miles were in the North Island.

A total of 62 route miles of railway electrified on the 1,500-volt direct current, overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1972. The 8 1/2-mile Otira - Arthur's Pass section of the South Island transalpine line, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923; the 7-mile Wellington-Johnsonville line in 1938; and the 24 1/2-mile Wellington-Paekakariki line in 1940. The first section of the Wellington - Hutt Valley electrification was brought into operation in 1953, and the last stage of this project, covering 22 route miles, was completed in July 1955. The 6-mile Christchurch-Lyttelton section, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1929 but changed to diesel traction in 1970.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand have been constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the track and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 3 ft 6 in. Steel rails for main lines weigh 91 lb per yard, but several secondary and branch lines have been laid with rails weighing 72 lb per yard. Much of the track, not yet renewed since these standards were adopted in 1950, is still laid with rails weighing 85, 70, and 55 lb per yard. About 65 miles of track are completely renewed each year. Timber sleepers, laid 2,400 to the mile, have traditionally been of Australian hardwood, but since 1960 substantial and increasing use has been made of treated radiata pine sleepers from New Zealand mills.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2,600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 55 miles. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 34 miles south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 5,720 ft (1.08 miles) long.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 318 ft above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty New Zealand railway viaducts altogether carry the rails more than 110 ft above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 184 railway tunnels with an aggregate length of 53 miles in use, 108 in the North Island and 76 in the South Island. The two longest tunnels are the Otira (5 miles 26 chains) on the Midland Line in the South Island, opened in 1923; and the Rimutaka (5 miles 37 chains) on the Wairarapa line in the North Island, opened in 1955. Excluding city tube railways, these stand sixteenth and thirteenth respectively in a list of the world's longest railway tunnels. The Kaimai Tunnel, to be constructed on the Kaimai Deviation, will be 5 miles 39 chains long.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Rail Ferry Service—Two ferries carrying rail and road vehicles, and passengers, are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana (4,160 tons) and Aranui (4,542 tons) are each designed to carry a maximum of 30 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a further 30 motorcars in an upper-deck garage. There is all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins in each vessel for about 500 passengers, but it is possible to carry just over 1,000 passengers per ship on special occasions. Regular sailings with the Aramoana began in August 1962 and a two-ship timetable was introduced with the advent of the Aranui in June 1966. In November 1971 the Railways Department took over maritime operation of these ferries from the Union Steam Ship Company.

A third ferry, Arahanga, entered the service in December 1972, and a fourth vessel has been ordered from France for delivery in 1974. Both are of a larger design than the first two ferries and are designed for freight only, with limited accommodation for road truck drivers.

ROLLING STOCK: Passenger Cars—The first diesel railcars on New Zealand railways were placed in service in 1936. At 31 March 1972 a fleet of 38 was in use on passenger services.

Multiple-unit electric coaches were first introduced on the Johnsonville line in 1938. By 1956 a fleet of 49 motor coaches and 79 trailer coaches was in use on Wellington suburban train services. A typical three-coach set comprising one 600 hp motor coach and two trailer coaches weighs 96 tons unladen, measures 188 ft 6 in. overall, and seats 200 passengers. This stock can accelerate rapidly from stops and operates up to 50 m.p.h. in normal service.

Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1972 totalled 29,052, with a total carrying capacity of 399,400 tons. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 247 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

SPECIAL SERVICES—A fast daytime express diesel railcar with hostess service was introduced between Wellington and Auckland in October 1968, running three times a week each way. In December 1972 the Blue Streak railcars used on this run were transferred to the Wellington - New Plymouth route. New Silver Fern diesel-electric railcars, fully air-conditioned, took over the Wellington-Auckland service, the frequency of which was doubled to six times a week.

Meanwhile, in December 1970, the Southerner diesel-powered express trains with refurbished cars and on-train buffet service were introduced between Christchurch and Invercargill, and in September 1971 two complete new air-conditioned sleeping-car trains were placed in service between Wellington and Auckland. These overnight Silver Star expresses provide the highest standard of passenger travel comfort on New Zealand Railways.

Another refurbished express train, the Endeavour, was placed in service between Wellington and Napier in November 1972. Buffet cars on the Southerner, Silver Star, and Endeavour provide light meal and refreshment services for passengers.

MOTIVE POWER—Since 1949 steam power has been steadily replaced by diesel traction. All steam locomotives in the North Island were replaced by diesel locomotives by the end of 1967, and those in the South Island in 1971 with the exception of two retained for a Lumsden-Kingston tourist vintage train. In November 1972 15 “Dx” diesel electric locomotives weighing 96 tons and with double the horsepower of the “DA“ class locomotives were introduced to haul heavy express-goods trains between Wellington and Auckland, and ultimately the Silver Star sleeping-car express trains.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchPercentage of Total Traffic Moved by
Steam LocomotivesDiesel LocomotivesDiesel RailcarsElectric LocomotivesElectric Multiple Units
196246.242.04.23.04.6
196340.148.14.32.94.6
196434.354.24.22.94.4
196530.858.33.82.94.2
196626.363.03.72.84.2
196721.867.63.72.84.1
196818.172.63.12.04.2
19698.483.72.71.14.1
19701.291.72.51.03.6
19710.892.52.40.83.5
19720.293.42.20.63.6

There were 276 diesel-electric locomotives at 31 March 1972, and 14 electric locomotives apart from 277 diesel shunting locomotives.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue

* In addition, a 53rd week's revenue of $2,014,433 was taken into the department's accounts for the year ended 31 March 1969. Because there was no corresponding expenditure, this sum has not been included in the tabulated figures, in order to maintain comparability with previous years. The additional revenue became available because accounting procedures over the past few years had taken only 52 weeks' (364 days') revenue into account each year, and the additional days had now accumulated into a full week.

† Deficit recovered from General Reserve.

 $(thousand)
196788,75687,878878
196885,83284,6601,172
196990,015*86,4953,520*
197099,72994,1215,607
1971105,242112,827−7,585†
1972122,368126,696−4,328†

The chief items of expenditure for 1971–72 were: wages $78,892,806; locomotive fuel (including electricity), $2,675,208: stores and material, $17,637,599; depreciation, $9,141,978; miscellaneous, $16,798,861.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
* See footnote to preceding table.
$(thousand)
196775,02813,72875,15112,727−  123+1,001
196871,65314,17971,88012,780−  227+1,399
196974,60215,41372,89213,603+1,710+1,810*
197083,19416,53579,83614,286+3,358+2,249
197186,99918,24396,50216,324−9,503+1,919
1972101,29621,072107,27719,419−5,981+1,653,

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1971–72 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
 $(thousand)percent
North Island73,59874,290−    692100.9
South Island27,69832,987−5,289119.1
                    Totals101,296107,277−5,981105.9

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(thousand)
Advertising service273302331195217251
Departmental dwellings9539449591,8821,9742,170
Road services—
     Passenger and goods7,7608,52110,3967,7148,78710,393
Cook Strait rail ferry service5,8916,1977,8904,4955,3466,604
Miscellaneous1,6582,2791,496
                              Totals16,53518,24321,07214,28616,32419,419

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods, Livestock, and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
 $(thousand) 
19675,91567,4481,66575,028
19685,29464,7851,57471,653
19695,41967,4771,70674,602
19705,67275,7091,81383,194
19715,83079,0992,07086,999
19727,01092,0182,268101,296

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1971–72 represented an expenditure on railway travel of $2.44 per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to $35.22 per head.

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
* Includes superannuation subsidy.
 $(thousand)
196719,01217,67112,10522,3832,2321,74875,151
196817,32917,18911,53521,6692,4541,70471,880
196917,22918,15211,51321,6742,5011,82372,892
197019,27820,47811,83323,4752,8561,91679,836
197124,10523,76214,04628,8673,4532,26996,502
197226,71224,58815,60032,6175,2822,478107,277

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment.

Capital Expenditure—The expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

Item197019711972
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Plant and equipment1,1591,4111,742
Works programme5,4755,3864,797
Rolling stock7,0444,94410,282
Motor vehicles9069371,548
Rail ferries3971,6144,973
                              Totals14,98014,29223,342

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, from the loan granted by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and buyer's credit.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

Source197019711972
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation9,5386410,7977612,57954
I.B.R.D. loan5,441362,365164442
Buyer's credit1,130810,31944
                              Totals14,98010014,29210023,342100

RAIL PASSENGER TRAFFIC—The completion of the suburban railway electrification at Wellington in 1955 and the introduction of fast railcar services between 1955 and 1959 resulted in peak passenger patronage in 1961–62, but since then there has been a steady decline in passenger journeys in face of competition from other forms of transport.

The decline in non-suburban passenger traffic is attributable to the increased use of private cars and the development of air services. The operations of the department's Road Services Branch are outlined under another heading at the end of this section.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
* Traffic in this year was affected by the suspension of services for 10 days in May 1967 because of a strike by a section of the staff.
 (000)(000)(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
196721,2092,51423,7232,0053,9095,914
1968*20,1222,06422,1861,9473,3475,294
196920,3001,96222,2612,0523,3675,419
197019,1831,84821,0312,1813,4915,672
197119,0971,91121,0082,2103,6205,830
197218,3351,78020,1162,7944,2167,010

GOODS AND LIVESTOCK TRAFFIC—The following table shows the tonnage of goods and livestock traffic, and revenue received.

Year Ended 31 MarchGoods and Livestock (excluding Parcels) CarriedGoods, Livestock, and Parcels Revenue
TonnageNet Ton-milesNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
* Revenue from parcels traffic was $2,532,311.
 (000)million$(000)$(000)$(000)
196711,5341,483.947,13920,30967,448
196810,5811,405.145,61419,17164,785
196910,7981,502.947,64919,82767,476
197011,5931,676.654,21021,49975,709
197111,8501,756.757,10721,99279,099
197211,3111,698.266,32725,69192,018*

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchReturn CrossingsPassenger Journeys‡Motor VehiclesFreight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnageDeadweight TonsManifest Tons

* Two-ship service from 27 June 1966.

† The number of sailings was affected by industrial disputes.

‡ Excludes short distance journeys within Marlborough Sounds.

1967*810322,22460,690303,450294,933521,383
1968974339,12466,067330,335343,791581,542
19691,032372,98476,067380,335421,064679,948
19701,049433,69989,055445,275507,281752,098
1971996†447,21590,533452,665498,324687,951
19721,031†508,80795,942479,710513,104662,450

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerRefreshmentMotor VehiclesOther GoodsTotal
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19675531376202,8704,1803,200
19685691546813,2254,6303,788
19696341697703,7495,3234,221
19707202028934,0765,8914,495
19717972269594,2156,1975,346
19721,1143051,2125,2597,8906,604

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1972 was 20,688, compared with 20,814 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings with roads resulted in the death of 9 people and injury to 49 others in 1971–72; in the previous year 13 were killed and 65 injured. In furtherance of departmental policy, an additional 12 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1971–72.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. There is a 7-mile line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island operates a 6 1/2-mile private line from Awakeri to their mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route mileage over which licences were held rose from 260 to 5,992. Now the Railways Department runs more than 25 percent of the total vehicle mileage of all licensed road passenger service operators in New Zealand (see section 11C), and maintains in its fleet more than 25 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1972, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1,490.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 253 vehicles at 31 March 1972, carried 14,209,000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $1,994,882. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 625 coaches, buses, and other vehicles, carried 7,554,000 passengers and earned a revenue of $6,643,946. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1972 covered 5,586 miles of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, together with the hire of vehicles to the Rail Ancillary Goods Service, produced a further $1,757,319 in 1971–72. Some 270 motor trucks and vans were maintained for the goods services. The Rail Ancillary Goods Service is operated by the department's traffic branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Miles at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
* Route mileage for which licences are held.
 (000)$(000)$(000)
19464,50746415416,5882,1981,918
19515,99274930124,0914,2164,320
19565,84276335619,2715,1705,036
19615,75473533221,3705,6745,638
19665,85872937822,2976,3856,343
19685,89976237721,3966,7296,906
19695,91976537222,5857,2087,241
19705,92577737722,1757,7607,714
19715,94277637922,6338,5218,787
19725,95978637621,76310,39610,393

11 C—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are over 59,000 miles of roads and over 1 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1966 revealed that there were 34,906 road transport drivers, 13,533 persons engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads, 16,653 persons whose occupations involved carrying and cartage services, 22,206 persons occupied in the repair of motor vehicles, and 7,205 persons engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—Rising levels of investment in roads and road transport are a measure of the importance of motor vehicles in our modern environment. This form of transportation developed mainly because it permitted a way of life people desired and a form of travel which they found highly convenient, but investment levels have become so large and all-pervasive that they affect every corner of our social, economic, and political life. Furthermore, future economic development depends largely on the mobility of the motor vehicle. This mobility has been achieved by the development of an effective roading network and will be retained and improved only through progressive policies aimed at meeting future needs. For these reasons roads and road transport can be expected to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's national development. In terms of ton/miles of freight carried, road transport has doubled in the last 10 years and now comprises approximately half of total freight movement. Farm production, for example, relies heavily on road transport.

The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investment is relatively high in comparison with other countries. The cost of construction varies considerably from place to place, depending upon topography, soil types, rainfall and availability of aggregate. While a road of 18 feet sealed width can be built for $5,000 per mile in some places, a road of comparable standard can cost anything up to $50,000 per mile in less favourable localities.

Annual roading expenditure by central and local government now exceeds $100 million, or approximately 2.3 percent of gross national product. Maintenance comprises about one-third of the expenditure.

Because of its many swiftly-flowing rivers and streams and its inland gorges and deep ravines, New Zealand is faced with major bridging problems, which are perhaps different in character and more complex than those generally found elsewhere. A major programme of replacement and new construction has been under way for many years. In recent years expenditure from the National Roads Fund has resulted in over 5 miles of new bridging being built each year; some 12 percent of expenditure is involved in bridging.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. They confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

The Auckland motorway system is one of the largest engineering undertakings ever attempted in New Zealand and one which is changing the face of metropolitan Auckland. An indication of the size and complexity of motorway design is gained from the statement that the cost of the large dual interchange for the Auckland inner city part of the motorway system will be of the order of $20 million, including land purchase. The 4,600-ft Thorndon overbridge on the Wellington Motorway is the largest bridge contract in the history of the Ministry of Works.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1971 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
 miles
Paved and sealed5,66513,9806,1619325,899
Metal or gravel47026,9948004828,312
Unmetalled674,81221375,099
   Totals: formed roads6,20245,7867,17414859,310

There are 9,769 bridges of 25 ft and over with a total length of 902,426 ft.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—Before the Auckland Harbour Bridge of four lanes and a span of 3,597 ft was opened in 1959, it was expected that it would take 19 years for traffic to reach 8 million vehicles a year, but instead it took only 5 years. Extensions have been made by way of two additional lanes on each side of the existing bridge making a total of eight traffic lanes.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
 (thousand)
Cars11,43312,38513,97615,63017,318
Motor cycles, etc.233242248277365
Buses272264270270268
Trucks446465505519543
Non-revenue traffic201204154141126
                              Totals12,58513,56015,15416,83618,620

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel—This tunnel was opened in 1964 and is 1 1/4 miles long. There is an increasing volume of traffic using the Christchurch-Lyttelton road tunnel as shown in the following table for March years.

Class of Vehicle1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Cars964,659931,669991,4001,081,6641,223,844
Motor cycles, etc.84,64768,42162,00359,90471,799
Buses14,35614,23314,37714,32115,781
Trucks154,512182,970200,505215,929218,373
Non-revenue traffic34,15433,20634,13836,14835,302
                                   Totals1,252,3281,230,4991,302,4231,407,9661,565,099

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The Board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the Board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the Board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the Board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on roading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading positions in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the Board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The Board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The Board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 5 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works carries out the executive functions of the Board and in servicing the Board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

There are approximately 7,200 miles of State highway, for which the Board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance. In addition, there are some 45,000 miles of county roads and 6,000 miles of municipal streets, maintenance and construction of which are subsidised by the Board. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the Board's agent, Ministry of Works has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the Board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the Board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. At the present time there are three sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for counties—not less than 23 percent of motor revenue; for municipalities—not less than 16 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 50 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 11 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the Board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the Board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the Board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the Board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for Board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The Board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 18.10c per gallon is paid into the National Roads Fund. (Additional tax of 3.30c per gallon imposed on 4 May 1967 was credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account until 1 April 1969, when 2.30c per gallon was transferred to the National Roads Fund, leaving 1c per gallon credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account until 1 April 1971, since which date this amount has been credited to the National Roads Fund.) An equivalent mileage tax is payable for diesel-powered motor vehicles; this has been apportioned to National Roads Fund and Consolidated Revenue Account on the same basis as for motor spirits tax. Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicles Regulations range from $4.83 (not above 2 1/2 tons) to $63 (11 tons), with $7 for each additional ton above 11. The fees for farmers' trucks range from $2.66 on a corresponding basis. Heavy traffic fees, less the cost of collection, are paid into the National Roads Fund. Tax imposed under the Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 (3c per gallon from February 1971) is not credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest three March years.

Item1969–701970–711971–72
Receipts—$(000)$(000)$(000)
     Petrol tax (net)64,93366,80773,033
     Mileage tax3,8764,8345,959
     Fees and charges—
          Heavy traffic fees9,5239,82010,107
     Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account101010
     Miscellaneous receipts—
          Repayments of plant purchases662
          Repayments of advances to local authorities515
          Rents462427497
          Sales of land and buildings177127271
          Interest on plant purchases1
     Bailey bridging hire19107
     Interest on investments607867
     Miscellaneous212685
                                        Total receipts79,09482,12390,643
Expenditure—
     Highways maintenance12,16714,01414,357
     Highways construction28,64831,12332,648
     Local authority roading subsidies and grants32,25134,91735,243
     Local authorities advances36
     Administration and general expenses—
          Ministry of Works administration3,4604,3364,190
          Fees and travelling expenses252639
          Miscellaneous expenses375431515
     Bridging expenses—
          Bailey bridging, etc.65107140
     Unauthorised expenditure766
                              Total expenditure76,99884,99887,137
     Balance in Fund at end of year3,6637884,294

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable. There are 7,237 miles of State highways, of which 90 percent are now sealed.

Class of Expenditure1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
* Motorway structures included from 1968–69.
 $(thousand)
Construction and improvement20,41120,12822,73526,38525,974
Bridges and other structures*2,1685,5815,9134,7386,674
Maintenance, repairs, etc.10,26512,41012,16714,01414,357
                              Totals32,84438,11940,81545,13747,005

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system, and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total mileage of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system. To achieve the National Development Conference target of an annual income of 4.5 percent in real product, it has been estimated that there will be increases of 5.71 percent in motor vehicle mileage and 6.01 percent in commodity cartage.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective inter-regional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highway Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total mileage of motorways in use at 31 March 1972 was 66.19 miles.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Revenue Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1970–711971–72
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
State highways expenditure 45,137 47,005
Subsidised highway, section 12A 522 397
County roading expenditure—
     From county funds17,550 19,212 
     From National Roads Funds19,945 20,406 
     From Consolidated Revenue Account (vote: “Roads”)1,970 2,289 
  39,465 41,906
Municipal roading expenditure—
     From municipal funds19,481 20,319 
     From National Roads Funds13,170 13,236 
  32,651 33,554
  117,776 122,863

NOTE—Table above does not include subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act (to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000) and the Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority ($200,000) plus $4,489 expended by the Ministry of Works on the reinstatement of approaches after experimental works) which in total amounts to $1,204,489.

During the year ended 31 March 1972, 56 miles of new sealing on highways were completed, giving an aggregate of 6,516 miles sealed, or 90 percent of total highway mileage.

New bridging totalled 6,924 linear feet, compared with 4,677 linear feet in the previous year.

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the Board.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board makes generous grants for bridge replacement. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 10 years to March 1971 there have been 2,779 bridges completed.

For the year ended 31 March 1972 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 $(thousand)
Municipalities9,0254,21013,236
County councils (including road boards)11,8928,51420,406
                                 Totals20,91712,72433,642

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all cities with a population in excess of 30,000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the Board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the Board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for development road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new road giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roadings to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori and Island Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1972 was $2,288,584.

Overall Reading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1972.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
     State highways47,005 
     Subsidies, etc. – local roading35,243 
  82,248
Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) 2,289
Local authority funds—
     Municipalities20,319 
     County councils19,21239,530
                              Total 124,067

Roading expenditure over the latest 11 years is related to gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local GovernmentTotal as Percentage of Gross National Product
MaintenanceConstructionTotal
* Provisional.
 $(million)percent
196226.7545.4172.162.65
196327.1647.2574.412.47
196427.4756.3683.832.62
196527.6758.8286.492.48
196629.6369.5299.152.65
196731.3467.4898.822.53
196831.6260.9692.582.30
196936.0966.20102.292.35
197035.5873.93109.512.30
197142.0776.97119.042.18*
197245.0679.01124.071.98*

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $16 to $50 according to engine capacity; motor cycles, $10; power cycles, $6; light trucks, $30; heavy trucks, $50; trailers, $10; tractors, $2; traction engines, $10; and any other motor vehicles, $20. Annual licence fees are as follows: power cycles, $4; motor cycles, $6; motorcars and private station wagons, $10; traction engines, $3; trailers (not exceeding 2 tons laden weight), $6. Other fees include drivers' licences, $1; changes of ownership, $5; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, $6; any other motor vehicles, $10). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account since 1 July 1967.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19681969197019711972
Cars807,962833,488861,958908,253955,446
Rental cars2,9803,0683,2223,6614,007
Private taxicabs146165157159129
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tons and under)91,09999,073101,814110,385117,441
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tons)73,57667,91469,66371,37773,184
Contract vehicles1,4011,5791,5941,1821,139
Omnibuses2,7272,7132,6882,6432,613
Public taxicabs2,8982,9002,8912,9182,937
Service coaches489499455470489
Motor cycles30,06829,64729,17632,09939,326
Power cycles18,35918,23318,82620,97423,614
                              Totals, motor vehicles1,031,7051,059,2791,092,4441,154,1211,220,325
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees191,337201,264211,539224,667238,798
Dealers' cars3,6703,5693,6363,7094,047
Dealers' motor cycles91103109133172
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors, etc.)74,88875,60677,88981,70786,835
                                   Totals, all vehicles1,301,6911,339,8211,385,6171,464,3371,550,177

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc.

The rate of increase in the number of motor vehicles has exceeded the rate of increase in population. The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 11 years.

As at
31 March
Number of
Persons in
Population
per Car
Number of
Persons in
Population per Motor
Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19624.53.0
19634.32.9
19644.12.8
19653.82.7
19663.72.6
19673.52.5
19683.42.5
19693.32.4
19703.32.4
19713.12.3
19723.02.2

The countries with fewest persons per motor vehicle are, in order, United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, but the standard of vehicles is not uniform.

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles on public roads, for each year during the last 11 years.

Calendar YearConsumption of Motor Spirits
By Motor Vehicles on Public RoadsTotal Consumption
 million gallons
1961245.4296.4
1962253.0298.7
1963273.0317.1
1964294.9339.7
1965312.7356.8
1966333.8373,8
1967339.7378.4
1968344.6382.9
1969367.4400.9
1970381.9416.6
1971396.4431.0

The following diagram illustrates the trend that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the six latest years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
196762,9824,82717,79124,942110,542
196853,5083,86713,43919,05289,866
196949,8173,46512,04118,00583,328
197057,0194,24218,00717,72096,988
197172,50610,79222,17218,484123,954
197280,06918,69425,94220,823145,528

ROAD TRANSPORT—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better co-ordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 2 1/2 tons or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5 tons.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles, if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 40 miles of rail. However, certain commodities (particularly some foodstuffs) can be carried without this restriction up to 50, 75, or 100 miles, and for some goods, such as livestock, fresh meat, poultry, or fresh fish there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from these exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 10,000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for each of the five latest years ended 31 March.

Road Goods Services 1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
* At 31 December.
Revenue$(000)139,600139,600153,100177,900192,400
Capital invested$(000)109,600104,900114,900127,400136,000
Vehicle-miles(000)325,000324,100330,000353,000338,000
Goods-service licencesNo.6,8246,7626,694*6,619*6,697*
Average revenue per vehicle-milec42.9444.4346.3950.4656.88
Average miles per vehicleNo.16,56015,79516,42117,19017,093

The second table shows traffic data, revenue, and number of vehicles used by the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four metropolitan transport districts, for each of the five latest years ended 31 March.

Road Passenger Services 1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
Traffic statistics—
     Passengers carried(000)175,301172,948171,148153,346149,934
     Vehicle-miles(000)79,61881,44083,32481,36785,333
Revenue$(000)24,25325,89027,28928,37130,829
Revenue per milec30.4631.7932.7534.8636.13
VehiclesNo.3,7743,8163,9193,8043,971

Statistics on bus services run by the New Zealand Railways (included above) are given separately in Section 11B.

The following table sets out statistics of taxicab services for the five latest March years.

Item 1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
* Includes private-hire taxicabs. At 31 December 1970 there were 2,921 public taxicab authorities issued by transport licensing authorities.
Estimated total capital invested in cabs$(000)5,6595,2585,2775,3405,800
Mileage run(000)102,700102,900106,600102,300105,600
Revenue$(000)13,60013,98014,70014,90016,700
Revenue per milec13.2413.5913.7914.5415.80
Vehicles*No.3,1033,0443,0653,0483,077

Statistics of the rental vehicle industry are set out in the following table for March years.

Item 1966–671967–681963–691969–701970–71

* As at year ended 31 December.

† This is the number of vehicle authorities issued by transport licensing authorities, not necessarily the actual number of vehicles.

Cars authorised..3,4713,5453,661*3,810*4,234*
Other vehicles authorised†..937870907*990*1,091*
Mileage run(000)51,80045,96053,96857,05671,710
Estimated total revenue$(000)5,5005,3006,5006,6009,500
Revenue per milec10.6211.5312.0411.5613.24

Economic Research—The Ministry of Transport has intensified its economic research into transport operations and determined a long-term research plan. An association of business consultants has been commissioned to make a comprehensive transport policy study for examination by the Government.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. For the year ended 31 December 1971, 14,004 such accidents, resulting in 677 fatalities and in injuries to 21,607 other people were reported. Comparative figures for 1970 and 1969 were (1969 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents 13,300 (12,554); fatalities 655 (570); persons injured 20,791 (18,726). The increases must be related to the growing number of vehicles on the roads.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1971, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Nature of AccidentFatal AccidentsInjury AccidentsTotals
Overtaking26379405
Head-on collision (not overtaking)95854949
Rear-end collision18850868
Loss of control or running off road on straight691,3691,438
Loss of control or running off road while cornering1412,3052,446
Collision with obstruction27844871
At intersections—
     Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning151,0161,031
     Vehicles moving in opposite direction, one turning right17842859
     Vehicles crossing paths, not turning341,4961,530
     Vehicles crossing paths, turning13745758
Vehicles merging3186189
Vehicle manoeuvring8540548
Pedestrian crossing road911,5631,654
Pedestrian, other19220239
Miscellaneous24195219
                                             Totals60013,40414,004

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly in Section 4C.

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1971 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
* Year ended 30 June 1971.
New Zealand67721,6075.523.7173.9755.4
Australia*3,59090,6507.027.9176.3703.7
Great Britain7,696344,3905.113.9230.4619.8
United States55,0002,000,0004.826.7173.9970.0

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws—Traffic on roads in six cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways within all urban areas. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, tyre pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and close liaison is maintained with the Police. Traffic officers have the power to arrest without warrant persons driving under the influence of drink or drugs, or being in charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs and refusing to deliver ignition keys.

Persons giving a traffic or police officer good cause to suspect that they are driving with a blood-alcohol concentration of 100 mg or more per 100 ml of blood may be required to give a blood sample for analysis. An initial test with a breath-test device is used as a screening process.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A person committing an infringement must pay a specified fee within a certain time. Failure to pay the fee is an offence.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 55 miles an hour, although there are 60 mph areas on suitable highways. However lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 30 mph for motor cyclists not wearing safety helmets; 50 mph for heavy passenger vehicles; and 40 mph for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 30 mph is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated districts. Areas with a speed limit of 40 mph may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 55 mph or 30 mph depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every six months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Third-Party Insurance—Every motor vehicle operated on the road is required to be insured against the owner's (or his driver's) liability for damages as a result of injury or death arising from the negligent use of the vehicle. The transport legislation also provides indemnity in respect of victims killed or injured by the negligent use of uninsured or unidentified vehicles. The premium for third-party insurance is paid with the annual licence fee.

Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme will provide cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There will be a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by lines similar to the compulsory third-party premiums. The legislation is to come into effect on 1 October 1973.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time. Great emphasis is placed on instruction in school by uniformed road traffic instructors who visit all schools at least twice a year, and also lecture to teachers' colleges and other groups.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Road Safety Council—The New Zealand Road Safety Council also advises the Government on matters of road safety. Safety committees deal with local issues and make recommendations to the Council.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest three calendar years. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher than shown. Convictions in Magistrates' Courts for the calendar year 1971 were, for instance, 187,226.

Type of Offence1969*1970†1971‡

* Since April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law.

† Overloading infringement system commenced May 1970.

‡ Speeding infringement system commenced July 1971.

(a) Road traffic offences—
     In charge of motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs9011185
     Driving, or attempting to drive, while under the influence of drink or drugs297302299
     Reckless driving10368142
     Driving in a dangerous manner414435480
     Driving at a dangerous speed385476596
     Using motor vehicle without reasonable consideration and careless driving or careless use2,7463,2984,033
     Exceeding 30 mph19,85919,54321,237
     Exceeding 55 mph5,4273,9483,857
     Exceeding 45 mph with trailer1,1761,3411,309
     Exceeding 45 mph with pillion passenger293310533
     Learner's plate offences7122,0052,229
     Overtaking offences1,6041,7321,826
     Failure to keep to the left2,7192,6122,959
     Failure to yield right of way1,1141,3881,734
     Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing104285349
     Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign5,0095,6156,589
     Driver's licence offences6,5968,0889,371
     Vehicle licences and registration offences2,7612,6952,907
     Lighting offences3,2003,2383,289
     Failure to dip lights126136155
     Defective brakes432394467
     Warrant of fitness offences8,78810,20110,682
     Loading offences232278544
     Railway crossing offences115126167
     Parking offences11,754*6,66312,758
     Cycling offences861941943
     Noisy vehicles1,4101,5501,734
     Motor cyclist exceeding 30 mph without safety helmet (rider or pillion)9351,1091,773
     Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle1,0522,9535,323
     Aiding and abetting300183108
     Exceeding temporary speed limit710366585
     Breaches of limited speed zone89569
     Failure to stop in half clear road ahead or following too closely296380456
     Driving whilst disqualified494680788
     Power cyclist offences180146213
     Pedestrian offences103128132
     Exceeding 40 mph4361,0111,372
     Exceeding 60 mph1931,164937
     Parking infringements (failure to pay only)128317540
     Breath-test blood alcohol offences3971,5502,966
     Emitting excessive smoke6799
     Miscellaneous6,0175,1445,431
(b) Heavy motor vehicle offences—
     Exceeding heavy traffic licence1,268718935
     Heavy traffic licence not carried, or no heavy traffic licence1,6541,2581,464
     Exceeding gross weight633
     Exceeding axle weight1,31878
     Road classification exceeded4854
     Exceeding weight or speed limit on bridge7394
     Exceeding 50 mph (omnibus)59
     Failure to pay overloading infringement fee4521
     Exceeding 45 mph with heavy motor vehicle605759579
     Miscellaneous heavy motor vehicle offences822489380
(c) Transport offences—
     Unlicensed goods service612843
     Exceeding rail restriction mileage212758
     Unlicensed ancillary goods service615414
     Breach of goods service licence103128118
     No certificate of fitness594489537
     Failure to carry certificate of fitness17596141
     Exceeding certificate of loading10288149
     No vehicle authority carried10466125
     Breach of drivers' hours regulations131521
     Rental vehicle offences242728
     Taxicab offences14510
     Failure to carry certificate of loading63176239
     Miscellaneous offences114107197
(d) Offences under miscellaneous Acts and Regulations414745
               Totals97,43597,754117,123

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section covers the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and no account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

In the last 20 years motor and trolley bus services have increased and electric tramways have been superseded. The last tramway system serving a city area was in Wellington, and this was terminated in May 1964. Wellington, however, still retains 31 chains of track for the only electric cable tram service now operating in New Zealand.

From 1 November 1969 to 31 March 1971 local authorities received grants from the Ministry of Transport of twice the amount of heavy traffic fees paid in relation to urban passenger service operations. From 1 September 1972 a grant equivalent to heavy traffic fees paid on urban passenger buses is being paid to all operators, municipal and private. In April 1973 the grant was increased to 150 percent of heavy traffic fees paid.

A National Urban Passenger Transport Council has been established under the Ministry of Transport Act with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans or grants for capital expenditure to urban public passenger transport operators as recommended by the Committee of Inquiry into Urban Passenger Transport (parliamentary paper H.37A, 1970). An amount of $1 million was granted to the Urban Passenger Transport Council in 1972 to provide local authorities with capital grants for urban transport.

The Urban Passenger Transport Council has initiated research into urban passenger transport systems and needs. Funds have been provided by the Government on the basis of twice the heavy traffic fees (about $1 million a year) and from this loans or grants may be made for capital purposes.

Details of revenue and expenditure are given in the following table. In the latest year losses exceeded $3 1/2 million, with only Eastbourne Borough Council making a profit.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Mile RunExpenditureExpenditure per Mile Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. “Other”)
 $(000)$(000)cc$(000)$(000)$(000)c
Auckland
     19683,4833,5468.3646.333,1806863,86650.51
     19693,3643,4628.4346.103,2336673,90051.93
     19703,3643,5338.4847.773,4336504,08355.21
     19713,7113,9729.4053.423,9446384,58361.63
     19724,1044,17510.8256.004,3476925,03967.58
Gisborne
     196856599.4530.935786433.54
     1969596310.0434.015986736.51
     1970596310.7133.686086836.48
     1971656811.2136.4169128143.04
     1972717513.1342.0868127944.87
New Plymouth
     19681261295.4225.3614615831.01
     19691261295.4425.3314816332.38
     19701351435.8628.6015817334.64
     19711451596.3331.8517919438.92
     19721561607.0532.0221222745.39
Palmerston North
     196892947.0926.97961611131.88
     196994979.5127.28931711030.89
     197095999.6828.45961811332.56
     197111011310.0829.401251814337.06
     197211912310.9529.691533318644.97
Eastbourne
     196815316314.0233.621203315431.66
     196915216214.0033.461233215832.51
     197015216614.0336.721293416436.13
     197116919015.4642.151393017438.74
     197217719016.4640.921523118940.80
Wellington
     19682,1912,2377.7651.842,3664082,77964.40
     19692,0542,0987.7051.182,2914282,71966.33
     19702,0342,0807.6550.912,4634182,88170.50
     19712,0712,1187.7753.783,0624183,48088.35
     19722,4682,5229.3162.513,6214044,02599.77
Christchurch
     19681,4481,4768.1832.191,4892821,77138.64
     19691,4211,4448.2231.681,5462961,84240.42
     19701,4541,5248.2833.341,6372901,92742.15
     19711,5801,7079.2437.561,9871102,09746.15
     19721,8321,85911.3440.252,3091752,48353.77
Timaru
     196867736.5628.62782310239.78
     196968736.0527.65812310439.38
     197073816.9230.75872811543.70
     197179906.7435.03972812548.52
     197286937.9136.431143014456.25
Dunedin
     19688128457.9645.128252301,05556.30
     19697798108.0246.888402281,06861.81
     19707668028.0548.688631881,05163.77
     19717357708.5250.689741601,13374.60
     197296299711.3761.531,1431551,29880.11
Invercargill
     19681191255.8727.041523218439.79
     19691171226.1826.741533318540.57
     19701191216.4725.281593119039.60
     19711191226.7926.0619.23222447.69
     19721221269.4830.662082823557.49
Totals, All Services
     19688,5488,7498.0542.308,5101,71910,24549.53
     19698,2358,4608.1141.998,5671,73210,31751.21
     19708,2518,6138.1643.219,0851,66510,76554.01
     19718,7849,3108.8147.2910,7681,446x12,23562.14
     197210,09810,31910.4851.7212,3261,55913,90769.71

Details of vehicles, miles run, and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVehiclesMiles RunPassengers CarriedPassengers per Mile Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses

* Includes two cable cars.

† Includes cable car mileage; 1967–68, 38,000; 1968–69, 38,000; 1969–70, 38,000; 1970–71, 37,000; 1971–72, 38,000.

Auckland  (000)(000)(000) 
     19681282353,1864,46941,6575.44
     19691272352,9934,51739,9125.31
     19701272272,9174,47939,6585.36
     19711262162,9254,51039,3865.30
     19721262162,8914,56537,9195.09
Gisborne
     1968101925913.08
     1969101855893.19
     1970111885552.96
     1971101885783.08
     1972101775423.06
New Plymouth
     1968318314802,3324.57
     1969225052,3104.58
     1970225012,3054.60
     1971224992,2854.58
     1972225002,2164.43
Palmerston North
     1968143501,2933.70
     1969153559902.79
     1970143489822.82
     1971143861,0922.83
     1972144141,0892.63
Eastbourne
     1968194851,0932.25
     1969194851,0882.24
     1970194531,0832.39
     1971194501,0952.43
     1972194641,0762.32
Wellington
     1968121*1502,287†2,02828,2276.54
     1969121*1461,885†2,21526,6706.51
     1970121*1411,862†2,22426,5846.51
     1971121*1351,909†2,03026,6396.76
     1972116*1351,961†2,07326,5066.57
Christchurch
     19681664,58417,6993.86
     19691664,55817,2913.79
     19701664,57117,5713.84
     19711664,54517,0953.76
     19721664,61916,1473.50
Timaru
     1968132551,0244.01
     1969132641,1284.27
     1970132631,05140.0
     1971132571,1694.54
     1972132561,0894.25
Dunedin
     1968684396291210,1915.44
     196959438398899,7035.62
     197054437239259,5115.77
     197142476139068,6355.68
     197242475391,0818,4615.22
Invercargill
     1968214642,0344.39
     1969234571,8934.14
     1970234791,8343.83
     1971194691,7483.73
     1972194091,2903.15
Totals: All Services
     1968320*6896,465†14,218106,1435.13
     1969307*6925,717†14,429101,5745.04
     1970302*6795,502†14,430101,1335.07
     1971289*6615,447†14,24199,7225.07
     1972284*6615,392†14,55896,3344.83

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table.

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19681969197019711972
Auckland—mchmchmchmchmch
     Trolley bus57675767576757675767
     Motor bus151015232155015501550
Gisborne—
     Motor bus180180180180170
New Plymouth—
     Motor bus236823682368240240
Palmerston North—
     Motor bus6340x6940x7940x8340x840
Eastbourne—
     Motor bus160160160160160
Wellington—
     Trolley bus324324324324324
     Motor bus59115943594359435943
     Tram, cable031031031031031
Christchurch—
     Motor bus1626816340164791652416559
Timaru—
     Motor bus20325025025112311
Dunedin—
     Trolley bus25202520252022471734
     Motor bus44354435443532214657
Invercargill—
     Motor bus266270270280280

11 D—CIVIL AVIATION

GENERAL—New Zealand today ranks among the leading nations of the world in terms of use of air transport per head of population. A further significant increase in international air traffic with some resultant effect on domestic air traffic, is taking place following the opening of the International Airport at Auckland in November 1965, and the use of that airport, Wellington, and Christchurch by large jet aircraft. The main runway at Auckland International Airport is 8,500 ft long and the airport cost $20 million to construct.

International aviation plays an increasingly important role in the promotion of tourism.

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION—The aero-club movement began in 1929, and commercial air services came into being in the 1930s. Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in 1934, on the route Inchbonnie - Hokitika - Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 resulted in a network over most of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all then existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

Regular international air services did not begin before the Second World War despite a number of gallant pioneer flights. Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. (TEAL) was incorporated in New Zealand on 26 April 1940, following a formal inter-governmental agreement on air traffic rights across the Tasman Sea on 10 April 1940. The company's first operation commenced between Auckland and Sydney on 30 April 1940 with the flying boat Aotearoa.

In June 1950 the company took over the Auckland-Suva service from New Zealand National Airways Corporation. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. With the withdrawal of flying boats from Tasman routes, the Wellington-Sydney service was temporarily discontinued in June 1954 and a new service from Christchurch to Sydney using Douglas DC6 aircraft was commenced in the following month. The same type of aircraft were also employed on the Auckland-Fiji route from June 1954. The first Lockheed Electra turboprop aircraft was brought into use on the trans-Tasman service in December 1959, and by March 1960 all TEAL services between Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji, were being operated by the company's fleet of three Electras.

The Coral Route to Tahiti via Suva and Aitutaki was inaugurated in December 1951 but was terminated in 1964.

It had become clear that the monopoly of the Tasman air traffic formerly reserved to TEAL could not be much longer maintained in New Zealand's interests and this fact, together with the spread of jet aircraft throughout the world, led to planning for the company to extend its services to the United States and elsewhere, for which purposes it would require large jet aircraft. In these new circumstances the Australian and New Zealand Governments agreed that New Zealand should purchase the Australian shareholding and thus become the sole owner of the company. In March 1961, an agreement to this effect was concluded and at the same time a bilateral air services agreement was negotiated between Australia and New Zealand whereby each country granted to the airline of the other rights to and beyond its territory. Subsequently, the New Zealand Government negotiated traffic rights for Air New Zealand in Honolulu, Los Angeles, Pago Pago, Hong Kong, Tahiti, Noumea, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore, in addition to the company's traditional rights in Fiji and the rights already obtained in Australia. (The change of name from TEAL to Air New Zealand was made on 1 April 1965.) Pure jet services to the United States, Singapore, and Hong Kong were inaugurated during 1965–66; prop-jet Electra services were retained for Wellington-Tasman flights until replaced by DC8 jet aircraft in June 1972. Services to Los Angeles are operated via Fiji, Honolulu, and Tahiti.

The operations of Air New Zealand earn or save an estimated $28 million in overseas funds and make an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments. Air New Zealand made a profit of $1.2 million in 1971–72, a profit was also made in each of the 17 preceding years. The company has placed an order for three DC10 aircraft, the first to be delivered in April 1973. It has also let a contract for the construction of a hangar and associated facilities at the new Rarotonga airport.

CURRENT AIR SERVICES—The major air transport services within New Zealand are provided by the National Airways Corporation which operates a network linking all major centres.

Secondary services are provided by smaller operators such as Mount Cook Airlines and Geyser-land Airways. In addition, air charter and air taxi services are provided from most major aerodromes by licensed aero clubs or small operators.

Air freight services are provided by Safeair Ltd., which also provides a regular passenger and freight service between both Wellington and Christchurch and the Chatham Islands under a contract arrangement with the Government.

A private express air freight service, between Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin operates overnight and provides an air freight service with customer door-to-door delivery.

National Airways Corporation in association with ground transport operators offers an express air freight service over their whole air transport network in addition to their normal freight services from and to city freight depots.

Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for learning to fly and for private flying, and at most aerodromes licensed air charter and air taxi services are provided by the smaller operators.

International air services are operated by New Zealand's own international airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., and other regular international air services are provided by BOAC, QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, American Airlines, and UTA French Airlines.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport. The principal functions of the Division are stated to be: (a) to promote and encourage the orderly and economic development of civil aviation; (b) to exercise such functions as may be necessary to ensure the safe operation of aircraft; (c) to initiate and carry out surveys into any aspect of civil aviation.

The Director of the Civil Aviation Division has statutory powers of his own in regulatory matters. The Ministry of Transport embraces also the New Zealand Meteorological Service and the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a four-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. International air services are governed by inter-governmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Services Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority.

In May 1966 most international airlines, including Air New Zealand, entered into what is known as the Montreal Agreement which also has provisions concerning the liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. As a result of the number of different conventions covering the subject there are different limits of liability for the death of a passenger depending on the routes over which the passenger has arranged to travel. The limits may be either $6,000, $12,000, $42,000, or up to US$75,000. New Zealand has now signed the Guatemala Protocol to the Warsaw Convention which will introduce the concept of absolute liability with a limit of US$100,000.

The Carriage by Air Act 1967 governs the liabilities of domestic air carriers towards their passengers and consignors of goods. Briefly, it provides that an air carrier is liable for damage resulting from the death or personal injury of a passenger as a result of an accident unless the carrier can prove that it took all necessary measures to avoid the damage. The limit of liability is set at $42,000. This compares with the situation under the former law whereby the claimant had to prove the negligence of the air carrier and the maximum amount which could be claimed in damages was $10,000.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand, its island territories, and the Cook Islands, and by delegation the facilities for flying operations in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway, and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the Division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue service, and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the Division whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The Division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes New Zealand Aeronautical Information and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications, and crash-fire procedure.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—A summary statement of operating and capital costs and recoveries of the Civil Aviation Division for the year ended 31 March 1972 is now given.

ItemCostsRecoveries
               Operating$(000)$(000)
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—
     Regulatory and general1,440163
     Airports16757
     Airways7,7334,414
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories3433
                    Totals9,6834,637
               Capital  
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—
     Regulatory and general8
     Airports2,476412
     Airways1,831
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories2,525
                    Totals6,840412
                Grand totals16,5235,049

NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION—The major domestic air transport operator is the New Zealand National Airways Corporation which provides regular services to 26 centres throughout the North and South Islands.

The corporation's fleet consists of 4 Boeing 737s, 5 Vickers Viscount 807s, and 13 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of operation of the National Airways Corporation for the 4 latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–72
Revenue mileage flown10,670,19910,097,26510,405,12110,478,028
Revenue passengers carried—
     Schedule1,267,7121,440,1351,494,3511,489,860
     Charter16,04715,94513,20512,841
Passenger-miles created (000)—
     Schedule483,394547,105568,787609,195
     Charter8,6398,5807,5006,863
Revenue passenger-miles (000)—
     Schedule337,364383,901404,919407,495
     Charter5,2665,2924,6064,470
Average passenger journey (miles)267267271274
Freight ton-miles (000)—
     Schedule4,8775,8726,3836,607
     Charter
Mail ton-miles673,845746,999799,842701,762
Total revenue load factor63.6963.6067.1263.74
Revenue passenger load factor69.7970.1771.1966.89
Operating expenditure ($)20,927,36824,427,08827,997,60632,442,054
Operating profit ($)274,050964,8541,086,348704,777

The corporation is charged under the National Airways Act 1945 “with establishing and operating national air transport services to meet the needs of the people of New Zealand”. The corporation has therefore sought constantly to improve the standard and scope of its service whilst keeping fares at a low level. The expansion achieved during recent years is indicated by the increase in revenue passenger-miles on scheduled services from 337 million in 1968–69 to 407 million in 1971–72.

FLYING OPERATIONS—The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services.

Year EndedHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight lb (000)*Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles* (000)Mail Ton-miles (000)
* Includes excess baggage.
March
     196272,78910,367843,340153,1482,319214,1897,400375
     196364,0729,575822,950139,6532,464211,8996,775397
     196464,4459,887873,246115,7842,552228,2096,243394
     196571,78710,894984,511127,6992,542262,3677,041431
     196678,85311,9691,113,363151,1692,815296,6298,160453
     196774,69812,2611,170,949128,4832,983311,0367,709470
     196875,58212,1961,173,116104,0223,708310,6317,376646
     196971,88711,6061,305,020113,6163,692344,4428,491684
     197066,81011,7971,478,785150,1574,191391,3959,615754
     197166,64311,9101,534,878160,7754,411413,43510,509808
December
     197066,55111,8671,543,852162,0024,561419,58910,578825
     197167,80012,2651,544,758155,3133,978417,74810,872720

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. The service was conducted by the RNZAF, operating Dakota aircraft, until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Safeair Ltd. In 1972 this firm was absorbed by National Airways Corporation. The service is at present being maintained by five Bristol Freighter aircraft on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering. Some charter work has been undertaken in recent years.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for recent years are as follows. The drop from the peak figures of 1961–62 can be attributed in part to the operation of the rail-road ferry G.m.v. Aramoana across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton from August 1962. There was further competition when the sister ship G.m.v. Aranui was introduced in 1966.

Year EndedTrips FlownHours FlownMiles FlownFreight lb (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Passengers
March—
          196213,7395,534765,022122,3603,0411,557
          196312,3815,050660,924110,6252,650927
          196410,5884,265560,13087,6562,067809
          196511,3154,558591,79695,7642,239899
          196613,1825,894778,501116,8702,9931,500
          196710,9225,139677,00393,5352,549902
          19688,5374,167557,84669,3542,170531
          19698,1913,952532,42672,9842,143480
          197015,8986,337849,437108,6853,434413
          197113,3837,152967,791114,9483,7143,445
December—
          197013,50610,3691,451,352110,9703,9253,625
          197113,2299,3771,310,918108,6294,0273,113

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 6 million gallons a year. A technical qualification is now mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 December
1970197119701971
Hours flown106,055112,299111,554108,246
Number of operators77777679
Material distributed—
     Fertiliser and lime (tons)899,526902,985855,863817,391
     Seed (tons)1,5741,8761,6671,396
     Spray (gallons)4,813,5636,476,7296,094,2087,175,704
     Animal poison (tons)3,5145,5415,5913,635
     Supplies (tons)8701,2901,0571,477
     Fencing (tons)7419437881,218
     Dusts (tons)80524528
     Prills (tons)315251224184
     Miscellaneous (tons)3,2563,7043,4722,507

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa, Rarotonga, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles. Air New Zealand's fleet comprises six Douglas DC8s and one Douglas DC10. Air New Zealand expects to operate international services to and through the new Cook Islands airport at Rarotonga in 1973.

Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu and Pago Pago to Auckland; British Airways— twice weekly from the United Kingdom to Sydney, Auckland, and beyond to Fiji, linking with flights to London; Union de Transport Aeriens—weekly from Los Angeles via Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; American Airlines—thrice weekly from the United States to Auckland; and QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services linking with regional and United Kingdom services out of Sydney.

A minority financial interest is retained in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Nandi; and Air Pacific Ltd.—operating between Fiji, the British Solomons, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, and Port Moresby.

TOTAL TRAFFIC FOR OVERSEAS AIRLINES—Total traffic figures for overseas airlines operating to and from New Zealand, showing passenger movements, freight, and mail separately, are given in the following tables for calendar years.

RoutesPassengers Entering New ZealandPassengers Leaving New ZealandTotal Passengers
197019711970197119701971
Trans-Tasman—
     Auckland-Sydney90,45396,32086,97990,903177,432187,223
     Auckland-Melbourne12,10816,46910,17216,20922,28032,678
     Auckland-Brisbane12,69315,37313,10415,93025,79731,303
     Wellington-Sydney29,62129,10528,97527,96958,59657,074
     Wellington-Melbourne6,6506,9216,8777,61513,52714,536
     Wellington-Brisbane3,0923,4763,2603,6126,3527,088
     Christchurch-Sydney40,73646,80942,17947,14482,91593,953
     Christchurch-Melbourne15,22021,78115,84220,84831,06242,629
               Totals210,573236,254207,388230,230417,961466,484
Pacific—
     Long haul23,06826,88122,76828,63345,83655,564
     Short haul46,39959,85143,34156,43089,740116,281
               Totals69,46786,73266,10985,113135,576171,845
RoutesRevenue Freight Entering New ZealandRevenue Freight Leaving New ZealandTotal Freight
197019711970197119701971
Trans-Tasman—kilograms(000)
     Auckland-Sydney1,7811,9252,7742,8654,5554,790
     Auckland-Melbourne207372293476500848
     Auckland-Brisbane2431270290295321
     Wellington-Sydney427401256301684703
     Wellington-Melbourne921146795152209
     Wellington-Brisbane7613152020
     Christchurch-Sydney7298607559301,4841,789
     Christchurch-Melbourne94170175312269481
               Totals3,3613,8784,6045,2847,9659,162
Pacific—
     Long haul3653441,7241,6472,0901,992
     Short haul2302569991,4371,2281,693
               Totals5956002,7233,0843,3183,684
RoutesMail Entering New ZealandMail Leaving New ZealandTotal Mail
197019711970197119701971
Trans-Tasman—kilograms
     Auckland-Sydney443,020449,648142,519147,622585,539597,270
     Auckland-Melbourne17,06917,9416,3378,22423,40626,165
     Auckland-Brisbane6,81511,7175,1087,05611,92318,773
     Wellington-Sydney124,671137,00672,07476,496196,745213,502
     Wellington-Melbourne6,2915,5717,3265,29013,61710,861
     Wellington-Brisbane9891764548151,443991
     Christchurch-Sydney40,08243,15233,15937,88373,24181,035
     Christchurch-Melbourne8,85711,6448,38911,62217,24623,266
               Totals647,794676,855275,366295,008923,160971,863
Pacific—
     Long haul131,196166,09676,02599,863207,221265,959
     Short haul167,12596,601131,196203,315293,321299,916
               Totals298,321262,697207,221303,178505,542565,875

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

AIRPORT STATISTICS—The following table shows airport activities for the 2 latest years ended 31 March.

AirportMovements of Passenger PlanesFreighter Plane MovementsPassenger Arrivals and Departures
InternationalDomestic
1970–711971–721970–711971–721970–711971–721970–711971–72
* Those airports serviced by N.A.C., Safeair, and Mount Cook Airlines not separately listed.
Auckland4,8995,74018,80418,866638877997,9371,058,174
Blenheim3,2483,07912,39811,05967,05564,172
Christchurch1,4131,64218,60718,5742,9453,129740,553751,420
Dunedin8,2168,249256227169,057158,390
Gisborne5,5125,82858,51157,390
Hamilton4,7835,398325874,91475,342
Invercargill5,7705,8478887,62780,824
Napier6,0486,47510686,00584,650
Nelson8,6608,6817521,050135,576129,456
New Plymouth4,3184,11214866,75464,405
Palmerston North6,1516,159941684,07583,725
Rotorua5,8056,941463,82476,795
Wellington1,4221,48829,87031,17515,14214,006925,454898,795
Other*20,42423,22055107230,955243,190
               Total7,7348,870140,065152,60432,48230,5433,788,2973,826,728

AERO CLUBS AND COMMERCIAL FLIGHT TRAINING ORGANISATIONS—The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs and other flying organisations for the last six years.

Year EndedClubs* OperatingMembershipAircraft in useHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
* Other organisations included are given in parentheses.
March
     196636 (7)2,4485,10216928,20358,5711,143
     196736 (12)2,4816,54621740,80174,2381,667
     196839 (16)2,4137,27423847,52983,7771,803
     196939 (13)2,1036,78123944,09971,1421,816
     197040 (18)1,9136,30825948,89676,2531,857
     197139 (17)1,8016,44824248,22376,6591,952
December
     197040 (18)1,9346,38117432,31152,7811,325
     197141 (19)1,7915,81016232,71351,4841,383

LICENCES—A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March in the 5 latest years is given below.

Type of LicenceAt 31 March
19681969197019711972
Flight Crew (ICAO) Type–
     Pilots licences—
          Student Pilot3,4133,4983,3303,4273,246
          Private Pilot2,8432,9092,8373,1462,802
          Commercial Pilot893896908917965
          Airline Transport Pilot335376397409417
     Pilot Licence Ratings—
          Instructor407420395444479
          Instrument537545548559601
          Compass2026272324
          Chemical246239243258278
          Towing261237260268300
     Navigator Licences—
          Flight Navigator889410410382
     Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft—
          Flight Radio Operator2
          Flight Radio Telephone Operator Rating3,2203,8874,0464,6684,444
     Flight Engineer Licences—
          Flight Engineer6259617174
Other Licences, Certificates, etc.—
     Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences475513534583638
Aircraft—
     Certificates of Registration1,0521,0471,0731,1131,128
Aerodromes—
     Public Licences5049465058
     Private4745465050
     Authorised Places8369186
     Government Civil2121182323
Air Service Certificates5455556867

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

The following table shows numbers of accidents (not persons involved) and accident rates in the various categories of flying activity for 1971, compared with averages for the previous 5 years.

CategoryAccidentsAccidents Involving Fatality
1971Average 1966–701971Average 1966–70
* Rate per 10,000 hours flown.
 No.Rate*No.Rate*NoRate*No.Rate*
Airline0.20.020.20.02
Non-scheduled and charter52.394.41.890.60.26
Aerial work443.4252.04.2830.233.80.31
Aero clubs and flying schools332.6335.82.8420.161.60.13
Private flying18..17.0..1..0.6..
Gliding17..10.6..0.6..
Public (departmental) aircraft1..0.2..
               All accidents1182.15120.22.5760.137.40.17

Chapter 12. Section 12
COMMUNICATIONS

12 A—POST OFFICE

GENERAL—The main role of the New Zealand Post Office is to provide the nation with telecommunication and postal services, to operate a savings bank, and conduct agency services on behalf of Government.

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the last 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1972 there were 1,490 post offices in New Zealand. The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest 5 years.

Year ended 31 MarchLetters and PostcardsPrinted Papers, Commercial Papers, Newspapers, and MagazinesParcelsTotal
 million
1968269.1282.916.2568.2
1969279.9279.215.8574.9
1970288.8291.115.7595.4
1971311.4286.117.3614.8
1972303.7302.216.2622.1

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1972 were: letters and postcards, 105.6; printed matter (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 105.1; parcels, 5.6.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

There are 99,700 private boxes installed at 611 post offices.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. Boxholders more than doubled in the 25 years to 1965 when they reached 75,000. At 31 March 1971 the total was 76,766 and at 31 March 1972 it was 77,601. The cost of the rural delivery service is $2.1 million a year.

Inland Airmails—On 16 March 1936 the first regular airmail services linking up larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the airmail facilities were correspondingly expanded. The present network extends from Kaitaia to Invercargill.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand are now shown.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
196723,045,000237,462
196819,513,000282,938
196922,429,000293,545
197022,971,000304,791
197127,712,000328,185
197222,322,000279,803

Overseas Airmails: The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 21.77 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1971–72, 543,456 lb of letters, 366,762 lb of newspapers and packets, and 325,804 lb of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand- United Kingdom Air Service—This service is now operating daily via the Pacific to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 1 to 2 days.

New Zealand-Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There is a twice-weekly direct service from Auckland to Hong Kong and a thrice-weekly service from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is also dispatched to Sydney for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago to Apia, and from Nandi (Fiji) to Nukualofa (Tonga), Niue, Apia (Western Samoa), and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Direct airmail services from New Zealand also operate to Norfolk Island.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 5 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  lb     $(000) lb     
1968533,1644,740,2521,252365,4592,024,821
1969533,4054,691,5111,630400,2312,077,052
1970554,7224,803,0441,626418,3922,154,185
1971658,2095,442,9551,815458,5432,373,307
1972672,0097,147,4881,863476,9422,586,067

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised and similar modern centres are planned for Auckland and Christchurch.

MONEY ORDER AND POSTAL NOTE SERVICES—Details of these services are now given.

Money Orders—New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, and Tonga. Money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is $200, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order.

For money orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of $80 for a single order. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia (and countries advised through Australia), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga, and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1971, 1,771,570 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of $46,849,936, and of that total 136,000 orders of a value of $2,321,929 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1971 numbered 51,704 with a value of $1,338,584.

Postal Notes—Postal notes ranging from 10c to $2 and for $3, $4, and $5 are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1972, 3,678,685 postal notes valued at $8,194,553 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 5p, 7 1/2p, 10p, 12 1/2p, 15p, 25p, 50p, 75p, £1 and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, 5 pence equals the previous 1 shilling.) Commission is payable. For all remittances in excess of £2 per day a permit is required.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1972 the Post Office sold 1,210,148 British postal orders valued at $3,471,345, and paid 147,065 orders valued at $558,473.

Gift Tokens—Post Office gift tokens were introduced on 15 December 1969 to enable people to buy savings gifts from the Post Office. They are issued free of commission in denominations of $1, $2, and $5. They may be credited to any type of Savings Bank account, or used to purchase bonus bonds or national development bonds. Gift tokens issued in the year ended 31 March 1972 amounted to $204,580.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item1962197019711972
Main telephones—
     Automatic395,858675,729716,862746,487
     Manual180,712127,076118,466109,882
Extension telephones218,866393,228420,613441,800
Public telephones3,4514,6384,7514,918
Private line telephones1,507603449293
Toll offices1,4811,3161,2861,289
               Total telephones801,8751,202,5901,262,4271,304,669
Telephones (all types per 1,000 population)324426440448
Applicants awaiting installations19,10813,92315,42613,382
Number of toll calls55,536,93466,956,19367,856,88864,803,473

About one-sixth of the main telephones are business telephones (in 1968 there were 128,018 business telephones). At 31 March 1972 there were 856,369 subscribers.

During 1971–72 the number of waiting applicants decreased from 15,426 to 13,382, about 61 percent of these being in the Auckland City and environs.

Thirty-six new automatic exchanges were brought into service during the year ended 31 March 1972; also substantial progress was made in the extension of free calling areas, thereby eliminating toll fees between outlying exchanges and their town or city centre; 31 more exchanges were provided with this service.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1971), compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (58.35), Sweden (55.67), Switzerland (48.26), Canada (45.23), and New Zealand (44.14).

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Dunedin. The installation of a $3 million microwave radio telecommunications system between Wellington and Auckland is to be completed in 1973. The present link is by co-axial cable from Auckland to Hamilton and from Palmerston North to Wellington with a microwave radio system between Hamilton and Palmerston North. The new link runs from Wellington to Auckland via Masterton, Napier, Taupo, Rotorua, and Paeroa.

A 5-year supply agreement has been entered into with Nippon Electric Co. Ltd. of Japan for the supply of crossbar automatic telephone switching equipment.

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) which will enable subscribers to dial direct to other automatic subscribers without the need to go through a toll operator is to be introduced into New Zealand telephone system progressively from 1975.

Free local telephone calling is provided in New Zealand, as distinct from charging for each local call as followed by many overseas administrations.

The following table shows the classifications of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection as from 1 October 1971.

Class of ExchangeClass of ConnectionAnnual Rate Within Base-rate Area
BusinessResidential
 $    $    
Class I Automatic exchanges with more than 10,000 paying subscribers.Individual134.7561.10
2-party98.0052.88
     (Typical exchanges are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton, Invercargill, Palmerston North, and Wellington.)3-party93.1051.70
4-party88.2050.53
5-party80 8547.00
6–10 party73.5042.30
Class II Automatic exchanges with 3,001–10,000 paying subscribersIndividual128.6361.10
2-party95.5552.88
     (Typical exchanges are Blenheim, Masterton, Levin, and Oamaru.)3-party90.6551.70
4-party85.7550.53
5-party78.4047.00
6–10 party71.0542.30
Class III Automatic exchanges with 2,001–3,000 paying subscribers.Individual116.3858.75
2-party91.8850.53
     (Typical exchanges are Alexandra, Marton, and Westport.)3-party86.9849.35
4-party82.0848.18
     Manual exchanges with over 3,000 paying subscribers.5-party75.9544.65
     (A typical exchange is Taupo.)6–10 party68.6039.95
Class IV Other exchanges affording continuous service.Individual110.2554.05
(Typical exchanges are Hokitika, Picton, and Queenstown.)2-party85.7547.00
3-party80.8545.83
4-party75.9544.65
5-party68.6042.30
6–10 party61.2537.60
Class V Exchanges observing restricted hours of service.Individual85.7545.83
(Typical exchanges are Kawhia and Waitotara.)2-party71.0539.95
3-party66.1538.78
4-party63.7036.43
5-party58.8034.08
6–10 party56.3532.90

For stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate or special rate area of an exchange a mileage is added to the rental, depending on the distance by line measurement from the base-rate or special rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station.

TELEGRAPH SERVICES: Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams continued in New Zealand, as it has done overseas, due to the growing popularity of, and improvements to, other forms of communication. In the year to 31 March 1972, 5.1 million telegrams were lodged compared with 5.5 million in the preceding year. Of these, 63 percent were lodged by telephone, 13 percent by telex, and only 24 percent handed in over Post Office counters. On the other hand, 52 percent were delivered by messenger, 40 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 8 percent telexed.

Conversion of the public telegraph network to automatic circuit switching (Gentex) has brought marked improvements in the standard of service provided, in comparison with the previous point-to-point manual retransmission system. The 119 teleprinter offices comprising the gentex network now handle 92 percent of all telegrams in a single transmission; under the point-to-point system 57 percent required more than one transmission. Telegram handling times have improved also, 76 percent now reaching the terminal teleprinter office within 20 minutes of lodgment compared with 37 percent previously.

Telex Service: Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with only 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries.

Automatic telex service was introduced in New Zealand on 13 May 1964 with 150 subscribers. This service absorbed the previous international connections and all New Zealand telex subscribers may now communicate with each other as well as with overseas telex subscribers. International service is now available with 147 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now dial direct to subscribers in Australia, Britain, Canada, Fiji, Japan, United States, and a number of European countries without the aid of the international operator. At 31 March 1972 there were 1,329 subscribers.

The annual rental is $650 for a standard machine and $900 for a teleprinter equipped with a tape reperforator and transmitter. In the year to 31 March 1972 rentals totalled $888,907 and call revenue was $1,500,024.

The range of telex services was extended on 1 July 1971 with the provision of a public telex booth at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and the introduction of a telex service. Teltex enables telex subscribers to lodge telex messages at Chief Post Offices for hand delivery to the addressees. At the same time the telexogram service (delivery of telegrams by telex) was extended to provide for Chief Post Offices to send telexograms to subscribers throughout New Zealand (formerly telexograms were restricted to local subscribers). As at March 1972 public telex booths were handling about 200 calls a month, mostly international; patronage of the telex service had grown to over 2,000 messages a month, and additional long-distance telexograms averaged 3,000 a month.

Datel—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. A new post office service, called datel, has been introduced for data communication using the existing telephone network, and calls are lodged as for telephone calls.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

Planning is in hand for a new multi-million dollar high-capacity telecommunications cable between Australia and New Zealand.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross; Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, passenger ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An international Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. The international operators dial direct to subscribers in other countries, and overseas operators dial direct to subscribers on automatic telephone exchanges in New Zealand.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station has been constructed at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station makes live television relays practicable. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

In November 1953 a high-power radio transmitting station was opened at Himatangi providing at that time for direct New Zealand - United Kingdom radiotelephone and telegraph circuits. These circuits are now provided via cable, and the Himatangi radio station is used generally for services with places in the Pacific area to which there are no cable facilities. The receiving station complementary to Himatangi is Makara Radio.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, and Noumea. Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through small feeder stations. Small stations in the Tokelau Islands communicate with Apia Radio.

Other principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are located at Auckland, Wellington, and Awarua on the New Zealand mainland, at Niue, and at Chatham Islands. Facilities are provided for the transmission of radiotelegrams to ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of mobile radiotelephone services continues to grow. Post Office very-high-frequency service available from 60 base stations meets the mobile communication requirements of 3,463 subscribers operating 23,411 mobile units. A miscellany of private and Government owner-operated stations provide mobile radiotelephone services through 2,340 base stations for a further 8,471 mobile units. Radiotelephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by landline—e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency. New licences were issued for radiotelephone stations in 462 small commercial and pleasure craft operating round the New Zealand coast bringing the total number of ships licensed to 6,262. There are 4,402 licensed amateur stations in New Zealand. These are intended to provide facilities for experimental communication between persons interested in radio science as a hobby, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates. In the Citizen radio service 1,010 new walkie-talkie sets were licensed making a total of 6,014 sets in use throughout the country. There are now 55,995 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 52,928 in 1971.

Direct radio circuits are operated between the New Zealand mainland and the Chatham Islands.

Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Moko Hinau Island, East Cape, Portland Island, Stephens Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, The Brothers, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—
     Postages23,67225,08526,47531,671
     Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees490504523623
     Miscellaneous774893105
 24,23925,63727,09132,399
Telecommunications revenue—
     Telex1,0791,2351,6282,386
     Telegraph4,0434,0544,0824,659
     Tolls27,45629,67732,94145,219
     Telephones46,90649,06252,45471,569
     Overseas telecommunications4,0864,6786,0187,434
     Radio294298299352
 83,86489,00497,422131,619
Miscellaneous revenue—
     Fees from Government departments, etc.3,4283,4663,9074,306
     Money order and postal note commission391404454519
     Rents received272284291286
     Other revenue599704693714
 4,6904,8585,3455,825
               Total revenue112,793119,499129,858169,843

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 12 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenue $(000)Expenditure $(000)
196153,31053,243
196260,11260,003
196364,87464,777
196470,18370,068
196577,84176,586
196686,96284,890
196791,52693,582
1968106,607100,781
1969112,793106,575
1970119,499117,087
1971129,858143,548
1972169,843169,495

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from National Development Loans Account on which interest is paid at the rate of 5 percent. The interest payment amounted to $14.7 million in 1971–72.

In 1971–72, $24.7 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $6.2 million on buildings. In addition, $4.5 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. All this expenditure was financed from National Development Loans Account and capital equipment credit arrangements. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $308.6 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $2.1 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous small offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special mileage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation and National Provident Fund receipts).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Maori and Island Affairs (Maori trust payments). Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters, In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages, also as registrars of electors.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of motor vehicles insurance (third-party risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1962, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting broadcasting licence fees.

TAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification19681969197019711972
Permanent staff25,80526,38926,91227,66527,888
Temporary and non-classified staff3,5573,6624,2444,6944,585
               Total staff29,36230,05131,15632,35932,473

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1972 consisted of 4,320 vehicles—1,264 trucks, 1,720 vans, 1,330 cars, and 6 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 522 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 2,917 for engineering construction work, and 881 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 37.1 million miles in the year ended 31 March 1972.

12 B—RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

GENERAL—Under the Broadcasting Authority Act 1968 an authority of three members was appointed to consider and adjudicate upon applications for warrants to establish and operate broadcasting stations, either sound radio or television. The Government has announced its intention to replace the New Zealand Broadcasting Authority with a central body responsible for the provision of common services to three independent corporations in the broadcasting field.

The Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961 established a corporation of three members empowered from 1 April 1962 to take over and operate the radio and television services provided under the Broadcasting Act 1936, by the New Zealand Broadcasting Service responsible to a Minister of the Crown. The Broadcasting Corporation Amendment Act 1965 allowed the membership of the corporation to be increased from three to seven, and extended the powers of the corporation to permit assistance to performing art and cultural organisations. General or special directions in line with Government policy could be given in writing to the corporation by the Minister of Broadcasting. In January 1973 the Government announced its decision to abolish the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation by the end of the year and replace it with three separate and independent corporations; one corporation would operate the existing television network, another would run the second channel, and the third would control radio. A committee to draw up the working basis of the new broadcasting structure made its report by the end of July 1973 (Parliamentary paper).

Federation of Independent Commercial Broadcasters—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting.

RADIO—The Broadcasting Corporation operates 49 medium-wave broadcasting stations and two short-wave transmitters of Radio New Zealand, the latter having 19 assigned frequencies. Of these, 30 stations broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. Station 2YA, 1YA, 3YA, 4YA, and 4YW maintain a daily 24-hour service apart from shutdowns once a fortnight between the hours of 11.20 p.m. Sunday and 6 a.m. Monday (5 a.m. in the case of 2YA). The shutdowns are staggered so that at least two of these stations are always on the air.

Coverage of Short-wave Service—Radio New Zealand broadcasts to the Pacific islands a daily home-service programme from 5 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 6 p.m. to 8.45 p.m. on two frequencies. Its transmission to Australia comprises a daily home-service programme from 8 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 9 p.m. to 11.45 p.m. on two frequencies. In addition to its large radio audience throughout the Pacific, Radio New Zealand has listeners as far distant as the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, the United States, and Japan. Radio New Zealand programmes illustrate many different aspects of life in this country.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Recent decentralisation of administration has enabled local radio stations to be more responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—Programmes are designed to aid teachers in meeting syllabus requirements particularly in the fields of science, social studies, music, and language. Eighteen programmes a week are broadcast to children ranging from 4 to 13 years. The most popular programmes, dramatised stories for infants, are heard by more than 170,000 children. New developments to assist teachers in secondary schools include liberal studies programmes for sixth and seventh forms.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—One private non-commercial station operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated has been issued with a warrant and has been broadcasting since 1922. This station, located in Dunedin, operates from 1800 to 2230 hours on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays and, on Sundays, from 0900 to 1200 and from 1800 to 2230 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions commenced on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and commenced transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970, commencing transmission on 30 June 1971 and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971, coming into operation on 20 November 1971. With the exception of Radio Whakatane which closes down from 0030 to 0500 hours daily, private commercial stations maintain a daily 24-hour service. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The Service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962. A programme service is now provided for 65 hours a week. Of this period, 34 hours provide for interspersed commercial advertising on 4 days of the week.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system) by 31 October 1973 and that at an appropriate time, which the authority thought should be not later than 2 years after the start of colour transmission, applications should be received for a warrant to establish and operate a second channel in colour. (Parliamentary Paper F. 5, 1971.) The report of the authority was adopted in principle by Government. The recommendation to proceed with the change to colour on one channel is now being implemented. The second television channel to be established under a separate corporation will telecast in colour about October 1974.

Extension to Coverage—The corporation has been steadily extending TV coverage to all areas of New Zealand. At March 1972, it was operating six 100 kW transmitters, one 50 kW, seven of from 1 to 10 kW, and 72 installations of less than 50 watts. These transmitters provide coverage for 93 percent of the population.

Some 280 small units licensed to the corporation are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the corporation. These small transmitters cover 6 percent of the population.

Because of the nature of the terrain and the dispersal of population, the establishment of television has posed engineering problems not often met by other countries, though the progress that has been made compares most favourably. The major areas which still require upgrading are Central Otago, North Taranaki, the King Country, Taupo, and Bay of Plenty.

By August 1972, 83.7 percent of homes in New Zealand were equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—Film purchased overseas makes up about 70 percent of TV programmes. All stations are active in the presentation of New Zealand news. An analysis of TV programmes for the month of September 1971 showed that of the total hours telecast 26 percent were devoted to news, talks, and information programmes (including religion), 9 percent to variety, 22 percent to drama, 10 percent to comedy, 8 percent to adventure, mystery and westerns, 12 percent to children's programmes, 6 percent to cinema films, and 7 percent to sports. Four mobile outside telecast units have been in use since the beginning of 1963. It is proposed that programmes be televised in colour from October 1973.

ORCHESTRAS: Symphony Orchestra—Formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra, this is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries along with New Zealand choirs appear regularly with the orchestra. Free concerts for school children are an established part of its tour programme. The playing strength of the orchestra is approximately 85 players. This enables the Symphony Orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

During 1971–72, the orchestra presented a total of 70 concerts. A significant development has been the increase on the amount of time devoted to New Zealand music and musicians by the orchestra on YC programmes.

The corporation has established its own orchestral training scheme, which gives full-time training to selected young New Zealanders, and a National Youth Orchestra which gives a series of concerts once a year.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener is now about 129,000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, talks, and discussions as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussion on important New Zealand and overseas questions

FINANCIAL STATISTICS—The following tables show the financial results of the principal activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
* Deficit.
               Commercial Activities$(thousand)
Income—
     Net revenue from advertising services and New Zealand Listener after deducting commission10,70111,34013,32714,11915,240
Expenditure—
     Purchase of programmes1,7962,0682,1922,7993,305
     Operating costs, including programming, engineering, administrative, publishing, general running, and selling expenses6,4367,0088,39110,11111,165
     Provision of technical facilities and services1,1371,1961,0921,103996
 9,36910,27211,67614,01315,466
     Surplus before taxation1,3321,0681,651106−226*
     Provision for taxation486392711
     Surplus, commercial activities846676940106−226*
     Concert Activities—
          Net expenditure on orchestras and concert presentation637628692771920
               Non-Commercial Activities
Income—
     Gross licence fees9,2339,63710,06310,76611,974
          Less Post Office collection charges673671720836916
 8,5608,9669,3439,93011,058
     Interest on investments99194290315200
     Miscellaneous receipts647359915
 8,7239,2339,69310,25411,273
Expenditure—
     Purchase of programmes1,6651,7641,7892,4113,467
     Operating costs, including programming, engineering, administrative, and general running expenses3,7233,9564,2785,0435,365
     Depreciation provision2,1142,2021,9421,9451,681
 7,5027,9228,0109,39910,513
     Credit for provision of commercial, technical, and other facilities1,1371,1961,0921,103996
 6,3656,7266,9188,2969,517
Net expenditure—Radio New Zealand..126134199179
     Surplus, non-commercial activities2,3582,5072,4931,5041,577
     Net surplus2,5672,5552,741839431

There are two principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. While licence fee revenue is credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund is in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
 $(thousand)
Radio-licence fees1,9291,9492,0632,1401,161 
TV-licence fees7,3057,6888,0008,62510,812 
Radio advertising4,6145,2045,8626,4787,107 
TV advertising7,3967,5419,2139,2989,904 
               Totals21,24422,38225,13826,54128,984 

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the television licence raised from $13 a year to $20.

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued for districts. These districts correspond approximately to reception areas: Auckland includes Taupo; Wellington includes Taranaki, East Coast, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Marlborough; Christchurch includes West Coast and its southern boundary is the Waitaki River.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotal*Number of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences†

*Includes sets hired on ships, 40 in 1972.

† Included in preceding figures.

1967225,975169,58878,61555,656529,88870,233
1968240,845186,19189,29459,563575,94774,062
1969252,841197,95494,10462,821607,81581,089
1970256,962209,00197,40264,160627,61791,697
1971272,474217,879105,62068,445664,44091,679
1972294,361224,785107,01069,996696,192100,442

At 30 September 1971 there were 712,794 radio receiving licences, at which date there were approximately 836,000 households.

12 C—NEWSPAPERS, LIBRARIES, AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas with a total circulation of 746,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 33 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 317,000.

When circulation figures for daily newspapers are related to population figures, it is found that New Zealand has 336 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The latest comparative figures for other countries include United Kingdom, 463; Australia, 363; Canada, 206; United States, 337; U.S.S.R., 305; Sweden, 518, Norway, 383; Denmark, 356; and France, 251. (Source: UN Statistical Yearbook.)

Statistics compiled from various sources disclose that from 1840 to 1940, altogether 468 newspapers (of all categories) were established in New Zealand. The acceleration of motor transport had a speedy and decisive effect on the small-town press. Many local papers which, by publishing once, twice, or three times a week, had been serving adequately the needs of a district and backblocks were unable to survive when city papers were able to reach remote settlements within a few hours of publication, offering to country dwellers such superior attractions as daily publication, full services of New Zealand and world news, sporting news, and attractive magazine features. Under the steady pressure of competition, mergers were effected in a number of provincial towns to reduce the quota of papers, generally to a single daily.

The circulation of all periodicals is not known, but for 147 periodicals (not including two national weeklies classified as newspapers) the circulation is 2,026,000. (These statistics are compiled from information gathered by the Association of New Zealand Advertisers.)

The total number of magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals printed (but not necessarily all sold) in 1970–71 was 98,667,000 compared with 95,921,000 in 1969–70.

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, along with the selling value of the newspapers and periodicals at the factory door.

Type of PublicationAdvertising RevenueSelling Value
1969–701970–711969–701970–71
 $(000)
Newspapers, daily30,43133,7409,4269,747
Newspapers, other than daily2,4293,6573,3724,212
Magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals1,8602,0882,5032,618

LIBRARIES—New Zealand is fairly well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

National Library of New Zealand—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library which also compiles the National Bibliography.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a national lending and reference collection, and for making its resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1972 this collection comprised approximately 325,000 titles together with 25,000 volumes of bound periodicals.

Other functions are concerned with the national system of inter-library lending and national bibliographical projects. The National Union Catalogue records the non-fiction holdings of the major New Zealand libraries and now contains over 1,000,000 entries. The Union List of Serials in New Zealand Libraries, available in published form, is a similar record covering periodicals and other serial publications. The Index to New Zealand Periodicals, published annually, indexes significant articles from a wide range of New Zealand periodicals.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1,700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations, UNESCO, and the International Labour Office.

In all, the library holds about 355,000 volumes.

During the parliamentary recess, the library is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington is a State research and reference library, bequeathed to the nation in 1918 by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918).

The original bequest has now been increased to approximately 149,025 books, together with many thousands of manuscripts, totalling 1,400 linear feet; 19,100 paintings, of which 7,987 are originals; 12,811 maps; and an extensive photograph collection. Acquisitions increase steadily in number, by purchase and gift. The Turnbull material has been augmented by many important donations and bequests, including some entire collections.

The fields covered by the library fall into two main divisions. The Pacific collections (inclusive of Antarctica) are strongest in material relating to history, early voyaging, ethnology, and literature, with particular emphasis upon New Zealand publications and the work of New Zealand authors; the trustees of the National Library have decided that these holdings should be regarded as the comprehensive national collection of New Zealand material. The general or non-Pacific collections are primarily concerned with English literature, rare books, and the development of the art of printing. The Milton collection, which was of especial concern to Turnbull himself, is of particular importance. There are about 9,500 volumes in the rare book collection of first editions of works in English literature, early printed books, examples of fine printing, and important historical and scientific works.

The library's extensive holdings of manuscript material include private archives relating to most aspects of New Zealand history. The library's resources of early paintings of historical and topographical interest are outstanding, as is the collection of photographs and negatives which has been built to about 222,000 pieces during the past 20 years.

The Alexander Turnbull Library is responsible for the compilation and publication of the National Bibliography, begun by the National Library Service in 1947, and for the centralised cataloguing of current New Zealand material.

Extension Division—This division has two parts:

Country Library Service—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through regional offices in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles, Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the main centres, also receive assistance. Their bulk loans are made direct from regional offices instead of, or in addition to, loans from book vans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of $6 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600–2,000 books, travel over the whole territory.

Libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1972 included the following: free libraries, 149; county libraries, 785; groups, 26; Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, New Zealand Forest Service camps, and lighthouses, 86; psychiatric and general hospitals, and prisons and borstal institutions, 67. The number of books on loan to these libraries totalled 337,663 and 151,979 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

(b) School Library Service—The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development. The bookstock at 31 March 1972 totalled 2,368,639 books.

General exchanges of books for recreational reading are made by 13 district offices to State and private primary schools from Standard 1 upwards. An information and request service is available to teachers and pupils of primary and secondary schools. Public libraries which give free service to children and young people also receive circulating loans of books. Services to pre-school groups are given through local public libraries or direct from district offices.

For the year ended 31 March 1972, books exchanged totalled 954,685 and 836,172 books were on loan at 31 March. 1,186,910 books were provided through the information and request service.

Library School—Since 1946 the New Zealand Library School has offered to university graduates a full-time, 1-year course. It leads to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 581 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1971 and in 1972 there were 39 New Zealand students. Students doing this course receive the same allowances as do students at teachers' colleges. The school also conducts the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attend on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for three blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

The school is discussed in the report of the Working Party on Education for Librarianship, published by the Government Printer in 1969.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES 1969—The quinquennial census of libraries for the year ended 31 March 1969 covered a total of 445 libraries, namely, 266 public libraries (including 56 suburban branches), 34 tertiary education libraries, the National Library, and 144 libraries of a technical nature.

Tertiary education libraries comprised the libraries of the 6 universities, within libraries closely associated with them; libraries of 9 teachers' training colleges; 1 agricultural college library; 10 libraries of theological colleges and 5 libraries of technical institutes. Libraries of secondary and primary schools were not covered in the census.

In the period 1964 to 1969 public library membership increased by 35 percent but circulation per member dropped at most libraries, both large and small. This could be due to the increased viewing of television. (Licensed television sets in the country increased from 144,000 at 31 December 1963 to 604,000 at 31 December 1968.) There was, on average, 26 issues per adult member and 16 issues per child member for the year 1968–69. There were in the public libraries 4.37 books to every member and on average these books circulated 5.12 times annually; thus members took out an average of 22.40 public library books a year. (This compares with 29.06 books for the year ended March 1964.) These circulation figures for public libraries were relatively high by international standards. Junior readers read four times as much fiction as non-fiction, while adults read three times as much.

The following are summarised tables of the results of the 1969 census. Full details containing the census data have been published in a separate report prepared by the Department of Statistics.

Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1969Circulation During Year
Books*Serials†PamphletsTotalItems Lent Outside the LibraryItems Lent to Other LibrariesItems Borrowed From Other Libraries

* Microforms (films and cards), included in books.

† Periodicals included in serials.

‡ Excludes armed forces and institutional (penal, etc.) libraries which are included under public libraries.

  (thousand)
National libraries13,484179113,6732,539124
Libraries in universities, etc.341,50531461,8251,1341321
Special libraries—
     Learned societies and commercial interests61167196193825444
     Government departments and associated organisations83‡607424701,1011691422
               Totals, special libraries144774620891,4832241826
                    Grand totals1795,7631,1121056,9813,8974351
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1969
Class of Public LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotalFor Reference Only (Included in own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionFictionNon-fictionAdultJunior

* 191 library systems covering 266 libraries.

† Includes Canterbury suburban pool stock, adult 19,722, junior 35,773.

In centres with an estimated population of—(thousand)
     50,000 and over7316238†830256†981,737†6121
     20,000–49,99916991803331534881331257
     10,000–19,99918347393621627832110
       5,000–9,99929807185541430553114
       3,000–4,9993571653933621322213
     Under 3,0005810454272252131269
               Sub-total1637036811,4085811863,55910212853
Armed forces and institutions2828547331159252
          Grand totals191*7327351,4815841873,71810413255
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals
* 191 library systems covering 266 libraries.
In centres with an estimated population of—(thousand)
     50,000 and over71,7551,7781,4484072,1147,502213
     20,000–49,999161,1231,7397561571,7505,5266535116
     10,000–19,99918498378426917142,1071015516
       5,000–9,99929676320356515531,9551378219
       3,000–4,99935413249150212661,0991024814
     Under 3,00058340105785167696864510
               Sub-total1634,8054,5683,2157325,56318,884492265387
Armed forces and institutions2864672624163728
            Grand totals191*4,8694,6353,2417355,56819,047498267495

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous three tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecial
* Federal Government only.
New Zealand2.81969Libraries134144
   Volumes (000)3,6731,8241,483
Australia11.61966Libraries115..
   Volumes (000)1,0004,241..
Canada20.81968Libraries179580
   Volumes (000)40022,1065,613
United Kingdom53.71963Libraries34781,177
   Volumes (000)11,00027,68814,850
United States194.61965Libraries32,204354*
   Volumes (000)21,100263,50026,794*
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes
 (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand2.819692103,72885119,047
Australia11.619665529,5471,888..
Canada20.8196885521,635....
United Kingdom53.7196356277,200....
United States194.619651,113201,138....

CINEMAS—Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1971 covered 210 theatres, compared with 227 in 1969.

The extensive development of television since 1961 has influenced cinema patronage. Cinema attendances during the year 1970–71 were 1.2 million fewer than when the previous survey was made in 1968–69. The average annual number of admissions per head of mean population fell from 5.2 in 1968–69 to 4.6 in the latest survey.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission Price*Admissions Per Head of Mean Population
* Including amusement tax up to and including 1964–65. This tax was abolished as from June 1965.
  (000)$(000)cNo.
1939–4057431,1714,02012.919.1
1944–4555135,4205,17614.621.3
1949–5060036,3535,58015.319.3
1956–5757837,5968,96623.817.1
1958–5954738,2089,70025.416.6
1960–6154540,63210,79226.617.0
1962–6349137,58410,13627.015.0
1964–6539726,0268,18031.410.0
1966–6731219,6067,78939.77.3
1968–6922714,3086,61446.25.2
1970–7121013,0877,82859.84.6

The following statistics for the last three collections cover the operations of all classes of cinemas— viz, (a) those operating 6 days per week; (b) those operating on odd days per week; (c) circuit, or itinerant operators. The average number of screenings per week in these categories in 1970–71 were 12.3, 2.8, and 2.0 respectively.

Item1966–671968–691970–71
Cinemas—
     Screenings 6 days per week163130120
     Screening odd days per week1339389
     Circuit1641
               Totals312227210
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—
     Other than circuits—
          Under 200271710
          200 and under 5001036776
          500 and under 1,000140115103
          1,000 and over262420
     Circuit cinemas1641
               Totals312227210
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) .. ..      ..      No.178,722143,428129,434
Average seating capacity per cinema .. ..      ..      No.573632616
Persons engaged—
     Full time-
          Males .. ..           No.439360261
          Females ..     ..     No.349333190
     Part time—
          Males ..     ..     No.566422425
          Females ..     ..     No.984697664
Performances per year ..     ..     No.114,98794,08689,690
Average attendance per performance ..     ..     No.171152146

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under “Theatre expenditure” does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1966–671968–691970–71
* Includes drawings of working proprietors.
Revenue—$(000)
     Admission receipts (including amusement tax)7,7896,6147,828
     Screen advertising251137337
     Other receipts484564502
               Totals8,5247,3158,667
Expenditure-
     Salaries and wages*2,0191,7321,888
     Film hire2,8332,1882,640
     Advertising6115612,828
     Amusement tax
     Rent368339
     Repairs and maintenance307343
     Depreciation13991
     Other expenses1,4881,402
               Totals7,7656,6507,356

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information. The average attendance per performance in 1970–71 fell in all areas.

Statistical AreaPopulation 23 March 1971CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 No.No.No. of seatscNo.No.No.No.
Northland96,191114,92546.73.32,995104448
Central Auckland698,4004127,37465.85.321,648171668
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty422,2994121,63250.44.112,855133528
East Coast47,34232,42754.54.41,877112809
Hawke's Bay133,25074,72352.44.14,385126675
Taranaki100,89595,49249.84.33,398127610
Wellington552,9863627,14361.65.118,902149754
Marlborough31,64231,46049.35.01,042153487
Nelson68,83874,07549.54.12,306123582
Westland22,86152,27145.53.7764110454
Canterbury398,8302615,84966.24.111,098148610
Otago182,749157,70162.14.15,491136513
Southland106,34864,36250.44.02,929147727
               Totals2,862,631210129,43459.84.689,690146616

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the four principal urban areas are as follows. Porirua Basin and the Hutt Valley urban areas have been included with Wellington in this table. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation 23 March 1971CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationPerformances per YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. of seatsNo.cNo.No.No.No.percent
Auckland6503926,89413765.95.721,38817289919.1
Wellington3081815,75812066.76.111,29116799716.8
Christchurch2761310,19413170.14.88,30816182519.5
Dunedin11174,50513565.85.54,47113668519.9
               Totals1,3447757,35113166.95.645,45816588918.6

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly. Data on the one circuit operator have had to be amalgamated to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of seats(000)c$(000)$(000)percent
Six and 7 days per week12093,81011,79461.77,2822,48634.1
Fewer than 6 days per week8935,6241,29342.354715528.3
Circuit1
               Totals210129,43413,08759.87,8282,64033.7
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of paid Admissions per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.percent
Six and 7 days per week24518828653176,68315485318.1
Fewer than 6 days per week16213913313,0079947620.8
Circuit
               Totals26119042566489,690146

Cinema Attendance in Principal Countries—The table below shows the number of admissions per head in the years quoted in a number of selected countries. These figures are taken from the United Nations Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearNumber of Admissions
Total (Million)Per Head
Australia1966383
Canada1966995
Denmark1967306
France19672164
Germany, West19681923
Israel19665822
Italy196756711
Japan19683133
New Zealand1968–69145
Norway1966195
Russia (U.S.S.R.)19684,71520
Spain196835811
Sweden1968305
Switzerland1968356
United Kingdom19682374
United States19671,3017
Yugoslavia19681005

Chapter 13. Section 13
LAND USE AND RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

13 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH—Accelerated development due to demographic and economic growth has produced interactions with the natural environment that were not so evident in earlier history. There is a growing realisation that the economic well-being of New Zealand and the preservation of its unique natural features both depend on wise use of the land. Neither may be accorded a higher priority than the other as of right, nor is there any simple means of arriving at the optimum balance between development and growth on the one hand and preservation of natural resources on the other. Where there is a major conflict the choice between economic welfare and what is commonly referred to as “the quality of life” is one for informed public decision. Provided the necessary safeguards are adopted, economic growth and the maintenance of environmental values can be compatible.

The problem facing New Zealand is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities. Solution of this problem will require understanding by both administrators and the public, firstly of the importance and interdependence of the different values involved, and secondly of the ecological implications of any decisions affecting resource utilisation,

In the past, insufficient attention has been given to the possibility of comprehensive or multiple resource use. Single use rather than optimum use has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps. New Zealand is now being forced to reconsider the long-established pattern of single-purpose development projects, and the passing of the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 is evidence of this new outlook.

Further evidence of a growing awareness of the need to protect and improve the quality of the human environment was provided by the decisions of the National Development Conference sessions in 1968 and 1969. The conference recognised that the simple objective of increased gross national product per head was insufficient—the true objective and justification of economic growth being to improve the quality of life of the community. As a result, an Environmental Council was set up to advise the National Development Council and the Government on matters of economic development which will affect the environment.

In May 1970 a Physical Environment Conference was held in Wellington under the joint sponsorship of the Institution of Engineers and the Physical Environment Committee of the National Development Conference. (A volume covering its reports, papers, and proceedings is available from Government bookshops.)

Administration—A Minister for the Environment was appointed early in 1972.

Later in 1972 the Government decided to establish a Commission for the Environment attached to the Prime Minister's Department and headed by a commissioner responsible directly to the Minister for the Environment. The commission has the capacity to deal in depth with environmental issues calling for detailed study and provides the Minister for the Environment with effective administrative support and advice from officers who are directly responsible to him.

The commissioner advises the Minister on the co-ordination of Government policies in respect of environmental matters and is responsible for the servicing of the relevant inter-departmental committees.

The commission is also responsible for ensuring the follow-up of the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972.

Any new major proposal being submitted to Cabinet now has to have, as well as a Treasury report on financial aspects, an “environmental impact” report.

Some of the more esoteric environmental issues come within the sphere of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research whose 10 divisions have an enormous range of studies from investigations into beech forest ecosystems to the bathymetry of lakes and the ocean floor round New Zealand.

The science budget for the natural environment for 1972 includes a total of 137 scientists and 112 technicians, or about 20 percent of the DSIR research effort.

Among the projects being undertaken is a comprehensive survey of all recorded reserves throughout New Zealand to provide a basis for future management, ecological studies of national parks, identification of marine animals and plankton, water quality in relation to trout fishing investigation of major works threatening the natural environment, insecticide and herbicide residue detection, air pollution investigations.

New Zealand's contributions at Stockholm included a paper from the Department of Health on monitoring radioactive pollution, one by the New Zealand Forest Service on the introduction of game animals and their effect on natural vegetation, and two by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, one on the soil factor in global planning of environmental control and the other on the treatment of meatwork effluent by ion exchange.

Environmental Council—The Environmental Council in the national development organisation is an advisory body. Some of its developmental aspects are now set out.

An investigation is being made into the powers, functions, and activities of all statutory bodies operating in the environmental field. Members of these bodies as necessary are being invited to attend council meetings and discuss activities and problems.

Senior officers of departments of Government are invited to attend to discuss works of their departments and to answer questions from the council.

A programme subcommittee has been set up to allocate work priorities.

Working parties have been set up (with power to co-opt expert assistance where required) to report on a number of the more urgent matters recommended for examination by the Physical Environment Conference 1970. The conference made 156 recommendations of which 42 have been referred to the Environmental Council for action.

Communication is being made with numerous overseas agencies concerned in environmental matters.

A number of individual matters have been referred to the council largely from persons or bodies representative of the general public. The council is in the course of investigating these matters not because it is able by direct intervention to deal with problems submitted (because it has no executive powers), but because these individual matters enable council to consider matters of principle and at the same time where appropriate to advise Ministers whether action is required by them.

The council is promoting environmental studies within our universities and proposes commissioning research into various selected topics.

Steps will be taken to co-ordinate the activities of all statutory bodies and non-statutory bodies acting in the environmental field with a view to reducing (if possible) the number of such bodies and ensuring that they have adequate powers to implement such policies as the council may advise and Government adopt.

Once the initial requirements of council, as detailed in the recommendations of the Physical Environment Conference, are well under way the council may then decide to commence a detailed review of various aspects of the environment by setting up working parties to investigate and report on individual topics.

LAND USE—The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories in the Pacific, but including the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 26,867,400 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use is shown in the following table.

Land UseAcres (million)Hectares (million)
Occupied farm land—
     Improved grassland20.58.30
     Tussock and other native grassland11.84.78
               Total grassland32.313.08
     Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards1.10.45
     Plantations3.41.38
     Land in fern, scrub, and second growth3.41.38
     Standing bush2.71.09
     Barren and unproductive land1.90.77
               Total occupied farm land42.917.35
Land in cities and boroughs0.60.24
National parks, reserves, and domains6.22.51
State forest land10.14.09
Exotic forest owned by companies0.60.24
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.6.02.43
               Total land66.426.87

With over 26 million hectares of land and a population of less than 3 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more closely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15,000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. For example, at the time of the first European settlements, two-thirds of the country was forested, but the destruction of much of this was without economic return, and in areas which proved unsuitable for farming serious soil erosion resulted. Destruction of forest and tussock grassland vegetation destroyed existing ecological balances and stability has still not been achieved in some areas.

Effects of Urbanisation—The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous and therefore, when the towns within them grew, it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to locate in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

It has been estimated that between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed approximately 15,800 hectares of good farming land, and that expansion over the following 15 to 20 years would require another 30,000 hectares of similar quality land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8,300,000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500,000 hectares of first-class cropping land, and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is 698,000, increasing at 3.5 percent a year, and therefore likely to double in 16 years. In such cases the legislation intended to direct expansion onto lower value soils (e.g., Town and Country Planning Act 1953 and Local Government Commission Act 1967) may prove to be inadequate because, while it can direct growth in each locality onto the least productive soils, it cannot prevent growth as such. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but it is felt that a national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may be necessary.

Multiple Use—In the past insufficient attention has been given to the possibility of comprehensive or multiple use. Single use rather than optimum use has tended to plate the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps. Common sense suggests that instead of thinking in these terms the approach should be that of use in the widest sense. Conservation does not always imply “locking up” land from all uses. Development need not necessarily imply a single use. In the future there is likely to be emphasis on safeguards against restrictions which prevent the land from being used to best advantage by the whole community.

Government has taken direct action since the National Development Conference to update, within its departmental structures, procedures for reconciling competing demands for Crown land or land offered to the Crown. Before any of these major rural land areas have their status changed— say from Crown land to State forest or vice versa—or have their prime usage changed—say from farming, forestry, soil conservation, recreation, etc.—they are inspected by specialist officers from major land-holding and other appropriate agencies. The purpose of these inspections is to recommend optimum use but at the same time provide for the maximum number of other compatible uses.

Alternative Uses—Rural land can be used for particular purposes which result in its being either withdrawn from productive use, or so affected by a single use that its future economic or social value is negligible. Two major ways in which this can occur are by the encroachment of urbanisation on high-producing farm land, and by mineral exploitation.

At present there are 160,000 hectares in urban areas. Correlation of land registration records and of soil maps shows that between 1949 and 1964 approximately 16,000 hectares of potentially highly productive pastoral land was urbanised. Planned expansion for the period 1964 to 1984 is estimated to require another 32,000 hectares of similar quality pastoral land. In relation to the total area of high-quality pastoral land (7,300,000 hectares), and considering that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, the overall loss of pastoral land until 1984 is of small importance. A similar conclusion is obtained from a study of the loss of potential cropping land—the total of which is 800,000 hectares—but in certain localities, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on the amount, kind, and costs of agricultural production in the future.

Standard conditions have been prepared for prospecting in national parks and State forests. It is clear, however, that in extractive industries such as mining, it is possible to rehabilitate affected areas only to a certain extent. It is not possible to restore them to their original condition. It is important therefore to recognise and determine the full consequences of mining on the environment— both short and long term—and to weigh these before decisions are made. It should be an accepted principle that provision be made in the cost of any extractive activity for planned restoration. An alternative would be an equivalent contribution to a community asset.

In the Mining Act 1971 there is provision for conditions to be attached to a mining licence on public reserves:

  1. “Preventing or reducing damage to natural features, flora and fauna”; and

  2. “The provision of a monetary or other contribution by the licensee towards a community asset.”

Problems can also occur when mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

Failure to control land and resource use may well cause more environmental damage throughout the world than the direct influence of population pressure and pollution combined.

Until comparatively recent years the belief that the supply of land and its resources is not only abundant, but almost limitless, was generally accepted in New Zealand, Latterly, however, it has been realised that not only are they finite, but in some areas of the country the combined effect of population growth and increased mobility has resulted in a level of demand which the available resources have been unable to satisfy. For example, one need only compare today's crowded beaches or picnic places near Auckland and Wellington, in particular, with the relative solitude to be found in those areas even as recently as 10 to 20 years ago, to realise that some coastal and other recreation resources near cities are being used to a level approaching and even beyond their comfortable capacity. It is clear that existing resources will be unable to meet the demand much longer if the present growth rate continues. This pattern is reflected to a greater or lesser degree in other areas and land can now no longer be considered an abundant resource in New Zealand.

Because this is so, there is increasing acceptance that where other compatible uses are feasible, it is not necessarily sound policy to devote land to a single or restricted use. However, the need is also becoming recognised to identify the dominant purpose for which land is most suited, so that the pressure for comprehensive land use does not negate the principle that land should be used basically for its most suitable purpose, with other uses being encouraged only to the extent that they are compatible.

To meet this need, the recently established Land Use Advisory Council has the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors, and to determine means by which these factors may be more precisely defined.

The council includes departmental, farming, economic, scientific, and geographic interests, and although its decisions are primarily intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown, it is hoped that the criteria it lays down will be of assistance to all who are required to make land use decisions.

In other ways, also, the Department of Lands and Survey is involved in the move towards more rational and comprehensive land use. Its coastal survey is intended to ensure that land alongside ocean and lakes, which is required now or in the future for recreation or scenic purposes, is identified so that a decision can be made whether it should be acquired for public use or given protection under town and country planning legislation until it can be acquired. Coastal land available for public use is a fast-diminishing resource and what is done in this generation will determine the coastal environment which future generations of New Zealanders will enjoy.

The department is also carrying out a stocktaking of scenic, scientific, and allied reserves, and is seeking to identify other areas of scenic beauty or of scientific importance, the preservation of which is important if we are to continue to live in an attractive environment. A similar review is being made of historic reserves and areas of historic or archaeological significance.

Land Inventory—The Department of Lands and Survey is building up a land inventory. The object of the inventory is to identify land tenure, land use, and land cover and for other contributing agencies to produce more detailed data relating to other basic issues such as soils and geology as will enable a more realistic appraisal of the resources of an area to be achieved. The existence of this data should enable both local and national Government to plan with greater confidence.

Since the initiation of the survey, importance has been placed on expansion around the original counties to build up a regional picture. This is slowly being achieved. The existence of other surveys at much smaller scales generalise the overall situation and complement the larger scale data of the National Land Inventory.

With metrication, a new map scale of 1:100,000 has been adopted with enlargement to 1:50,000 in situations of dense holding patterns or intensive use. New mapping specifications are being adopted as well as new criteria for written material. The accent in these improvements will be on the visual display of information on maps rather than wordy texts. Classification of soils for various alternate uses will be a feature of this new format to widen the scope for research study and planning. The inclusion of statistical data already published is not considered material in this new concept and reference only to a source will be included. While a historical record of development may be of interest the present and future economic development of, environmental protection of, and conservation of these resources are of much greater concern. The National Land Inventory provides a vehicle for the study of these aspects without the need to prepare and gather basic data.

CONSERVATION AND THE PROTECTION OF NATURAL BEAUTY– For nature conservation to be seriously considered as a vital part of national development it is necessary first to make clear the aims and claims of conservation policy.

The aesthetic approach:

In New Zealand the traditional, and still largely current attitude, is to emphasise the desirability of preserving, at least in selected areas, the characteristic beauty of the landscape and providing access and facilities for recreation and enjoyment of such natural features. This emphasis has resulted in a significant provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves.

We have made a habit of keeping beauty and engineering in different compartments instead of unifying them and thus enriching development and construction. It has been shown that development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The principle has been accepted in many countries subjected to centuries of population pressure. The rate of development in New Zealand must make it an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

The scientific approach:

Scientific investigation and research have already reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. Conservation in the widest sense implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important by far are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and induced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and is generally agreed to embody the principle of “preservation through wise use”. The problem which New Zealand must face and overcome is how to combine the most effective and most socially desirable use of our unique soil, water, and plant resources with the maintenance of scientific and scenic values.

It is a problem that is capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public generally firstly of the importance and often the inter-dependence of the different values involved, and secondly of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with intelligent planning and intelligent management they are mostly capable of resolution. Indeed, some of the apparent conflicts are imaginary. Thus, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide us with such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create patterns in the landscape that are pleasing to the eye.

Conservation thus viewed becomes more than a matter of mere aesthetic preference, and demands a more complex approach than the isolation of a few areas. If this basis is accepted the principles and practice of conservation as enlightened management of the total environment must have high priority in any plans for national development.

There already exist many organisations concerned with problems of conservation in its many fields. National agencies or Government departments charged with the implementation of legislation include the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority which promotes, through the Water and Soil Division of Ministry of Works, catchment authorities and regional water boards, soil and water conservation; the New Zealand Forest Service concerned with the welfare and management of vast areas of protection forest and mountain lands and with the control of fire and noxious animals on all unoccupied Crown land; the Department of Lands and Survey which supervises the management of millions of hectares of tussock grassland and through the National Parks Authority administers over 2 million hectares of national parks, scenic reserves, and reserves for the preservation of fauna and flora; the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries concerned with freshwater fish; and the Department of Internal Affairs which has a special interest in the preservation and propagation of game birds and of protected native birds.

Societies with membership open to the public which are vitally concerned with aspects of conservation include the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, the New Zealand Scenery Preservation Society and the Federated Mountain Clubs. Basically such societies act as public watch-dogs but some are also involved in the actual care and study of natural areas. In addition acclimatisation societies have statutory responsibilities in some aspects of conservation.

While there is no body specifically charged with research into the preservation of natural resources, several Government departments, notably the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the New Zealand Forest Service, carry out investigations aimed at solving conservation problems. Also the Royal Society of New Zealand and some of its affiliated bodies, as well as the universities and museums, foster or carry out research and inquiry in the field of conservation.

It is now clear that the effects on all resources, including natural and scenic, should be studied and evaluated before decisions to implement a particular development work are taken. The nearest approach to remedying this deficiency has been the setting up in 1962 of the Nature Conservation Council charged with co-ordinating information from all available sources and advising Government on conservation matters. Although its statutory powers are limited to investigation and advice they also include the right to publicise its views and to offer co-ordinating services whenever they are desired or requested.

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF NATIONAL RESERVES—Planning of and for natural areas is proceeding at a far greater pace than ever before. The New Zealand Forest Service produces working plans for all State forests including forest parks; national park boards are preparing master plans for individual parks and a few are being produced for scenic reserves; coastal areas and scenic and allied reserves are being reviewed by the Department of Lands and Survey; and local and regional planning authorities are producing district or regional schemes. The great need is for all this work to be co-ordinated and for gaps to be filled so that these individual efforts fit into an homogenous whole as parts of a national plan for the establishment, development, and management of natural and recreational areas. Planning must not regard any particular public reserve area in isolation but in the context of a region and of a national system. It must have regard to the recreational use and the scientific and scenic values of other areas and it must find out what the public really wants in regard to outdoor recreation. An integrated system of parks, recreation, and conservation areas, including the development of alternative sites to take public pressure off those areas where access needs to be restricted for scientific or conservation reasons, should be the objective.

There are many authorities, national and local, responsible for the administration of recreational, scientific, historic, and other reserves. Differing levels of competence and interest in the development of these have sometimes resulted in damage to natural communities, scenery, and historic places. This damage has on occasions been serious and often irrecoverable. To avoid repetition of these mistakes it is essential that all planning be based on a thorough evaluation of all resources likely to be affected. All construction and development arising from such planning should be based on design policies of interpretation, appropriate location and use of materials, and the highest aesthetic standards.

FOREST CONSERVATION—In relation to the approximately 4 million hectares of State forest administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as Westland terrace rimu and beech, on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of: a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, a habitat for wildlife, and scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and scenic reserves; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential timber production or soil and water conservation.

Recreation in State Forests—Policy in regard to recreational use of State forests has entered a positive phase in recent years. There has arisen fuller recognition of the appeal of the wild lands, particularly for the dweller in urban surroundings.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of wildlife (plant and animal); for strenuous travel through difficult country; and for the sports of shooting and fishing enthusiasts. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes: improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

State forest park status does not preclude use of the resources of an area so designated. The Forest Service retains full control of disposal of timber, minerals, or other produce and remains responsible for any forestry operations needed for the well-being or improvement of the park, whether for production of timber or for recreation. Advisory committees representative of the recreational users are appointed to help with the planning of this aspect.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value. Because of the dangers which may be encountered in the working areas of what are essentially timber-production forests, granting of complete freedom of entry is not practicable.

PROTECTION OF COASTLINE, LAKESHORES, AND RIVERBANKS FOR PUBLIC USE—Existing national parks and reserves are not, for the most part, close to the centres of highest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

ACCESS—An original recommendation by the working party dealt with the need to ensure effective and practical access to the coastline and similar walking access along the coastline. The National Development Conference recommended that every effort be made to purchase desirable areas or to provide access as and when the opportunity occurs (for national parks, State forest parks, scenic, foreshore, and other reserves). Implementation of this recommendation is proceeding.

Access along rivers over 10 ft in width, lakes (in excess of 8 hectares) and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

Present legislation in regard to access to these areas is effective and although some alienations and partitions before the above dates did not provide for access, generally speaking this will be rectified in time as closer subdivision of the areas involved takes place.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width. Some consideration should be given to reducing the present 8 hectares minimum area. It could be argued that even 4- or 2-hectare lakes or ponds have definite value for recreation or conservation. If the area were reduced to say 2 hectares, provision could be made to exempt those lakes or ponds which are obviously unsuitable for these purposes.

There has never been any requirement to provide access through private land to public land or to lakes or rivers, except by way of a road or railway. Access along the banks of rivers, etc., is not sufficient. Access to the banks is also required but is often not enough. The same is true of back country which has been isolated by the disposal of front country. In some instances access has been available in the form of “paper” roads and greater care and foresight in the disposal of these and closed roads could result in accessways being retained in public ownership in future. Current legislation governing subdivision of land provides that legal access must be provided to each separate allotment but does not cater for access beyond this.

The possibility of obtaining access to potential recreational areas such as water supply catchments is also under consideration. A recommendation from the National Development Conference was:

That in the interests of public enjoyment of recreation in forests a critical review be made of legislation concerning recreational use of water supply catchments. (NDC Rec. 58.)

An inter-departmental committee convened by the Ministry of Works has been set up to investigate all aspects of this matter. The committee comprises representatives of Health, Lands and Survey, and Internal Affairs Departments and the New Zealand Forest Service. This is another example of attempts to attain the desirable objective of multiple rather than single land use, wherever practicable.

For many years trampers, shooters, fishermen, and mountaineers have been permitted to walk, or even drive vehicles, over tracks and privately constructed roads on high country runs and thus gain access to the hinterland for sport and recreation. In general this privilege has been respected and instances of disturbance to management have been few. However, as the number of sportsmen and trampers increases, so, proportionately, the occasions on which disturbance and damage to property through negligence and ignorance will also increase.

Recently there has been a noticeable but natural “tightening up” by property owners who are understandably loath to suffer preventable losses by inconsiderate users of accessways through their properties. Endeavours are being made to work out an arrangement which could be satisfactory to all concerned.

SCIENTIFIC AREAS—From the work of the National Forest Survey, the Ecological Survey now being carried out by the Forest Research Institute in the North Island, and the catchment conditions surveys being carried out by the Forest and Range Experiment Station in both islands, the New Zealand Forest Service has a good knowledge of the composition of State forests. The Botany Division of DSIR and the universities are providing similar authoritative knowledge of national parks. Completion of the review of scenic and allied reserves by the Department of Lands and Survey will enable an important gap to be filled in the knowledge of New Zealand's vegetation. From all these it should be possible, for the first time, to analyse what forest types are adequately reserved or what further reservations should be made as forest sanctuaries under the Forests Act, or as scientific reserves under the Reserves and Domains Act.

There appear to be adequate means of legally protecting individual species of fauna. There does not seem to be any comparable or adequate machinery for protecting individual plant species or, more importantly, non-forest plant associations. There is also an unfulfilled need to protect and conserve complete ecosystems in such areas as coastal zones where both plant and animal life are involved.

A significant recent development is the arrangement made for a botanist from DSIR to carry out a planned and systematic field biological survey of scenic and allied reserves throughout the country over the next 5 or 6 years. From data sheets and assessments for each reserve a register of protected species and community types can be compiled, with knowledge of their rarity and relative importance. The main requirement will be to document the kinds and quality of habitat in terms of plant cover. Good progress has been made with the preparation of a reference and index of literature relating to the natural history and geology of the country's parks and reserves. From this will be produced an annotated bibliography to accompany the data sheets resulting from the biological survey.

PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES—Although New Zealand is generally favoured with abundant rainfall distributed fairly evenly throughout the year, the growing demand for water, especially in areas subject to recurrent seasonal drought, is tending to outstrip readily available supplies. Even where sufficient water is available to meet foreseeable demands, deterioration of the natural quality and disturbance of the natural pattern of flow could limit utilisation for some purposes. Organic and inorganic substances from farming operations and urban development are of increasing concern, particularly in the case of Auckland which will shortly have to begin drawing some of its water from the river draining the intensively farmed Waikato catchment. To ensure that the quality of natural waters is maintained as source of supply for human and animal consumption and as wildlife habitats and recreational areas, it is necessary that sedimentation, pollution, eutrophication, and draining be minimised.

Preservation of the quality of water is crucial to the future of wildlife habitats, particularly the Taupo fishery, to the quality of drinking water drawn from the lake and, in the long term, to recreational and scenic values of the lake surroundings. In recent years, large-scale land development and increased human occupation in the Taupo basin have sharply accelerated the rate of eutrophication of the lake. In an effort to reduce nutrient inflow to a minimum, large reservations of peripheral land in natural cover have been proposed and generally accepted. As a further means of countering erosion and the inflow of nutrients, studies are being undertaken to establish guidelines for farming, forestry, and other uses outside the reserve areas.

New Zealand consumes about 400,000,000 gallons of water a day, but needs still more to cope with increasing population and industrial growth.

Use of water is also increasing as more water is used per person. Domestic use—bathing, dish washing, clothes washing, and flushing toilets—demanded daily an average of about 50 gallons for each man, woman, and child. This was about 150,000,000 gallons daily. It is also the amount of dirty water that must each day be disposed of satisfactorily.

Industrial use of water far outstrips domestic use. About 1,400 gallons of water are needed to produce steel worth $1. Two hundred gallons are needed to produce the same value of paper, and one yard of wool can take 500 gallons.

In order to get the large quantities of water demanded by our present way of life, water supplies may need to be re-used. Wastes must be so treated and purified before discharge into a river that the diluted effluent conforms to the standard required by water users closer to the river mouth.

One of the greatest problems faced is expense. A small industry with a comparatively low return may be faced with enormous sums required to deal with a small amount of toxic waste. A local authority may be hard pressed to finance a large sewage treatment plant sometimes costing millions of dollars.

Some wastes are particularly hard to treat under any circumstances. Therefore it is necessary to strike an acceptable balance between a minimum of pollution and the finance available to eliminate it.

Legislation—In 1953, the Waters Pollution Act was passed. This Act set up the Pollution Advisory Council, whose responsibility was to formulate policies such as to prevent and/or reduce water pollution throughout the country. In 1963 the Waters Pollution Regulations were issued. These defined water quality standards to which waters could be classified and prescribed that each waste outfall must have a permit to ensure that the water quality is not reduced to below the classified standard.

In 1970 the Pollution Advisory Council's title was changed to the Water Pollution Control Council. At the same time responsibility for the Waters Pollution Act was transferred from the Minister of Marine to the Minister of Works, who is also in charge of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. From 1 April 1972 the Water Pollution Control Council and the Water Allocation Council were replaced by the Water Resources Council, which is responsible for maintaining the quality of natural water in New Zealand at a satisfactory level. The council is at present classifying all rivers and coastal waters throughout New Zealand. These classifications are declarations of the minimum standards of quality at which the water classified is to be maintained in order to promote the conservation and best use of the water in the public interest.

The allocation of water in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Water Resources Council. Broadly, the council's functions involve developing and co-ordinating a national policy concerning New Zealand's water resources to ensure that the greatest local and national benefits are obtained from its use.

By 1972 the council and regional water boards had granted some 5,215 water rights and declined 78 applications.

While there is no body specifically charged with research into the preservation of natural resources, several Government departments, notably the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the New Zealand Forest Service, carry out investigations aimed at solving conservation problems. Also the Royal Society of New Zealand and some of its affiliated bodies, as well as the universities and museums, foster or carry out research and inquiry in the field of conservation.

WATER AND SOIL CONSERVATION—In New Zealand today water and soil conservation is organised on a national and local basis. The National Water and Soil Conservation Authority is the central policy-making body and, with the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council and the Water Resources Council, comprises the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation. The authority is responsible for formulating general policy guidelines concerning water and soil conservation and each council has certain functions delegated to it.

Representation on the authority and councils includes counties and municipalities, catchment authorities, regional water boards, drainage and river boards, farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests, and appropriate Government departments.

Regional water boards and catchment authorities have been formed over much of the country. These local government bodies are the action arms of the organisation and are responsible for putting its policies into operation.

A Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council was set up in 1941. By 1967 there were 18 catchment authorities—13 catchment boards, 4 catchment commissions (these differ from boards in that they consist of appointed members only, the majority being nominated by territorial authorities, and may have a more limited function), and the Waikato Valley Authority. (Set up by the Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956, this authority is organised on a similar basis to a catchment commission and, in the main relies on territorial local authorities to construct works.) These 18 authorities covered three-quarters of the country. The remainder of the country was serviced by the Ministry of Works district offices as agents for the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.

In 1967, the Water and Soil Conservation Act was passed. This Act promoted a national policy in respect of natural water. It requires the whole of New Zealand to be covered by regional water boards having the power to grant water rights and to plan for the best use of New Zealand's water resources. The existing catchment authorities were given added functions to allow them to be regional water boards. Those areas not covered by catchment authorities are being incorporated into existing catchment authority areas or established as new water regions. Whether these new regions wish to exercise functions relating to erosion and river control is optional, but those functions relating to the use of natural water are mandatory.

Since the Act came into operation in 1968 one new catchment commission and one non-regional water board have been formed and a number of areas have been added to existing regions. There are now 18 catchment authorities and one regional water board.

Catchment Control Schemes—The policy of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is to foster complete catchment control schemes wherever possible, i.e., the integration of river control work with water and soil conservation practice on the land areas in individual river catchments.

This concept has developed from the realisation that many problems of river flooding have been aggravated by inadequate management practices of the land in a river catchment. If run-off can be restricted to a minimum, then this will help to lessen flooding in small streams. It will also greatly reduce soil erosion and the aggradation of river beds.

Drainage—The high rainfall and run-off factors in New Zealand have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys, where river gradients are flat, and coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes, in which case they must be properly co-ordinated with the river works, and may include floodgates and pumping stations. In the North Island particularly there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem in development because of the danger of excessive shrinkage with overdrainage.

River Control—New Zealand has a generous and well-distributed rainfall that exceeds 1,100 mm over about 70 percent of the country, and has only a very small area receiving less than 600 mm. In some districts, such as the west coast of the South Island and the western central plateaus of the North Island, annual rainfall exceeds 2,500 mm, with extremes of over 5,000 mm.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off as shown by both total annual river flows and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some rivers systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding.

Severe storms are likely to occur in any season of the year and extreme falls of 300–500 mm in 24 hours have been experienced in certain areas. With total run-off and peak flood discharges being among the highest in the world, it is not surprising that flood control is a major problem in New Zealand.

With the passing of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 and the setting up of catchment authorities with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river-control work throughout the country. Action was naturally focused first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, for controlling the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers.

There are still many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller, individual works are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified.

Most river-control works are carried out by catchment authorities or river boards, but some smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works, counties, and drainage boards.

Hydrology—The effective use and control of water depends upon the availability of accurate long-term data on water movement such as run-off and river flows. In 1959 New Zealand began a new phase in hydrological work when a regional system for collecting comprehensive data was initiated. This involves subdividing New Zealand into 91 regions, based on similarity of slope, rock type, and precipitation, and is designed to avoid uneconomic fragmentation of work. For each region there is a representative catchment from which accurate run-off data are collected and published. The information is used when applications for water rights are being considered.

Since 1965 a programme of hydrological research on small catchments has been operating as part of New Zealand's International Hydrological Decade programme. Hydrological work is largely carried out by the Ministry of Works although some field work is done by catchment authorities.

Irrigation—New Zealand's climate allows a wide range of crops to be grown successfully. However, many of its soils, although potentially capable of high production levels, suffer from a seasonal moisture deficit and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Irrigation therefore plays an important part in New Zealand's agricultural economy.

Reserves of undeveloped but productive land are virtually exhausted. The increases in primary production that will be needed to keep pace with increases in population will have to come from soils already farmed but not developed to their full potential. Many soils at present farmed under dryland conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

Otago—The earliest schemes were constructed in Central Otago by local people and used old mining races as the source of their water. These races were not originally planned for irrigation and land suitable to irrigate from them often occurred in small, separated areas.

The early schemes were followed by others planned, built, and controlled by the Government, the first being the Ida Valley scheme completed in 1917 and serving an area of 5,000 hectares. Many more schemes have been completed by the Government, and others are under construction or proposed.

The Upper Waitaki scheme, which takes its water from the Waitaki Dam, serves an area of 1,375 hectares; it was completed in 1965 at a cost of $487,630. Construction is now under way on the Lower Waitaki scheme which will serve an area of 14,000 hectares at an estimated cost of $2.25 million and will draw its water from the Waitaki River.

Canterbury—The average rainfall between Canterbury's foothills and its coast is 750 mm, and experience has shown that with irrigation a substantial increase in farm production is possible. It was possible to plan irrigation of the Canterbury Plains on a much larger scale than had been possible in Central Otago. This was because of the large areas of suitable land and a plentiful supply of water from the main rivers crossing the plains.

In 1935 the Government was anxious to provide productive employment and so decided to go ahead with a number of schemes. This was done on the assumption that the benefits to be gained would induce landowners to irrigate immediately water was available. Some schemes were started without any prior commitment by the landowners to use the water.

On this basis, the Redcliff scheme (serving about 1,600 hectares and drawing water from the Waitaki River) and the Levels scheme (serving about 1,600 hectares and drawing water from the Opihi River) were completed in 1936 and 1937.

Work was also started on the Rangitata River diversion race. This race has a capacity of 1,200 cusecs and runs from the Rangitata River to the Rakaia River, the water being used partly for irrigation and partly to generate electricity. The Ashburton-Lyndhurst, Mayfield-Hinds, and Valetta Farm Settlement schemes, which draw their water from this race, were completed in 1944, 1948, and 1957.

The latest scheme is the Morven-Glenavy scheme on which construction has commenced. This will serve 9,700 hectares north of the Waitaki River and will use water from that river. The total cost of the scheme is estimated at $1.5 million.

In addition to these large, Government-controlled community schemes, irrigation is used on single farms or orchards in many parts of New Zealand, in particular in Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Marlborough. Water is generally drawn from underground sources, or pumped from rivers and drains, and applied by spraying.

Major irrigation schemes are financed, constructed, and operated by the Government. The present Government policy is to make an acreage charge for the supply of half the quantity of water required in a normal season. A charge, based on the amount of water used is also made for extra water supplied in excess of the half quota.

These charges are fixed so that over a period of 40 years the revenue should meet the costs of operation and maintenance or periodic renewal of items of capital works, and of interest on one-quarter of the capital cost of the scheme. Reduced charges apply until the end of a development period of 10 years, taken from the start of operation of the scheme.

National policy for irrigation is now under review. Major proposed changes include placing irrigation under the control of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, with individual schemes being operated by local authorities, and with more emphasis on overall scheme planning and financing.

Soil Conservation—The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbant combination of soil and vegetation, while ensuring that maximum permanent production is maintained or achieved under various systems of land use.

The changes in vegetation consequent on land development has been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land classification is extensively used in New Zealand. Initially this technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, vegetation, and erosion types and severity existing, either over a whole catchment or over an individual farm. This basic information then allows soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and use of particular areas of land so as to ensure maximum permanent production from any one area.

Water and soil conservation farm plans are a vital means of helping landowners make the best use of their land and water resources. These plans involve the integration of conventional farm practices with those recommended under the land classification system.

A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowner's ability to carry it out over several years.

A valuable aid in promoting water and soil conservation practices on farms has been the setting up of reserves and demonstration areas throughout the country. These areas are used to show local farmers in particular just how their problems can be overcome by the use of correct practices. Many of these areas also serve as research centres.

Soil conservation works are largely carried out by catchment authorities, with some being done by Ministry of Works conservators (in those areas not covered by a catchment authority). Research into soil conservation is largely the function of Ministry of Works scientists and soil conservators.

13 B—CROWN LAND

GENERAL—There are 6 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Crown land permanently set aside for national parks, reserves, and domains comprises 2.6 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.69 million hectares of land for subdivision and settlement as individual farms. Unoccupied Crown land can be broadly defined as land vested in the Crown which is not for the time being set aside for any public purpose, held by any person in fee simple or on lease or licence, or under development by the Department of Lands and Survey.

RESERVES AND NATIONAL PARKS: History—Land has been set aside for public purposes from the early years of colonial administration in New Zealand. The New Zealand Act 1840 (Imperial) authorised the disposal of land “to any persons, bodies, public or corporate, for the public uses of our subjects there resident or any of them”. Royal Instructions of 1840 to Governor Hobson elaborated on this and provided that such lands were not to be granted, conveyed or demised, or occupied by any private person or for any private purpose. A subsequent Royal Instruction dated 1846 and the New Zealand Company's Colonisation Act 1847 (Imperial) authorised the vesting of reserves in trust for public purposes or uses.

Scenic and historic reserves are controlled by scenic and historic boards, by local authorities, or by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district. A large number of honorary rangers help in the supervision of these reserves. The legislation governing these and all other reserves is the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. Once land has been reserved for a specific purpose, either by notice in the New Zealand Gazette or by deposit of a subdivisional plan, the purpose of the reservation can be changed or the reservation revoked only by the Minister of Lands.

Subdivision of land into residential sections is controlled by the local authority under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 or the Counties Amendment Act 1961. Land is normally set aside as reserves, but the local authority may take a cash payment for reserve development. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made on subdivision for reserves and with subsequent administration of reserves. The Crown is not bound by this legislation, but in practice refers its subdivisions to local bodies for approval and makes generous provision for reserves.

It was in 1887 that the three mountain peaks of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro were given to the nation by Te Heuheu Tukino and associated chiefs as “a national park for the benefit of everybody”. The gift area formed the nucleus of New Zealand's first national park—Tongariro—in 1894. The second national park—Egmont—was constituted by special legislation in 1900.

The first general legislation on national parks was enacted in 1928—this provided a uniform means of setting up and administering new parks. Under this legislation two new parks were established—Arthur's Pass in 1929 and Abel Tasman in 1942. Interest in national parks increased after the Second World War and a review of the administration led to the passing of the National Parks Act 1952. This made the Minister of Lands responsible to Parliament for national parks and laid the foundations for an integrated system of parks. Fiordland (part of which was first reserved in 1905) became a national park and five new parks were constituted—Mount Cook (1953), Urewera (1954), Nelson Lakes (1956), Westland (1960), and Mount Aspiring (1964).

The National Parks Act established the National Parks Authority consisting of the Director-General of Lands (chairman), the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of Department of Tourist and Publicity, three persons appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand and the Royal Society of New Zealand respectively, and two persons appointed by the Minister of Lands to represent the national park boards. The National Parks Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district is chairman. Each board comprises not more than eight persons appointed by the Minister of Lands but in the case of Egmont and Tongariro special provisions exist regarding the appointment of members to the boards. Salaried rangers in each park are responsible for development, protection, and interpretation, and their work is supplemented by the voluntary help of about 250 honorary rangers appointed from those whose interests bring them into the parks frequently or who live nearby. A voluntary body, “Friends of the Urewera National Park”, has been formed to support the work of the Urewera National Park Board.

DESCRIPTION—Ten national parks have been constituted in New Zealand covering 2,135,453 hectares or one-thirteenth of the country's land area. They are set aside as the law says “for the purpose of preserving in perpetuity as national parks, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public, areas of New Zealand that contain scenery of such distinctive quality or natural features so beautiful or unique that their preservation is in the national interest”. The National Parks Act requires that parks be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; that, as far as possible, native flora and fauna is preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated; and that, subject to restrictions necessary to preserve native flora and fauna or for the general welfare of the parks, the public has freedom of entry and access. The only restricted area is the “special area” set aside to protect the habitat of the takahe (notornis)—50,000 hectares out of the 1,220,000 hectare Fiordland National Park.

Any form of development not provided for in the National Parks Act must be sanctioned by Act of Parliament. Permitted development includes the erection of houses for park rangers and huts for Government employees engaged in noxious animal destruction, the erection of huts by mountaineering, tramping, or other similar clubs, and the erection of ski tows and similar facilities. Appropriate commercial undertakings may operate in the parks under licence while boards controlling the parks may, with the consent of the Authority, establish camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses, or other buildings, and may help private enterprise in their establishment. “Wilderness areas” where development is restricted to access by foot-track are provided for in the Act and a number have been set aside. Virtually all the finance for parks is provided by the Government, but donations by private individuals or organisations are encouraged and earn $2 subsidy for $1 from the Government.

Three of the 10 national parks are in the North Island and seven in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (200,117 hectares), surrounds Lake Waikaremoana and contains the largest remaining forest area in the North Island. Kiwi, kaka, and most other native birds are found and the area is rich in Maori history.

Tongariro National Park (69,168 hectares), includes the three volcanoes—Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro—and is the ski-ing playground of the North Island.

Egmont National Park (33,527 hectares), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains and preserves forests within a 9-km radius. It varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice of the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (19,171 hectares), contains coastal and elevated bush-clad country along the shores of Tasman Bay and includes off-shore islands and reefs. It has a broken coastline with many bays, coves, and beaches of golden sand.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57,112 hectares), is centred on the twin lakes of Rotoiti and Rotoroa and is surrounded by mountainous country with extensive beech forests on the lower slopes.

Arthur's Pass National Park (98,392 hectares), preserves an alpine and forested area straddling the Southern Alps.

Mount Cook and Westland National Parks (69,900 and 88,608 hectares), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Westland includes forest and lake country and a small strip of sea coast as well as the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers. Mount Cook contains most of New Zealand's highest mountains, including the highest—Mount Cook (3,764 m)—and includes the 29-km-long Tasman Glacier.

Mount Aspiring National Park (275,226 hectares), embraces the alpine region in north-west Otago and south Westland extending from the Haast Pass to the Routeburn area at the head of Lake Wakatipu and including Mount Aspiring (3,035 m).

Fiordland National Park (1,224,220 hectares), one of the world's largest national parks contains majestic scenery with fiords, mountains, forests, and lakes. It includes Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau while the road through the Homer Tunnel gives access to Milford Sound. The park is the only known habitat of the takahe (notornis) and the kakapo.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 936 with a total area of 260,088 hectares, preserve native forest, and allow access by the public to other scenic features such as the sea coast, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, limestone caves, thermal areas, and scenic vantage points. Forest areas range from large tracts of remote forested land with considerable conservation value to small remnant areas in developed districts. Large scenic reserves have been set aside along main highways, but in general, barren mountainous regions not included in national parks remain Crown land.

There are 17 reserves in excess of 2,000 hectares as follows: Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, South Cape (Stewart Island), Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Tennyson Inlet, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuka Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), Pihanga, Waioeka Gorge, and John Coull Memorial Reserve (Wanganui River).

Among the best known reserves not in the preceding list are Trounson Kauri Park in North Auckland, Huka Falls, near Taupo, Hongi's Track, and various thermal areas near Rotorua, Waitomo Caves, Ball's Clearing in Hawke's Bay, Pelorus Bridge and Hundalee in Marlborough, the Summit Road Scenic Reserves and Peel Forest in Canterbury, Punakaiki and Lake Ianthe in Westland, and Forest Hill and Curio Bay in Southland.

In an endeavour to recreate the natural New Zealand scene in an area where exotic trees, noxious weeds, and engineering development have intruded, the Department of Lands and Survey has established a plant nursery at Taupo where native trees and shrubs are being propagated for beautification of reserves in the Taupo basin.

There is provision in the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 for land to be declared private scenic reserves—this land remains in private ownership, but receives the protection of the Act. There are 2,124 hectares in 25 private scenic reserves and these include White Island, where grey faced and other petrels nest in large numbers, as well as about 3,000 pairs of gannets annually. The Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust area is a private scenic reserve near New Plymouth in native bush being planted with native trees as well as rhododendrons. One private reserve near Awaka provides, in an area of 550 hectares, shelter for native birds. Other large private scenic reserves are Moncrieff, near Nelson, and Makarora on the Haast Pass Road.

Historic Reserves—Sixty-eight areas of historic interest totalling 1,419 hectares are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve, in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

There are also 259 hectares in 10 private historic reserves.

Bird Sanctuaries and Allied Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. Such areas are reserved under the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. In all there are 51 reserves in this category with a total area of 187,066 hectares. Some of them are maintained areas, but most are off shore, outlying, and subantarctic islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park:

Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

A committee convened by the Department of Lands and Survey has been set up as an advisory body for the administration of the outlying island reserves.

Generally, access to reserves of this type is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and bird life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is controlled by a board of 10 members.

Nature Conservation Council—The Nature Conservation Council Act 1962 provides for the establishment of a Nature Conservation Council. This council of independent members, expert in the field of conservation, has been set up to co-ordinate scientific and technical information on nature conservation, to inquire into the effect of proposed public works on any aspect of nature conservation and to act as an advisory body to Government on matters affecting nature conservation which is defined in the Act as “the preservation of the native flora and fauna and the natural features and natural beauty of New Zealand”.

Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries—The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains—Domains, of which there are 877 covering 24,897 hectares, provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1972.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares
* Includes 16 scenic and historic reserves totalling 178 hectares.
National parks102,135,453
Scenic reserves (public)943260,088
Historic reserves (public)68*1,419
Bird sanctuaries and allied reserves51187,066
Public domains87724,897

ADMINISTRATION—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, the Director of Rehabilitation, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, a representative of the Returned Services Association, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than two other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, and for the other categories in and near to the main centres, is considerable. Disposals are offset to a certain extent by purchases of private land or the interests of lessees or licensees of Crown or Maori land.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and if necessary a ballot is conducted to decide the successful applicant, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1971–72.

TenureNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges 
* Areas and rents not shown; licences on royalty basis only,
  acreshectares$(000)
Freehold85511,7114,7391,343
Renewable leases1047,5133,04126
Pastoral leases and licences341,51716,802
Deferred-payment licences80285,28034,513300
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)9121,3258,63079
Licences for removal of minerals*4
Licences to occupy1,12621,1598,563227
Leases of endowment and other lands8326,13410,57620
               Totals 1971–723,068214,63986,8641,995
               Totals 1970–712,528135,34054,770824

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1972.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment*
* Including improvement loading.
  acres (000)hectares (000)$ (000)$ (000)
Renewable leases11,0123,5431,4341,40523
Leases in perpetuity6,2761,2615103071
Pastoral leases and licences5607,8533,1782105
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)734209853458
Deferred-payment licences13,3081,1624702,788
Misc. leases and licences1,73410643271
Licences to occupy4,708354143279
Leases of endowment and other lands2,9343951601633
               Totals 1971–7241,26614,8836,0232,7362,829
               Totals 1970–7142,53914,8926,0272,6432,607

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.acreshectares$(000)
Cash30923,2199,397521
Deferred payments4621163,22666,0583,527
               Totals 1971–727711186,44575,4554,048
               Totals 1970–71463788,10335,6541,738

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, parliamentary paper C.1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey.

Development of land for settlement includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, and installation of water supplies. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process.

The major development districts are Southland with 157,300 hectares under development, Rotorua 75,450 hectares, North Auckland 67,900 hectares, and Te Kuiti 50,500 hectares.

An estimated 1,419 farms could eventually be made available from the 686,360 hectares on hand for development at 31 March 1972. Settlement of further units has been deferred since April 1971 and full resumption will be influenced by factors emerging from Britain's entry into the EEC and the ability of Crown farm units to remain viable in the light of present-day farming economics.

MARGINAL LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance where it is not available through normal lending channels. It also provides help in amalgamation of uneconomic units either by financing farmers into additional land, or by purchase of land and allocation to adjoining holdings.

For the year ended 31 March 1972, the board granted 67 loans totalling $2,978,023. In all, from the inception of the marginal lands scheme, 1,664 loans have been approved, amounting to $29,305,484.

As from 10 June 1971 the rates of interest payable on advances made on or after this date have been as follows.

Purpose of LoanCurrent AccountInstalment Mortgage
First MortgageSecond or Subsequent MortgageFirst MortgageSecond or Subsequent Mortgage
 Percent
Development and amalgamation (including purchase of chattels)—
     (a) Up to $30,0005 1/265–5 1/26 1/2-6
     (b) Over $30,000787 1/2-78 1/2-8
Refinance787 1/2-78 1/2-8
Stock5 1/266–5 1/26 1/2-6

Loans approved prior to 10 June 1971 continue to bear interest at the rate ruling at the time the application was approved. However, on conversion to instalment mortgage, unless a commitment has been made by the board prior to 10 June 1971, the rates shown above will apply. With regard to advances for stock the lower rates of interest shown above do not normally apply to purchases of stock for amalgamated properties.

13 C—MAORI LANDS

USE OF MAORI LAND—The term Maori land is a technical one, denoting ancestral land that has always been owned by Maori people. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

In 1965 it was established by a committee of inquiry that the area of land in New Zealand still designated Maori land comprised some 1,489,473 hectares in the North Island and some 89,000 hectares in the South Island. In the subsequent 5 years to 1970 a total area of Maori land comprising 54,600 hectares was sold with the consent of the Maori Land Court.

Of the area of Maori land remaining, some 109,000 hectares is controlled by the Board of Maori Affairs, mainly for farm development though some land is farmed by arrangement with the owners; some 200,000 hectares is farmed by Maori farmers themselves; approximately 400,000 hectares is leased to non-Maoris; 300,000 hectares is controlled by Maoris working through Maori incorporations operating on a shareholding basis with a management committee. The balance of the land comprising something more than 400,000 hectares is not in actual use; possibly half of this is suitable for farm development while a quarter would be useful for forestry, but the remainder would have no economic potential.

The Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1967 provided for the Europeanisation of all Maori land which is surveyed and which is owned by not more than four Maori owners. An unknown area running to thousands of hectares of such Maori land has been “Europeanised” by transferring the relevant records from the Maori Land Court to registers of the Land Transfer Office. Apart from this, many Maori people own their own homes in urban areas and many more own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as “European” land.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Maori land development policy is directed to the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will assure them of a reasonable standard of living based on today's costs and standards; to secure them the best possible tenure for the lands they farm; to assist them to develop the land and to teach them modern methods of farming. The means at the department's disposal have permitted the development of approximately 4,000 hectares of new land annually. In the year ended 30 June 1971 there were 5 farms settled. From 1935 up to 30 June 1971 the department had settled 2,383 Maori farmers on farms.

The estimated area of Maori land suitable for settlement is limited to 293,000 hectares (85,000 hectares under departmental control and 208,000 hectares of idle land), on which about 500 Maori sheep farmers and 3,300 dairy farmers could be eventually settled. Schemes for afforestation of Maori land unsuitable for farming are being implemented.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS—The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori and Island Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member of the Executive Council representing the Maori race or, if there is no such member, any member of the Executive Council appointed by the Governor-General to be a member of the Board, and four other Maori members appointed by the Governor-General, one of these being nominated by the New Zealand Maori Council.

The functions of the Board include, among other things, the following:

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.

  2. The approval of investment and advances, and of certain expenditure from the Maori Trustee's funds.

  3. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  4. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki, and in Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has the responsibility for the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land, for the establishment of Maoris in business, and for housing purposes. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest three years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197019711972
Assets—$(000)
     Cash300567265
     Investments—
          Government securities6,3786,6286,678
          Local authority debentures444576643
          Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft4,0113,8174,816
     Land, buildings, and miscellaneous445415402
               Totals11,57812,00312,804
Liabilities—
     Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors7,9828,1317,813
     Reserves and Appropriation Account3,5713,8584,666
     Sundry creditors, etc.2514325
               Totals11,57812,00312,804

13 D—SURVEYS

GENERAL—The Lands and Survey Department is facing an increasing demand for engineering survey information on which to plan major construction works, and for topographical and cadastral information on which to plan the future development of the country. Mapping efforts are being concentrated on completing the topographical map coverage of the unmapped areas of the country as quickly as possible. Much work is being carried out on control surveys, especially in the investigation of electric power projects, and this is designed to fit into a system of national coverage of precise levelling.

Precise levelling is being extended continuously for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works.

Surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act 1952 are carried out by registered private surveyors and are examined and approved by the Lands and Survey Department.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING—Extensive use is made of aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes.

There is an increasing demand for topographical maps of all scales for land development, forestry, engineering, geological and soil survey, and other governmental purposes. New cartographic techniques have revolutionised the production of better and more varied scales and types of maps.

Mapping is also undertaken of islands and territory within the Ross Dependency, Antarctica. Information for these maps is based on aerial photography supplied by the United States, field work from New Zealand field parties, and maps prepared by other countries.

MAPS—Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition 446 private selling agents have been appointed throughout the country and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue of Maps published by the department.

Chapter 14. Section 14
FARMING

14 A—GENERAL

SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT—Soil is the product of its environment, which includes the kind of rocks that outcrop on the surface, the parent material of the soil, the climate in which the rock is transformed into soil, the relief or slope of the surface, the vegetation and the time during which the soil has been forming. In New Zealand large areas of soil are formed on uniform parent materials. The mantle of loess that covers large areas of downland, hill, and terrace of both islands, and the alluvium of large areas of plain and valley floor, are derived from the greywackes of the axial mountain chain that stretches from Otago almost to East Cape. Soils formed on such parent materials tend to have many properties in common. In Otago large areas of loess and alluvium are derived from the schist mountains, and in the central North Island there are extensive deposits of volcanic ash that include acid rhyolite ash poorly supplied with plant nutrients, and yielding soils of low productive value, as well as basic ash on which some of the most productive soils in the country are formed.

The conditions that control soil formation tend also to govern the kind of land use. Thus a close relationship between soils and land use arises in two ways—from characteristics inherent in the soils themselves and from environmental factors such as the climate and topography. Maps showing the pattern of soils and of land use are published in A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959) and in An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand (1966).

The great majority of New Zealand soils are not naturally fertile. They are usually leached, acid, low in humus, and without deep reserves of fertility. Since the soils are characteristically immature, with great local variability, pockets of rich alluvium, fertile volcanic loams, lime-rich rendzinas, and deep black-earths are unfortunately small and widely scattered. The complicated rock, relief, climate, and vegetation patterns are responsible for a mosaic of soils, that does not fit readily into the broad soil zones of the world.

Zonal (Mature) Soils—Only a quarter of New Zealand's soils can be considered mature, i.e., where climate, and more especially vegetation conditions, have a greater influence on their development than the parent rock.

Nearly 4 million hectares of humid hill country and lowland have friable yellow-brown earths and podzols. In the north, these resemble subtropical red and yellow podzols, and further south they are something like the subalpine brown soils found in temperate lands overseas. The yellow-brown earths of the cool and mild districts like Southland and Wellington were formed under forest and have nutty subsoils. When sown to pasture with lime and superphosphate (in places molybdenised), they are used for dairying and fat lambs on the rolling land, and for wool production, store stock, and some fat lambs on the more hilly slopes. Cattle are also run to help control pasture growth and prevent its reversion to scrub and fern.

The yellow-grey earths are the seasonally dry soils of southern Otago, Canterbury, Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and Manawatu, where rainfall is inadequate for plant growth for a third to half of the year. They are moderately to weakly acid, and the older soils have a thick hard silt-pan in the subsoil. Fat-lamb farming is the principal use with mixed arable farming on the drier soils and some dairying on the moister soils. Stony soils related to the yellow-grey earths cover much of the Canterbury Plains; they are used for sheep farming, including fat lambs; with irrigation, they carry four ewes per acre and grow cereal and pasture seed crops.

Azonal (Recent) Soils—The azonal soils are youthful owing to recent renewal by sedimentation, volcanic eruptions, or erosion.

Steepland soils occupy about half the area of New Zealand, being most extensive on the axial ranges, and in north-west Nelson and east Taranaki. They are for the most part shallow and their subsoils vary widely in fertility according to the underlying rock. They are relatively unstable and are periodically renewed by erosion. When the plant cover is disturbed by man the erosion is accelerated and the results affect not only the hillsides but also the rivers and river flats. The podzolised steepland soils are largely in forest, and occur mainly in western Nelson, Westland, and western Southland, at altitudes from 1500 m in the north to 1,000 m in the south. Above these levels there are poor wet soils largely in subalpine scrub and tussock, and grading up to the alpine barrens at elevations where vegetation is sparse or absent and much bare rock and ice are present.

The yellow-brown pumice soils of central North Island are formed mostly of two volcanic ash showers that fell 800 and 1,700 years ago. Their topsoils are mostly sand or sandy loams, and the subsoil pumice sands and gravels. Because the cattle and sheep became “bush sick” these areas were difficult to farm for many years and large areas were planted in exotic forests. However, the ailment is now overcome by topdressing with cobaltised superphosphate and, except where droughty, the soils can be converted into good farm land. In addition to phosphate they need consolidation and, after continued use, potash topdressing. The yellow-brown loams are derived mostly from fine-textured ashes erupted by volcanoes in central North Island and by Mount Egmont and occur around the margin of the younger pumice soils. They are very friable loamy soils, respond well to superphosphate topdressing, and give slight to good responses to limes; potash responses are expected to increase with continued use. The soils are used mainly for dairying and fat-lamb production.

Approach to Soil Management—The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

NATURE OF FARMING—Most of the dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as one cow per acre, and annual production as high as 350–400 lb of milkfat per acre. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is also undertaken, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep fattening farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or produced by topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops, such as rape, for fattening lambs, and in colder areas to grow crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Fattening farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 1,000–1,200 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from three to six ewes wintered to the acre. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 100 to 120 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, fat off their mothers, at carcass weights around 28–36 lb for the United Kingdom market. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring to control excess pasture growth and are fattened, if possible, by the autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for fattening. The amount of meat produced on fattening farms averages about 120–140 lb per acre.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of a mixed-age flock of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is of poor quality, wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some fat wether lambs, store lambs for fattening and, of most importance, breeding ewes which are purchased by fat-lamb farmers.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 92 percent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley areas are in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also fattened. Considerable areas (approximately three-quarters of the New Zealand total) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS—The area of land in occupation as at 31 January 1960, classified according to tenure, was as follows:

 Hectares
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)9,038,777
Leasehold1,386,907
                         Total occupied area17,813,831

Size of Holdings—Holdings, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1949, 1952, 1957, and 1960 are given below. For these years, excepting 1960, statistics were collected for areas under 10 acres (approx. 4.05 hectares).

Area, in Acres*Number of Holdings
1949195219571960
* One acre equals 0.405 hectare.
          1–          911,46312,36311,765..
        10–        4913,61113,71610,39611,721
        50–        9912,96213,46011,93212,353
      100–      19917,25018,10417,94918,384
      200–      31910,08410,30810,28910,687
      320–      63910,65311,08311,18412,109
      640–      9994,2154,3824,3574,659
  1,000–  4,9995,8275,8665,7456,002
  5,000–  9,999538535531551
10,000–19,999278276261264
20,000–49,999144143141145
50,000 and over51525453
                             Totals87,07690,28884,60476,928

A classification of the 76,928 holdings in 1960 according to the status of the occupier showed the following position: owner, 44,119; lessee, 13,571; manager, 3,683; partner, 3,950; shareworker, 2,107; part owner, part lessee, 9,498.

Condition of Occupied Land—In 1965, 17,602,894 hectares were assessed as being occupied, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, and holdings of less than 4.5 hectares in extent. The land in occupation in New Zealand at 31 January 1965 was classified according to condition and use as follows.

Use of LandAcresHectaresPercentage of Total

* Includes areas sown with crops.

† Includes unimproved land together with domestic orchards, residences, private gardens, and grounds.

Area in crop at 31 January1,044,716422,7822.40
In fallow125,80050,9090.29
In sown grasses and clovers*19,433,3577,864,40744.68
In orchards (commercial only)16,5696,7050.04
In market gardens and nurseries16,3426,6130.04
In plantations1,034,926418,8202.38
                              Total area in cultivation21,671,7108,770,23849.82
Balance of land†21,825,9498,832,65650.18
                              Total area in occupation43,497,65917,602,894100.00

Information collected in 1960 in conjunction with the World Census of Agriculture showed that 36 percent of the total area in occupation was stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs.

An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position at 31 January 1960.

Land DistrictPhormium (New Zealand Flax)Tussock and Naturally Established Native GrassesFern, Scrub, and Second GrowthStanding Native BushBarren and Unproductive LandTotal, Unimproved Occupied Land
 hectares
North Auckland1,44743,519352,648106,50438,454542,572
South Auckland69525,221525,698278,29443,385873,293
Gisborne2647,013125,78972,08911,885256,802
Hawke's Bay22116,031138,08428,14117,077299,355
Taranaki251,73860,83678,1597,229147,987
Wellington3,206238,552272,206117,65351,262682,879
          North Island5,421472,0741,475,261680,840169,2922,802,888
Marlborough2,363569,402112,61645,52091,283821,184
Nelson84581,211153,79277,18316,972330,003
Westland1,74917,70883,83786,94351,050241,287
Canterbury1,9821,591,00698,22745,743218,4471,955,405
Otago8222,045,480248,502101,456177,6772,573,937
Southland2,815498,423123,01759,67227,195711,122
          South Island10,5764,803,230819,991416,517582,6246,632,938
          New Zealand15,9975,275,3042,295,2521,097,357751,9169,435,826

CLASSIFICATION OF HOLDINGS BY PRINCIPAL FARMING ENTERPRISES—The collection of farm production statistics in 1960 was carried out as New Zealand's part of the World Census of Agriculture. Detailed information has been published separately in the report of the New Zealand Census of Agriculture, 1959–60.

For purposes of fuller analysis of the New Zealand results than is customarily given in Statistical Area tables, counties with some affinity as to farming types, etc., have been regrouped to form what have been designated “Regional Areas”, and certain tables given in Sections 14B and 14C of this volume are set out on this basis. The following sets out in detail the content of these regional areas.

Regional AreaCounties Included (as at 1960)
NorthlandMangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata.
South AucklandManukau. Franklin, Raglan.
Waikato and Hauraki LowlandsWaikato, Waipa, Otorohanga, Hauraki Plains, Piako, Matamata.
Cape ColvilleGreat Barrier, Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri.
Central PlateauTauranga, Rotorua, Taupo, Whakatane.
Westland UplandsWaitomo, Taumarunui, Clifton, Waimarino.
TaranakiTaranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Eltham, Waimate West, Hawera.
East CapeOpotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Waikohu, Cook.
Hawke's BayWairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata.
RangitikeiPatea, Waitotara, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina.
ManawatuDannevirke, Woodville, Oroua, Manawatu, Kairanga, Horowhenua, Pahiatua.
WairarapaEketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Wairarapa South, Akitio.
FeatherstonHutt, Makara, Featherston.
NelsonWaimea, Golden Bay, Buller, Murchison, Inangahua.
MarlboroughSounds, Marlborough, Awatere, Kaikoura.
WestlandGrey, Westland.
North CanterburyAmuri, Cheviot, Waipara.
FoothillsAshley, Oxford, Tawera, Selwyn.
Canterbury PlainsKowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Ellesmere.
ChristchurchWaimairi, Heathcote, Halswell.
Banks PeninsulaMount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa.
MackenzieMackenzie
South CanterburyAshburton, Geraldine, Levels, Waimate, Waitaki.
OtagoWaihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka.
Central OtagoManiototo, Vincent, Lake.
SouthernBruce, Clutha, Southland, Wallace.
RemainderChatham Islands, Stewart Island.

Figures for 1959–60 as to the number of holdings of various principal types of farming enterprises in the several regional areas (each Island separately) are here presented. (“Principally” means 75 percent or more; “predominant” means 50–74 percent; “mixed” means approximately equal; “general mixed” covers three or more types with none predominant.)

Regional AreaPrincipally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep PredominantCropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (including Horticulture, Timber, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
Northland5,3971,371492382911658111589811,55710,604
South Auckland2,3571,081127167604912143643172414,492
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands3,9621,382128374107117531742322728,657
Cape Colville5891572769202521541681,130
Central Plateau2,12666854228621031422463804764,161
Western Uplands3421,5562813086821542401012222,608
Taranaki3,20966622166609863451041024,481
East Cape5391,06856842646665836922012702,542
Hawke's Bay2572,045474652551198537593582053,365
Rangitikei5542,0173991987999173946533,123
Manawatu1,9201,733621371171217013835150754,441
Wairarapa3611,010374393449351040141,642
Featherston275454833231228167378991
               Totals, North Island23,88815,2081,0931,9818419864911841066893,0373,73352,237
Marlborough2027241047181417021623989561,452
Nelson6255486412959708750341485071672,488
Westland214227137659161980116874
North Canterbury155074298188132923193820
Foothills45331691611103920196012641
Canterbury Plains47848318353921362145196217256522,302
Christchurch12148144238962618830459
Banks Peninsula75259722241610226164443
Mackenzie1251693109217345
South Canterbury3321,8731947102361,335175415271383595,047
Otago2301,07823212523988727278741,892
Central Otago16663851126251015162731,032
Southern1744,35129311418191777814662571646,760
Remainder85211641136
               Totals, South Island2,52711,4023396997344123,2694488068752,32285824,691
               Totals, New Zealand26,41526,6101,4322,6801,5751,3983,7606329121,5645,3594,59176,928

The average area of holdings where the main types of farming were principally carried out were: dairy, 59 hectares; sheep, 462 hectares; beef, 418 hectares. The most common size groups were: dairy, 30–40 hectares; sheep, 101–161 hectares; beef, 101–161 hectares.

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—A survey of farm employment was made by the Department of Statistics for the last week in June 1970. The survey covered 55,395 holdings; it excluded 4,101 holdings where there were no working owners, etc., nor any employees. The total of 59,496 holdings represented a coverage of 91 percent of all farm holdings. There were 7,670 females in the total of 65,607 working owners, etc., and 4,860 females in the total of 33,639 employees. Also family assistance was listed as 6,108 unpaid males and 10,120 unpaid females.

Farm TypeHoldingsWorking OwnersWorking LeaseholdersSharemilkersEmployees
Owning HerdNot Owning HerdPermanentCasual

* First named predominant.

† Either predominant.

Principally dairy16,96216,9078453,6221,7555,677443
Principally sheep11,65911,737546655,3011,783
Principally beef2,2322,2561355440492
Dairy and sheep*9421,06259767052774
Dairy and beef*8511,06643854834528
Sheep and dairy*40145218231818747
Sheep and beef*8,4588,130404766,9491,165
Beef and dairy*2282382210105811
Beef and sheep*1,2311,24054802169
Mixed livestock1,9142,084866361984222
Sheep and cropping†2,7102,8051321,221448
Principally cropping1,2601,2241271451196
General mixed farming1,8552,045916161,056312
Market farms and gardens1,3501,75093593277
Other3,3423,972126562,4241,393
                              Totals55,39556,9182,7813,9082,00026,9796,660

An analysis of employment on farms as disclosed by the Census of Population and Dwellings 1966 appeared in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. The collection does not include holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees or where farming is secondary to another industry. Owing principally to the number of occupancy transfers which took place immediately prior to or during the 1970–71 collection, information could not be collected from all farm holdings; the following tables include data from about 96 percent of all farm holdings qualifying for inclusion.

Statistics obtained from these returns have been linked up with those given by the 1970–71 annual farm collection to relate capital expenditure and farm types. Capital expenditure on farms during the year ended 31 March 1971, according to farm types, and also by statistical areas, is set out in the following table.

Farm Type and Statistical AreaNumber of HoldingsCapital Expenditure
Building ConstructionMotor Vehicles and TrailersTractors and Farm MachineryImprovements and DevelopmentTotal Expenditure

* Dairy predominant.

† Sheep predominant.

‡ Beef predominant.

 $(000)
Principally dairy18,67710,4454,8446,1097,21028,609
Principally sheep13,0255,2083,5163,4168,63620,775
Principally beef3,9131,7898226421,6094,862
Dairy and sheep*9714192783824811,560
Dairy and beef*1,1765314134877422,173
Sheep and dairy†41124410798301750
Sheep and beef†9,8646,5003,7853,15112,69626,131
Beef and dairy‡22847615495258
Beef and sheep‡1,5919905565101,6223,679
Mixed livestock1,3367124784029362,527
Sheep and cropping2,8781,2518842,3331,9316,399
Principally cropping1,8901,0185161,6348394,007
General mixed1,9331,1266491,6641,4784,918
Market farms and gardens1,1715053235332361,597
Others3,9723,0918101,1391,0156,055
                         Totals 1970–7163,03633,87518,04222,55539,827114,299
 $(000)
Northland5,1892,6321,6561,5083,5139,310
Central Auckland4,7202,7451,1671,2491,9807,142
South Auckland – Bay of Plenty14,3968,7504,0634,4937,55624,862
East Coast1,4049973795461,1993,122
Hawke's Bay4,0102,6061,4451,3033,0718,426
Taranaki4,5041,8789581,1141,5645,513
Wellington7,3143,2992,0681,8114,38611,564
                    Totals, North Island41,53722,90711,73612,02523,26969,937
Marlborough1,1986492974528442,242
Nelson2,0331,0094488211,0313,309
Westland5873091862406271,361
Canterbury8,2614,4362,2195,4306,02218,108
Otago4,5842,2561,3391,7053,6108,910
Southland4,8362,3091,8161,8834,42410,432
                    Totals, South Island21,49910,9686,30510,53116,55744,362
                    Totals, New Zealand63,03633,87518,04222,55539,827114,299

GROSS FARMING INCOME AND VOLUME OF FARM PRODUCTION– Gross farming income is the value of the gross output of farming at the “farm gate” before any deduction is made for the expenses of farm operation. A description of this statistical series was given in the 1966 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

The following table shows the value of gross farming income. The second part of this table gives the percentage contributions of each group to total gross farming income. In compiling farm income, allowance is made for changes in the numbers of livestock from year to year valued at market prices.

YearGroupTotal
Grain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigs(Gross Farming Income)

* Provisional.

† Excludes $28.6 million paid to farmers under the stock retention scheme.

 $(million)
1938–399.412.618.524.413.156.74.8139.5
1955–5632.241.6143.0111.536.8176.912.4554.4
1960–6142.350.4158.3109.155.0184.514.3613.9
1961–6242.255.8153.992.659.7175.914.9595.0
1962–6343.357.1180.5107.868.8180.516.0654.0
1963–6450.062.4230.1131.374.4198.317.1763.6
1964–6548.769.6172.9166.987.1229.417.5792.1
1965–6651.176.0193.6166.995.7251.817.4852.5
1966–6758.679.9162.7140.4103.9261.417.3824.2
1967–6866.979.9131.6155.8121.6242.519.6817.9
1968–6974.186.5155.8168.5141.8237.521.4885.6
1969–7060.087.2139.4188.3176.7217.324.9893.8
1970–71x76.698.2132.9164.7195.7239.527.3934.9
1971–72*95.4107.5161.4156.3209.7313.626.21,070.1†
Percentages of Total Gross Farming Income
1938–396.79.013.317.59.440.63.5100.0
1955–565.87.525.820.16.731.92.2100.0
1960–616.98.225.817.88.930.12.3100.0
1961–627.19.425.915.610.029.52.5100.0
1962–636.68.727.616.510.527.62.5100,0
1963–646.68.230.117.29.726.02.2100.0
1964–656.18.821.821.111.029.02.2100.0
1965–666.08.922.719.611.229.62.0100.0
1966–677.19.719.817.012.631.72.1100.0
1967–688.19.816.119.014.929.72.4100.0
1968–698.49.817.619.016.026.82.4100.0
1969–706.79.715.621.119.824.32.8100.0
1970–71x8.210.514.317.620.925.62.9100.0
1971–72*9.010.015.114.619.529.32.4100.0

The following diagram shows farming income for the farming groups.

INDEXES OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF FARM PRODUCTION—Index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in value of gross farming income and volume of farm production, both in total and for component groups. The value of gross farming income is measured at prices current in each particular year. For the compilation of index numbers of volume of farm production, computations have been made for each year showing what the aggregate annual values would have been had the 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production (for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates).

In the following table index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year change.

YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
* Provisional.
INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1955–56343330769457279313258397
1960–61449400851448417326296440
1961–62449443827380452311313426
1962–63462452970442521319333468
1963–645324951238538564350354547
1964–65517552929684661405365567
1965–665446031046684731444363611
1966–67623634879575793461360591
1967–68718633709637926428405586
1968–697956868396891080419443634
1969–706446917507701346384514640
1970–71x8227797156741494422570670
1971–72*10248538726401600553546768
YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
* Provisional.
INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1955–5610816914315215013187139
1960–6117917618319917214392166
1961–6216320018420919614096169
1962–63195225197211208144110178
1963–64215249194219195149111184
1964–65202260196221206158101189
1965–6621927922222820916791200
1966–6723128822224623516780207
1967–6827929122525625016590213
1968–6931529422725627216880218
1969–7025031922426430615292213
1970–71x301349228253317149106217
1971–72*345357220268312159100226

The volume series for total farm production continued to rise during the years from 1963–64 to 1967–68 but the value series showed decreases of 3.3 percent in 1966–67 and 0.8 percent in 1967–68.

The rise in 1968–69 of 8.2 percent in the total value index series was due, substantially, to increased slaughterings, continuing rises in prices for meat, and a recovery in wool prices. The total volume index increased by 2.3 percent.

In 1969–70, although the value index for all farm produce increased by 0.9 percent there were decreases in the value indexes for the three groups—grain and field crops, wool, and dairying. Volume indexes for the three groups also showed decreases and for the first time in over 20 years the volume index for all farm produce showed a decrease. The greater part of the decline was in the dairying and grain and field crops groups, largely as a result of drought conditions.

In 1970–71 the volume index referred to the 1978–79 level.

Provisional figures for 1971–72 show an increase of 14.5 percent in the total value index series. Decreased returns for mutton and lamb, and pigs were strongly offset by increases in all other groups. The volume index of all farm production rose by 4.1 percent.

The tables clearly show the effects of fluctuations in the price of wool from year to year, and the marked increase in beef production in recent years.

Over the 33-year period, the average annual compound rate of increase in the volume series has been 2.4 percent. For the latest 5 years the average annual compound rate of increase has been 1.9 percent.

The following table shows, in quinquennial periods (except for the 4-year period in the last column), the proportions of gross farming income derived from exports of farm produce and from local consumption. A description of the methods of estimation was given in the 1967 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Gross Farming Income1941–42 to 1945–461946–47 to 1950–511951–52 to 1955–561956–57 to 1960—611961–62 to 1965–661966–67 to 1969–70
 Percent
Derived—
     From exports677170686563
     From New Zealand consumption332930323537
                         Totals100100100100100100

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The next table shows the estimated production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last five seasons. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

Utilisation1967–681968—691969–701970—711971–72‡

* Includes small quantities of creamery fat used in whey buttermaking.

† Including residual fat in skim milk from home separation.

‡ Provisional.

 million lb
Creamery buttermaking*450.0485.5428.3419.1447.4
Cheesemaking97.684.087.894.8x91.6
Whole-milk products17.318.721.523.430.0
                              Totals564.9588.3537.6537.3x569.0
Residual fat in skim-milk products5.36.35.65.66.1
               Total processed by dairy factories570.2594.6543.2542.9x575.1
Consumed as milk, cream, or ice cream44.244.445.646.6x48.4
Fed to stock†16.617.317.918.920.1
Wastage6.36.66.16.16.4
                    Total production “at pail”637.3662.9612.8614.5x650.0

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1967—681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
* Provisional.
 tons(000)
Creamery butter243.0264.1233.1227.6x241.5
Whey butter3.42.93.03.23.5
Cheese109.196.198.3106.1102.7
Condensed and powdered whole milk14.417.023.025.037.8
Skim-milk powder144.9133.4110.5123.0193.9
Buttermilk powder23.823.820.518.722.2
Casein46.467.762.054.839.6

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. Most of the cheese exported is a cheddar. Milk powders include those made from whole milk or from separated milk and buttermilk, by-products of buttermaking. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim milk, buttermilk, and whey were almost entirely fed to pigs, but in recent years more has been dried to produce powder.

The following table gives estimates, derived by the New Zealand Dairy Board, of the average milkfat production per cow “at the pail”.

YearTotal MilkfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow†

* Provisional.

† Including an allowance for cows milked on small holdings not covered by the annual farm census.

 million lb(000)lb
1962–635591,997279
1963–645862,011290
1964–656222,032305
1965–666452,088308
1966–676532,131305
1967–686382,232285
1968–696632,304287
1969–706132,321264
1970–716152,239274
1971–72*6502,218293

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board.)

SeasonSuppliers at 31 DecemberAverage size of Herd*Milkfat per Supplier*
* Relates to suppliers with herds of 10 cows or more.
 lb    
1961–6234,700..16,600
1962–6333,4006517,600
1963–6431,7006719,000
1964–6529,7007021,400
1965–6627,9007622,900
1966–6726,3008023,800
1967–6825,7008623,600
1968–6925,0009225,300
1969–7023,7009724,200
1970–7121,90010025,800

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from two Government representatives, all are producer members—three are appointed by the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company, eight are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in six geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into two sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry.

Dairy companies have full power to make manufacturing decisions; they decide what they make from their milk. In this situation there must be a co-ordinating mechanism between manufacturing plans and marketing requirements, and this function of the Dairy Board has been developed over the years.

Reports on market trends, expected returns, product development, and a wide range of other relevant information are collected and rationalised by the board and conveyed in a steady flow to dairy companies. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

From the trading funds of the several products, the board has been able to give financial stimulus, both to vary the quantities of dairy products and to widen their range. Day-to-day liaison with the Dairy Research Institute and the co-operative dairy companies promotes product research and development.

MEAT PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL—The following table shows in summary form production and disposal of meat. Figures are shown at bone-in weights.

Product and Use1965–661966–671967–681968–691969–70
 tons(000)
Production
Beet265.3271.4314.5344.2360.9
Veal22.025.624.926.325.6
Mutton149.9185.5212.7196.7196.8
Lamb312.0326.9344.7357.1356.9
Pig meat—
     Porker16.114.816.215.316.8
     Baconer21.319.218.819.320.1
     Chopper2.42.02.41.71.7
Edible offal40.845.551.853.356.0
                    Total829.9890.8986.01,014.11,034.8
Disposal
Exports and ships' stores536.2590.9680.8715.3 
For canning11.713.912.111.3 
Local consumption281.9286.0293.1287.4 
                    Total829.9890.8986.01,014.1 

Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately one-third of total production. The figures in the next table give actual consumption during the years ended 30 September, by classes of meat (bone-in weights).

ProductLocal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
1967–681968—691969–701967–681968–691969–70
 tons(000)lb
Beef121.2122.9120.998.899.396.4
Veal10.49.59.18.57.77.3
Mutton81.183.985.566.167.868.2
Lamb26.425.226.321.520.421.0
Pig meat—
     Porker15.415.316.412.612.413.1
     Baconer19.819.019.616.115.315.6
     Chopper2.22.31.91.81.91.5
Edible offal12.313.314.410.010.711.5
                    Totals288.8291.6294.2235.5235.5234.6

The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of livestock slaughtered for food during each of the last 11 September years. The figures are for total killings—i.e., they include export works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and an allowance for killings on farms.

Year Ended 30 SeptemberSheepLambsCattleCalvesPigs
 carcasses(000)
19617,28919,8469951,299839
19628,00221,5181,2241,413850
19637,22021,3081,2821,412921
19647,90122,1571,2861,3921,002
19657,55221,9241,1381,231951
19666,71122,32611,1721,102874
19678,47424,1581,2121,217790
196810,15926,42411,4951,235821
19699,60226,8571,6941,357790
19709,84627,5371,8481,310828
197110,04127,2231,8281,076922

Meat intended for export from New Zealand is slaughtered at meat export slaughterhouses, of which 41 are at present operating. They are licensed annually under the provisions of the Meat Act 1964 and regulations thereunder, which also authorises officers of the Department of Agriculture to inspect all meat whether for export or for local consumption.

The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and co-operative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people he did business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry. The board ensures that farmers receive a return for their meat which is satisfactory when compared with overseas realisations.

The Meat Producers Board and the Wool Board are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day to day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

The following table shows for the last 11 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 metric tons (000)cents$(m)
196226671.98191.6
196328178.70221.4
1964279101.17283.0
196528377.40218.8
196631576.46241.0
196732264.77208.4
196833050.42166.5
196933261.86205.3
197032856.48185.3
197133453.42178.4
197232266.46214.2

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

There is, at present, only a small annual consumption of wool by local mills. Figures for local consumption in recent years are as follows.

Year Ended 30 JuneQuantity Used (Greasy Basis)
 metric tons
 (000)
19629.3
19638.2
19649.2
196510.1
196610.6
196710.2
196811.3
196914.6
197017.4
197121.9
197224.8

An analysis of greasy wool sold at New Zealand auctions, according to quality groups, is given in the following table. (Source: Wool Marketing Corporation.)

Quality Group1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Bales (000)Percentage of Total SalesBales (000)Percentage of Total SalesBales (000)Percentage of Total SalesBales (000)Percentage of Total SalesBales (000)Percentage of Total Sales
60–64's and up11.90.811.60.812.30.812.61.015.11.2
60's8.50.58.10.57.30.58.70.59.20.8
58–60's, 58's, and 56–58's63.24.060.24.058.94.047.83.574.65.5
50–56's and 56's109.06.9105.27.092.56.5100.87.289.66.8
52's40.82.657.23.749.13.550.53.548.13.5
50's114.27.3111.97.587.16.073.05.383.96.2
48–50's146.99.4155.110.3145.010.2124.59.0133.810.0
46–50's and 48's323.420.6354.123.5306.321.3289.621.0291.822.0
46–48's475.330.2391.726.0388.027.0366.526.5347.726.0
46's and lower278.717.7255.016.7290.220.2312.622.5239.518.0
                    Totals1,571.9100.01,510.2100.01,436.6100.01,386.6100.01,333.3100.0

The New Zealand Wool Board was set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944. There are eight members—six elected representatives of sheep farmers and two Government-appointed members. The Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries is an associate member. The board's functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool; to promote scientific or industrial research into all aspects of the industry; to undertake joint projects with the Meat and/or Dairy Boards which may benefit the wool production industry; and to advise Government on the affairs of the industry. The board may exercise further functions in production and marketing, through regulation. Income is derived from three sources, namely, from a levy on all wool, either exported or processed in New Zealand; from interest earnings on funds held by the Wool Board; and from the Government. For the 1971–72 season the levy was 1.55c per kilogram. In the same year, the Government met one-half of the costs of wool research in New Zealand and one-half of the total cost of the Wool Board's contribution to the International Wool Secretariat.

Approximately four-fifths of the board's income is contributed to the work of the International Wool Secretariat. This organisation is a partnership of the wool boards of four grower countries—New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. Its functions are the promotion of wool in consuming markets often in conjunction with manufacturers and retailers; technical service to manufacturers; quality control of manufacturers licensed to use the Woolmark trade mark; and research and product development. The International Wool Secretariat has its headquarters in London and branches in 25 consuming countries.

In New Zealand the board's staff are engaged in local promotion of wool, technical service and quality control to the local industry, and technical promotion overseas. It has a shearing instruction service and staff engaged in packaging wool transport, wool handling, and economics and marketing research.

The Wool Research Organisation, established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, conducts fundamental research into wool chemistry, physics, and biosynthesis. It carries out applied research in scouring, new products processing and manufacturing performance, and fibre measurement. In November 1971, a pilot manufacturing plant was completed to aid in the applied research field, especially in the processing of crossbred wool.

The New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation was established from 1 December 1972 by the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972 to develop the marketing of wool to best advantage.

FARM PRODUCTIVITY—Based on sophisticated techniques of grassland farming, agricultural production has continued to grow in a way which has resulted in increasing quantities of dairy products, meat, and wool for export. This has been accompanied by a marked rise in the productivity of labour employed in farming—production has steadily increased without an increase in the farm labour force. A general improvement in management practices and a heavy rate of investment in land improvement have been the principal factors responsible for the expansion of output. Two-thirds of the 2.6 percent annual increase in output between 1920 and 1960 was attributed to increased farm inputs and one-third to improved efficiency in the use of resources. The pattern is one of more intensive farming, for the area used for farming has not expanded since early in the present century. This has meant more intensive use of public and social capital. Since, with more intensive farming, there is a greater demand for any given operation in a defined area, recent decades have witnessed a very substantial growth of contract services for farmers in harvesting and in farm maintenance and improvement. The trend towards this division of function in farming activities was, of course, largely influenced by the production and availability of highly specialised new farm machinery which it would have been uneconomic for individual farmers to own. The marked increase in labour productivity has reflected in part this increase in contracted off-farm labour services, though these are included in the measure of total farm inputs already mentioned.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE—An Agricultural Development Conference was held in 1963 and 1964. It was called as a result of the feeling in both producer and official circles that agricultural expansion should proceed at a more rapid rate and that a thorough examination should be made of the economic factors impeding such expansion. Targets in livestock numbers were set by the conference, which also made a number of recommendations to the Government based on the conclusions of the eight working parties.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE—At the National Development Conference in 1969 the targets established by the Agricultural Development Conference were reviewed after working parties had examined commodity developments, capital requirements, and manpower requirements of farming. Further projections were made to 1972–73 and to 1978–79. In addition to pastoral production, agriculture was extended to include grains and seeds and horticulture. For the period ending 1978–79, the total agricultural contribution to national earnings was projected to increase by 5.1 percent annually. This would require an increase in livestock numbers at a rate of 2.6 percent a year, reaching 111 million ewe equivalents in 1972–73, and 130 million ewe equivalents in 1978–79.

The targets for all sectors were again reviewed towards the end of 1971 and accepted at a further National Development Conference in March 1972. In this exercise the emphasis was shifted from the physical output, expressed in ewe equivalents, to the earning capacity of the agricultural capacity of the agricultural industry, measured in money terms. At the same time the planning period was extended to 1981–82. The earnings from agriculture in current money value were projected to increase from $942 million in the base year 1969–70 to $1,949 million in 1981–82.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964. It comprises the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries (Chairman), the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries (Deputy-Chairman), the Dominion President, Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc.), the Chairmen of the three producer boards (Dairy, Meat, and Wool), the Secretary to the Treasury, and the Secretary of Industries and Commerce.

In 1968, the Agricultural Production Council accepted the role of Agricultural Sector Committee for the purposes of the National Development Conference, and, following the establishment of the National Development Council after this conference, the Agricultural Production Council became the Sector Council for Agriculture under the new organisation for national planning, preserving its original functions but taking on additional responsibilities.

The main functions of the council are to keep under review the targets and objectives established by the Agricultural Development Council, as revised by the National Development Conference; measures and resources necessary for attainment and prospects for expanding, developing, and diversifying markets; processing and production for export and domestic requirements.

The council has the following standing committees: Executive, Manpower, Meat, Horticulture, Grains and Seeds, and Economics which has the following subgroups—finance, taxation, and farm costs. In addition, working parties are established from time to time to report on specific subjects.

The council has also established 23 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which bring together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; ensure that farmers and their advisers are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance; and keep the council advised of local problems and circumstances.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are: to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries there are Divisions of Animal Health, Meat, Dairy, Advisory Services, Agricultural Research, Fisheries Research, Fisheries Management, Economics, and Administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The major objective of the Animal Health Division is to improve health through control measures and inspection services. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export; they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry.

The division is concerned with the control of noxious weeds through the agency of county councils and, with the Pest Destruction Council through district pest destruction boards, in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of all stock and meat produced in abattoirs and meat export works—and for the standard of hygiene in these establishments as well as in all meat export and domestic meat packing plants. It supervises the standard of hygiene in game packing houses and gives veterinary certificates covering the export of game and fish. It is also responsible for the grading of meat for consumption in New Zealand,

Dairy Produce—Instruction in the manufacture of all dairy products is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and on arrival in United Kingdom. The division is responsible also for the registration of town-supply farm dairies and provides technical advice on market milk treatment. Laboratories at Auckland, New Plymouth, Mount Maunganui, Wellington, and Hamilton provide comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to quality control. All dairy farms are visited regularly by farm dairy instructors. Dairy advisory officers give specialist advice at farms and dairy factories. The division licenses and registers dairy factories and approves their design, general suitability and economic justification.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

Graduate advisory officers, servicing districts containing about 700 farmers, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, groups techniques, and the mass media. There are four commercial demonstration farms at Kaikohe, Wairoa, Hindon, and Te Anau, and co-operative demonstration projects are undertaken on selected farms.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, the Flock House Farm of Instruction at Bulls.

Poultry farmers also receive specialist advice.

The advisory service extends to commercial producers of pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, berry fruits, cut flowers, nursery stock, grapes and wine, bees and honey, and to a limited extent, hops and tobacco. It covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control, and crop production and handling. Advisory officers demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping. Experimental and demonstration areas are sited at Kerikeri and Manutuke (citrus). More emphasis is being given to commercial horticultural units to assist producers to improve the profitability of their holdings.

Horticultural inspectors inspect commercial plant nurseries, market gardens, and orchards for plant pests and diseases to restrict their spread. They advise producers on dates for picking, and give instruction in grading and packing fruit for export and local markets. They also inspect fruit, vegetables, and plant material for export from New Zealand. All pip fruit delivered to the New Zealand Apple and Pear. Marketing Board for local and export markets is inspected by horticultural inspectors. An orange-quality testing service is provided for the Citrus Marketing Authority and a honey-grading service for the Honey Marketing Authority. All honey for export is inspected before certificates are issued.

Information is supplied for marketing organisations in the form of seasonal forecasts of production. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under the control of the Director of Agricultural Research, with headquarters at Ruakura. Directors of Animal Research, Soil Research, and Field Research are all stationed at Ruakura. Irrigation research is done at Winchmore, and other research establishments are at Whatawhata (near Hamilton), which specialises in hill-country research, and at Invermay. Research work on animal diseases is centred largely at Wallaceville under a director. Horticultural research is centred at Levin and viticultural research at Te Kauwhata. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of production and marketing policies, and the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent directly responsible to the Director-General. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items of concern to agriculture from overseas.

PASTURE GRASSES—Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in co-operation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer can thus avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialised knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains.

The following table shows the areas under artificially sown grasses, and includes areas of tussock and other naturally established native grasses which have been permanently improved by oversowing with grasses and clovers.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture Grasses and Lucerne
Cut for Seed, Hay, or SilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Silage
* Includes 74,411 hectares also sown with crops in 1963–64, 70,374 hectares in 1964–65, 74,157 hectares in 1965–66, 61,690 hectares in 1966–67, 63,434 hectares in 1967–68, and 64,139 hectares in 1968–69.
 hectares
1961–62469,4407,319,784
1962–63561,4207,336,635
1963–64540,5667,459,053*
1964–65541,2687,323,140*
1965–66599,1327,414,547*
1966–67597,0457,609,723
1967–68605,0177,563,834
1968–69664,7547,637,463*
1969–70621,4867,637,768

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in 1971–72 totalled 2,032,000 tons, the superphosphate content of this output being 1,668,000 tons. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about one-third of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8,000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $50 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

Achievement of the increased rate of development recommended by the Agricultural Development Conference is estimated to require an annual increase of fertiliser usage of about 7 percent. The greater input will be needed because, as production develops, fertilisers will be used on more difficult country and on land on which production has already been intensified.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tons in 1945. Since then the usage has dropped to less than 1 million tons annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements, such as molybdenum, according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest 6 years.

YearGrassland Area Topdressed
With Artificial Fertiliser OnlyWith Lime OnlyWith Both Artificial Fertilisers and LimeTotal Grassland Topdressed
 hectares
1965–664,571,075147,981582,3495,301,405
1966–674,800,827140,666568,6605,510,154
1967–684,345,080131,666472,3864,949,133
1968–694,507,956137,516477,3305,122,802
1969–704,853,833165,387632,8925,652,112
1970–714,762,012171,900696,2515,630,163

Though topdressing in the past was practically confined to sown grasses on the flat and gently undulating country, the application of fertilisers to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities from aircraft has followed from the development of commercial aerial topdressing operations since 1949. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 11D.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1967—681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73 (voted)
 $(000)
Lime transport assistance879088128241280
Fertiliser transport subsidy2,2803,0755,5797,0508,94510,500
Flood and drought relief2163164773,54131320
Weedicide and pesticide subsidy3,2594,0224,7015,000
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis—
     Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs1,0281,0631,2721,3962,1323,620
Subsidies to pest destruction boards1,6281,5181,8992,1042,2692,485
Grants to pest destruction boards348337
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards176174172190224230
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act125153204304161180
Agricultural Engineering Institute8398125142190246
Herd Improvement Council79799797111120
National Hydatids Council7070105106120140
Veterinary Services Council404042484344
Fertiliser price subsidy5,36613,13415,000
Special Assistance Fund9,786185
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)1,1342,049500
Stock drench subsidy3,5914,000
Aerial application of fertiliser and lime subsidy497700
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board3,8124,400

Animal Remedies Subsidy—A subsidy was introduced in June 1971 to reduce the cost to farmers of stock drenches. This subsidy applies to a range of anthelminites which have been fully licensed by the Animal Remedies Board.

Lime Subsidy—Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. Farmers meet full transport costs and are entitled to claim a refund from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. In June 1971 this rate was set at 6c per ton-mile for the first 60 miles and 2c per ton-mile thereafter.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per ton ex-works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. It was increased to $7.50 per ton in June 1971. From June 1973 it has applied to the first 30 tons only.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—As from 1 August 1965 a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser (excluding lime) was introduced following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference.

As from 1 August 1969 fertiliser transport was subsidised for the distance of a farm from the nearest fertiliser works at the rate of: 9c a ton per mile for the first 20 miles, 5c a ton per mile for the next 40 miles, and 2c a ton per mile for mileage over 60. In June 1971 this subsidy was increased to 7c a ton-mile between 20 and 100 miles, and 4c a ton-mile over 100 miles, but was reduced in June 1973.

Aerial Topdressing Subsidy—In June 1971 a subsidy of $1 a ton was introduced on all fertiliser and on subsidisable lime, applied from the air. This subsidy was terminated in June 1973.

Weedicide and Pesticide Subsidy—Introduced in 1969, this subsidy is designed to assist farmers to meet the cost of the more expensive materials they are required to use in the face of restrictions on the use of substances such as DDT. This subsidy was terminated in June 1973.

Pest Destruction Boards—In the post-war years a determined effort has been made to rid the country of rabbits which were lowering the carrying capacity of farm land and causing a loss of production running into many million dollars in value annually. Rabbit-infested areas were brought under rabbit board control, and effective steps were made towards their elimination. From 1 April 1968 rabbit boards have been reconstituted as pest destruction boards which may also undertake opossum and wallaby control. Rates are subsidised by the Government, which also makes grants to pest destruction boards.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent attempts to deal with specific problems, such as the eradication of bovine tuberculosis, which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups, and the cost of the Government contribution towards running particular organisations, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where comparison is available. The figures relate to holdings of 10 acres (4.05 hectares) and over.

Type of Machine19601965196919701971
Agricultural tractors78,41589,43195,42195,50296,666
Milking machines36,72132,88729,10827,93025,793
Shearing stands61,63765,91871,27171,05572,669
Pick-up balers7,93210,24712,38012,61812,926
Side delivery rakes21,95324,17825,43925,37825,064
Harvesters—
     Forage1,2004,2805,3705,4035,451
     Header4,7465,2895,6925,7245,591
Electric fence units54,70763,97069,38770,14074,583
Field mowers....52,17552,00551,008
Ploughs....42,95142,10141,392
Disc harrows....33,76232,97932,499

The figures show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanisation of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period.

Milking Machines—Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January 1952, 1,799,375, or 94 percent, were milked by machine. At the end of January 1971 there were 25,793 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 199,887 sets of cups, compared with 27,930 machines and 205,268 sets of cups at 31 January 1970.

Agricultural Tractors—The classes of tractors on farm holdings outside borough boundaries at 31 January 1971 are given in the following table.

Type19701971
Diesel oil—
     Crawler7,5977,607
     Wheel43,26046,313
               Totals50,85753,920
Petrol or kerosene—
     Crawler5,9464,959
     Wheel38,69937,787
               Totals44,64542,746

14 B—CROPS

GENERAL—Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities. There is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying more than half of New Zealand's wheat yield, about half of the oats threshed, and over half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has grown higher proportions of wheat and barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing nearly three-quarters of the total yield. About two-thirds of the area closed off for production of grass seed is in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both Auckland and Wellington with these vegetables. Hastings has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christ-church over 405 hectares are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating more than 405 hectares. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance near Auckland and in Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The area devoted to each of the principal crops in the 1970–71 season and the percentage distributions for each crop by statistical areas for the North and South Islands are given in the following table.

CropTotal AreaNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonNorth Island
 HectaresPercentage of crop area
For threshing—
     Wheat97,5280.11.70.44.46.6
     Oats22,1400.40.10.6 2.43.5
     Barley81,3780.30.32.70.76.30.718.729.7
     Maize11,9821.61.638.239.912.60.62.396.8
     Peas (not canning)22,5330.1 0.42.26.89.5
Oats—
     For chaff, hay, or silage8,7300.70.32.90.11.31.26.112.6
     Fed off, cut green, abandoned17,1140.30.31.41.40.43.37.1
Root crops—
     Potatoes8,2870.617.62.80.87.30.826.055.9
     Swedes57,4500.212.00.50.91.16.020.7
     Turnips75,2910.60.65.80.62.71.06.017.3
Vegetable crops for processing9,6740.30.60.214.843.30.10.960.2
Vegetable crops for market5,2426.631.16.83.710.40.614.874.0
Green fodder—
     Rape20,1590.10.90.46.72.610.7
     Chou moellier, kale34,5620.50.97.10.413.82.020.545.2
     Other fodder crops17,9390.90.613.50.67.80.712.937.0
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed92,7940.10.30.23.50.13.47.6
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage510,2676.86.635.30.64.59.59.873.1
Lucerne for hay or silage88,0490.30.29.20.43.70.62.416.8
Commercial orchards11,4515.212.215.83.023.90.11.261.4
Market gardens9,1984.031.25.32.713.60.614.872.2
CropTotal AreaMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandSouth Island
 hectaresPercentage of crop area
For threshing—
     Wheat97,5280.866.613.212.893.4
     Oats22,1401.20.459.517.018.496.5
     Barley81,3783.81.055.17.13.370.3
     Maize11,9821.61.63.2
     Peas (not canning)22,5334.30.182.63.20.35
Oats—
     For chaff, hay, or silage8,7302.30.90.437.425.321.187.4
     Fed off, cut green, abandoned17,1146.92.10.363.816.73.192.9
Root crops—
     Potatoes8,2871.31.632.45.53.344.1
     Swedes57,4500.21.10.813.922.740.679.3
     Turnips75,2912.81.30.349.919.98.582.7
Vegetable crops for processing9,6743.85.330.50.239.8
Vegetable crops for market5,2422.23.0 11.18.90.826.0
Green fodder—
     Rape20,1594.20.659.121.93.589.3
     Chou moellier, kale34,5620.90.80.112.317.423.554.8
     Other fodder crops17,9391.91.30.435.617.56.363.0
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed92,7944.00.772.86.48.592.4
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage510,2671.11.80.99.35.38.526.9
Lucerne for hay or silage88,0496.50.952.420.72.783.2
Commercial orchards11,4512.218.14.413.938.6
Market gardens9,1981.36.210.99.20.227.8

STATISTICS—Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual statistical report on farm production issued annually by the Department of Statistics. Unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection relate to holdings of 2 acres (approx. 1 hectare) for 1970–71 and to holdings of 10 acres (4.05 hectares) and over for earlier years situated outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

BUSHEL WEIGHTS—For statistical and other purposes it is at times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce and fruit, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

ProduceWeight of BushelFruitWeight of Bushel
 lb lb
Wheat60Apples40
Oats40Pears38
Barley50Quinces40
Maize56Peaches42
Peas60Nectarines42
Ryecorn56Apricots42
Beans65Plums42
Grass seed20Cherries42
 Oranges42—43
 Lemons (uncured)42

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION—A general summary of the areas under cultivation is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection until 1970–71 when they relate to areas of 2 acres (.81 hectares) and upwards relate to holdings of 10 acres (4.05 hectares) and upwards outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

YearPasture Land*Field CropsPlantationsOrchards, Market Gardens, and Nurseries†Lying FallowTotal Cultivated Land‡

* Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or silage, and crops sown together with grasses, which have been included in field crops.

† Excludes domestic orchards.

‡ Areas in residences, private grounds, gardens and domestic orchards are excluded.

§ Includes land prepared for grassland but not sown at 31 January.

∥ Figures included in pasture land from 1969–70.

 hectares (000)
1964–657,2531,04941913518,785
1965–667,440§1,08942714298,999
1966–677,665§1,07643015259,210
1967–687,6041,13244616249,222
1968—697,6661,21546517169,379
1969–707,7621,163480189,423
1970–717,864976507249,371

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS—The following table shows the areas under each of the principal field crops for the years stated.

Crop1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71

* Including turnips and rape mixed.

† Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

‡ Includes linseed, mangolds, and tobacco.

§ Includes crops sown together with grasses, 64,139 hectares.

∥ Included in other crops.

 hectares
Wheat95,663129,138132,121115,67898,563
Oats26,87634,34735,76649,51447,985
Barley42,40068,66668,50263,33686,987
Maize5,1017,9669,69011,36216,122
Peas for threshing11,05714,02820,29524,50022,533
Linen flax227182190202
Potatoes8,0209,51710,1329,9288,287
Turnips and swedes*182,362177,967166,922151,716132,741
Onions7907881,0208791,041
Vegetable crops for processing6,4967,9508,99310,0759,674
Green fodder†82,19373,58477,08574,98554,722
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed72,54261,19263,49052,71292,794
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage452,048449,533523,892491,716510,267
Lucerne for hay or silage72,45779,72377,37277,05888,049
Other crops‡17,63317,78419,66829,57227,403
                    Totals1,075,8641,132,3651,214,948§1,163,2211,197,370

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. A considerable portion of the area under cereal crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff, hay, or silage, or is fed off. In regard to peas it should be noted that additional areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

VEGETABLES—The production of the main vegetables for the fresh market is shown in the following table for the latest 5 years; production for processing is also shown for 1971.

Vegetable196719681969197019711971 (Processed)
* Outdoor plus glasshouse production.
 tons
Cabbage24,16823,95432,17330,40627,66333
Carrots22,33222,44728,61030,27022,5954,098
Cauliflower25,94326,44926,72425,87522,997147
Kumaras5,6246,3227,2598,0956,758
Lettuce14,09813,86615,93113,90512,806
Onions24,66425,64335,67830,96530,9671,738
Parsnips4,6094,8327,5166,6053,81931
Peas60955276057238430,485
Sweet Corn26740763959299721,223
Tomatoes*19,48721,42420,01721,93021,74521,087

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per hectare of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
 Areas for threshing (hectares)
1963—6482,54010,75438,0323,90512,129
1964—6574,46115,69035,2223,91911,024
1965—6680,74515,66333,9873,26511,649
1966—6793,3059,31137,2213,06111,057
1967—68126,65113,95562,7775,87314,028
1968—69129,97515,90663,5377,13823,927
1969—70108,39421,00856,0808,08924,500
1970—7197,52822,14181,37811,98222,533
 Total yields (bushels (000))
1963—6410,0681,5485,7767441,100
1964—659,1982,4944,670927878
1965—6610,7212,3995,0307621,05.8
1966—6712,7781,5535,9097281,183
1967—6816,2532,4679,6741,4131,334
1968—6916,7792,87410,2542,0142,080
1969—7010,5533,1817,6922,3081,822
1970—7111,9653,29311,4343,9831,905
 Yields per hectare (bushels)
1963—64121.98143.95151.87190.5290.69
1964—65123.53158.95132.59236.5479.64
1965—66132.78153.16148.00233.3890.82
1966—67136.95166.79158.75237.83106.99
1967—68128.33176.78154.10240.5995.09
1968—69129.09180.69161.39282.1586.93
1969—7097.36151.42137.16285.3374.36
1970—71122.68148.73140.50332.4284.54

WHEAT—As a result of the equitable price of wheat combined with sowing of increased acreages of higher yielding varieties, and also to other economic factors, by 1968–69 the total yield had moved up to record levels of twice those of 8 years earlier, but production was seriously affected by drought conditions in 1969–70 and near-drought conditions in 1970–71.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Wheat Board—Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Board. The operations of this board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, and bakers, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Trade and Industry as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 15 million bushels—some 11 million bushels being required for flour and cereal foods, and the balance for poultry food and seed. In the 1968–69 season New Zealand's production of milling wheat was nearly self-sufficient, requiring only a small quantity to be imported; some surplus non-milling wheat was exported.

Varieties of Wheat—The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, etc. Wheat growers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Crop Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Wheat Research Institute, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The survey of varieties of wheat grown for threshing is now carried out each year.

The 1971 survey which related to wheat sown in 1970 and harvested in 1971 showed the following results.

VarietyArea (Hectares)YieldAverage Yield per Hectare (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of wheat threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 108,394 hectares which produced 10,553,000 bushels.
Aotea58,7927,153,60159.79121.68
Hilgendorf10,6581,261,45110.54118.36
Arawa18,0652,401,25620.07132.92
Gamenya4,109498,1804.16121.24
Cross918115,358.96125.66
Triple Dirk88483,726.7094.71
Raven3,303347,6242.91105.24
Other799104,046.87130.22
                    Totals97,52811,965,242100.00122.69

OATS—The area under oats has declined steadily, the greatest decreases being in oats for chaff, hay, and silage. This decline resulted largely from the replacement of horses by tractors.

Varieties of Oats Threshed—A survey covering the 1970–71 season gave the following results.

VarietyArea (Hectares)YieldAverage Yield per Hectare (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of oats threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 21,008 hectares which produced 3,181,000 bushels.
Onward5,321889,82727.02167.23
Mapua11,1361,717,03952.14154.19
Black Supreme2,289307,7949.35134.47
Other White2,027239,9997.29118.40
Other Coloured1,367138,5674.20101.37
                    Totals22,1403,293,226100.00148.75

More than half a million bushels of oats are milled each year to produce some 3,000 short tons of rolled oats, and 2,300 short tons of oatmeal and proprietary oaten foods.

BARLEY—In the 1970–71 season there were 11,433,841 bushels of barley threshed from 81,378 hectares compared with 7,692,000 bushels from 56,080 hectares in the 1969–70 season. About half the crop is used for malting and half for manufactured stock food.

Varieties of barley grown in the 1970–71 season were as set out below.

VarietyArea (Hectares)YieldAverage Yield per Hectare (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of barley threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 63,5.11 hectares.
Carlsberg21,1742,920,25825.54137.92
Kenia9,1021,209,55810.58132.89
Research9,9151,291,48911.30130 26
Zephyr40,3645,911,43351.70146.45
Other varieties823101,1030.88122.85
                    Totals81,37811,433,841100.00140.50

PEAS—The area of peas for threshing has increased rapidly over the last 4 years moving from 11,057 hectares in 1966–67 to 22,533 hectares in 1970–71. There have been fluctuations in the export figures for this commodity. In 1949 nearly 850,000 bushels were exported, whereas by 1953 the amount had fallen to approximately 370,000 bushels, but increased to 1,515,182 bushels in the year ended 30 June 1971.

Varieties of peas grown in the 1970–71 season were as under.

VarietyArea (Hectares)YieldAverage Yield per Hectare (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of peas threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 24,500 hectares which produced 1,822,000 bushels.
Garden varieties7,579650,34834.1385.81
Field varieties—
     Blue Boiling4,048350,70018.4186.64
     Maple9,285774,51940.6583.42
     White1,621129,7816.8180.06
                    Totals22,5331,905,348100.0084.56

The foregoing figures exclude green peas grown for market or processing (e.g., canning and quick freezing). There has been an increasing use of quick-frozen peas.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal function of the board is to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the board may impose a levy not exceeding $3 per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. For the 1971–72 season the rate was $18 per 2,000 lb in the South Island and $22 per 2,000 lb unit in the North Island.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 2 3/4 million is now supplied from the same acreages as were 1 3/4 million people 20 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been achieved through new varieties and better farming practice based on research results.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest 6 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonstons
1965–669,888230,85823.35
1966–678,020184,39822.99
1967–689,517232,11024.39
1968–6910,132252,30124.90
1969–709,928249,20425.10
1970–718,287206,61124.93

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest 6 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonstons
1965–6670821,20829.95
1966–6779023,91630.27
1967–6878823,76630.16
1968–691,02130,40929.78
1969–7087925,54829.06
1970–711,04129,14628.00

LINSEED—The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. The highest level of 9,889 hectares was reached in 1951–52. In the processing of linseed, the linseed oil is extracted while the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food. A small quantity of unprocessed linseed is also used for this purpose.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS—The following table gives the areas of the supplementary fodder crops.

YearGrasses and Clovers, Including Lucerne for Hay or SilageCereal CropsRape, Kale, and Chou MoellierSwedes, Turnips, Turnips and Rape†Total Area of Fodder Crops*

* Excludes small areas of other minor fodder crops.

† From 1969 excludes turnips and rape (mixed).

 hectares
1965–66517,86128,86392,724191,598831,046
1966–67524,50327,14282,193182,362816,200
1967–68529,25630,86173,584177,967811,668
1968–69601,26429,53977,085166,922874,810
1969–70568,77446,32074,985151,716841,795
1970–71598,31736,62954,721132,741822,408

In 1970–71 grasses and clovers cut for hay or silage totalled 510,268 hectares and lucerne 88,049 hectares. Oats was the only cereal crop utilised in any quantity for this purpose. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock. The area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or silage or fed off amounted to 25,844 hectares. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (20,159 hectares) and chou moellier, including kale (34,562 hectares). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1970–71 being 132,741 hectares.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Division of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—Of the total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during 1970–71, 92. percent was in the South Island.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, are given in the following table.

Crop1966–671967–681968—691969–701970–71

* Includes Ariki ryegrass.

† Ariki from 1968–69.

Hectares
Ryegrass—
     Perennial22,43220,312*18,15324,85148,433
     Italian3,0171,9442,868†
     Short Rotation (H.1.)7,4036,8575,483
Red clover (including cowgrass)6,2524,8115,78715,31626,449
White clover18,84010,52713,082
Lucerne5,6124,7004,8073,6795,427
Cocksfoot3,7833,8883,9958,86612,484
Chewings fescue4071,195565
Crested dogstail1,5373,2123,802
Other grasses and clovers3,2583,7464,948
                    Totals72,54161,19263,49052,71292,793

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass and clover seeds treated by machine dressing plants for the latest 3 years are given below.

Type of SeedUnit196919701971
Ryegrass—
     Perennialbush1,031,414883,3891,557,175
     Italian (including W. Wolths)bush169,473226,874494,928
     Short rotation (H1)bush368,154242,578353,997
     Arikibush181,091118,440337,513
Cocksfootlb2,549,9761,360,8453,233,867
Chewings fescuelb378,522120,935208,663
Crested dogstaillb2,780,6471,675,1862,974,351
Browntoplb209,085203,136259,074
Timothylb1,045,957930,132897,022
White cloverlb5,631,6272,719,4397,738,323
Suckling cloverlb109,47675,64672,434
Suckling white mixturelb320,232238,913242,861
Broad red clover (including cowgrass)lb1,370,9401,193,6821,496,987
Montgomery red cloverlb1,319,426990,431743,011
Lucernelb889,502509,9411,181,539
Other grass and cloverslb153,30476,174340,719

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

MARKET GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS—The following table sets out the acreages for market gardens, plantations, etc. Forest Service plantations are included in these figures. Until 1970–71 statistics relate only to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) and over outside boroughs, in that year to holdings of 2 acres (.81 hectares) and within boroughs.

In 1956–57 the area of market gardens in the 1–9 acre (0.4 to 3.6 hectares) group represented 19 percent of the total acreage; in the case of nurseries the percentage was 21 percent and for private gardens 5 percent. Plantations were scarcely affected, being well under 1 percent. Figures include berryfruit gardens.

YearMarket Gardens*NurseriesPrivate Gardens, etc.Plantations

* Excluding crops for Processing.

† Year ended 30 June.

hectares
1965–665,23574849,637427,459
1966–676,06987047,216429,617
1967–686,68088846,291446,021
1968–697,79694046,645464,828
1969–707,1671,21552,038480,185
1970–71†9,1981,51655,209507,266

Commercial Gardens—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries estimates that approximately 2,700 vegetable growers were cultivating a total area of approximately 18,211 hectares in 1964. Included in this figure are approximately 7,689 hectares used exclusively for growing crops for processing.

Commercial berryfruit gardens are surveyed every 5 years. The Ministry of Agriculture's last survey was in 1969 when 569 hectares farmed by 571 growers were recorded. In 1969 the areas then being grown (in hectares) were raspberries 231; strawberries 208; black currants 45; gooseberries 24; boysenberries 63; loganberries 8. The production of berryfruits in the 1968–69 season was estimated as follows: raspberries, 1,226 tons; strawberries, 4,034 tons; black currants, 223 tons; gooseberries, 91 tons; boysenberries, 328 tons; and loganberries 63 tons. The greatest concentration of gardens is in Canterbury near Christchurch and Waimate with the combined total of 157 hectares. Raspberries account for 85 of the 119 hectares of berryfruit grown in the Nelson province. The 53 hectares in the Wairarapa are mainly of mixed berryfruit holdings. In the vicinity of Auckland 61 hectares of strawberries are grown. Other major centres of berryfruit growing are Central Otago, 25 hectares; Manawatu, 44 hectares; and Hawke's Bay, 51 hectares. Gooseberries are not grown commercially to any extent outside the Wairarapa (13 hectares). These estimates cover all gardens of over half an acre (approximately 0.2 hectare) and smaller gardens with more than a quarter of an acre (approximately 0.1 hectare) of strawberries, including those in boroughs. The only berryfruit for which there is an organised marketing scheme is the raspberry, for which local marketing committees have been established in Nelson (since 1940) and in Canterbury and Otago (since 1959), while a Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to co-ordinate marketing by the three district committees.

Nurseries—The number of registered nurseries registered which excludes those producing seedlings, perennials and pulps, and those operated by government and local authorities at 31 December 1972, totalled 760 and covered 1,343 hectares.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Apples and pears are the main fruits, the principal growing areas being Nelson and Hawke's Bay. Peach and plum orchards are distributed over Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, and near Alexandra. Central Otago, with its hot summers and severe winters, produces the greater part of the English plums, apricots, and cherries. The coastal strip from North Auckland, through the Bay of plenty, to Gisborne is sufficiently mild for the production of citrus and other subtropical fruits such as passionfruit, tamarilloes, and Chinese gooseberries.

The area in commercial holdings of 2 acres (approximately 1 hectare) and over returned asunder fruit trees was given as 11,451 hectares at 30 June 1971.

During 1968 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries made the fourth comprehensive field survey of fruit trees in commercial orchards. This survey covered all orchards with 100 or more deciduous fruit trees, over 50 citrus trees, subtropical fruits, and mixed orchards of half an acre and over. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has supplied the following numbers of fruit trees of principal kinds in commercial orchards based on 1968 survey figures: apple, 1,465,359; pear, 192,946; quince, 1,777; peach, 407,862; nectarine, 41,173; apricot, 159,081; plum, 113,206; cherry, 23,407; lemon, 36,372; orange, 142,491; grapefruit, 45,087; mandarin, 68,656; tangelo, 47,468.

The 1968 survey showed that the total number of fruit trees had increased since the third survey of 1963. There were 252,000 more apple trees and 18,600 more pear trees. A total of 338,074 citrus trees occupying 721 hectares of commercial orchard area was recorded in the 1968 survey. This amounted to a doubling of the total number of citrus trees over the five years since the 1963 survey.

A survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1970 of all vineyards containing at least half an acre (0.2 hectares) covered 320 vineyards. The total area in grapes was 1,468 hectares, yielding a crop of 13,223 tons. 96.5 percent was used for wine production, 2 percent was sold as table grapes, and 1.5 percent was used for making grape-juice beverage. Vineyards were mainly in Auckland (658 hectares), Hawke's Bay (327 hectares), Gisborne (278 hectares), Waikato (187 hectares), Northland (16 hectares), Manawatu-Wellington (0.81 hectares), South Island (2.8 hectares). In 1970 there were 158 licensed winemakers, who produced an estimated 3.9 million gallons of grape wine, 60,000 gallons of grape-juice beverage, 400,000 gallons of fruit wine and cider. The estimated area in glasshouse vineries in 1970 was 43,664 square metres. The main centres for indoor grape growing were; Auckland, 23,597 square metres; Waikato – Bay of Plenty, 5,853 square metres; Manawatu, 5,388 square metres; Canterbury, 4,738 square metres; Oamaru, 3,716 square metres; Nelson-Marlborough, 372 square metres. Approximately 22,473 square metres of glasshouse vineries have been adapted for early market and 21,265 square metres for late market. There were 168 tons of glasshouse grapes marketed for dessert purposes.

Apples and Pears—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over. 75 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

Quantities of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the board in the last 6 seasons are given below. These figures exclude direct sales from fruitgrowers to factories and the public; these sales have been estimated to comprise approximately 20 percent of the annual apple and pear crop.

SeasonFresh ApplesApples for ProcessingFresh PearsPears for ProcessingTotal Fresh FruitTotal for ProcessingTotal Fruit
bushel equivalent
1966–671,373,033325,783382,43630,8051,755,469356,5882,112,057
1967–681,502,072316,949429,36939,3411,931,441356,2902,287,731
1968–691,415,788295,902401,8687,9161,817,656303,8182,121,474
1969–701,548,310576,803409,25731,5601,957,567608,3632,565,930
1970–711,414,284460,854454,15037,8491,868,434498,7032,367,137
1971–721,667,801724,261433,76425,6542,101,565749,9152,851,480

The figures for apples and pears for processing include the quantities processed and exported.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board and exported to the United Kingdom and elsewhere during the 1971–72 season, together with the total estimated production of each crop. Factories are given authority to purchase fruit for processing direct from the growers.

VarietyMarketed by the Apple and Pear Marketing BoardEstimated Total Production*
In New ZealandFor Export
To United KingdomTo Other Countries

* Estimated by Horticulture Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

† Figures include Red Strains.

Apples—bushel cases
     Granny Smith332,608212,9801,116,220 
     Sturmer Pippin157,367604,761266,816
     Golden Delicious179,912317,76394,639
     Delicious248,11361,872224,112
     Red Delicious114,58362,174166,626
     Jonathan†45,450158,53256,796
     Dougherty†79,252101,54834,388
     Richared63,09239,20618,808
     Kidd's Orange78,93128,3356,308
     Others368,493318,79872,229
               Total apples1,667,8011,905,9692,056,9428,005,000
Pears—
     Williams Bon Chretien88,845 
     Winter Cole149,71320,5196,139
     Winter Nelis98,77610,57017,259
     Others96,43022,52864,484
               Total pears433,76453,61787,8821,075,000

Stone Fruits—The 1968 survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries revealed that nearly half of the total of 407,900 peach trees were in Hawke's Bay, and that, of the balance, some 74,000 peach trees were in the Auckland district.

Production and disposal of stone fruit for the year ended 30 June 1972 were estimated as follows.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
MarketProcessing
 (000 bushels)
Peaches7614731,234
Nectarines1002102
Apricots259139398
Plums—
     European20929
     Japanese18622208
Cherries2626

Citrus and Subtropical Fruits—Estimated quantities of citrus fruits marketed in New Zealand by the Citrus Marketing Authority, together with direct sales to the public by citrus growers are given in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemons*Sweet OrangesMandarins and Other Citrus Fruits
* Figures for lemons relate to packed 3/4 bushel cases.
 bushels
1964185,050121,62533,65014,100
1965184,200133,66031,05015,800
1966158,500112,40036,60022,000
1967154,000121,00037,00025,000
1968184,500171,50058,60043,100
1969147,400119,60062,00044,800
1970222,000164,00093,00034,000
1971211,000107,00094,00046,000

Reference to the Citrus Marketing Authority is to be found in Section 21.

Estimated production figures for other subtropical fruits for 1971 are: tamarilloes, 1,900 tons; passion fruit, 300 tons; Chinese gooseberries, 2,300 tons.

Production of citrus fruit and its sale as fresh fruit or for use in processing is shown in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemonsSweet OrangeMandarins and Tangelos
FreshProcessedFreshProcessedFreshProcessedFreshProcessed
bushels (000)
196611642704834222
196710054744733425
196894911007154443
19697572754454845
1970661568282849741
1971771348175895785

HOPS—Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea county. Production per hectare (approximately 2.47 acres) usually ranges between 1,300 kg and 1,700 kg. The total crop produced in the 1973 season was 348,391 kg (50,654 kg for export) compared with 413,640 kg (35,460 kg for export) in 1972. About 98 percent of the crop is now picked by machines.

A Hop Marketing Committee of six members (one Government and five producer) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district, Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 7,349,615 lb of raw tobacco leaf was imported for the year ended 30 June 1971 with a value of $6,751,730.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: New Zealand Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea PlantedProduction*Estimated Value of Crop*
* Includes research and experimental crops.
 hectareslb(000)$(000)
1965–665852,0596,8233,268
1966–675291,9765,5162,984
1967–685262,0646,1543,562
1968–695232,0627,6044,917
1969–705062,0557,1624,641
1970–714642,0118,5726,071

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 96.4 percent and air-dried leaf for 3:6 percent of the 1970–71 crop.

LINEN FLAX—There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales, for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

Areas for the last five seasons are: 1966–67, 227 hectares; 1967–68, 182 hectares; 1968–69, 152 hectares; 1969–70, 190 hectares; and 1970–71, 202 hectares.

Production from the single factory still operated by the Linen Flax Corporation at Geraldine has been as follows.

Product19671968196919701971
 tons
Straw processed1,3131,4011,2601,1731,024
Scutched fibre15215215399101
Seed142145145129103
Tow4646314332
Linmeal8895959458

14 C—LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—New Zealand has more than 25 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry one cow to the acre, and the best sheep farms can support up to 10 sheep to the acre throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761,700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193,000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus, which has gradually gained ground over the last 30 years, with Herefords and Shorthorns next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300,000 dairy cows by 1897, 185,000 of them in the North Island and 115,000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 12 times as many dairy cows as the South Island. At first Shorthorn was the popular breed, but since 1920 the Jersey has emerged as the predominant breed of dairy cattle.

In the following table, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31 January; sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated; breeding ewes and total sheep are as at 30 June, while the coverage up to 1971 is of holdings of 10 acres (approx. 4.05 hectares) and over situated outside borough boundaries and of holdings 2 acres (approx. 1 hectare) thereafter.

Livestock19681969197019711972

* Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

† Estimates derived from 31 January survey.

Cattle (including dairy cows)8,247,1638,604,8748,777,3328,818,9028,999,000†
     Dairy cows in milk2,232,4822,304,2522,320,6362,238,9742,218,000†
     Total dairy cattle3,698,0203,793,0833,729,2843,539,3733,425,000†
     Beef cattle4,549,1434,811,7915,048,0485,279,5295,574,000†
Sheep (including lambs)*60,473,59759,937,42560,276,11158,911,52560,882,719
     Breeding ewes*42,650,91643,384,69842,911,58143,016,71744,152,043
     Lambs tailed during season40,920,82540,415,68442,077,99839,960,58641,726,000†
     Lambs shorn during season15,913,93216,119,42418,618,70016,477,969 
     Sheep shorn during season56,451,59155,761,54056,416,87856,257,299 
Pigs (total)614,177553,388577,925617,183603,000†
     Breeding sows77,41269,22373,20477,431 

The 1964 Agricultural Development Conference set a target of an increase in livestock numbers of 3.5 percent a year and the National Development Conference in 1969 revised the rate to 2.6 percent a year.

In the latest 3 years dairy cattle decreased by 1.7 percent in 1970, 5.1 percent in 1971, and 3.2 percent in 1972 and beef cattle increased 4.9 percent, 4.6 percent and 5.6 percent. Sheep numbers increased by 0.6 percent in 1969–70, decreased by 2.3 percent in 1970–71 and increased by 3.3 percent in 1972.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 84 percent of the total cattle and 93 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 66 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island. Taranaki and Wellington districts between them account for one-quarter of the total dairy cows in milk.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 36 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by East Coast and Northland in that order. These five districts together depasture 72 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 45 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 25 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 18 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay, in that order, these six districts accounting for 85 percent of the total sheep population in 1971.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 31 January 1971.

Statistical AreaDairy Cows and Heifers, Two Years Old and Over (In Milk)Beef Breeding Cows, Two Years Old and OverTotal CattleBreeding SowsTotal PigsSheep Shorn*Lambs Shorn*Lambs Tailed*
* Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1969–70, remaining particulars for stock at 31 January 1971.
Northland(000)2881459667541,7628141,123
Percent12.429.3110.959.098.753.134.942.81
Central Auckland(000)201455208691,136440723
Percent8.672.895.9010.3911.182.022.671.81
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty(000)1,0433092,772201588,5273,6915,338
Percent45.0019.8531.4325.9725.6115.1522.4013.36
East Coast(000)8168473192,3731,1061,419
Percent0.3610.795.361.301.464.226.703.55
Hawke's Bay(000)462287922166,4332,5144,586
Percent1.9814.718.982.602.5911.4415.2611.48
Taranaki(000)361387469781,597632983
Percent15.572.448.4611.6912.642.843.842.46
Wellington(000)2082581,19011768,6903,3745,668
Percent8.9716.5713.4914.2812.3215.4520.4714.18
          North Island(000)2,1551,1937,4585846030,51912,57019,841
Percent92.9776.5684.5775.3274.5554.2576.2849.65
Marlborough(000)15321192181,340188805
Percent0.652.061.352.602.922.381.142.01
Nelson(000)3725140333678199445
Percent1.601.611.583.905.351.201.211.11
Westland(000)191990–    318034123
Percent0.821.221.020.230.490.320.210.31
Canterbury(000)4711340610739,2241,1807,216
Percent2.037.264.6012.7511.8316.407.1618.06
Otago(000)211003182166,8786385,115
Percent0.916.423.602.602.5912.233.8712.80
Southland(000)23762892147,4381,6696,415
Percent0.994.883.282.602.2713.2210.1316.06
          South Island(000)1633651,3611915725,7383,90820,120
Percent7.0323.4415.4324.6825.4545.7523.7250.35

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Statistics of Farm Production. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper H.23, which is a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep and gives a broad classification of stud and other groups.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe
thousands
Totals
19679802,70341,4083793192,82011,42160,030
19681,0042,40142,6514883312,49911,10060,474
19691,0082,03843,3853833121,97110,84059,937
19709921,76742,9114323292,59111,25360,276
19719851,73243,0174903092,03710,34258 912
19721,0291,58444,1524263432,40010,94960,883
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
1957174416153168784
1962255087183196918
1967195296215215985
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but Not Entered in Flock Book
19577201,97024,699352722,3366,09636,245
19628342,01229,035450752,2897,28041,975
19679192,47937,184337922,53310,25453,798
Crossbred Sheep
1957332923,7607394507365,353
1962412694,4029394368466,096
1967422253,69536112879525,248

The 1967 classification of breeds shows that of the 60,029,977 sheep in New Zealand, 45,814,676 (76.32 percent) were Romneys and 5,247,589 (8.74 percent) were crossbreeds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 3,420,696, half-bred 2,366,617, Southdown 997,784, and Merino 946,990.

There has been a steady increase in the average flock size over the last 5 years. A classification of numbers of flocks by size of flock for the last 5 years is now given.

Size of Flocks19671968196919701971
1–        99  4,9555,3105,2015,0675,027
100–      199  2,4052,4212,2402,1682,145
200–      499  4,9954,7414,5674,3474,202
500–      999  6,4606,2335,7815,4735,245
1,000–  1,499  6,6686,3396,1315,7455,461
1,500–  1,999  5,8025,7145,5675,3635,150
2,000–  2,499  3,5513,5503,5863,5493,541
2,500–  4,999  4,9495,1205,1185,3355,273
5,000–  7,499  811825872906919
7,500–  9,999  252262261282276
10,000–19,999  188218224242236
20,000 and over3737383840
Total flocks41,07340,77039,58637,51537,514
Average flock size1,4621,4721,5141,5631,570

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle by categories are now given.

CategoryAt 31 January
1968196919701971
Dairy stock—
     Cows and heifers, two years old and over—
          Cows in milk during season2,232,4822,304,2522,320,6362,238,974
          Heifers not yet in milk85,06785,31995,68579,240
          Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying27,07825,83930,06519,931
     Heifers—
          One and two years old604,647627,338604,730557,903
          Under one year old653,507646,070582,770551,294
     Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding95,239104,26595,39892,094
                              Totals, dairy stock3,698,0203,793,0833,729,2843,539,373
Beef stock—
     Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,647,6281,705,8711,755,3061,782,489
          Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding64,69576,307110,703100,401
Heifers—
          One and under two years old478,480518,833532,244569,854
          Under one year old573,921598,538634,657657,092
Steers and bulls of all ages1,784,4191,912,2422,015,1382,169,693
                              Totals, beef stock4,549,1434,811,7915,048,0485,279,529
                                   Totals, cattle8,247,1638,604,8748,777,3328,872,902

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the 5 last intervals for which such information is available. The general trend is towards fewer holdings and larger herds.

As at 31 Jan.HoldingsTotal Holdings With 10 or more Cows in Milk
With 10–19 CowsWith 20–29 CowsWith 30–39 CowsWith 40–49 CowsWith 50–59 CowsWith 60–69 CowsWith 70–79 CowsWith 80–39 CowsWith 90–99 CowsWith 100 and Over
19524,3684,5365,5275,2454,4383,6652,5121,7261,1052,53235,654
19573,4773,5634,5494,8354,5894,3053,0712,0231,3513,09434,857
19602,5792,8023,6654,2154,1993.,9862,9152,1481,2893,35331,151
19688819511,2031,5081,8902,4492,6412,6792,1278,48824,817
19698308171,1321,3651,6822,2832,4152,5852,2519,25324,613
19707257339311,2151,5261,9162,1862,3982,2279,96023,817

For dairy stock the Jersey breed, comprising 78.6 percent of all dairy stock in 1962, is predominant, while the main beef stock breeds are Aberdeen Angus (74.5 percent), Hereford (16.3 percent), and Shorthorn (5.4 percent).

PIGS—The rearing of pigs dropped away until 1969 with the trend of farmers to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk.

At 31 JanuaryBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
* Estimated.
196775,910526,785602,695
196877,412536,765614,177
196969,223484,165553,388
197073,204504,721577,925
197177,431539,752617,183
1972  603,000*

Particulars as to pig breeds collected in 1950 showed that the principal distinctive breeds were Berkshire (6.6 percent) and Tamworth (5.5 percent), but over 80 percent of the pigs in New Zealand were classified as crossbreeds.

DOGS—The count of dogs registered during the year ended 31 March 1970 showed that there were 228,157 dogs registered in counties, 69,318 in cities and boroughs, 805 in town districts, and 218 in road districts. Unregistered dogs and those up to 6 months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY—The following table shows poultry recorded at censuses.

CensusNumber of Units Keeping PoultryFowlsDucksGeeseTurkeysTotal Poultry
* Excluding flocks owned by Maoris.
April 1951180,7233,829,481260,65958,47450,9764,199,590
April 1956192,7364,160,424210,71860,93853,4914,485,571
April 1961163,4764,183,563202,24573,45766,1324,525,397
March 1966122,8444,946,838184,54082,05083,0645,296,492

In 1970–71 there were 2,823 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the industry. Of these, 1,524 flocks had fewer than 201 fowls, 218 ranged from 201 to 500 fowls, 158 from 501 to 1,000 fowls, 731 from 1,001 to 5,000 fowls and 192 flocks exceeded 5,000 fowls. There were 4,224,195 birds in these flocks.

The commercial groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns. Egg production has been steadily increasing and sales through licensed distributors have been 37,212,000 dozen in 1968–69; 40,316,000 dozen in 1969–70; and 42,715,000 dozen in 1970–71. It is estimated that approximately 60 to 65 percent of the total egg production passes through these channels.

Poultry farming is confined largely to egg production, but units are now established for the production of table poultry, and attention paid to the production of “broilers” or 3 to 3 1/2 lb live weight chicken. At the Census of 1966 there were 1,167,000 broiler chickens.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Production for the year ended 31 August 1970 was estimated at 5,400 tons of honey and 162,000 lb of commercial beeswax. Most of the honey is consumed in New Zealand, which has one of the highest rates of consumption per head in the world.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that at 31 May 1967 there were 3,508 beekeepers with a total of 12,770 apiaries and 194,213 hives. There are only some 300 full-time beekeepers completely dependent on honey production. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group1–5 Hives6–29 Hives30–250 Hives251 Hives and OverTotal
Beekeepers2,2297213122463,508
Apiaries2,3341,0901,7237,62312,770
Hives established5,2339,14625,551154,283194,213

Chapter 15. Section 15
FORESTRY

GENERAL—Trees are among New Zealand's valuable assets, with growth favoured by temperate climate and generally adequate rainfall and soil conditions. Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the land area of New Zealand, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 3,500—4,500 ft. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of native forest were felled and burnt in the interests of land development. There was little regard for conservation, and clearing of the forests extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable. The kauri forests of the far north were almost destroyed by logging and subsequent burning, and the areas of rimu forest in both islands were heavily depleted. It was not until towards the end of the nineteenth century that the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds was recognised, and by the early 1900s national parks and scenic and climatic reserves amounting to less than 1 million hectares had been set aside as permanent forest; the area has since grown to over 2 million hectares (see Section 13).

Today, apart from the national parks, about 4 million hectares of land, valuable either for timber production or for forest growth that is vital to soil and water conservation, has been constituted State forest. The country's timber resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species. State plantations now have an area of about 310,000 hectares, and planting by private interests has contributed an almost equal area. The output of timber from the exotic forests now greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests, in which cutting is restricted. The exotic species are also the basis of a flourishing pulp and paper industry and an export trade in logs.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
* 1 hectare = 2.47 acres.
 (million hectares)*(million acres) 
Total forested land6.215.423.2
Pasture and arable land13.633.750.0
Other non-forested land6.616.425.5
Minor islands0.10.20.3
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.30.71.0
               Total area26.866.4100.0

THE FORESTS TODAY—More than three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 5.6 million hectares of indigenous forests that remain, only some 0.5 million hectares are merchantable by today's standards for sawmilling. Despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber the indigenous forests are being depleted at the rate of 10,000 hectares a year, primarily for sawn timber.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are 580,000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of the two classes of forest land is shown in the table below.

Class of Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll ForestsIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
* Merchantable indigenous forests include some reserves, previously logged areas, and areas of such low stocking that commercial exploitation is at present uneconomic. Commercially exploitable forest in the 1,040,000 hectares detailed above is estimated to be 500,000 hectares.
Merchantable forestsacres (thousand)hectares (thousand)
     State forest1,5207302,250620300920
     Other Crown land1701707070
     Freehold and leasehold land4206801,100170280450
     Maori land250250100100
     Reserve2002008080
                    Totals (say)2,600*1,4004,0001,040*5801,620
Unmerchantable forests
     State forest5,3005,3002,1402,140
     Other Crown land1,4001,400570570
     Freehold and leasehold land1,6001001,70065040690
     Maori land800800320320
     Reserve2,4002,400970970
                              Totals11,50010011,6004,650404,700
            Totals, all forested land14,1001,50015,6005,7006206,320

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the three main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets that will be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedras bidwillii). Kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and West Coast of the South Island and largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and, except in Westland, tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa).

Kauri forests are found in Northland. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited reservations and a few small pockets remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern-beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 100 miles south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replaced by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced species of pines form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme all-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa). Of recent years the southern pines—loblolly (P. taeda) and slash (P. elliottii) pines—have found a place in more northerly forests. Species planted on a restricted scale are lodgepole (P. contorta), strobus (P. strobus), patula (P. patula), and muricata (P. muricata) pines, larch (Larix decidua and L. leptolepis), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata). The limited amount of introduced broad-leaved species used in plantations is, for the most part, various species of eucalypt.

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations.

FOREST TREES AND TIMBERS—Detailed information on forest trees and timbers is contained in publications of the New Zealand Forest Service, including Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand (Weston); The National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. I: The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand (Masters, Holloway, and McKelvey); The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand (Entrican, Ward, and Reid); New Zealand Building Timbers (Reid); and the annual reports of the Forest Service and Forest Research Institute.

FOREST POLICY—By the Forests Act 1949, the Forest Service has, under the direction of the Minister of Forests, complete responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and has exclusive control and management of:

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilisation, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry.

  2. The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilisation, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land.

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act.

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed.

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Regulations—The Forests Act 1949 authorises the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950, the Forest and Fire Publicity Committee Regulations 1952, the Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee Regulations 1952, the Indigenous Forest Timber Committee Regulations 1966, and the Timber Industry Training Centre Advisory Committee Regulations 1966.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1952, the Timber Regulations 1948, the Forest Service Fees and Charges Regulations 1953, the Forest Produce Import and Export Regulations 1966, the Forest Disease Control Regulations 1967, the State Forest Park Regulations 1969, and the Forestry Encouragement Grants Regulations 1970.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards: protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country; creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber. The Forest Service prepares working plans for all major State forests and through them regulates the amount of timber that may be cut annually. Substantial long-term reserves have also been set aside to ensure the continued supply of high-quality indigenous timber and to safeguard resources against the unlikely event that a major catastrophe should befall the exotic forest estate.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent on them. Further stability is being sought by the practice of replanting logged areas with exotic species, combined where possible with the planting of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic and part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate, which means that clear felling, or any condition that allows exposure and desiccation, must be avoided. Carefully conducted selection logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu. Management investigations are continuing so that sustained yields of high-quality wood can be assured.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp and in the Bay of Plenty is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. They show promise of being amenable to sound forestry management, and a small but regular cut is assured. The annual cut is strictly rationed, and bleeding for gum, which damaged many trees in the past, is forbidden. Wherever kauri is felled a portion of the growing stock in young vigorous trees is left as a reserve. Young pole stands are silviculturally treated to free them from competition and improve growth. Natural regeneration is assisted and encouraged.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both the major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of pole forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

A survey has been undertaken into the extent and distribution of beech forests in Nelson, northern Westland, and western Southland that may be suitable for production of saw logs and hardwood pulp. Care is being given to the consideration of areas that must be reserved for soil and water conservation or for scenery and recreation, and any forests utilised will be managed on a sustained-yield basis or replaced in part by fast-growing exotics. Details of the proposed management and use of these beech forests are given in the publication Utilisation of South Island BeechForests (parliamentary paper C.4, 1971). Permanent production is envisaged from some 324,000 hectares of lower altitude beech forest in Nelson, Westland, and Southland conservancies. (There are 3.5 million hectares of beech forest in the South Island.) The Forest Service is conscious of the need to preserve major environmental values in perpetuity. Depending on the size of the industries which may develop, half of the 324,000 hectares could ultimately be converted to exotic conifers, a small portion would probably be released for farming, and the remaining area managed as regenerated native forest with or without some enrichment from exotic trees.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19,000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150,000 hectares planted by the State and 120,000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has more than trebled since then (4,000 hectares in 1961, 13,000 hectares in 1972).

In the early years exotic forestry was necessarily experimental and, as could be expected, was not equally successful with all species and in all sites tried. Location and distribution of the plantations were largely decided by the availability of land rather than by suitability for tree growing or proximity to existing or future markets.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and, at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice. There is wide use of working plans to prescribe and co-ordinate forest operations.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply over 80 percent of the total wood production and in the future will supply much more.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective: the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land, and the establishment of production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Seven schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, and Santoft—embracing a total area of approximately 52,000 hectares. About 14,000 hectares of trees have been planted.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and subalpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand, for many of the rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy falls of rain and are mostly formed of rocks that erode easily when exposed to heavy rain and other climatic effects. The blanket of montane vegetation absorbs much of the rainfall and, by protecting the soil and stabilising unconsolidated rocky slopes, prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and maintenance of a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Excluding forest parks, the Forest Service controls over 2 million hectares of protection-forest land, and its main function here is to maintain the protective vegetation in good condition. The greatest threat is from the large numbers of browsing animals that were introduced many years ago which, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, have multiplied excessively. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of these animals. Environmental forestry rangers are trained in field biology, in field geology, and in watershed and range management. They make careful observations of the effects of browsing animals on the vegetation to gauge if control operations have been intensive enough to allow adequate vegetation response.

The Environmental Forestry Division of the Forest Service works in close association with the Forest Research Institute's Protection Forestry Division and its associated Forest and Range Experiment Station, which investigate such features as the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control.

Recreation in State Forests—Nearly 1 million hectares of State forest are being developed as forest parks which, although primarily protection forests, will also provide recreation facilities. (Recreation in State forests is also discussed in Section 13, Land Use and Resources Development.)

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become flammable in drought conditions; and severely burnt indigenous forest usually means a destroyed forest because many of the species are difficult to regenerate. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities, and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire fighting, in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adapted to deal with fire outbreak in high county and like inaccessible areas.

Although the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall reduces the risk of fire, high winds and strong sunshine can quickly dry out vegetation on exposed situations. The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the Forest Service. There is a nationwide network of “fire weather” and radio stations, and the fire hazard in any part of the country is known at the head office in Wellington each day during the fire season (October to April) within an hour of weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action to be taken, such as advice to fire authorities and broadcasting of warnings.

Legislative provisions for fire protection are the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 and the Fire Services Act 1949. The Forest Service is responsible for administering the former Act.

Noxious Animal Control—Under the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the regeneration of forest trees and ground-cover vegetation, in production as well as in protection forests. The natural forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by such ground-browsing animals as deer and goats, while simultaneously the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Damage by deer and opossums in commercial exotic forests has made it necessary to extend control measures into these forests.

Over 200,000 animals are killed each year by Forest Service and private hunters. Even with modern facilities, including air transport of supplies and use of helicopters for hunting, control of noxious animals is difficult and overall progress is slow. In some rugged country where hunting has proved impracticable, such as in parts of Westland, poisoning has been used successfully.

Control of Insects and Fungi—Sound silvicultural practices are the first line of defence, rendering trees less vulnerable to attack.

Biological control over insect pests is exerted by their natural enemies, insect or fungal parasites. Introduced species frequently come into the country without their natural enemies, and part of the work of the biologist is to breed and liberate the latter.

Chemical control is an emergency measure to deal with outbreaks. It includes spraying of affected forests from aeroplanes, chemical treatment of nursery soils, and the dipping of timber to prevent attack by bark beetles and fungi.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute make a continuous study of diseases and insects harmful to forests and timber. Observers of the institute's forest biology survey maintain a constant watch on the forests and woodlots and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken; and much information is accumulated which helps to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country. In 1966, to reduce the risk of introducing insects in packing timbers, a prohibition was placed on importation of any sawn timber with bark attached. Overseas exporters must now certify that any wooden packing they use is free of bark and insect attack when shipped. Since introduction of this requirement there has been a noticeable drop in the number of infested crates reaching the country. New Zealand exporters are required to give the same care: timber must be completely free from bark and infection and must meet the quarantine requirements of the importing country before export is permitted. Control over dunnage was extended in 1966 to include all material within New Zealand territorial waters.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—At present more money is being spent on the establishment and tending of forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry has been met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1967–681968–691969—701970–711971–72
 $(000)  
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure6,7197,2538,1559,7724,122
     Less receipts111137168170143
          Required from Consolidated Revenue Account6,6087,1167,9879,6023,979
Works and Trading Account expenditure15,09419,72023,74825,91837,278
     Less receipts12,05317,12721,39723,67826,717
          Loan moneys required3,0412,5932,3512,24010,561
Net finance required from Government funds9,6499,70910,33811,84214,540

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—The National Exotic Forest Survey found that, in 1962, forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) and those on other Crown lands amounted to 214,000 hectares. Since then about 53,000 hectares have been added, mainly by afforestation companies, and the estimated areas in the various ownerships at 31 March 1972 were: local authorities, 21,000 hectares; companies, 158,000 hectares; and private persons (mainly farmers), 95,000 hectares.

Extension Services—An increasing awareness among landowners of the value of forestry as a profitable form of land use, stimulated by the various direct and indirect incentives given by Government, and the activities of farm forestry associations established throughout the country have resulted in a marked increase in extension forestry work.

Forest Taxation—The value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax and local body rates and, since 1949, concessions have been made in connection with income tax. Expenditure incurred in planting, protecting, and maintaining shelter belts and woodlots planted for shelter, shade, erosion control, or other agricultural purpose has since that year been allowed to be charged against income for tax purposes. At the same time income from the intermittent sale of farm trees could, on application to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, be spread over 5 years to mitigate the effects of the higher graduation tax. In 1960 the timber value of trees growing on a deceased's estate was exempted from death duties. This exemption removes the fear of a crippling burden on the estate and the possibility of the forced sale of a perhaps immature plantation.

Forestry Encouragement Finance—Under the Forestry Encouragement Act 1962 the Government may grant loans to local authorities towards the cost of establishing and tending new plantations and the tending of those already in existence. For private landholders there has since 13 April 1970 been a scheme in the form of a grant equal to 50 percent of the qualifying costs of establishing and developing new approved forests; such grants are to be an alternative to the tax concession already available to income-earning forest companies and to be limited to individuals or companies whose total annual qualifying expenditure does not exceed $200,000 a year.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 60 million cubic feet per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 10 million cubic feet came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had gone up to 81 million cubic feet with 29 million cubic feet from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood and in 1972 they supplied 278 million cubic feet, or 87 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 436 sawmills, nine plywood and veneer plants, two particle board mills, five pulp and paper mills, and a pulp and fibreboard mill. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
Million Cubic Feet
195158.841.099.8
195655.768.0123.7
196155.0113.5168.5
196643.6163.4207.0
196837.4184.7222.1
196936.1207.2243.3
197036.5239.5276.0
197135.8253.6289.4
197233.5247.8281.3

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 90 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Less than a third of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber for selected years.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 board feet (million)
192129010300718308
1926335734210111353
19312081322199230
1936249342831010293
1941277543311112343
19462269732319322345
195130119149232436528
195627530558043346626
196128739267932436713
196621950572431233757
196819645665221223675
196917653270823225733
197017556674122224765
197116959576419221784
197215556371820323741

NOTE—In some instances rounding off results in a total disagreeing slightly with the total individual items shown in the table.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19681969197019711972
 board feet (million)
Rimu and miro154136138138128
Matai171515117
Totara67654
Kahikatea1817151313
Tawa91110710
Beech1011111110
Other indigenous22223
               Totals, indigenous217199197188175
Exotic pines421476504536495
Douglas fir2951555361
Eucalypts21211
Other exotic66768
                    Totals, exotic458534568596565
               Totals (all species)675733765784740
NOTE—Owing to rounding, details may not add to totals.

Wood-chip Industry—Two wood-chip mills in the Nelson region (one beginning production in 1969, the other in 1971) produce wood chips solely for Japan. Their role is to utilise standing trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production in order to allow replanting with more productive species and to provide a market for forest and sawmill residues. At current production levels the two mills will earn $1.8 million annually in overseas exchange for the next few years.

During 1972 the completion of port facilities at Mt. Maunganui permitted the introduction of a wood-chip trade from the Bay of Plenty to Japan. Planning is in progress for the early introduction of export wood-chip trading from Lyttelton and Port Chalmers.

Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of output of the pulp and paper industry reached $76 million in 1968–69. Over the last 13 years total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of over 11 percent. Production rose from 235,000 tons in 1958–59 to 571,000 tons in 1971–72. During the same period total wood consumption in the pulp and paper industry (which includes sawmills of integrated plants) increased from 39 million cubic feet to 80 million cubic feet. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are five pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, four of which are in the North Island. Of these four, three are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The five companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise timber from Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 37 million board feet of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 215,000 tons of newsprint, 105,000 tons of chemical pulp, and 183,000 tons of mechanical pulp. In 1959 the Bowater Group obtained an interest in the company and took over the management and development of the mill and world sales of all its products.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises over 32,000,000 cubic feet of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Plant capacity is 170,000 tons of kraft, printing, and writing paper, 238,000 tons of kraft pulp, 49,000 tons of defibrated pulp for fibreboard production, and 50,000,000 board feet of sawn timber a year—on a one-shift basis. The company is equipped to convert 10,000,000 board feet of timber into wooden cases and to produce 53,000,000 square feet of veneer, 12,000,000 square feet of fibreboard, and 38,000,000 multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, and sawmill is at Kinleith near Tokoroa; the fireboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia, in Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes over 13 million moulded fruit trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., operates two paper-board machines with an annual production capacity of 69,000 tons. The company manufactures its own mechanical and semi-chemical pulp, and is self-sufficient for more than 90 percent of its raw materials; it also uses considerable quantities of waste paper. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 26 miles to the mill by road. An associated company, Whakatane Timber Mills Ltd., has its modern sawmill located near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau. The mill has a capacity of 30 thousand tons annually.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, has been in operation for more than 80 years. Its three machines produce a wide range of papers from fine tissues to heavy krafts, as well as paper felt, pressings, and manilas for special trade requirements. The mills are being modernised to enable production to be diversified and substantially increased. The company produces a small amount of mechanical pulp, which supplements purchased supplies of New Zealand - made sulphate pulp, imported sulphite pulp, and waste paper. Annual production capacity is 15,000 tons of kraft and other papers.

The two major pulp and paper companies have announced expansion plans which will become operational over the next 3 years: N.Z. Forest Products Ltd. plan to increase chemical-pulp production by 200,000 tons a year and to instal an additional paper machine for the production of 100,000 tons of industrial papers; Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. have announced that their expansion will increase the company's annual chemical-pulp sales by 105,000 tons, and in addition a third newsprint machine will increase annual newsprint production by 140,000 tons when it comes into production in 1974.

In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 320 million cubic feet of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of a new company (Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.), which is building an integrated sawmill and refiner ground-wood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market, began producing wood pulp in March 1973.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of pulp in New Zealand.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical†

* Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

† Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tons
1940217
194515,434
195021,438
195543,20429,568
1960140,057102,715
1965193,029203,372
1966193,181217,743
1968252,442221,159
1969255,000230,975
1970311,882241,110
1971312,065254,858
1972312,975258,478

Almost all mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table on trade in pulp and paper.)

Production figures for paper in New Zealand are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
 tons
1940–      ..      12,87312,873
1945–      ..      20,61920,619
1950–      ..      21,78721,787
1955–      ..      40,27340,273
196076,100..      85,585161,685
1965184,31711,869114,940311,126
1966195,60616,258137,290349,154
1968195,54621,359154,572371,477
1969199,53021,140168,854389,524
1970204,13720,691214,125438,953
1971210,53829,218214,830454,586
1972214,57722,715224,090461,382

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graphs.

Wood-based Panel Products Industries: Plywood—Nine factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1972, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16 in. thickness, was 65.9 million square feet. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1971–72 was 266 million square feet (1/16 in. basis).

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply and now constitutes about 60 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily since.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There is a rapidly expanding domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of plywood, veneer, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneer (1/16; in. basis)Plywood (3/16; in. basis)Particle Board (3/4; in. basis)Fibreboard
 million square feettons
195024.613,526
1960169.243.10.824,830
1961176.248.01.125,533
1962189.349.31.131,561
1963188.851.42.027,250
1964185.952.92.529,229
1965183.054.24.231,736
1966222.656.65.133,771
1967221.157.68.232,878
1968170.543.48.533,075
1969208.850.513.638,228
1970224.854.721.539,553
1971243.958.129.643,653
1972265.865.931.144,807

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. A 1968 survey showed that a total of 7 million fence posts of all types was used: 4 1/2 million of these were wooden, almost all being thinnings or small-diameter logs from exotic plantations.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1971, 39 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated; by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiate pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority (set up by the Government in 1955). Plant inspection and sampling associated with quality control are done on behalf of the Authority by Forest Service staff.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable.

Collection of statistics on wood preservation was introduced in 1955 and the following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated in the country.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
* Mainly boron.
 board feet (thousand)
1954–55536,98461,48468,520
1959–603070,889105,837176,756
1962–63391,242120,333211,579
1963–6416102,974125,873228,863
1964–65140132,991142,373275,504
1965–664149,621153,878303,503
1966–679148,505154,542303,056
1967–6812108,063156,755264,830
1968–6926125,825152,550278,401
1969–70189130,254171,502301,945
1970–718139,425164,353303,786

In addition, 10,044,000 cubic feet of other timber, such as sleepers, poles and fence posts, was treated by one of the preservation methods in 1970–71.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are growing in importance as earners of overseas funds and their more diversified development in New Zealand is also contributing to reduction of imports. For the year ended June 1971 exports of forest products were valued at about $73 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 42.3 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 41.9 percent, mainly logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $21 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for radiata pine and Douglas fir sawn timber. Japan is taking mainly logs, but the market there for our sawn radiata pine is expanding. Exports of sawn timber to the Pacific Islands are increasing. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as railway sleepers, large poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc., but greater use is being made of preservative-treated New Zealand-grown softwood timber for these and other uses subject to severe service conditions. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods and sapele for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—A steadily increasing export market for both pulp and paper is developing, mainly to Australia. Chemical sulphate pulp is the only type exported in quantity. Newsprint comprises 88 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers still need to be imported. These two items constitute about two-thirds of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports ($000, c.d.v.)
19676,2101,9197,01515,144
19684,2191,3417,59113,151
19695,0061,1789,85116,035
19707,2941,61011,34620,250
19716,2282,37612,51421,118
 Exports ($000, f.o.b.)
19677,4125,92811,04724,387
196816,8956,19518,20141,291
196929,1457,48420,77157,400
197036,8347,28622,21466,334
197142,7959,39420,49472,683

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the last 6 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberSleepersLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
* Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
 board feet (million)cu ft
(million)
19667.222.40.28.738.52.20.8
19677.119.97.134.12.10.7
19684.88.40.15.118.40.10.4
19694.48.04.617.00.3
19704.313.20.24.922.60.4
19714.26.50.15.616.40.5

NOTE—Figures have been adjusted to include items not given in board feet in published statistics.

TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
 board feet (million)cu ft
(million)
19660.126.92.33.532.732.817.1
19670.125.91.13.00.330.330.419.9
19682.449.22.710.40.262.564.943.2
19694.770.13.224.30.498.0102.753.5
19703.878.62.326.40.7108.0111.863.6
19715.383.51.324.45.3114.5119.864.4
NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the last 6 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and Paperboard†Total

* In 1,000 square feet.

† Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; values include minor items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: exports—free on board at port of shipment; imports—c.d.v. in country of origin.

Imports (tons)
196621,6731933,00426,59529,599
196721,6971171,73122,08823,819
196814,8163339322,29722,690
196911,21216496721,23222,199
197013,1323254223,25523,797
197117,25412449424,30924,803
Exports (tons)
196670,3323,291117,0601,674118,734
196772,3263,44494,5062,55297,057
196874,3426,223125,18911,548136,737
196987,73021,127121,34918,163139,512
197080,82115,323119,60630,808150,414
197194,62617,429109,68119,432129,113

RESEARCH—Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or co-ordinated by its Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects.

The Forest Research Institute programme has a wide range and includes studies of the fundamental physiological process of tree growth; the ecology of indigenous and exotic forests; silvicultural practices for all stages of exotic forestry; growth rates, productivity, and grades of timber under various silvicultural treatments and their effect on the economics of the operations; forest soils, particularly nutrient deficiencies and their correction; selection, breeding, and introduction of improved strains of trees; the impact of fungous diseases and insect pests and factors affecting the health of trees. The institute has made country-wide inventories of indigenous and exotic forest resources. The Protection Forestry Division of the Institute (the Forest and Range Experiment Station), which is based at Rangiora, surveys the condition of protection forests and associated mountain scrub and grassland. It carries out research on climatology, hydrology, soils, the revegetation of eroded areas, and the effects of wild animals and their control.

Linked with the research into wood formation are studies of the products of forests. The physical and mechanical properties of timbers are investigated generally and with special reference to the effects of tree selection based on visual qualities and of silvicultural treatment. The suitability of species for production of wood pulp and the characteristics of the pulp from species not yet used are also studied. Research is also carried out in timber engineering, timber seasoning, and preservative treatment of timbers; in all these fields the institute works closely with the timber industry.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to the age of 20 years for training as forest rangers and foresters. Ranger trainees work for 1 year in the forests and then attend Rotorua Ranger School for 1 year, where they study the subjects basic to forestry. Another 2 years are then spent on forests to consolidate knowledge and to learn supervision and gain experience in planning, control, and leadership. Those selected as forester trainees attend university on a full-time study bursary to complete a 4-year degree course in forestry. A limited number of full-time study bursaries are also awarded to enable trainees to complete degree courses in science and engineering. The Forest Research Institute recruits young people of both sexes for training as research technicians.

To build up a permanent and efficient skilled-labour force, the Forest Service now recruits each year about 100 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, or Southland, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Through the Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua courses are regularly offered in timber grading, seasoning and treatment of timber, and other forestry operations. A continuous series of courses is also provided for Forest Service staff in all phases of Forest Service activity. The Timber Industry Training Centre at Rotorua provides courses for the industry in saw doctoring, sawmilling, and timber machining. Short grading courses for local industry representatives are also held in other centres.

Trade apprenticeships are offered in such trades as auto-diesel fitter, fitter and turner, electrician, and motor mechanic to provide skilled repair and maintenance staff for the Forest Service's wide variety of modern plant and machinery.

After a lapse of some 35 years, professional education for forestry in New Zealand recommenced at the University of Canterbury in 1970. The basic course leading to the degree B.For.Sc. (with or without honours) extends over 4 years, comprising two intermediate years of pure science followed by 2 years of professional classes. Post-graduate studies began in 1972, with programmes leading to masters and doctoral degrees.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1970 the total number of persons employed in the forestry sector comprised 4.1 percent of the total labour force, and the forest industries employed 10 percent of the industrial labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. has led to the establishment of a completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries, especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April 1971 and 1972. The industry classification has been revised. Total employment reached 26,531 in 1960, 30,835 in 1965, and 34,495 in 1970. (Source: Department of Labour.)

At 15 AprilForestry*Logging†Sawmilling‡Timber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

* Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

† Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

‡ Includes planing mills and plywood and veneer mills.

§ Includes other wood industries, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

19713,1012,9348,8333,4574,19011,69334,208
19723,2802,7287,3623,3934,16717,52638,456

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 80 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.6 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, usually of standing timber but in some cases of logs, from both types of forest to the timber industry. Owing to the poor prospects of sustained yield from most of the indigenous forests, the policy is to ration the cut to spread the resources over as long a period as practicable. Their contribution to timber supply will inevitably diminish but it is hoped that it will remain a source of special purpose timbers for several decades. The exotic forests are renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Long-term industrial expansion will require a continuing increase in the area of the nation's exotic forests (the Forestry Development Conference has recommended a minimum annual new planting programme of 28,300 hectares which, if maintained for the next 18 years, should give the country a total exotic forest area of 1.1 million hectares by 1990). Increased production up to the end of the century would be based for the most part on existing forest resources and would be sustained thereafter by the additional planting proposed.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase over the next 30 years. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad, particularly for paper. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence they must import.

Planning must encompass management and utilisation of the forests and any necessary extension of them; requirements in manpower with the necessary skills; requirements in finance; analyses of market development; and requirements in research to develop new products and more efficient techniques.

The Forestry Development Council set up in 1969 is working towards co-operation in national planning to rationalise the forestry sector's future development; its membership includes representatives from Government and industry.

A special article in the 1969 Yearbook (pp. 1107–15) surveyed the economics of the forest industries and future development prospects.

Chapter 16. Section 16
FISHERIES

GENERAL—The fishing industry in New Zealand is based mainly on the bottom-dwelling or demersal species of fish caught by trawling, Danish seining, lines, and nets, and on rock lobsters (crayfish) taken in pots. For “wet fish”, trawling is by far the most important method, producing approximately 69 percent of the total catch, followed by Danish seining 12 percent, lining and netting and other methods 18 percent in 1970. The motor trawler ranging in size between 50 ft and 60 ft with a crew of two or three men has come to be the type of vessel mainly used by the industry. In recent years there has been a trend to larger stern-ramp trawlers with improved gear and equipment. Two Government stern-ramp trawlers are used for technological and research work associated with fishing.

In New Zealand the fishing industry is widely dispersed around a number of smaller ports as well as the main ports. The industry is built around the handling and selling of fresh fish in the main, as opposed to processing fish. Rock lobsters, long the leading fish export, are now being challenged in value by increasing sales of “wet fish” while exports of paua, eels, and rock oysters are making growing contributions to export revenue.

Fisheries management continues to be directed towards supervision and optimum development of New Zealand's commercial and freshwater fisheries. Scientific staff are engaged in a wide programme of studies, e.g., surveys of the density of the toheroa populations and dredge oysters in Foveaux Strait; experimental work on settlement and growth rates of mussels in Northland and Auckland; management of rock lobster populations in Otago, Southland, Fiordland; studies of the elephant fish in Canterbury-Timaru area; tuna fishing and its commercial potential; mesh experiments for trawl cod-ends using the technology vessel W. J. Scott together with associated experiments in improved fishing gear, catching and handling techniques; and the effects of hydro-electric schemes on trout and salmon fisheries.

The rock-oyster development programme in Northland is aimed at the establishment of an industry with valuable local and overseas market potential. Four experimental farms continue to be under the supervision of an Australian expert in the Bay of Islands (2), the Kaipara Harbour, and Coromandel; also a spat-catching depot, and various spat-catching and growing experimental plots. The Government mortgage guarantee and State loan scheme for fishermen includes provision for assistance for rock oyster farmers.

Expenditure levels for fisheries research includes provision for full programmes for the research vessels, James Cook and Ikatere. Research work will continue on the important commercial fish species, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, flounder, albacore, and trevally. Information on snapper and tarakihi has reached a stage where, in the first instance, it is possible to forecast trends in yields for the north-east coast, and in the second, to illustrate that the stock in the East Cape - Gisborne area is probably being exploited at, or near, its sustainable yield level.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965 redefined the 3-mile territorial seas and introduced a 9-mile fishing zone beyond the territorial limit.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950, the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951, and the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. Under the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects—e.g., permissible length of different classes of fish to be taken—while the various acclimatisation societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946 and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1964 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, Rock Oyster Farming Regulations 1966, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations 1964, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1955. Amendments to all regulations are made from time to time.

Fishing Industry Board—In 1963 there was passed a Fishing Industry Board Act, providing for the establishment of a seven-member board with the principal function of promoting the expansion and development of the fishing industry, marketing and standards of hygiene and packaging, continuity of supply, co-ordination within the industry, and promoting means of financing development.

The Government made an initial grant of $100,000 towards the cost of establishing the board and annual grants are made to assist the board in meeting operating costs. A levy of approximately 1 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965, and provides finance for the board's activities. The board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, technical education, tuna development, and fishing demonstrations.

Objectives of the board include the provision of adequate supplies of high-quality fish for the local market at reasonable prices, and an increase in overseas earnings from selling more fish overseas. It is recognised that fishermen must be encouraged to modernise their trawling fleet and that shore establishments of the industry must be improved to fulfil these objectives.

Fishing Industry Finance Commit tee—In 1965 the Government arranged to guarantee mortgages and make loans through the State Advances Corporation to purchase new, fully-equipped fishing vessels. In October 1970 loans and guarantees became available for development of rock oyster farms, and also loans for cool stores for fish. Up to 31 March 1972, 85 loans totalling $2,275,100 had been approved for 81 new or used fishing vessels, 2 rock oyster farms, and 2 flake ice plants.

Fisheries Development Council—The Fisheries Development Council, a sector council of the National Development Council, was set up in June 1970. Targets for fisheries exports to 1981 have been set. The development of pelagic fishery resources are a key factor in meeting the industry's targets.

The fishing industry export targets are shown in the following table.

Category1971 ActualTargets
1973197519781981

* Based on farming.

† If investigations prove this resource.

‡ Targets are speculative as utilisation of resource has yet to be commenced.

Note: Target figures embody an assumption that export prices will rise annually by 3.5 percent.

 $(million)
Fin fish (demersal)3.663.695.288.0613.02
Fin fish (pelagic)0.311.483.9611.73†19.52†
Rock lobster13.4710.4711.2913.9316.27
Dredge oysters*–  –  –  0.290.82
Rock oysters0.100.120.390.731.30
Mussels0.010.120.260.441.14
Paua1.480.620.660.731.14
Other shellfish0.22–  –  –  –  
Eels1.030.871.322.204.06
Trout–  –  –  0.590.97
Seaweed‡–  0.120.260.440.82
                    Totals0.2817.4923.4139.1459.06

SPECIES OF FISH—Of the many kinds of excellent edible fish, the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about: Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters. Rock lobster (crayfish) are fished mainly at the Chatham Islands and around the south-west of the South Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets and drag nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet.

Various species of pelagic, or surface-dwelling fish, occur in quantity in waters adjacent to New Zealand. At present, landings of pelagic fish in New Zealand are insignificant. Catching techniques for the smaller species (e.g., pilchards), the medium-sized species (e.g., kahawai), and the larger species (e.g., tuna) are all different. The catching and processing of pelagic fish must be undertaken on a large scale if it is to be profitable and the viability of a fishery based on pelagic fish is currently being examined by the Fisheries Development Council.

FISHERY STATISTICS—As at 31 December 1971 there were 3,100 registered fishing boats, compared with 2,805 a year earlier.

The growth in value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed were as follows in the 2 latest calendar years.

ProductUnitQuantityValue
1970197119701971
 $(000)$(000)
Wet fishcwt799,890865,7286,4257,153
Whitebait (West Coast South Island only)cwt1,673781290175
Oysters (dredged)sacks114,998116,4481,2671,572
Oysters (rock)sacks4,9126,373170204
Musselssacks20,14123,5217479
Rock lobster (crayfish)cwt127,258111,7538,0529,432
Other shellfish, etc.cwt27,55039,657277702
                    Total value16,55519,317

Annual quantities and values of “wet fish” caught are shown in the following table

YearTotal QuantityTotal Value
 cwt$(000)
1961528,6323,254
1962554,6543,545
1963550,9663,376
1964589,3843,780
1965604,5823,949
1966666,2744,388
1967713,5274,626
1968671,8704,489
1969645,0125,018
1970799,8906,425
1971865,7287,153

Kind or Class of “Wet Fish” Caught—The following table shows the quantity and value of the principal “wet fish” caught during the latest 2 calendar years.

Kind or Class of FishQuantityValue
19701971197019711970197119701971
 cwtpercent$(000)percent
Snapper252,204277,39731.5332.041,8012,15728.0330.16
Tarakihi102,518102,99012.8211.9073979211.5011.07
Trevally83,458117,10310.4313.533014684.686.54
Gurnard73,19964,3019.157.433603215.604.49
Sole23,10619,1562.892.214043526.294.92
Hapuku29,51326,4923.693.064655087.237.10
Flounder21,93616,9292.741.964934067.685.69
Blue cod20,12712,6692.521.463071784.772.49
Elephant fish22,25027,2302.233.153884586.036.40
Red cod14,9587,7451.870.9089561.390.78
Moki18,80317,3602.352.001071031.661.44
Pioke18,30222,0362.292.442493323.874.64
Other119,516154,32015.4917.927221,02111.2714.28
                    Totals799,890865,728100.00100.006,4257,152100.00100.00

Methods of Capture—The total quantity of “wet fish” caught by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below for the latest 2 years.

Method of FishingQuantityValue
1970197119701971
 cwt$(000)
Trawl554,986586,9244,1064,461
Danish seine98,703116,081650833
Set and drag nets64,38175,174657807
Long and hand lines75,59872,253981992
Other methods6,22215,2963161
                    Totals799,890865,7286,4257,153

Landings at the Ports—Ports where the total landed catch of “wet fish” was in excess of 10,000 cwt are listed in the following table.

PortQuantityValue
1970197119701971
 cwt$(000)
Auckland161,021184,0951,0381,297
Manukau66,58772,874364427
Raglan7,11212,2805799
Thames18,79014,961149139
Coromandel14,50211,93310095
Tauranga63,96274,840383441
Gisborne73,22490,082411491
Napier60,26654,068466432
New Plymouth12,96817,294101132
Wanganui13,31812,121110107
Wellington32,05128,804363369
Nelson62,17459,251377368
Greymouth11,92010,20111087
Lyttelton20,69324,406290309
Akaroa9,92410,93790157
Timaru43,35650,940545642
Port Chalmers18,18121,053222268
Bluff and Stewart Is.14,63811,733191126

The total quantity of fish landed at these ports in 1971 was 761,873 cwt, which was 88 percent of the total catch.

EXPORTS—A table showing quantities and values of the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest 3 years is set out below. Rock lobsters, or crayfish, are exported mainly to the United States; for other fish the main markets are Australia and Japan. New Zealand's exports of fish and fish products now go to over 25 countries.

CommodityQuantityValue (f.o.b.)
196919701971196919701971
 cwt$(000)
Rock lobster (crayfish) and tails58,13153,46945,72214,23512,43213,468
Fish, fresh or frozen74,034144,171163,6061,8994,2434,899
Fish meal48502,802–  –  25
Other, including smoked and canned6,76910,91924,8082163901,911
                    Totals138,982208,609236,93816,35117,06520,303

CONSUMPTION—The following table shows the annual per head consumption of fish products and the permissible mercury levels in selected countries.

Country and PeriodPer Head Consumption (Edible Weight)Permissible Mercury Level
* This is one-tenth of the lowest level likely to cause ill-effects.
 lbppm
Japan (1969)67.61.0
Denmark (1966–68)45.91.0
Sweden (1969–70)45.91.0
Norway (1968–69)45.11.2
United Kingdom (1968–69)20.91.0
New Zealand (1969)15.30.5*
Australia (1968–69)14.50.5
Italy (1968–69)12.90.7
Netherlands (1968–69)12.11.0
United States (1971)11.20.5

Pelagic Fish—Although surface schools of pelagic fish are frequently seen in New Zealand coastal waters, there are few data on which to base estimates of abundance. The pelagic fish which could be commercially exploited are listed in the following table. During 1971 the Japanese catch of barracouta and horse-mackerel greatly exceeded the yield estimated by the National Development Conference.

SpeciesDistributionAreas of Greatest AbundanceN.D.C. Estimated Annual Yield1971 Landings
 tonstons
TrevallyNorth Island, north of South IslandBay of Plenty and north10,5505,850
BarracoutaAll areasCanterbury Bight, Tasman Bay5,4501,050
Horse mackerelNorth Island, north of South IslandTaranaki Bight, Tasman Bay, East Coast of North Island4,950600
English mackerelNorth IslandEast Coast, Bay of Plenty
Southern bluefinWest of South Island, east of both IslandsSeasonal Fiordland8,000250
AlbacoreNorth Island, west coast of South IslandSummer West coasts2,000
SkipjackAll areasSummer Hawke's Bay and north750
YellowfinNorth of North IslandSummer Bay of Plenty
KingfishNorth Island, north of South IslandBay of Plenty and north1,850600
KahawaiAll areasCook Strait and north5,450550
SalmonEast coast of South IslandCanterbury Bight
Mao MaoNorth IslandBay of Plenty and north50
KoheruNorth of North IslandEast Coast North Island
PilchardNorth Island, northern part of South IslandTasman Bay, Marlborough Sounds, Bay of Plenty, Fiordland6,0001
SpratSouth IslandEast coast of South Island
AnchovyWidespreadTasman Bay, Marlborough Sounds, Bay of Plenty, west coast of South Island
Yellow-eyed mulletInshore areas both islands?7,50015
SquidAll areas?West coast of South Island

In recent years a small tuna fishery has developed and there is an established market for this fish, but the bulk of any other pelagic fish caught will need to be reduced to fish meal and oil. Therefore, the cost of catching, handling and processing the fish must be kept low. The Fishing Industry Board has imported two squid-fishing machines for trials and a Nelson-based company has carried out experimental fishing.

OYSTER BEDS—The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula. During the 1971 season 115,090 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 113,592 sacks in 1970.

In addition to the four Government experimental rock-oyster farms, a further 70 farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf and an additional 70 leases for farms have been granted. This new industry is in the process of changing from tray to stick cultivation assisted by a large-scale Government spat-stick catching programme.

Rock oysters picked in 1971 totalled 10,510 bags, compared with 18,140 bags in 1970, and included 9,240 bags of mature oysters from private farms.

ROCK LOBSTERS—Rock lobster, or marine crayfish, occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of rock lobster is sold in local markets for domestic consumption and part is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole crays.

With the development of the export of frozen rock lobster tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobster increased until 1968. The boom period, however, has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery stabilises to provide regular supplies for overseas and local markets. The catch and exports of rock lobster over the latest 6 years are as follows.

YearProduction (Whole)Exports
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 cwt$(000)cwt$(000)
1966128,9813,84435,4084,619
1967159,0124,32049,1426,363
1968214,7527,43362,75912,729
1969175,1098,86158,13114,235
1970127,2588,05253,46912,432
1971111,7539,43245,72213,468

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1971 season (from November 1970 to June 1971), big-game fish caught included 2 black marlin, 95 striped marlin, 2 blue marlin, 463 mako shark, and 1,153 other species.

PAUA—Relatively few years ago paua was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely unutilised for food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of unprocessed meat, which would have been processed overseas, since some New Zealand canners have solved the problems of bleaching and canning the meat to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in, primarily, South-east Asian markets. In the year ended 31 December 1971 exports of paua totalled 1,862,000 lb and the value was $1,480,242.

For the year ended 31 December 1970 landings from boats (i.e., excluding landings under shore fishing permits) were 7,697.8 cwt valued at $78,364 and for the year ended 31 December 1971, on the same basis, 23,327 cwt, valued at $300,532. The total take for the year ended 31 December 1971 was 28,761 cwt, valued at $370,251. The figures quoted are landings as returned by the fishermen. On the basis of analyses made of packing house records the actual landings in 1970–72 were considerably greater, perhaps even approaching twice as much as is recorded, but also varying considerably in the extent of understatement. A further indication that landings have been understated is provided by exports, which, converted to the equivalent landed weight and allowing for some local consumption, exceed very considerably the landings which have been recorded. Bluff and Cook Strait ports are the main landing points.

Permits for taking paua at 31 December 1970 totalled 267, consisting of 164 shore fishing permits and 103 boat fishing permits, and at 31 December 1971 totalled 618, consisting of 331 shore fishing permits and 287 boat fishing permits.

A close season for paua from 1 February to 31 May each year was introduced in 1972. Further information is available in the Report of the Fishing Industry Committee 1970–72, parliamentary paper I.14, 1972.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on Galaxias species which, so far as is known, is not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where it occurs. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. The 1971 season for the West Coast of the South Island showed a total of 781 cwt, compared with 1,673 cwt in 1970.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research, on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is $300,000.

Indigenous Species—The taking of eels, principally for export, continues to increase. Eels are the only species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. The value of eels exported increased from $79,737 in 1967 to $469,469 in 1970.

Research—The research programme includes provision for continued limnological studies of the Rotorua lakes. Sources of nutrients, the principal causes of eutrophication, are still under study as is the bottom fauna. Studies of the correlation between trophic status of lakes and the population density and condition of sport fish is being undertaken. Work on whitebait fisheries and stream faunas is continuing in order to determine productivity levels and fish behaviour.

Studies on adult quinnat salmon are to be published and work on fry and smolts is being initiated. In addition work on trout and their inter-relationship to salmon in South Island rivers is being commenced.

Additional work is to be done on the occurrence of trace elements, particularly mercury, lead, zinc, cadmium, and copper, in shellfish from a variety of sea areas, in order to determine the naturally-occurring levels of these elements. New work is planned on parasites and diseases of freshwater fish.

Chapter 17. Section 17
MINERALS

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Over 90 percent of the value of the present mineral production is represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock, and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction.

The increasing complexity of modern industry creates a demand for a wider range of primary and ancillary raw materials. New industries such as aluminium smelting, iron and steel, and glass manufacture create additional demands for clays, dolomite, and magnesite for refractories, limestone for fluxes, and so on.

Recent activities have improved greatly the chances of successful development of a number of important minerals. These include halloysite, ilmenite sands, titanomagnetite ironsands, and sulphur. There is a probability that potential annual export values could grow to $32 million while import savings of $6 million annually could also be involved, apart from developments as regards off-shore oil and natural gas. Substantial increases in mineral exports in 1972 resulted from the shipment of ironsand concentrates from Waverley and Taharoa on the west coast of the North Island.

A Mineral Resources Council has been established as the sector council on minerals for the National Development Council. It continues to keep under review all aspects of mineral development.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19701971
QuantityValueQuantityValue

* Includes 72,544 tons stockpiled at Waipipi.

Note—One bbl is taken as 34.97 imperial gallons.

Fuels$(000)$(000)
Coal2,348,459 tons13,7732,090,691 tons12,225
Petroleum crudeKapuni462,547 bbls1554802,458 bbls1,975
Maturoa4,528 bbls111,809 bbls5
Natural gasKapuni3766.54 mil. cu ft43610,625.87 mil. cu ft1,004
Moturoa2.14 mil. cu ft11.42 mil. cu ft1
            Metals
Gold11,283 oz4209,418 oz378
Silver16,428 oz1766,398 oz78
Cadmium10 tons4814 tons30
Copper46 tons4084 tons58
Iron ore673 tons492 tons1
IronsandsPrimary (Export)71,010 tons426458,131 tons*1,878
Secondary (Local)70,160 tons271108,654 tons403
Tungsten ore5 tons217 tons
Zinc1,436 tons1821,938 tons444
Lead766 tons1481,226 tons296
Non-metallicstons tons 
Bentonite19,7228811,57552
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.252,844339279,984433
Clay for pottery, etc.11,45720319,923159
Diatomite5,7901856,238196
Dimension stone19,06010930,729139
Dolomite10,1111608,180131
Greenstone4848
Limestone for agriculture1,140,3272,2191,261,1262,850
Limestone for industry122,136274113,919318
Limestone and marl, for cement1,499,3778051,511,540664
Magnesite47681,03020
Perlite2,00032,0003
Pumice18,9043012,80464
Rock for harbour work1,231,1567182,162,678623
Salt51,95936442,580393
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate5,297,0137,7785,386,6908,823
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast21,151,13518,78620,082,93919,294
Sand for industry193,485242236,520249
Serpentine76,90824371,798192
Silica sand133,486324122,553377
Sulphur1201
               Totals49,24053,764 

The following summary figures are the mineral industry, export targets in constant 1969–70 prices unprocessed as set by the Mineral Resources Council.

 1969–701972–731975–761978–791981–82
All minerals and metal ores—$(million)
     “Assured”0.45.712.712.712.7
     “Probable”3.57.014.0

The 1972–73 exports figure comprises ironsands, lead-zinc ores, scheelite, and pumice. The 1978–79 figure is based on confirmed ironsand contracts, and the prospects of coal, clay, and ilmenite.

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Mines Department.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to coal resources, are—

Sub-bituminous Coal: Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven), Murchison.

Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is being fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the Association's activities is raised by a levy of 5 cents a ton made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government subsidy of $1 for $1 basis on operating costs and capital expenditure.

In the laboratories at Lower Hutt six persons are engaged in chemical research and analysis of coal while engineering research and development employs a further nine. Extension and advisory services throughout New Zealand are provided by six fuel technologists.

The executive of the Coal Research Association includes representatives of mine owners, mine workers, coal merchants, the Mines Department, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the University of Canterbury, and the New Zealand Institute of Coal Mining.

Fuel Technology Service—The Mines Department has established a fuel technology service in Auckland and Christchurch to advise industrial and domestic consumers in the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—Investigation of coal resources is now being carried on in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling. For detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields, those interested are referred to Geological Survey Bulletins Nos. 17, 45, 51, 56, and 59, and for an overall picture to Economic Geology of New Zealand, Volume 4, Eighth Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress, procurable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand was prepared in 1969 based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted—“measured”, “indicated”, and “inferred”—is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also |accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows.

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

The categories of coal resources refer only to the probability of their existence and may be applied either to coal in the ground or to recoverable coal.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 1,073 million tons.

LocalityMeasured RecoverableIndicated RecoverableInferred Recoverable
                    Bituminoustons (000)
Buller31,8955,12910,400
Murchison166501,380
Reefton9513,1148,130
Garvey Creek1322,6305,000
Greymouth2,57110,43332,940
Pike River15,000
Shag Point1050
 35,56521,96672,900
Sub-bituminous
Northland755003,000
Maramarua15,67236,40024,000
Huntly94,32546,25075,000
Rotowaro13,2721,3001,820
Glen Massey143454,000
Whatawhata59100200
Kawhia394505,750
Mangapehi3,000
Tatu-Ohura3,0961,10012,000
Waitewhena40090011,000
Mokau60,000
Collingwood581301,000
Heaphy River1,000
Charleston1,7553,3615,088
Inangahua201008,000
Fletcher Creek602,930
Punakaiki2,000
Kaitangata1,672500500
Ohai5,9618,46089,940
Orepuki1,000
 136,607102,596308,228
Lignite
Canterbury1422,000
North Otago2402,000
Central Otago24415,000
Green Island2113,000
Kaitangata11,00019,00041,908
Pomahaka60,000
Mataura Valley5,03320,650215,550
 16,87039,650339,458
               Totals189,042164,212720,586

Coal Consumption—The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the latest 6 years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User196419651966196719681969
* Sales by private mines to domestic consumers included in ‘other consumers’.
 tons(000)
Railways166141120994913
Gasworks258260241248227169
Electricity generation586433491228253603
Households476482344*301*291*279*
Factory industries—
     Meatworks114113121128123127
     Dairy factories328324299287313276
     Pulp and paper mills1421321251119994
     Cement works213217233190197205
     Other factories196185174154152161
Other consumers298335455488405348
               Total consumption2,7772,6222,6032,2342,1092,275

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
 tons(000)No.
Prior to 1967....165,872........
19671,3719982,3707952,0734113,279
19681,3478782,2247351,9443663,045
19691,2351,0912,3266711,5943312,596
19701,1591,1892,3486191,3533252,297
19719311,1592,0915091,0933341,936
               Totals177,231

In 1971 the State operated 15 of the 52 underground mines in operation and these produced 686,868 tons of coal; 10 of the 40 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 584,321 tons of coal. The loss on operations of State coal mines in 1971 was $2,411,102, without charging interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low-temperature carbonisation works, using the Lurgi process, at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland produced, during 1971, 15,248 tons of carbonettes, 349,025 gallons of tar and oil, and 3,083 tons of char from 31,541 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local State mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced 39,876 gallons of tar and 5,744 tons of coke during 1971.

Mercer Power Station—This station, of 180,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 700,000 tons of coal a year. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Kopuku opencast coalfield about 7 miles distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

Huntly Power Station—Following delays in coming to an agreement on the price of natural gas, it has been decided to build a 1,000 mW coal-fired station at Huntly, the first unit (250 mW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1978. Investigations have confirmed the existence of a large underground coalfield sufficient to provide fuel for the station.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1939, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Mines the jurisdiction to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences on (a) land and in marine areas including territorial waters, and (b) the continental shelf; for the former there are 317 current prospecting licences covering 135,615 square kilometres and for the latter 33 licences covering 997,129 square kilometres.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Geological and geophysical work (including seismic surveys) is being conducted by several licence holders in various areas throughout New Zealand.

Gas from the Kapuni field is treated for the removal of carbon dioxide and piped between Auckland and Wellington. It is used mainly as a premium household fuel although some will be used for the generation of electricity and for industry. Gas reserves are estimated to be sufficient for 25 years. Condensate from Kapuni provides some of the feedstock for the Whangarei refinery.

The Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967 established a corporation to purchase, transport, and market natural gas. Construction of the 377 miles of 8 5/8 in. trunk pipeline was completed and natural gas came into use in 1970 in nine North Island centres—Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. (See Section 20B.)

In 1969 the Maui gas field was discovered off the Taranaki coast 33 miles from Opunake. It was subsequently found to extend over an area of 765 square kilometres (295 square miles) placing it among the 20 largest gas fields in the world. The recoverable economic reserves of the field are estimated to amount to about five million million cubic feet of high quality methane gas. In addition, oil condensate from the field is likely to supply from 10 to 15 percent of the feedstock requirements for refining in New Zealand.

In April 1973 the Government and the Shell-BP-Todd consortium reached an agreement for the joint development of the main gas field. A gas contract, probably for 30 years, is to be signed providing for the sale to the Crown of the gas which will be used for electric power generation. The first commercial deliveries of the gas are scheduled for October 1978 and it will be used to fuel the New Plymouth power station and probably two stations in the Auckland area.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tons of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tons of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tons in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 36 miles south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 12 miles away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969. In this year to 31 March 1971 production totalled 53,754 tons, and in the next year 65,789 tons.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 20 miles north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities. N.Z. Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa, near Kawhia, and shipments of concentrate to Japan began in October 1972.

URANIUM—in 1955 uranium-bearing minerals were discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush, the area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Prospecting work in the Buller area of the West Coast is continuing.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now almost confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island.

SILVER—Formerly most of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfields, where gold and silver were found alloyed. Recent production in the area is contained in the lead sulphite concentrates exported to Japan. A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredges.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depth. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining is on a small scale. Mining is confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flats fields in Otago. There has been renewed interest in prospecting both these fields and a complete re-assessment of their potential is being made.

COPPER—A deposit of copper ore near Parakao contains azurite and malachite, forms of carbonates of copper, as well as tentorite, an oxide of copper. It has been used as an additive to fertilisers. Another deposit of copper ore was worked at Pupuke. It is estimated that the total production of copper ore over the years to the end of 1971 amounted to 8,152 tons.

Prospecting has been carried out for copper ore at Moke Creek near Queenstown, and Coppermine Island near Whangarei, as well as a number of other localities, by mining companies currently engaged in the renewed study of the country's mineral resources without uncovering significant deposits.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district and further investigation work has been carried out in this area.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc is being mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 70,000 tons from here and 10,000 tons from Mt. Somers in Canterbury, are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture.

There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferrosilicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Deposits of bentonite occur at Porangahau in the Hawke's Bay District, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. There are deposits of non-swelling bentonite at Coalgate in Canterbury which are, however, modified to produce swelling bentonite suitable for pelletising ironsands, and use in drilling and as a filler.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used in ceramics, and as a filler in the paper industry. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War and used in the expanding china-ware industry of Auckland and investigations into an expanding use of this clay as a high-grade filler are proceeding.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6-million-ton deposit of sulphur at Rotorua in the Taupo area in 1968, but exploitation has still to be established as feasible.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. In 1955 production of asbestos was resumed after a temporary cessation but was discontinued in 1963. Current work is aimed at finding a market for the high proportion of very short fibre found in the ore. Deposits found in Fiordland are of commercial value but development is limited by difficulty of access.

PHOSPHATE—The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance and the more favourable sections of the deposits have been exhausted.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1971, 2,624,134 tons of serpentine had been mined.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers. and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply.

KAURI GUM—Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tons.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 10,000 acres of moorland peat on the Chatham Islands with an average thickness of 14 feet. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tons$(000)
196635,4501,000
196755,2001,214
196855,0001,155
196948,518464
197051,959364
197142,580393

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Geological Survey—Imperative to long-term assessment of New Zealand's mineral resources is an understanding of the country's geology. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Mines, Works, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1:250,000), informally known as the “Four mile” series, are available for the whole country. One-mile maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. The first sheets of a new detailed series of maps, at 1:25,000 scale, have been issued. They cover Hamilton City and parts of Auckland. Surveys are currently in progress to produce similar maps for Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency. In 1972 a new 1,000,000 map was published of each of the North and South Islands.

Mineral Resources Surveys Generally—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Council's recommended programme. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced annually. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Metallic Minerals—In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Geological Survey has recently completed detailed surveys of the ilmenite-zircon-gold sand deposits near Westport, of the important mineralisation areas in north-west Nelson, of a disseminated low-grade copper deposit at Coppermine Island off Whangarei, and of scheelite lodes at Glenorchy in Otago.

Coal—Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, apart from constructional materials, and mapping the coalfields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with Mines Department and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, and Ohai coalfields have been published, while those for the Waikato field will be the next to be issued. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision, involving presentation in map form, of coal estimates is currently being made.

Oil—The Government does not undertake oil exploration. Oil companies, however, draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act 1937. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has appointed a petroleum geologist to the staff who advises company geologists on all oil regions.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki, which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni and more recently off shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provided a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on shore and off shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as is possible with the staff available, the survey advises Ministry of Works and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. A major aggregate survey has been launched in co-operation with Ministry of Works. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on north-west Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed recently; North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of recent New Zealand Geological Survey report series.

CENSUS OF MINING AND QUARRYING—A census of mining and quarrying was taken for the production year 1968–69. Statistics for that year are shown in the following table.

ItemType of Mining or QuarryingTotal, incl. Part-Time Operating
Sand, Gravel, Rock, etc.LimestoneCoalOther, Including Clay
* One owner may operate several mines, e.g., the Government operates many coal mines.
Type of organisation*—
     Registered company197592632392
     Individual or partnership or co-operative58163412168
     Government or local authority101122140
               Totals356766246700
Nature of business—
     Underground mines operated641176
     Surface mines or quarries operated9178737641,332
     Productive bores33
               Totals91787101781,411
Employment—
     Average number of persons engaged (excludes working proprietors)1,8642762,7422395,283
     Salaries and wages paid (includes bonuses, overtime, etc.) persons engaged $(000)4,9236697,63569614,011
     Overtime hours worked h(000)489343553615
     Number of working proprietors69159615244
Production (values as at quarry floor or mine heed)—
     Sand, gravel, rock, clay, etc. $(000)19,958586520,373
     Limestone $(000)282,428152,527
     Coal $(000)6412,87412,943
     Other $(000)15483,0743,245
               Totals, values $(000)20,0522,54012,8823,15439,086
Production volumes—
     Sand, gravel, rock, clay, etc. cu yd(000)18,412405019,088
     Limestone tons(000)201,56081,643
     Coal tons(000)242,2872,312

Chapter 18. Section 18
MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital investment in new buildings and machinery. A measure of the increase in capital employed is that the value of land and buildings, plant, and machinery at the end of the production year for each person engaged was $1,266 in 1950–51, $2,749 in 1960–61, and $5,447 in 1970–71.

Successive annual increases in the volume of production took place in the following years: 1959–60, 3.5 percent; 1960–61, 9.8 percent; 1961–62, 5.1 percent; 1962–63, 4.5 percent; 1963–64, 10.4 percent; 1964–65, 13.0 percent; 1965–66, 6.8 percent; 1966–67, 5.9 percent. However in 1967–68 there was a decrease of 1.2 percent. Later annual increases have been: 1968–69, 3.2 percent; 1969–70, 11.9 percent; 1970–71, 5.7 percent.

The greater use of machinery in manufacturing during the last 20 years is illustrated also by the continuing rise in the average horsepower employed for each person engaged in manufacturing. In 1950–51 the average was 3.48 horsepower; in 1960–61, 4.85 horsepower; and in 1970–71, 6.33 horsepower. This expansion has been facilitated by developments in electric power generation and industrial techniques.

The value of factory production rose from $760 million in 1950–51, to $1,514 million in 1960–61, doubling in the decade; while the value of production of $3,597 million achieved in 1970–71 represented more than double for that decade. Value added in manufacture increased at an ever-faster rate from $227 million in 1950–51 to $574 million in 1960–61 and $1,492 million in 1970–71.

Estimates for April 1972 indicate that 24 percent of the total labour force was directly engaged in manufacturing. This figure represented 25.6 percent of the male labour force and 22 percent of all female labour. (Note: From April 1971, estimates of the industrial distribution of the total labour force have, for the first time, been made according to the newly-revised “New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification”. As a result, comparisons with most earlier estimates for industrial groups are not possible.)

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. In 1970–71, 60 percent of the factories employed 10 or fewer people, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. At the other end of the scale, in the same year, only 1.6 percent of factories had staff in excess of 200. The majority of the smallest manufacturing units are involved in the production of transport equipment, machinery, and wood products, while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper.

Statistics over the past decade show a trend towards larger manufacturing units, which have increased in number at a proportionately more rapid rate than the total number of factories.

Some of the major industries are mentioned later in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; the manufacture of TV tubes, 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turbo-prop top-dressing aircraft, utility farm vehicles, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, and hydraulic equipment and attachments. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake pads, high-speed twist drills and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories produce PVC compounds and dry blends, besides such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic chemical materials including synthetic detergents; and various weed killers and insecticides. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene ('shrink film'). Textured synthetic yarns, warp-knitted and foam-backed fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established and brandy has been produced experimentally.

RECENT MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS—The following paragraphs summarise certain of the major industrial developments which have recently taken place.

Pulp and Paper—New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. The new mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, will double pulp output from 210,000 tons to 420,000 tons. The company's No. 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme undertaken by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., Kawerau, is also well advanced. The kraft pulp mill expansion, scheduled for completion about the middle of 1973, will raise output from 105,000 tons a year to 230,000 tons, of which 160,000 tons will be exported. The company's third newsprint machine, expected to be in production early in 1975, will increase total newsprint production to 345,000 tons a year.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., Kawerau, has recently extended its pulp-making plant and has installed a third machine for the production of tissue grades for domestic and overseas markets.

The new mill constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd., at Whirinaki, near Napier, commenced production in March 1973. The mill's entire output, consisting of sawn timber and refiner groundwood pulp, is being exported to the two Japanese companies which hold 40 percent of the equity in the Whirinaki mill, the remaining 60 percent being held by Carter Holt Holdings Ltd.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle Board Ltd. commenced production in October 1972. With an annual output of 30 million square feet on a 3/4 inch basis, the establishment of the Kumeu plant means a doubling of the country's output.

Steel—New Zealand Steel Ltd. was formed in July 1965 and began production at Glenbrook. south of Auckland, of a range of galvanised coil and sheet from imported black coil in November 1968. The company is meeting the full domestic demand for these galvanised products and production is increasing annually.

Commercial operation of the iron-making plant commenced in March 1970, using indigenous ironsands. Considerable problems of equipment and operation have been met and full production has not yet been achieved. The designed capacity of the plant is 150,000 tons annually.

Production of black and galvanised steel pipe and tube from the $4 million mill commissioned in 1971 at present falls short of domestic demand. Production capacity of the mill when fully operational will be around 40,000 tons a year.

The plant is currently producing steel ingots, billets, flat and corrugated galvanised sheet, black pipe and rectangular hollow sections, and galvanised pipe.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Ltd. was formed following the signing of an agreement by the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty. Ltd., of Australia, Showa Denko KK, and Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., of Japan. Construction of the primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, was completed early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. The smelter is now producing at the rate of 110,000 tons a year, and at this level represents an investment of approximately $100 million. Adjacent to the Bluff smelter is a special mill which early in 1972 commenced production of aluminium electrical conductor redraw rod.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling mill products and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture—Rationalisation of the aviation manufacturing industry, necessary to ensure its long-term viability, has been undertaken through the amalgamation into a single company of Aero Engine Services Ltd. and Air Parts (N.Z.) Ltd. There will be substantial participation by Air New Zealand and the National Airways Corporation in the new company which is to be known as Aerospace Industries Ltd. The involvement of the two airlines is intended to provide financial support as well as technical, managerial, and marketing skills.

Colour Television—Following the Government's decision to convert the existing television channel for colour transmission by October 1973, steps were taken to set up a domestic industry to make colour television sets. It was agreed that import licences should be issued on demand to five manufacturers in order to avoid an initial proliferation of assembly units which could involve a wasteful use of resources, and to provide a stronger basis for the subsequent manufacture of components in New Zealand.

Tanning—Renewed interest in the New Zealand tanning industry has led to the formation of several large groups concerned to process sheep and lamb pelts to the dry-crust stage for export. Most of these consortiums comprise an established New Zealand freezing or tanning company in association with an overseas tannery. Several projects are on a very large scale, one having a yearly capacity of 8 million skins.

Textiles—Considerable reorganisation and development has taken place in the woollen milling and associated textile industry since 1960. In that year there were 16 woollen milling companies, while in 1973 the number had been cut down to 11. This reduction has resulted in the main from takeovers and mergers which have been followed by mill rationalisation and product specialisation to a greater degree than was formerly possible. Expansion programmes either recently completed or currently being implemented by several companies will enable the mills to provide an increased variety and volume of lighter-weight fabrics, including synthetics and wool-synthetic blends. New Zealand has two mills producing polyamide yarn and one spinning polyester. Other plants extrude polyethylene and polypropylene for use in woven sacks, cordage, and floor coverings.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Rationalisation of Production—This trend has resulted partly from an attempt to gain improved economies of scale. Some rationalisation has followed mergers and takeovers within New Zealand when, for example, two or more factories each making a wide range of goods have been able to concentrate on narrower complementary ranges, maintaining reasonable consumer choice while increasing the throughput of individual products.

Overseas Investment—Industrial expansion and rationalisation has frequently been associated with the investment of overseas capital, usually accompanied by specialised skills and technical advances. Typically, the industries in which overseas companies are most interested are based on New Zealand natural resources which provide development opportunities less readily available in the more highly industrialised countries of Europe and North America. Since resource-based industries usually develop on a large scale, they are invariably export-oriented and in many cases the overseas companies providing technology and in some cases part of the finance are also able to arrange long-term export markets.

Indigenous Resources—The trend towards the development and expansion of resource-based industries previously mentioned is of considerable significance. Traditionally, the only substantial resource-based New Zealand industries have been those engaged in processing farm products, meat, milk, and wool. Apart from these industries, in the period of almost 20 years following the end of the Second World War, the growth of manufacturing industry was, in the main, dependent on imported materials and components. The radio and television industry is a good example of growth of this type, and others are to be found in the domestic appliance, petroleum products, and engineering industries.

The turning point in the use of indigenous resources came with the developments in the forest industry where expansion has reached almost boom proportions during recent years. The industry is now a major earner of overseas exchange, the principal exports being pulp, paperboard, newsprint, and other papers. Logs, sawn timber, chips, and processed building boards are also sold overseas in substantial quantities.

New industries based on New Zealand's mineral resources are being established. A steel manufacturing plant is now smelting indigenous ironsands. Future prospects include the establishment of industries based on ilmenite beachsands occurring on the west coast of the South Island, Southland silica deposits, and a mineral wax industry based on Chatham Islands peat and Otago lignite deposits. The Kapuni natural gas field is in commercial production, and in the second quarter of 1973 negotiations were concluded between the oil companies and the Government for the development of the Maui offshore field, which is even larger than the Kapuni reserves. Developments based on farm produce continue to take place, one example being the manufacture of dried lucerne pellets for export.

EXPORT EARNINGS—Goods manufactured in New Zealand are finding an increasing demand in overseas markets. Exports of all manufactured goods including forestry products in the year ended 31 March 1971 were valued at $152.2 million f.o.b., a rise of 14.5 percent over the previous year. Since the manufacturing sector's earnings increased at a faster rate than that of other export sectors, the share of manufactured goods in the total export income continued to increase, reaching 13 percent compared with 12.2 percent in the year to 31 March 1970.

Increases in export earnings were recorded for leather goods, up 39.5 percent from $1.7 million to $2.3 million; non-electrical machinery, up 13.7 percent from $11 million to $12.4 million; and transport equipment up 75.7 percent from $1.9 million to $3.4 million. The principal exports in the year ended 31 March 1971 were forestry products ($48 million) and textiles ($15.5 million).

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Increasing attention has been paid in recent years to the regional aspects of the development of New Zealand and especially to the differing rates of growth of population, employment, and industry between regions.

Recognising this, the Government has now given regional development an important place in its planning. Initially, emphasis is to be given to the development of industry in a number of priority regions in order to provide employment opportunities and restrain the outflow of population from these regions. Regional development councils are being established in such areas to recommend to the Government on the types of regional assistance required in particular cases. Such assistance to industry may include loans, bank guarantees, freight subsidies, and assistance with housing and labour training.

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the bodies which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—Established as an independent body in 1964, the Corporation provides a source of financial assistance for new or expanding industries. Borrowers would normally be engaged in the production and related fields, such as manufacturing or serving of basic industry. Extractive industries, such as fishing, forestry, and mining, are also eligible for assistance. The functions and powers of the corporation have recently been extended.

Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme—This scheme was established in 1969 to encourage increased industrial research and development. Grant payments for the 1970–71 year were $202,117, for 1971–72 $749,175, and for 1972–73 $1,156,506.

Productivity Centre—A Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973. The work programme of the centre will be guided broadly by the Productivity Advisory Council, made up of representatives of both the Government and private sectors. The objects of the centre are to stimulate interest in improving productivity, to disseminate and develop productivity measurements and techniques, to encourage a better use of resources, to cooperate with other agencies working in this field, and to act as an extension service to industry. Once productivity problems are identified on a company and on an industry basis, the centre will be able to channel to firms, through its extension services, advice and assistance from among the wide range of financial, technological, technical, scientific, managerial, and other advisory facilities available throughout New Zealand in the public and private sectors.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1973, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small companies which lack the resources or skills to go into the export field, the corporation enables New Zealand to compete in many lines of goods which formerly could not be marketed economically.

Other Bodies—Also providing assistance to industry are the Industrial Design Council and Inventions Development Authority. A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry: these include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, and the Electronics Advisory Committee. Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc. continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade.

There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education and Science.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—The statistics of industrial production collected annually by the Department of Statistics cover registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, assembly, repair, or treatment of articles.

Bread bakeries and ready-mixed concrete establishments were surveyed as separate industries for the first time for 1962–63, but they have been excluded from group and national totals to maintain comparability with previous years.

Commencing with the 1968–69 production year, paper bag and paper sack manufacturers as well as plastic manufacturers were surveyed as separate industries.

Industrial activities not covered by the survey of the Department of Statistics set out in this section are: cake and pastry kitchens; boot repairers; bespoke tailors; dressmakers; milliners; abattoirs; railway workshops; naval dockyard; all one-man factories.

The exclusion of these activities from the scope of the statistical inquiry, and also of all persons engaged in factories in a purely distributive capacity, reduces the total manufacturing labour force from that quoted by the Department of Labour (302,500) to the figure recorded in these statistics for 1970–71 of 251,425. Although the annual census of factory production covers only 83 percent of the labour force classified by the Department of Labour as “manufacturing” the percentage of the total production covered would be larger, as all but the very smallest establishments are included.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but factories are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries—butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving—the years correspond with the production seasons ending in May and September respectively.

GENERAL SUMMARY—The factory production table in the Statistical Summary section of this volume gives a long time-series of leading statistics.

Following an increase of 11.9 percent in volume in 1969–70 there was an increase of 5.7 percent in 1970–71 to give a record volume of production in manufacturing. The total value of production was $3,597 million in 1970–71 or 14.1 percent more than the 1969–70 total of $3,153 million. Net output increased by 15.8 percent from $929 million in 1969–70 to $1,076 million in the latest year and manufacturers' surplus increased by 5.0 percent (from $298 million to $313 million). The number of persons engaged, including working proprietors, was 251,425 an increase of 9,876 or 4.1 percent on the total of 241,549 in 1969–70. Total salaries and wages paid (including drawings of working proprietors) during 1970–71 amounted to $735.8 million compared with $608.3 million in the previous year. This was an increase of 21.0 percent.

Factory statistics by local authority administrative areas showing the number of establishments and accompanying main statistics are published in New Zealand Industrial Production available in Government bookshops.

The following table gives the main statistics by statistical areas for the year 1970–71.

Statistical AreaNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
$(000)
Northland3144,65914,498106,777146,02026,612
Central Auckland3,02984,417243,627620,6121,111,792358,979
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,41126,40480,326273,293467,718123,532
East Coast1202,4376,60219,08232,0269,903
Hawke's Bay41210,47733,372116,957180,69647,365
Taranaki3527,27522,347101,099142,55528,993
Wellington1,97247,664137,825406,442685,963205,015
Marlborough1191,6304,3448,61115,0894,571
Nelson2543,81110,11229,25250,40014,249
Westland891,2163,2987,89114,8454,798
Canterbury1,53338,683110,771248,319451,424153,361
Otago59215,35542,06687,069171,17462,365
Southland3907,39726,66079,504127,70136,169
               Totals10,587251,425735,8452,104,9093,597,4031,075,913

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1970–71 is given in the following table. Co-operation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of farm products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Character of OrganisationNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsNet Output
TotalPer Establishment
   $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$     
Private registered company7,910159,2774461,1332,00264681,639
Public registered company1,03473,0302316321,151361348,746
Individual8733,490812251112,359
Partnership4262,39261121920,016
Co-operative association2369,5513330536937156,962
Local authority and State1083,68512122813122,804
               Totals10,587251,4257362,1053,5971,076101,626

In the next table the statistics for the year 1970–71 are reclassified by employment districts.

Employment DistrictNumber of FactoriesPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added) TotalNet Output (Net Value Added)
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
* Includes figures previously shown under Ashburton Employment District.
 No.     No.     No.     $(000)     $(000)     $(000)     $(000)     $(000)     percent     
Whangarei3144,11854113,647850106,777146,02026,6122.47
Auckland3,02957,76626,651198,19445,433620,6121,111,792358,97933.37
Hamilton81911,0822,31233,0943,530158,390233,14951,7674.81
Tauranga2272,1686236,51486133,96549,97610,8121.00
Rotorua3678,9881,23534,3631,96981,007184,71060,9915.67
Gisborne1181,8685595,61394819,05531,9529,8860.92
Napier1672,6949649,4141,56340,68464,12917,1201.59
Hastings1965,2011,23819,4222,06971,585110,57629,0862.70
New Plymouth3445,5351,09618,3381,67492,173130,31626,6272.47
Wanganui2603,4511,05911,1711,46436,47660,48717,7021.65
Palmerston North5017,3692,70223,2954,05394,329146,04438,2663.56
Masterton1492,2847387,3211,05625,67040,51010,1570.94
Lower Hutt44112,5814,46743,7158,402195,708307,90881,7887.60
Wellington6789,4644,57932,5188,10367,833149,20060,6065.63
               Totals, North Island7,610134,56948,764456,62181,9751,644,2622,766,770800,39974.39
Blenheim1191,2473833,8045408,61115,0894,5710.42
Nelson2152,7136487,8821,00527,15145,79212,1711.13
Greymouth1281,3643024,0374879,99219,4536,8760.64
Christchurch*1,32824,1979,99282,54116,404215,881398,974139,25612.94
Timaru2003,12263310,6771,08532,31652,23214,0231.30
Oamaru571,4903763,71258110,81617,5024,8110.45
Dunedin54010,0093,49932,4385,39876,375153,89057,6365.36
Invercargill3906,85254525,67698379,504127,70136,1693.36
               Totals, South Island2,97751,71416,378170,76726,483460,647830,633275,51325.61
               Totals, New Zealand10,587186,28365,142627,387108,4582,104,9093,597,4031,075,913100.00

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three latest years.

Item1968–691969–70x1970–71
Number of establishments..10,50110,57310,587
Persons engaged..229,074241,549251,425
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)527,809608,270735,845
     Materials$(000)1,662,3261,869,0332,104,909
     Other expenses$(000)334,870377,430444,061
               Total costs$(000)2,525,0042,854,7333,284,816
Value of production$(000)2,790,4483,152,8693,597,403
Manufacturers' surplus$(000)265,444298,136312,587
Net output (net value added)$(000)814,263929,2061,075,913
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)33,08438,56339,366
Volume index for industry: Base 1956–57(=1000)203022722402
Premises and plant—
     Value at end of year—
          Land and buildings$(000)691,011789,740858,750
          Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)358,538426,225470,375
          Transport equipment$(000)32,03235,19640,449
Capital expenditure during year—
          Land and buildings$(000)42,30966,89153,672
          Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)79,384120,654106,630
          Transport equipment$(000)12,23215,35219,988
Coal consumption as fueltons(000)884863851

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1970–71 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown.

IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
 $(000)
Food Manufacturing Industries
Meat freezing and preserving4626,006104,160519,156118,122
Ham and bacon curing351,2733,50325,5076,155
Sausage casings82577223,7541,141
Ice cream185301,40210,4802,601
Butter and cheese1412,5728,508189,1259,027
Milk products other than butter and cheese642,1036,47474,2347,351
Fruit and vegetable preserving272,9037,45839,2589,815
Fish preserving182186255,291909
Grain milling358752,41030,5654,996
Biscuits81,3632,99015,3284,750
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery442,3305,00824,3837,284
Feeds for animals and fowls465391,68123,0453,299
Food preparations, n.e.i.552,0045,39555,53712,669
               Totals54542,973150,3371,015,664188,119
Beverage Industries
Winemaking614551,2329,9303,028
Distilling, rectifying, and blending of spirits41183512,418783
Brewing of ale and stout, and malting151,4835,83943,84819,220
Aerated waters and cordials499362,24612,1134,829
               Totals1292,9929,66768,31027,860
Tobacco Manufactures
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes51,1693,04226,4896,554
Manufacture of Textiles
Woolscouring269863,59167,0385,087
Woollen milling214,48511,11835,22014,460
Other spinning and weaving mills263,1439,67139,95214,836
Hosiery and other knitting mills845,57213,17851,06018,170
Phormium flax982188602222
Linen flax128589146
Textiles, n.e.i.321,3434,32029,9757,653
               Totals19915,63942,125223,93860,474
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up Textiles
Leather gloves and apparel8139277962370
Men's and boys' outerwear1103,9117,25722,7788,647
Women's and girls' outerwear2665,7629,94332,27711,995
Underclothing421,6712,7459,5373,650
Hats, caps, and millinery455831,0312,8641,259
Neckties41703631,560567
Corsetry321,6052,6157,9953,266
Shirts and pyjamas462,0853,37510,7814,133
Wearing apparel, n.e.i.1355,5709,93433,33612,780
Fur coats and necklets251733801,030481
Footwear (other than rubber)1015,36812,06936,23115,297
Canvas goods466651,2364,4331,730
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)751,1942,1798,9613,109
               Totals93528,89653,404172,74567,284
Manufacture of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)
Sawmills3275,74317,74470,62326,052
Planing mills and timber preservation1622,3816,88644,40710,633
Joinery3674,24912,77046,42916,463
Wooden containers334161,3045,0461,408
Plywood and veneer161,1973,83415,4296,631
Wood products, n.e.i.767212,0716,7583,059
               Totals98114,70744,609188,69264,245
Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures
Furniture3804,72713,19742,32316,634
Mattresses185001,2415,9191,904
Venetian blinds172275963,1041,008
               Totals4155,45415,03451,34519,546
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products
Pulp, paper, and paperboard63,94317,64997,68934,393
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and containers412,3946,86240,20812,172
Paper bags and paper sacks189352,77718,3235,184
 481,9484,98330,2749,171
               Totals1139,22032,270186,49460,921
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Industries
Printing and publishing857,73323,71566,07536,904
Job and general printing3647,17620,01360,63828,293
Service industries for printing trade608282,5555,5213,336
               Totals50915,73746,282132,23568,534
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)
Tanning149592,92812,9204,512
Fellmongery81032842,077364
Leather goods901,3232,6778,5543,858
               Totals1122,3855,88823,5518,735
Manufacture of Rubber Products
Motor vehicle tyres and tubes31,0884,80919,8797,223
Rubber goods (other than motor vehicle tyres and tubes)312,0636,12620,3927,908
Vulcanising and tyre retreading828092,35410,7224,176
               Totals1163,96013,28850,99319,306
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products
Chemical fertilisers151,1734,60351,2019,762
Vegetable and animal oils and fats264511,4278,8882,606
Ink113309334,0251,871
Soap135231,51510,8233,609
Paint and varnish339082,73021,9515,981
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics391,5093,30625,4339,076
Chemical products, n.e.i.852,1476,07645,45214,294
               Totals2227,04120,591167,77347,199
Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal
Petroleum and coal products183941,51676,57010,425
Bituminous paving and roofing materials352939427,9262,438
               Totals536872,45884,49612,862
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)
Structural clay products341,0703,3298,6194,524
Pottery, china, and earthenware109662,5256,4974,422
Cement56832,44815,7847,289
Glass and glass products472,0876,65221,08611,129
Concrete products2152,4256,95028,64312,301
Lime833127984,4751,559
Fibrous plaster542877492,020912
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.218712,98914,7814,512
               Totals4698,70126,440101,90446,648
Basic Metal Industries
Basic metal industries1103,32012,49781,39516,136
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)
Sheet-metal working2347,06721,33784,86431,747
Wire working578732,71213,5644,292
Nail making61584363,940688
Electroplating and metal polishing788812,6616,9893,914
Metal products, n.e.i.4738,79127,742104,42341,186
               Totals84817,77054,886213,77981,828
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)
Agricultural and pastoral machinery1711,4074,02025,1177,020
Machinery, n.e.i.61915,02547,929157,37064,380
               Totals79016,43251,949182,48671,401
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
Range making61,0322,83110,5593,605
Radio and television assembly and manufacture202,1645,23021,3356,708
Electrical machinery, appliances, n.e.i. and repairs2876,77218,74985,19527,033
               Totals31310,01826,811117,08837,345
Manufacture of Transport Equipment
Boat building and ship repairing1021,6325,50815,0807,001
Motor vehicle assembly161,96114,385150,23524,066
Motor body building784,7164,65215,6575,681
Repairs to motor vehicles2,98722,30159,756189,36578,025
Aircraft manufacture, maintenance and repair392,4659,22418,46910,276
Perambulators71553431,190520
Transport equipment, n.e.i.411,4624,24314,6185,618
               Totals3,27034,69298,111404,614131,187
Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment323589762,9391,156
Jewellery1059342,4437,6533,439
Brushes and brooms104651,0754,3141,615
Toys and sports goods441,0562,3747,6383,105
Plastics1685,19215,39163,87423,185
Manufacturing industries, n.e.i.941,6273,89416,9947,228
               Totals4539,63226,155103,41339,728
               Grand Totals10,587251,425735,8453,597,4031,075,913

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES—In recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas. The 1970–71 survey covered 10,587 factories, the largest number included in any year and a 21.1 percent increase on the 8,745 establishments in 1960–61.

The following table shows the number of factories in each statistical area.

Statistical AreaNumber of Factories
1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
Northland299296317309314
Central Auckland2,8102,8542,8792,9733,029
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,3421,3461,3831,3961,411
East Coast124119124117120
Hawke's Bay435424434435412
Taranaki367366356355352
Wellington2,0332,0112,0181,9951,972
Marlborough110111113113119
Nelson262257256264254
Westland10796998889
Canterbury1,4991,5141,5081,5301,533
Otago596593603599592
Southland410410411399390
               Totals10,39410,39710,50110,57310,587

An analysis of the 1970–71 totals by industrial groups in the various statistical areas is given in the next table.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Number of Factories 1970–71
Food20100807225481
Beverages45513213613
Tobacco manufactures111
Textiles171527151
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods84315952015202
Wood and cork products (except furniture)43154200154041136
Furniture and fixtures5156371171274
Paper and paper products40632131
Printing, publishing, etc.8152434179152
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)147534215
Rubber products3241734725
Chemicals and chemical products2901516752
Petroleum and coal products11131319
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.3388537261572
Basic metal manufactures147712320
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)113597762512157
Machinery (except electrical)2319613072432147
Electrical machinery and appliances510738114768
Transport equipment14168260250162117554
Miscellaneous products421821258102
                    Totals3143,0291,4111204123521,972
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
 Number of Factories 1970–71
Food12194793532545
Beverages25295129
Tobacco manufactures25
Textiles335176199
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods472140366935
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1959311535040981
Furniture and fixtures37175216415
Paper and paper products11784113
Printing, publishing, etc.574673110509
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)12257112
Rubber products1212054116
Chemicals and chemical products1428133222
Petroleum and coal products10553
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5214753139469
Basic metal manufactures12323110
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)21421283718848
Machinery (except electrical)101431244535790
Electrical machinery and appliances443197313
Transport equipment5280334182131663,720
Miscellaneous products24267144453
               Totals119254891,53359239010,587

The number of factories and persons engaged are shown together in the following table, classified by industrial groups. Persons engaged include proprietors actively participating in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry GroupNumber of FactoriesNumber of Persons Engaged
1968–691969–701970–711968–691969–701970–71
Food56055354539,91841,58542,973
Beverages1301261292,6582,8242,992
Tobacco manufactures3551,0181,1471,169
Textiles18918919913,87115,203x15,639
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods91391893526,30327,44628,896
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,0911,04698114,38914,70314,707
Furniture and fixtures4414404155,3435,4845,454
Paper and paper products1131161138,3088,8439,220
Printing, publishing, etc.50951250914,78815,27315,737
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1031071122,2012,2882,385
Rubber products1211221163,8404,1223,960
Chemicals and chemical products2292292226,6116,8297,041
Petroleum and coal products525053658663687
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5255074698,2438,6728,701
Basic metal manufactures90871102,1422,7613,320
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)70573184814,38815,24017,770
Machinery (except electrical)90093479015,96517,61816,432
Electrical machinery and appliances3383243138,7049,21810,018
Transport equipment3,0943,1473,27031,76532,58934,692
Miscellaneous products3954304537,9619,0419,632
               Totals10,50110,57310,587229,074241,549x251,425

Persons engaged are shown in the table below for the year 1970–71 classified into working proprietors, managerial and clerical, professional, and technical staff, and wage earners.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
Food4,3731,36132,0075,23236,3806,59342,973
Beverages5322381,8263962,3586342,992
Tobacco manufactures101754205735216481,169
Textiles1,1346417,3726,4928,5067,13315,639
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,5131,2284,01222,1435,52523,37128,896
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,96639312,06728114,03367414,707
Furniture and fixtures6872443,8127114,4999555,454
Paper and paper products1,1073995,9551,7597,0622,1589,220
Printing, publishing, etc.2,0711,4849,3902,79211,4614,27615,737
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)245981,0539891,2981,0872,385
Rubber products5491842,6385893,1877733,960
Chemicals and chemical products1,3656663,4191,5914,7842,2577,041
Petroleum and coal products193294283762166687
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,3993736,3835467,7829198,701
Basic metal manufactures6261392,477783,1032173,320
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,68883712,4811,76415,1692,60117,770
Machinery (except electrical)2,52078512,71441315,2341,19816,432
Electrical machinery and appliances1,4325795,3542,6536,7863,23210,018
Transport equipment5,94099725,88799731,8272,86534,692
Miscellaneous products1,3785914,7692,8946,1473,4859,632
               Totals31,81912,212154,46452,930186,28365,142251,425

Further information is given in the following table on persons engaged in 1970–71. Totals in each industrial group are shown by statistical areas.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Food1,4528,8123,9541,2504,4292,7065,891
Beverages261,2332943727174435
Tobacco manufactures59632389
Textiles64,87977176645123,187
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods26712,3232,290935267015,485
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4352,6095,306923333991,395
Furniture and fixtures192,733285422664678
Paper and paper products3,1603,357348641,482
Printing, publishing, etc.2025,5069251616103214,435
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)399734112648376
Rubber products21886139165231915
Chemicals and chemical products882,75637492032622,015
Petroleum and coal products17714558411216
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.7103,3525173720995926
Basic metal manufactures22,01646311433319
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)859,080867283362513,617
Machinery (except electrical)2706,1071,993774076853,087
Electrical machinery and appliances163,65461832262612,319
Transport equipment8558,5504,8094011,1758778,446
Miscellaneous products255,560461570402,051
               Totals4,65984,41726,4042,43710,4777,27547,664
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal. N.Z.
Food407874625,3644,2113,56142,973
Beverages1338593271852,992
Tobacco manufactures891,169
Textiles344,1142,32116815,639
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2661831475,4761,0667328,896
Wood and cork products (except furniture)895265501,84354059014,707
Furniture and fixtures116221,069262395,454
Paper and paper products155292243299,220
Printing, publishing, etc.114175571,9761,01623915,737
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2549278612,385
Rubber products4771,83129223,960
Chemicals and chemical products12727114291107,041
Petroleum and coal products6115687
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.59386311,6204752848,701
Basic metal manufactures439573183,320
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1216272,30984317317,770
Machinery (except electrical)14091602,45568038016,432
Electrical machinery and appliances162,1307334210,018
Transport equipment4431,0572134,7721,8221,27234,692
Miscellaneous products5820211,152153169,632
               Totals1,6303,8111,21638,68315,3557,397251,425

The sex distribution among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males—in 1970–71 for every female engaged, there were three males. In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent. The male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. In 2 industrial groups the number of females exceeded the number of males—viz., the tobacco group where there were 124 females to every 100 males, and the footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textiles group where there were 423 females per 100 males. Individual industries in the other groups with more females than males were—biscuits; cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery; hosiery and other knitting mills; leather goods; and pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics. The table on the previous page shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1970–71.

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females were engaged in factories in New Zealand for 1970–71. This table gives by statistical areas the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per 1,000 of population.

Statistical AreaMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1 April 1971Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Northland4,1185414,65976196,19148
Central Auckland57,76626,65184,417217698,400121
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty22,2304,17426,404532422,29963
East Coast1,8785592,43733647,34251
Hawke's Bay8,1742,30310,477354133,25079
Taranaki6,1531,1227,275548100,89572
Wellington34,25013,41447,664255552,98691
Marlborough1,2473831,63032531,64252
Nelson3,0637483,81140968,83855
Westland1,0142021,21650222,86153
Canterbury28,05810,62538,683264398,83097
Otago11,4803,87515,355296182,74984
Southland6,8525457,3971,255106,34870
               All areas186,28365,142251,4252862,862,63188

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is now given.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering—Total
10 or Under11–2021–5051–100Over 100
Number of Factories
1954–555,3501,4731,0203102138,366
1959–605,2421,6211,1083122678,550
1964–655,8931,8281,2944093299,753
1969–706,4661,8461,38250637310,573
1970–716,3951,8501,42751140410,587
Number of Persons Engaged
1954–5527,20621,43231,65021,80851,479153,575
1959–6026,92623,75534,10521,66665,521171,973
1964–6529,62426,50440,39928,09186,432211,050
1969–7031,83826,98543,31135,772103,744241,650
1970–7131,54627,19444,77736,052111,856251,425

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 60 percent of the total number of factories in 1970–71.

SALARIES AND WAGES—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical, professional and technical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 $(000)$     $(000)$     $(000)$     
1962–63290,5922,02049,2621,034339,8541,774
1963–64313,5462,10455,0381,094368,5841,850
1964–65350,7222,22461,2701,148411,9921,952
1965–66387,0462,34267,9841,181455,0302,042
1966–67419,6702,46873,0601,233492,7302,149
1967–68422,8762,51073,0021,275495,8782,197
1968–69451,9862,63675,8221,316527,8092,304
1969–70519,711x2,890x88,559x1,435608,270x2,518
1970–71627,3873,368108,4581,665735,8452,927

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries, during the latest three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1968–691969–701970–71
 $(000)
Food105,608120,559150,337
Beverages6,7347,7419,667
Tobacco manufactures2,0882,5043,042
Textiles29,53334,136x42,125
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods39,80645,53253,405
Wood and cork products (except furniture)33,88438,31644,609
Furniture and fixtures11,68912,70515,034
Paper and paper products22,90126,15232,270
Printing, publishing, etc.35,44240,02246,282
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)4,2755,0195,888
Rubber products10,29112,15213,288
Chemicals and chemical products15,76517,63920,591
Petroleum and coal products2,0172,1222,458
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.20,26923,12426,440
Basic metal manufactures6,3008,91712,497
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)35,44140,56154,886
Machinery (except electrical)39,74648,33551,949
Electrical machinery and appliances18,72021,44626,811
Transport equipment69,93979,27198,111
Miscellaneous products17,36022,01426,155
               Totals527,809608,270x735,845

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1970–71 totals of salaries and wages paid according to statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Salaries and Wages Paid 1970–71
$(000)‡
Food5,38330,57112,5523,47716,48210,03220,452
Beverages554,0281,010*8412091,431
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*13,527230*2,136*8,521
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods40624,1353,4411567791,14210,143
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,1078,02716,7482689751,0984,238
Furniture and fixtures488,004730*5981651,803
Paper and paper products9,27315,17696**4,282
Printing, publishing, etc.59216,1322,4874511,72395813,345
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*2,516562486*860
Rubber products662,98439442135633,514
Chemicals and chemical products*7,4521,337*8737795,894
Petroleum and coal products*462181*28665
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,14910,4521,4071085782862,981
Basic metal manufactures*8,059147**1,6171,018
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)31828,3892,6368797059910,902
Machinery (except electrical)80719,8656,3342211,1892,1489,870
Electrical machinery and appliances459,2371,516*6287366,737
Transport equipment2,25125,25512,8751,1003,0272,24324,521
Miscellaneous products1,27015,2571,0675722,3502456,647
               Totals14,498243,62780,3266,60233,37222,347137,825
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

‡ Including amounts drawn by working proprietors.

Salaries and Wages Paid 1970–71
$(000)‡
Food1,2692,19321319,19813,10815,407150,337
Beverages*95*1,0906129,667
Tobacco manufactures*3,042
Textiles6511,2745,29358742,145
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods412285*10,3991,74310753,405
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2191,4661,6715,6441,4511,69644,609
Furniture and fixtures24166*2,7806059815,034
Paper and paper products*1,3644961,25432,270
Printing, publishing, etc.2934881535,8803,05372646,282
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*1,3597171545,888
Rubber products***5,895766513,288
Chemicals and chemical products*2001,9901,18251120,591
Petroleum and coal products177532,458
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1441,373874,6341,44579526,440
Basic metal manufactures*1,296*5612,497
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*406*7,3312,61858054,886
Machinery (except electrical)4222611567,5301,9221,22551,949
Electrical machinery and appliances425,7421,99612526,811
Transport equipment1,2692,72748214,0675,0563,23898,111
Miscellaneous products2913465373,1196403326,155†
               Totals4,34410,1123,298110,77142,06626,660735,845

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1970–71, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical, professional and technical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business. Males and females are distinguished throughout.

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past 11 years.

YearProprietors Actively EngagedManagers, OverseersAccountants, ClerksProfessional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 Average Salary or Wage
 $     $     $     $     $     $     $     $     $     $     $     $     
1960–612,0901,3782,8481,7341,9421,074....1,7869501,890980
1961–622,1321,3882,9541,7702,0121,114....1,8529921,9581,020
1962–632,2601,3683,0361,7502,0741,1482,4841,3901,9041,0002,0201,034
1963–642,3121,4623,1681,8362,1661,1962,5661,3821,9801,0622,1041,094
1964–652,4501,4823,3581,9062,2801,2522,6961,4362,0921,1142,2241,148
1965–662,6641,6573,5292,0212,3761,3042,7911,5152,2051,1422,3421,181
1966–672,6911,5973,7142,0612,5231,3642,9571,5512,3221,1932,4681,233
1967–682,5341,5593,7192,0572,6061,4023,0171,6211,2322,3612,5101,275
1968–692,7601,6693,8942,0132,7071,4753,2391,7432,4781,2642,6361,316
1969–703,0611,7264,2402,2162,9531,6043,5431,8782,7231,3792,8901,435
1970–713,4232,0014,8832,5423,3891,9124,0032,1193,1871,5953,3681,665
Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1970–71
 $(000)
Food19,0992,743119,9348,561139,03311,305150,337
Beverages2,2085096,3186338,5261,1429,667
Tobacco manufactures5281571,3251,0321,8531,1893,042
Textiles5,3211,28824,24511,27129,56612,55942,125
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods6,6862,68811,44432,58718,13035,27553,405
Wood and cork products (except furniture)7,88972235,52347443,4121,19644,609
Furniture and fixtures2,92448210,4651,16313,3891,64515,034
Paper and paper products5,89484122,6112,92428,5053,76532,270
Printing, publishing, etc.13,6803,82324,9453,83438,6257,65746,282
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,0772083,1011,5034,1781,7115,888
Rubber products2,3253909,57699811,9011,38813,288
Chemicals and chemical products5,8791,42210,9422,34816,8213,77020,591
Petroleum and coal products919641,410642,3291282,458
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5,43667319,3201,01124,7561,68426,440
Basic metal manufactures2,7152829,35914212,07442412,497
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)11,8971,62338,0783,28849,9754,91154,886
Machinery (except electrical)10,7441,53338,77789549,5212,42851,949
Electrical machinery and appliances5,9721,16715,5364,13621,5085,30326,811
Transport equipment22,9033,17069,9522,08592,8555,25598,111
Miscellaneous products6,0031,23814,4284,48620,4315,72426,155
               Totals140,09925,023487,28983,435627,387108,458735,845

MOTIVE POWER—A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources (as described in Section 20A) has been a major factor in industrial growth, especially as the rates compare very favourably with those in more highly industrialised countries.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories.

Class of Engine1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
ElectricNo.246,623254,894262,837271,668x280,400
hp1,262,3281,298,6001,386,7121,485,000x1,545,940
SteamNo.224210200182185
hp12,90712,62712,52111,88711,633
Petrol and light oilNo.998941913947888
hp20,13918,84719,51022,16821,045
Heavy oilNo.211206169161149
hp15,46215,21812,94010,98210,411
OtherNo.57526291225
hp2,1342,0412,4441,6943,254
               TotalsNo.248,113256,303264,181273,049x281,847
hp1,312,9701,347,3331,434,1271,531,731x1,592,313

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1970–71.

Industry GroupRated Horsepower of Engines in Use
ElectricSteamPetrol and Light OilHeavy OilOtherTotal
Food343,0042,4461,3381,75342348,583
Beverages22,37223813211022,852
Tobacco manufactures3,6503,650
Textiles60,2891861360,488
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods19,5164611119,574
Wood and cork products (except furniture)177,6831,7725,3804,802338189,975
Furniture and fixtures18,02941018,043
Paper and paper products303,07145012616051303,858
Printing, publishing, etc.31,3489101332,271
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)9,847152309,894
Rubber products36,362436,366
Chemicals and chemical products79,0331241125233479,655
Petroleum and coal products22,7045,9571,03412029,815
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.112,6143043,5811,895295118,689
Basic metal manufactures56,993123757,123
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)72,632161,5791039774,427
Machinery (except electrical)58,057163,8161786862,135
Electrical machinery and appliances22,566212722,614
Transport equipment55,846753,33241013559,798
Miscellaneous products40,324144511,71442,503
               Totals1,545,94011,66321,04510,4113,2541,592,313

CONSUMPTION OF COAL—During the year 1970–71, 894,000 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the 2 previous years were: 1968–69, 923,000 tons and 1969–70, 907,000 tons. It is important to note that the factory production statistics exclude the activities of the gas-making industry and electrical generation and supply stations. These two industries used 152,000 and 507,000 tons of coal respectively in 1970–71.

The following table shows for the year 1970–71 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry GroupTons of Coal Used
Food373,345
Beverages9,385
Tobacco manufactures
Textiles42,759
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods896
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,153
Furniture and fixtures17
Paper and paper products89,610
Printing, publishing, etc.12
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)4,518
Rubber products18,782
Chemicals and chemical products13,210
Petroleum and coal products42,901
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.248,801
Basic metal manufactures43,374
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,520
Machinery (except electrical)278
Electrical machinery and appliances
Transport equipment234
Miscellaneous products2,000
               Total893,795

Approximately 80 percent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1970–71 were as follows.

IndustryCoal Used
 tons  
Milk products253,000
Cement209,000
Meat freezing and preserving109,000
Pulp, paper, and paperboard90,000
Petroleum and coal products43,000
Structural clay products26,000
Woollen milling22,000
Wool scouring15,000
Motor tyres and tubes13,000

MATERIALS—The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers and packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was $742 million, and the goods produced were valued at $1,016 million, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost $99 million and finished goods produced were valued at $189 million.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of the latest 3 years was as follows.

Industry GroupCost of Material Used
1968–691969–701970–71
 $(000)
Food660,149698,818741,702
Beverages20,81124,87530,654
Tobacco manufactures14,42015,83117,798
Textiles108,786125,022x141,107
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods67,48978,09790,101
Wood and cork products (except furniture)78,29888,10598,679
Furniture and fixtures20,46422,47826,881
Paper and paper products67,53478,79785,967
Printing, publishing, etc.31,75536,63440,918
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)11,37514,26212,448
Rubber products17,60622,30123,143
Chemicals and chemical products88,25096,914100,920
Petroleum and coal products62,52161,36666,928
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.24,43129,27931,478
Basic metal manufactures22,42935,56453,011
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)66,66579,317104,488
Machinery (except electrical)65,61083,33889,689
Electrical machinery and appliances45,05652,65165,632
Transport equipment156,296185,334x236,020
Miscellaneous products32,37940,04847,345
               Totals1,662,3261,869,033x2,104,909

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the primary produce processing industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, $742 million, represented 35 percent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, $2,105 million. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value in recent years constitutes approximately three-fifths of the value of products. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of production for each industrial group and for all industries.

Industry GroupValue of Production
1968–691969–701970–71
 $(000)
Food887,623937,2731,015,664
Beverages46,58855,03968,310
Tobacco manufactures20,97923,93526,489
Textiles167,551192,803x223,938
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods129,070150,439172,745
Wood and cork products (except furniture)150,037166,848188,692
Furniture and fixtures39,72943,41851,345
Paper and paper products146,291166,720186,494
Printing, publishing, etc.99,757116,148132,235
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)..19,40123,82223,551
Rubber products42,13549,386x50,993
Chemicals and chemical products141,258154,391167,773
Petroleum and coal products77,89576,46484,496
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.78,75491,995101,904
Basic metal manufactures36,11456,73981,395
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)136,856162,827213,779
Machinery (except electrical)137,948171,450182,486
Electrical machinery and appliances80,56494,170117,088
Transport equipment278,581329,364x404,614
Miscellaneous products73,31789,638103,413
               Totals2,790,4483,152,869x3,597,403

A similar analysis by statistical areas, but limited to the year 1970–71, is now given.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Value of Production 1970–71
 $(000)
Food50,098217,512164,33720,98188,11684,588132,761
Beverages35130,6.113,859*5,0301,0039,163
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*71,7443,461*18,024*50,657
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,15080,39410,8944162,7303,60132,675
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4,35033,48076,4671,1413,9104,04517,815
Furniture and fixtures16227,8242,430*1,6253865,998
Paper and paper products52,66389,216516**23,514
Printing, publishing, etc.1,25249,6526,7868864,3051,96638,108
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*9,37222669524*3,126
Rubber products33511,7852,00720257138312,294
Chemicals and chemical products*54,61213,7187,65012,49248,500
Petroleum and coal products*5,863830**16312,861
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.11,01337,6506,9903412,59799110,523
Basic metal manufactures*61,759385**9,3276,560
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,104111,01110,3283567,0292,36942,689
Machinery (except electrical)1,78468,67517,9206995,2686,83733,963
Electrical machinery and appliances12239,6205,059*2,1505,10626,091
Transport equipment7,23486,80546,8403,4059,4447,403150,245
Miscellaneous products67,06660,7633,9663,01421,7241,89730,241
               Totals146,0201,111,792467,71832,026180,696142,555685,963
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotals

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Value of Production 1970–71
 $(000)
Food6,01912,9912,49394,02066,03975,7101,015,664
Beverages*532*9,7324,38368,310
Tobacco manufactures*26,489
Textiles19149,35817,3549,749223,938
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,348846*32,3785,145363172,745
Wood and cork products (except furniture)7556,7537,77220,5925,7125,899188,692
Furniture and fixtures62463*9,9112,12432851,345
Paper and paper products*9,0602,2135,892186,494
Printing, publishing, etc.5601,12330615,7299,7651,799132,235
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*5,6852,9221,16823,551
Rubber products***22,49835625250,993
Chemicals and chemical products*1,30311,8797,5945,303167,773
Petroleum and coal products1,65157284,496
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5006,89921214,2756,4363,478101,904
Basic metal manufactures*4,423*12281,395
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*1,362*25,7189,1492,46.3213,779
Machinery (except electrical)1,09787645933,7207,3233,86.8182,486
Electrical machinery and appliances11731,7096,72736.0117,088
Transport equipment3,79115,3721,58846,37615,24410,869404,614
Miscellaneous products9561,5722,01612,7092,11676103,413†
               Totals15,08950,40018,845451,424171,174127,7013,597,403

NET OUTPUT (NET VALUE ADDED)—This consists of the rewards to the factors of production, i.e., salaries and wages, interest on borrowed capital, and manufacturers' surplus. These three items are the components of national income or its companion aggregates net national and net domestic output. Net output (net value added) replaces the former added value which consisted of the difference between the value of production and the cost of materials.

The following table covering the manufacturing industry demonstrates how each concept is arrived at.

Components1965–661966–671967–681968–691969–70x1970–71
 $(million)
Value of production2,3742,4842,5382,7903,1533,597
     Less Costs of materials1,4161,4661,4931,6621,8692,105
Added value9581,0171,0451,1281,2841,492
     Less Other expenses185206217238294323
     Less Depreciation charges647072768494
Net output (Net value added)7097417578149291,076
 percent
Contribution of manufacturing industry to net domestic output (income)21.421.721.5x21.8x22.422.7

The next table on net output for 1970–71 classifies factories into several net output groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

GroupEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of ProductionNet Output
TotalPer Person Engaged
Net Output       No.     No.     $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$     
$                      
Under           5,0004781,3762,9605,5478,9251,5461,124
5,000–           9,9991,3684,26510,26418,01333,52810,3672,431
10,000–           19,9992,35711,30229,02450,04096,38034,4513,048
20,000–           29,9991,45511,07628,46955,110103,62735,6913,222
30,000–           39,9998829,29223,58851,67393,23430,5063,283
40,000–           99,9992,23439,551103,632307,724497,033139,9333,538
100,000–         199,99989733,02287,035267,127439,217123,9583,754
200,000–         499,99957641,795115,498302,924541,969174,1484,167
500,000–         999,99918127,01877,350235,246406,730123,6994,578
1,000,000–1,999,999        8523,47571,894200,232361,847115,8034,933
2,000,000–4,999,999        6033,127121,007339,127587,460178,8845,400
5,000,000 and over         1416,12665,123272,145427,452106,9256,631
 10,587251,425735,8452,104,9093,597,4031,075,9134,279

The analysis of net output (net value added) for 1970–71 by statistical areas now follows.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Net Output 1970–71
 $(000)
Food5,89040,86715,5165,15120,2609,76124,735
Beverages10811,1112,590*1,5074744,645
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*21,751285*2,957*12,735
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods42031,5344,3741781,1941,41712,729
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,39110,88625,5104131,3891,3986,115
Furniture and fixtures8910,531882*7531612,223
Paper and paper products16,59830,340157**7,691
Printing, publishing, etc.74124,2333,8775342,2701,24420,427
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*4,0398340127*1,279
Rubber products1233,924776852271224,563
Chemicals and chemical products*16,2883,043*1,6413,10914,731
Petroleum and coal products*1,551261*412,776
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.4,84517,8032,8191551,1654504,534
Basic metal manufactures*9,501188**2,5611,472
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)46143,4633,9031421,92298915,156
Machinery (except electrical)96327,1817,9642602,0492,94212,985
Electrical machinery and appliances5412,5103,020*7438328,354
Transport equipment2,92631,83916,9061,4303,9923,09336,800
Miscellaneous products8,60223,3691,1951,3595,17139611,064
               Totals26,612358,979123,5329,09347,36528,993205,015
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Net Output 1970–71
    $(000)   
Food6,01912,9912,49394,02066,03975,7101,015,664
Beverages*532*9,7324,38368,310
Tobacco manufactures*26,489
Textiles19149,35817,3549,749223,938
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,348846*32,3785,145363172,745
Wood and cork products (except furniture)7556,7537,77220,5925,7125,899188,692
Furniture and fixtures62463*9,9112,12432851,345
Paper and paper products*9,0602,2135,892186,494
Printing, publishing, etc.5601,12330615,7299,7651,799132,325
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*5,6852,9221,16823,551
Rubber products***22,49835625250,993
Chemicals and chemical products*1,30311,8797,5945,303167,773
Petroleum and coal products1,65157284,496
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5006,89921214,2756,4363,478101,904
Basic metal manufactures*4,423*12281,395
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*1,362*25,7189,1492,468213,779
Machinery (except electrical)1,09787645933,7207,3233,865182,486
Electrical machinery and appliances11731,7096,727360117,088
Transport equipment3,79115,3721,58846,37615,24410,869404,614
Miscellaneous products9561,5722,01612,7092,11676103,413†
               Totals15,08950,40014,845451,424171,174127,7013,597,403

The development of factory production in New Zealand is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, net output, and value of production.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION—Total operating costs of factories for the year 1970–71 amounted to $3,285 million, of which salaries and wages accounted for $736 million, cost of materials for $2,105 million, and other expenses for $442 million, while value of production totalled $3,597 million.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and costs of materials, by industry groups for the year 1970–71.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke, Gas, Oils, etc.InsuranceInterest on Loans, etc.DepreciationRentRepairs and MaintenanceOtherTotal
 $(000)
Food4,1927,5574,4354,1545,53822,5351,85919,14421,96691,380
Beverages1015013974528772,5583571,5733,85610,673
Tobacco manufactures1053711467692443178272,203
Textiles4991,7808549401,6435,7541,2794,0007,25124,000
Footwear other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods98121166931,0512,3132,9671,6116,84116,41.2
Wood and cork products (except furniture)252,0504332,0421,8644,7289785,6839,82827,632
Furniture and fixtures301404163387378765242,0255,256
Paper and paper products9415,3202,7331,6821,8069,8599336,22011,91941,413
Printing, publishing, etc.8711527961,0055,1201,7792,15411,91123,788
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)40167981581514212493788582,519
Rubber products1647633903822241,7363701,2423,4968,767
Chemicals and chemical products1481,1934689731,1665,4366693,4447,32320,820
Petroleum and coal products424145213721,3301479351,5124,778
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,8692,0251,9818978935,3264465,1145,12024,670
Basic metal manufactures4721,4168436173,6043,9592702,4562,21515,852
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)181,7436141,5751,7525,2042,6693,42312,21829,215
Machinery (except electrical)61,1253971,4931,8423,9181,7782,24510,43523,239
Electrical machinery and appliances9062986457492,4959121,5487,30814,860
Transport equipment31,9945332,2812,0536,4194,5483,78717,84139,460
Miscellaneous products171,1992877387883,4871,6401,8667,10517,128
               Totals9,50532,25015,25221,26027,48194,02624,76867,666151,854444,062

CAPITAL ASSETS—Fixed capital employed in manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. In those cases where the factory premises, or in some cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented, an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalising the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table which shows the values of these assets for each of the last 3 years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1970–71. For the year 1970–71 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the 2 previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the YearValue at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Land and BuildingsPlant, Machinery and EquipmentTotalLand and BuildingsPlant, Machinery and EquipmentTotal
Totals—$(000)
     1968–6942,30979,384121,693691,011358,5381,049,548
     1969–7066,891120,654187,545789,740x426,225x1,215,965x
     1970–71—
     Food15,56128,90644,467180,073116,080296,153
     Beverages2,7883,5196,30722,87512,00634,881
     Tobacco manufactures2139441,1572,7403,4996,239
     Textiles1,63311,07512,70837,06830,20167,269
     Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,7392,9284,66743,85814,60558,463
     Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,6734,4827,15539,25622,44161,697
     Furniture and fixtures3377041,04116,3893,23219,621
     Paper and paper products1,4457,5358,98050,85054,809105,658
     Printing, publishing, etc.1,7707,8079,57846,42529,19075,615
     Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3516389895,3851,7807,164
     Rubber products5321,9242,45611,7946,99818,792
     Chemicals and chemical products3,6284,0717,69944,39222,15066,542
     Petroleum and coal products3647951,1596,2377,93714,174
     Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.3,3166,0969,41231,37923,76455,143
     Basic metal manufactures3,4102,4485,85828,47433,81162,285
     Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,6855,6888,37360,75624,20884,964
     Machinery (except electrical)2,2584,1886,44645,94515,52461,469
     Electrical machinery and appliances1,5082,1983,70527,5599,80637,365
     Transport equipment5,9084,67410,582124,60321,020145,623
     Miscellaneous products1,5526,0127,56432,69217,31250,004
               Totals, 1970–7153,672106,630160,303858,750470,3751,329,125

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS—A quarterly survey of manufacturers' stocks is conducted by the Department of Statistics. The survey is based on a sample of 1,200 factories selected from the 1964–65 Census of Manufacturing and allowance is made in the sampling procedures for the opening of new factories and the closing of established factories since the 1964–65 census. The combined stocks of manufacturers in the sample represent over 75 percent of the total manufacturers' stocks at the 1964–65 census, and appropriate estimation methods are used to derive statistics for all factories.

The following table compares in summary form the results of the quarterly surveys. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries—meat processing and dairy products manufacture—have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading “Materials” includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies.

As at 31 MarchTotal StocksPercentage Change in Stocks at Annual IntervalsStocks Seasonally AdjustedPercentage Change in Stocks Seasonally Adjusted at Quarterly Intervals
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsMaterialsFinished Goods
 $(m)percent$(m)percent
 Including Primary Produce Processing Industries
1965227.2148.5375.7+4.2+10.4+6.6
1966262.0174.7436.7+15.3+17.3+16.2
1967284.5196.9481.4+8.6+12.7+10.2
1968283.3243.8527.1−0.4+23.9+9.5
1969314.2252.7566.9+10.9+3.6+7.5
1970347.7274.9622.6+10.7+8.8+9.8
1971408.3316.7724.9+17.4+15.2+16.4
1972462.0340.3802.3+13.2+7.5+10.7
 Excluding Primary Produce Processing Industries
1965216.489.4305.8+4.4+12.2+6.6214.991.1+0.2+4.4
1966251.697.5349.1+16.3+9.1+14.2249.999.3+3.7+0.3
1967273.3112.9386.2+8.6+15.8+10.6271.4115.0+2.4+1.5
1968272.4134.3406.7−0.3+19.0+5.3270.5136.8+0.6+2.9
1969302.5145.0447.5+11.0+8.0+10.0300.4147.8+6.0+1.8
1970334.6166.2500.8+10.6+14.6+11.9330.6170.3+1.7+6.2
1971394.4180.5574.8+17.9+8.6+14.8391.6181.2+1.7+3.7
1972444.1210.3654.4+12.6+16.5+13.9443.3212.0+3.5+3.7

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of September.

Industry GroupStocks at 30 SeptemberPercentage Change in Stocks 30 September 1971 to 30 September 1972
19711972
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotal
 $(million)percent
Primary Produce Processing Industries
Meat freezing, ham, bacon and casings11.0341.2352.2611.4748.2559.72+4.0+17.0+14.3
Dairy3.8825.1929.074.0637.3441.39+4.6+48.2+42.4
               Totals14.9166.4181.3215.5285.59101.11+4.1+28.9+24.3
Other food31.0632.9163.9735.2035.3070.50+13.3+7.3+10.2
Beverages7.368.6616.039.9210.4420.35+34.8+20.6+26.9
Tobacco manufactures19.5419.5420.3020.30+3.9+3.9
Textiles31.6911.2342.9232.2112.1544.36+1.6+8.2+3.4
Clothing19.1012.6931.7920.4011.8232.22+6.8−6.9+1.4
Footwear6.141.878.006.471.918.38+5.4+2.1+4.8
Wood manufactures16.7916.1432.9313.5315.3228.85−19.4−5.1−12.4
Furniture and fixtures7.991.859.859.411.5810.98+17.8−14.6+11.5
Paper and products26.1616.9043.0627.2815.6142.89+4.3−7.6−0.4
Printing, publishing16.093.3919.4816.313.5719.89+1.4+5.3+2.1
Leather and products5.151.806.957.472.259.72+45.0+25.0+39.9
Rubber products8.066.7114.777.367.7215.08−8.7+15.1+2.1
Chemicals and products29.1628.4057.5625.9226.1252.04−11.1−8.0−9.6
Petroleum, coal products2.601.884.483.022.115.13+16.2+12.2+14.5
Non-metallic mineral products11.4313.8125.2311.7416.1327.87+2.7+16.8+10.5
Basic metal products13.192.0515.2415.153.4618.61+14.9+68.8+22.1
Metal products33.7414.2748.0035.0815.8750.96+4.0+11.2+6.2
Machinery51.518.6360.1437.348.2845.62−27.5−4.1−24.1
Electrical products29.9711.5541.5231.4110.2041.62+4.8−11.7+0.3
Transport equipment58.635.8564.4854.947.3562.24−6.3+24.8−3.5
Miscellaneous13.8011.6925.5012.6312.5625.20−8.5+7.4−1.2
               Totals439.17212.28651.45433.08219.72652.80−1.4+3.5+0.2
Grand totals, all manufacturing industries454.08278.70732.78448.60305.31753.91−1.2+9.5+2.9

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES—The next table gives index numbers of net output, value of production, and volume of production.

Production YearNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of ProductionVolume of Production
 Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)
1952–53742771800
1953–54825823848
1954–55927915941
1955–56980973994
1956–57100010001000
1957–58109310711070
1958–59115810951130
1959–60131211721169
1960–61140912571283
1961–62156813401349
1962–63165113961410
1963–64189215981557
1964–65207018151759
1965–66236119721879
1966–67246820631991
1967–68251921081968
1968–69271123182030
1969–703093x2618x2272x
1970–71358229882402

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of production, net output, and volume of production. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately. The index is based on 1956–57 (= 1000).

Industry GroupValue of ProductionNet OutputVolume of Production
1969–701970–711969–701970–711969—701970–71
(1) Indices not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.
Food198521512756315717631757
Beverages265532953394422916711863
Tobacco manufactures197121812458262218851955
Textiles318837034067x491837614036
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods190621882056233614661590
Wood and cork products (except furniture)228625852292261915171496
Furniture and fixtures2093247519712320(1)(1)
Paper and paper products373441774738561034103576
Printing, publishing, etc.278231682926335722152366
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)291228793178366118651773
Rubber products233724132710x270226392568
Chemicals and chemical products285631042924352022792352
Petroleum and coal products15844175091020712836(1)(1)
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.248327502814321320082086
Basic metal manufactures83931204166038004(1)(1)
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3993511739335066(1)(1)
Machinery (except electrical)3284349638254003(1)(1)
Electrical machinery and appliances440354754357536636724259
Transport equipment269333672814x3247(1)(1)
Miscellaneous products7563872581078728(1)(1)
               All Groups2618x29883093x35822272x2402

OVERTIME—Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarised in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest 3 years.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage Earners (Both Male and Female)
1968–691969—701970–71
 (000)
Food10,35810,7599,890
Beverages582624688
Tobacco manufactures189253309
Textiles2,1832,6342,864
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods7761,1291,085
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,9532,3191,979
Furniture and fixtures608646675
Paper and paper products1,6942,1212,076
Printing, publishing, etc.1,3251,4732,156
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)218237249
Rubber products539739733
Chemicals and chemical products8559401,098
Petroleum and coal products9510996
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,6551,8031,892
Basic metal manufactures516635747
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,5083,0053,237
Machinery (except electrical)2,4132,9483,110
Electrical machinery and appliances8391,1711,366
Transport equipment2,5513,4123,686
Miscellaneous products1,2291,6041,432
               Totals33,08438,56339,366

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1970–71 by males and females separately. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage EarnersAverage Overtime Hours Worked by All Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
 (000)(000)  
Food9,276613290117
Beverages6701736744
Tobacco manufactures168141400245
Textiles2,40446032671
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods45762811428
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,94335161126
Furniture and fixtures6453016942
Paper and paper products1,852224311128
Printing, publishing, etc.1,93821920678
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1975218752
Rubber products7023126652
Chemicals and chemical products1,0178229751
Petroleum and coal products93321874
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,79894282172
Basic metal manufactures739829897
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3,024213242121
Machinery (except electrical)3,05852241126
Electrical machinery and appliances1,19916622463
Transport equipment3,495191135192
Miscellaneous products1,26316826558
               All groups35,9383,42825097

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS—The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1970–71, together with the value of production for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of co-operative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of ProductionManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
 $(000)
Food150,337741,70291,380983,4191,015,66432,244
Beverages9,66730,65410,67350,99468,31017,315
Tobacco manufactures3,04217,7982,20323,04326,4893,445
Textiles42,125141,10724,000207,231223,93816,707
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods53,40590,10116,412159,917172,74512,828
Wood and cork products (except furniture)44,60998,67927,632170,919188,69217,773
Furniture and fixtures15,03426,8815,25647,17151,3454,175
Paper and paper products32,27085,96741,413159,650186,49426,844
Printing, publishing, etc.46,28240,91823,788110,988132,23521,247
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)5,88812,4482,51920,85523,5512,696
Rubber products13,28823,1438,76745,19950,9935,794
Chemicals and chemical products20,591100,92020,820142,330167,77325,442
Petroleum and coal products2,45866,9284,77774,16384,49610,333
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.26,44031,47824,67082,588101,90419,316
Basic metal manufactures12,49753,01115,85281,36081,39535
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)54,886104,48829,215188,590213,77925,190
Machinery (except electrical)51,94989,68923,239164,876182,48617,610
Electrical machinery and appliances26,81165,63214,860107,302117,0889,786
Transport equipment98,111236,02039,460373,590404,61431,024
Miscellaneous products26,15547,34517,12890,628103,41312,785
               Totals735,8452,104,909444,0613,284,8163,597,403312,587

LIST OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES PRODUCED IN RECENT YEARS—The following is a list of certain commodities produced in New Zealand during the latest 4 years available.

Commodity1967–681968–691969–701970–71
* Includes mattress bases.
ToastersNo.74,99774,10177,28394,787
IronsNo.66,56273,20564,90281,824
Radiators, electricNo.219,876171,863222,679293,838
Vacuum cleanersNo.55,61653,21762,92878,978
Washing machines (clothes)No.43,76444,04947,37455,491
Refrigerators (home, commercial, and freezers)No.69,562100,922106,818117,076
Electric rangesNo.47,41351,48955,70955,195
Electric rangettesNo.3,9833,4732,6883,034
Radios, including radiograms, etc.No.74,92476,128112,039117,443
Television setsNo.46,36945,16244,95648,893
Blankets, woollenPairs285,000228,000205,000x253,000
Floor coverings (textile top coverings)sq yd(000)5,3027,1757,7438,610
Mattresses—
     Innerspring—
          SingleNo.93,02387,23796,920*218,853
          DoubleNo.28,97636,53840,132
     Soft filled—
          SingleNo.38,48738,25635,27445,998
          DoubleNo.11,09411,1529,813
          InfantsNo.8,34610,44113,152
Venetian blindsNo.75,13465,91862,59160,348
Roller (Holland) blindsNo.157,251171,337174,937255,840
Newspapers produced—
     Dailiesthousand333,096335,982332,945341,855
     Other than dailiesthousand63,00257,19157,89377,807
Hot-water bottlesNo.282,000244,000277,000326,615
Soap—
     Toiletton4,1854,3934,88020,994
     Barton3,8354,2223,672
     Powder and flaketon14,32912,92712,815
Household and industrial cleaners—
     Synthetic detergents—
          Powders and pastescwt70,50093,948100,567x155,033
          Liquidgal(000)1,9832,9272,7943,356
     Other cleaners, etc.—
          Powders and pastescwt22,21729,68632,301x32,333
          Liquidgal(000)462603561453
Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,6353,512x3,764x3,731
Lacquersgal(000)320366379407
Dentifricescwt18,62020,004x22,213x22,738
Furniture and floor polishcwt26,43824,55124,30122,653
Shoe polishes and cleanerscwt4,4274,9375,3815,245
Water heaters—
     Under 10 gallonsNo.8,85714,05710,4959,937
     10 gallons and overNo.46,52437,79237,439x37,107
Sinks: stainless steelNo.56,81530,88431,20449,129
Sink tops: stainless steelNo.24,73619,70018,42726,898
WheelbarrowsNo.24,52528,00524,73834,768
Lawnmowers (hand and power)No.63,33558,86378,21760,948
Prams, pushchairs, strollers—
     Cane (inc. dolls)No.3,6291,1301,3132,133
     Other than cane (inc. dolls)No.26,13525,66730,28536,416
ToothbrushesNo.(000)3,2203,8854,3942,883

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES—The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last 3 years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Statistics of Industrial Production.

Item1968–691969–701970–71

* In addition 1,473,000 bundles were produced in the sausage casings industry in 1968–69, 1,398,000 bundles in 1969–70, and 1,501,000 bundles in 1970–71.

† Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments 454346
Persons engagedNo.23,63025,28324,975
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)69,72581,597104,160
     Materials$(000)329,565365,821360,029
     Other expenses$(000)31,87036,91643,546
               Totals$(000)431,159484,334507,736
Value of production$(000)457,319502,094519,156
Net output (net value added)$(000)97,278100,973118,122
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)6,5307,0017,026
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 162916711646
Principal products—
     Meat—
          Lamb carcassesNo.(000)25,00425,06124,954
cwt(000)6,5746,4756,376
          Mutton carcassesNo.(000)6,2886,5576,441
cwt(000)2,4392,5772,601
          Boned muttoncwt(000)183123160
          Mutton and lamb piecescwt(000)347399325
          Beef quarters, bone incwt(000)803827675
          Beef cutscwt(000)1,3131,5591,203
          Boneless beefcwt(000)1,4111,6081,947
          Bobby vealcwt(000)177179151
          Other vealcwt(000)735837
          Porkcwt(000)273305314
          Edible offalscwt(000)1,0541,1151,011
     By-products—
          Runners (not processed)No.(000)4,8935,2505,196
          Casings*Bundles(000)6,6196,6296,299
          Woolly sheepskinsNo.(000)192354552
          PeltsNo.(000)34,01334,21634,219
          Cow hidesNo.(000)795900854
          Ox and bull hidesNo.(000)542633651
          Bobby calf hidesNo.(000)1,2441,2351,075
          Other calf hidesNo.(000)585346
          Woollb(000)84,08381,13883,246
     Boiling-down products—
          Tallowcwt(000)1,5981,6601,913
          Neatsfoot oil†gal(000)245169150
     Manures and stock meals† —
          Meatmealcwt(000)469x549x477
          Meat and bone mealcwt(000)9589181,118
          Other mealscwt(000)165304164
          Bonedustcwt(000)936666
          Blood manurecwt(000)107110107
          Blood and bonecwt(000)461422358
          Other manurecwt(000)17236
     Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous canningscwt(000)138117169
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments 363635
Persons engagedNo.1,2691,2531,273
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,8593,2083,503
     Materials$(000)16,12616,88617,379
     Other expenses$(000)1,7591,7872,023
               Totals$(000)20,74521,88022,905
Value of production$(000)22,39824,88425,507
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,5646,2596,155
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)357314285
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 9931035988
Pigs dealt with—
     CarcassesNo.(000)315303x287
     Cost$(000)10,14510,520x10,366
Principal products—
     Ham and baconcwt260,492273,603246,422
     Frozen porkcwt9,8566,8993,990
     Smallgoodscwt297,679324,657314,890
     Lard (edible)cwt5,1964,7975,900
Lard (inedible)cwt1,4391,084
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments—
     Butter and cheese 158146141
     Other milk products 666864
Persons engagedNo.4,5304,2504,675
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)11,48211,56714,982
     Materials$(000)210,731194,134226,664
     Other expenses$(000)18,80118,53321,171
               Totals$(000)241,015224,235262,817
Value of production$(000)243,141225,043263,360
Net output (net value added)$(000)14,35413,14716,378
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,4401,446565
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 144112961318
Milkfat used—
     For creamery butterlb(000)485,002425,594419,411
     For cheesemakinglb(000)84,95386,97893,613
     For whey buttermaking—
          Recoveries from own wheylb(000)1,2311,8873,056
          Whey fat purchasedlb(000)3,4683,8023,921
          Second grade creamery milkfatlb(000)21,043195
               Total for whey butterlb(000)4,7016,7327,172
Principal products—
     Creamery butterton263,985231,855226,989
     Whey butterton2,8503,0123,238
     Cheeseton94,16198,760x104,754
     Condensed and evaporated milk, and whole and blended milk powderton22,35324,06227,333
     Skim-milk powderton135,508110,411133,605
     Buttermilk powderton23,61823,80020,796
     Caseinton64,60261,26854,087
Ice Cream
Number of establishments 161618
Persons engagedNo.561513530
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)1,2491,2251,402
     Materials$(000)4,7997,5016,098
     Other expenses$(000)1,6731,8581,800
               Totals$(000)7,72210,5849,300
Value of production$(000)8,69811,11110,480
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,3921,7642,601
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1004284
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 218028282473
Main materials used—
     Milkgal(000)862311335
     Creamgal(000)303329
     Ice-cream mixturecwt19,1628,22749,191
     Buttercwt30,61678,254
     Skim-milk powdercwt27,60953,40032,922
     Sugarcwt87,940128,956100,796
Principal products—
     Bulk ice creamgal(000)3,0115,5743,176
     Ice cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.gal(000)5,5505,8936,230
     Frozen confections, ice lollies, etc.$(000)1,2571,6041,613
Grain Milling
Number of establishments 393835
Persons engagedNo.1,000941875
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,1272,2272,410
     Materials$(000)22,32323,30123,393
     Other expenses$(000)2,1082,2732,327
               Totals$(000)26,55727,80228,131
Value of production$(000)28,40130,19530,565
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,1704,7814,996
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)93134124
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 148415201536
Main materials used—
     Wheatbushel(000)10,46310,48110,203
     Oatsbushel(000)513467467
Principal products—
     Flourshort ton(000)228228221
     Wholemeal, wheatmeal*short ton(000)777
     Bran and pollardshort ton(000)646462
Breakfast cereals—
     Oatmeal, rolled oatsshort ton(000)655
     Other (including cereals in biscuit, flake and puff form)*short ton(000)111412
Item1968–691969–701970–71

* Includes chocolate sold for further manufacturing purposes.

* † Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

Biscuits
Number of establishments 888
Persons engagedNo.1,2341,3181,363
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,2292,5892,990
     Materials$(000)7,1337,7428,599
     Other expenses$(000)1,7141,8912,107
               Totals$(000)11,07612,22213,696
Value of production$(000)13,31914,67815,328
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,5995,1684,750
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)238273297
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 139414551500
Main materials used—
     Flourshort ton13,79814,00614,906
     Sugarton4,5384,7095,205
     Chocolatecwt32,55429,28327,922
     Margarine, lard, confectionery fatcwt64,76369,46872,189
Biscuits manufacturedton21,82622,67123,292
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments 434544
Persons engagedNo.2,3762,2922,330
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)4,2324,3395,008
     Materials$(000)11,60712,47414,186
     Other expenses$(000)2,2682,6363,048
               Totals$(000)18,10719,44922,242
Value of production$(000)21,24222,73024,383
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,4287,7317,284
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)372353382
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 179817701661
Main materials used—
     Sugarton13,49713,60413,327
     Cocoa beanscwt72,55870,196..
     Cocoa buttercwt17,41112,07412,350
     Glucosecwt79,03679,29186,715
     Nutscwt34,97536,79941,389
Confectionery manufactured—
     Chocolate and chocolate-coated*ton12,69812,38711,085
     Sugarton10,8528,7349,146
Potato crisps and sticks†cwt29,76130,30728,802
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments 282827
Persons engagedNo.2,6432,7692,903
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)5,5666,4987,458
     Materials$(000)18,00819,93122,450
     Other expenses$(000)5,8766,1118,069
               Totals$(000)29,44932,54037,978
Value of production$(000)32,90434,05039,258
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,9469,0269,815
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)870793688
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 293234453547
Main materials used—
     Fruit (fresh)ton36,73636,66644,603
     Vegetables and tomatoeston80,287x99,857x84,064
     Sugarton6,3337,4078,772
Principal products—
     Fruit (canned, bottled)cwt464,810425,222x463,336
     Vegetables (canned)cwt346,861403,759391,497
     Vegetables (dehydrated, freeze dry, quick frozen)cwt512,421640,709627,377
     Pickles and sauces*gal987,3841,141,1521,294,682
     Jams, jellies, and conservescwt82,11795,82388,021
Brewing of Ale and Stout, and Malting
Number of establishments 171715
Persons engagedNo.1,4251,4951,483
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)4,1064,6735,839
     Materials$(000)13,74515,61318,275
     Other expenses$(000)5,1195,8326,744
               Totals$(000)22,97126,11730,858
Value of production$(000)31,88436,87943,848
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,38615,84419,220
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)469496567
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 137814571557
Main materials used—
     Maltbushel(000)1,6611,7481,772
     Hopscwt6,7407,2547,324
     Sugarcwt169,437176,007220,430
Beer produced for salegal(000)67,15270,406x74,105
Stout produced for salegal(000)436422369
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Includes two factories responsible for drying and shredding of green tobacco leaf.
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments 535049
Persons engagedNo.747819936
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)1,5181,8042,246
     Materials$(000)3,0544,0325,417
     Other expenses$(000)1,3501,4192,036
               Totals$(000)5,9237,2559,699
Value of production$(000)7,2059,07712,113
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,9503,8054,829
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)415975
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 167719802244
Main materials used—
     Sugarton7,8489,22410,990
     Fruit extracts and juicesgal(000)102106107
Aerated waters madegal(000)11,95414,17516,083
Cordials madegal(000)628x788x782
Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments 35*5*
Persons engagedNo.1,0181,1471,169
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,0882,5043,042
     Materials$(000)14,42015,83117,798
     Other expenses$(000)1,6492,0752,203
               Totals$(000)18,15720,41023,043
Value of production$(000)20,97923,93526,489
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,0696,1446,554
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)189253309
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 176418851955
Tobacco leaf used in manufacturelb(000)13,16513,76513,770
Cigarettes mademillion4,6755,0825,252
Tobacco madelb(000)2,8432,5472,394
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments 201921
Persons engagedNo.3,9084,385x4,485
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)7,9299,334x11,118
     Materials$(000)11,91813,804x15,538
     Other expenses$(000)4,3484,003x5,756
               Totals$(000)24,19527,142x32,412
Value of production$(000)24,73129,829x35,220
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,03312,463x14,460
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)728855x893
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 24022867x3161
Main materials used—
     Wool fibres—
          Greasy and slipe woollb(000)15,51318,24622,246
          Scoured woollb(000)1,6101,088x2,251
          Tops, noilslb(000)1,4211,332x886
          Woollen and worsted yarnlb(000)643724900
     Non-wool fibres—
          Artificial and syntheticlb(000)1,6911,935x2,213
          Otherlb(000)96
Principal products—
     Woollen clothyd(54 in. 000)1,3911,853x2,099
     Worsted clothyd(54 in. 000)1,0681,343x1,301
     Flannelyd(54 in. 000)122173104
     Blanketspairs(000)228205x253
     RugsNo.(000)7386x96
     Yarn produced for sale or transfer—
          Fingeringlb(000)2,1922,075x2,315
          Machine knittinglb(000)2,3173,797x3,295
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills
Number of establishments 808184
Persons engagedNo.4,9765,5925,572
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)9,10710,51713,178
     Materials$(000)19,18424,10426,964
     Other expenses$(000)4,8515,4156,571
               Totals$(000)33,14240,03546,714
Value of production$(000)37,24044,13751,060
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,61715,05418,170
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)407561485
Volume index. Base: 1956—57 (=1000) 299135323638
Clothing
Number of establishments 650659680
Persons engagedNo.19,24520,16421,357
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)27,48431,33137,264
     Materials$(000)48,50556,06365,053
     Other expenses$(000)7,8288,91210,509
               Totals$(000)83,81696,306112,826
Value of production$(000)90,826105,090121,129
Net output (net value added)$(000)34,98940,69846,296
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)355532518
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 126813651480
Footwear
Number of establishments 109108101
Persons engagedNo.5,1655,3375,368
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)9,38510,88112,069
     Materials$(000)12,83515,04616,673
     Other expenses$(000)3,4273,9324,484
               Totals$(000)25,64729,85833,227
Value of production$(000)27,15432,65736,231
Net output (net value added)$(000)11,04913,90615,297
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)361521489
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 155317681878
Main materials used—
     Upper leathersq ft(000)9,01910,39711,150
     Sole leatherlb(000)1,5721,8741,770
     Synthetic soling materiallb(000)1,8652,1252,129
     Ready-made soles—leather, rubber, and otherpair(000)2,9603,0543,823
     Ready-made heels—leather, rubber, wood, and otherpair(000)2,4162,3262,490
     Feltsq yd(000)7910186
     Crepe rubberlb(000)410494320
Sawmills
Number of establishments 366350327
Persons engagedNo.5,7915,8865,743
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)14,26915,55817,744
     Materials$(000)25,86829,46231,202
     Other expenses$(000)11,52712,53614,100
               Totals$(000)51,66457,55663,047
Value of production$(000)57,64662,93270,623
Net output (net value added)$(000)20,93221,58525,062
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)787905716
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 121912771320
Rough-sawn timber producedft bm(000)712,836746,449771,855
Planing Mills and Timber Preservation
Number of establishments 178172162
Persons engagedNo.2,3172,3692,381
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)5,0115,7976,886
     Materials$(000)22,43823,19529,351
     Other expenses$(000)3,3034,0534,797
               Totals$(000)30,75133,04541,034
Value of production$(000)35,00137,77344,407
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,53610,88410,633
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)215306322
Rough-sawn timber used in manufactureft bm(000)164,385162,951230,982
Dressed timber produced—
     Floorboardsft bm(000)31,40627,31628,481
     Weatherboardsft bm(000)19,44619,23716,209
     Otherft bm(000)92,69689,470127,623
Joinery work done$(000)2,7962,5382,823
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.
Joinery
Number of establishments 418394367
Persons engagedNo.4,2224,3744,249
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)9,68011,27812,770
     Materials$(000)20,46124,53425,801
     Other expenses$(000)3,6504,2024,549
               Totals$(000)33,79040,01443,120
Value of production$(000)37,52943,30046,429
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,77614,95216,463
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)619719439
Timber used in manufactureft bm(000)110,292119,145102,449
Dressed timber produced—
     Floorboardsft bm(000)9,7428,8313,418
     Weatherboardsft bm(000)3,6622,9355,907
     Otherft bm(000)14,89713,01512,019
Flush panel doors*No.408,986442,001477,043
Joinery and other woodwork$(000)36,930x42,609x49,060
Furniture
Number of establishments 403403380
Persons engagedNo.4,7144,8294,727
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)10,38411,26013,197
     Materials$(000)16,61518,05321,649
     Other expenses$(000)3,6613,9704,336
               Totals$(000)30,66133,28339,181
Value of production$(000)33,06236,05342,323
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,07414,31816,634
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)517550572
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments 666
Persons engagedNo.3,4213,6823,943
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)12,03413,86417,649
     Materials$(000)25,01530,09832,763
     Other expenses$(000)24,76229,58431,367
               Totals$(000)61,81173,54681,779
Value of production$(000)75,82986,79097,689
Net output (net value added)$(000)27,25628,10534,393
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)9011,032932
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 293733163537
Principal products—
     Newsprintton199,599204,137210,536
     Other paperton134,991167,761171,961
     Paperboardton61,95670,60170,941
     Fibreboardsq yd(000)11,57612,41413,418
     Wood pulp for saleton96,416x117,742129,110
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments 575959
Persons engagedNo.2,9453,2883,329
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)6,8708,1659,639
     Materials$(000)27,12032,86335,769
     Other expenses$(000)5,0325,4116,186
               Totals$(000)39,02346,43951,594
Value of production$(000)44,02752,44466,177
Net output (net value added)$(000)12,55314,89717,356
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)569837824
Paper used in manufactureton58,75457,16357,187
Cardboardton23,94629,53137,430
Corrugated and laminated paperboardton17,61025,93925,092
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made*$(000)30,91236,01739,977
Paper bags and paper sacks, made*$(000)7,4797,9029,040
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments 838285
Persons engagedNo.7,2537,4367,773
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)18,16119,94323,715
     Materials$(000)12,67513,94515,512
     Other expenses$(000)10,91412,17314,019
               Totals$(000)41,75046,06153,246
Value of production$(000)50,78857,70366,075
Net output (net value added)$(000)27,45831,86636,904
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)554642614
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 156016921866
Newsprint usedton70,53476,00983,533
Other paper usedton4,6734,8805,742
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments 370370364
Persons engagedNo.6,7566,9677,176
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)15,25117,66620,013
     Materials$(000)18,25521,54324,234
     Other expenses$(000)6,4317,4728,724
               Totals$(000)39,93746,68252,971
Value of production$(000)44,63753,19860,638
Net output (net value added)$(000)20,34824,70528,293
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)6997511,466
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 247129213060
Newsprint usedton5,7335,9155,459
Other paper usedton24,92128,80230,225
Cardboard usedton5,9566,8527,610
Corrugated and laminated paperboard usedton8689611,059
Cellulose film usedton122141128
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Other principal products withheld to avoid disclosure of figures for individual establishments.
Tanning
Number of establishments 131314
Persons engagedNo.811877959
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)1,9602,3622,928
     Materials$(000)5,1416,5097,042
     Other expenses$(000)8801,1051,459
               Totals$(000)7,9809,97611,428
Value of production$(000)9,07111,26412,920
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,0943,7294,512
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)137153158
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 139215271724
Principal products*—
     Leather—
          Hide—
              Bendslb(000)1,407884948
              Shoulderslb(000)454509550
              Bellieslb(000)472471464
              Chrome and other sidessq ft(000)7,3898,6089,27 3
              Tanned woolly skinssq ft(000)..4,174..
Rubberware
Number of establishments 363734
Persons engagedNo.3,0533,2103,151
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)8,4669,92310,935
     Materials$(000)14,37517,83718,929
     Other expenses$(000)5,2555,6536,372
               Totals$(000)28,09633,41336,236
Value of production$(000)32,79538,58340,271
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,24715,25215,131
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)411544592
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 202023892414
Main materials used—
     Natural rubberlb(000)12,66714,78413,957
     Synthetic rubberlb(000)19,55324,66823,258
     Latex$(000)693837787
Principal products—
     Pneumatic tyres (all types)No.(000)1,4911,6881,660
     Tubes (all types)No.(000)1,0901,1981,100
     Processed rubberlb(000)8,82814,26912,426
     Milking rubberware$(000)1,7101,7782,106
     Ready-made soles and heels
     Mats and floor coverings
     Hot water bottles
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Combined in order to prevent disclosure of confidential information.
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments 151515
Persons engagedNo.1,1521,1591,173
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)3,4063,8924,603
     Materials$(000)35,23437,62435,723
     Other expenses$(000)5,6326,1286,012
               Totals$(000)44,27347,64446,338
Value of production$(000)48,05450,96351,201
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,6877,5669,762
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)351359376
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 180619181884
Main materials used—
     Rock phosphateton963,2451,012,061960,456
     Serpentine rockton69,72863,64762,999
     Sulphurton196,514204,282199,940
     Carbonate of limeton64,64881,142101,397
     Sulphate of ammoniaton13,240x14,724x16,968
     Potashton131,807162,587156,440
Principal products—
     Serpentine superphosphate and mixtureston187,340165,969152,284
     Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtureston36,12938,66640,702
     Straight superphosphate and mixtureston1,484,5951,598,7841,566,316
     Aerial superphosphate and mixtureston86,820*112,272x94,997
     Other (including ground rock)21,099
     Superphosphate content of aboveton1,574,2351,660,8921,598,207
Soap Manufacture
Number of establishments 171513
Persons engagedNo.518536523
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)1,2471,3681,516
     Materials$(000)4,3664,5015,949
     Other expenses$(000)1,4991,5491,569
               Totals$(000)7,1127,417x9,035
Value of production$(000)8,6278,67210,823
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,0672,9043,609
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)6287102
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 148615021634
Main materials used—
     Tallowton12,22711,95012,492
     Other oils and fatston1,2321,135
     Caustic sodaton2,4132,2202,318
     Soda ashton2,6312,5862,357
     Perfumes$(000)334369436
Principal products—
     Soap—
          Barton4,2223,672*20,994
          Toiletton4,3934,880
          Powder and flaketon12,92712,815
          Softton1315
          Otherton455532
     Sandsoapton159160
     Candleston180170155
Item1968–691969–701970–71
* Principal products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries.
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments 343433
Persons engagedNo.883895908
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,2742,4062,730
     Materials$(000)11,50812,57513,932
     Other expenses$(000)1,7421,8792,113
               Totals$(000)15,52416,86018,775
Value of production$(000)18,65619,92221,951
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,4625,5335,981
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)656788
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 14631562x1590
Main materials used—
     White leadcwt9,2959,730..
     Titanium dioxide (in terms of 100%TiO2)cwt82,97387,44990,491
     Other pigments and extenderscwt133,640143,454164,234
     Linseed oilgal(000)322316305
     Solventsgal(000)2,0512,2082,383
     Resinscwt135,970129,167124,951
Principal products—
     Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,433x3,734x3,731
     Lacquersgal(000)366379407
     Varnishesgal(000)236292301
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics*
Number of establishments 404039
Persons engagedNo.1,3791,3581,509
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,4192,6703,306
     Materials$(000)13,43113,23614,212
     Other expenses$(000)2,2432,1332,255
               Totals$(000)18,09418,03919,774
Value of production$(000)22,74022,55425,433
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,1567,2799,076
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)465674
Principal products—
     Pharmaceutical products$(000)7,9266,9878,114
     Toilet preparations and cosmetics—
          Dentifrices$(000)1,5601,6051,755
          Cosmetic creams and lotions$(000)1,2411,1291,212
          Hair dressing$(000)3,0653,7474,650
          Powder, face and talcum$(000)7567931,091
          Lipstick$(000)344439584
Item1968–691969–701970–71

* Includes production of establishments classified in other industries.

† Effective running footage.

* Principal products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

† Combined in order to prevent disclosure of confidential information.

Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments 383634
Persons engagedNo.1,0349651,070
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,5252,7583,329
     Materials$(000)9651,0401,301
     Other expenses$(000)2,5082,5962,968
               Totals$(000)5,9986,3947,598
Value of production$(000)6,6007,0888,619
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,2533,5874,524
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)273274273
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 127212091145
Clay used—
     Purchasedton42,54555,30760,198
     From own quarryton231,296157,627232,845
Principal products—
     Firebricks*No.(000)2,7032,8634,011
     Building bricks including hollow blocksNo.(000)41,40836,24030,222
Glazed pipes and fittings—
     4 in. and belowft† (000)5,8606,9866,024
     Over 4 in. but not exceeding 6 in.ft† (000)998734607
     Above 6 in.ft† (000)6919 
Field tiles and fittings—
     4 in. and belowft† (000)6,5027,2508,003
     Over 4 in. but not exceeding 6 in.ft† (000)1,6471,1241,375
Above 6 in.ft† (000)96107114
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments 111110
Persons engagedNo.858997966
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)1,8072,3432,525
     Materials$(000)7101,0461,199
     Other expenses$(000)1,048731954
               Totals$(000)3,5654,1214,679
Value of production$(000)4,0185,6286,497
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,4073,8894,422
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)133166294
Principal products—
     Insulators and refractory insulator elements$(000)664747 
     Crockery, artware and novelties, stoneware$(000)2,2083,5193,976
     Other earthenware including sanitary-ware$(000)1,0131,2321,435
Cement
Number of establishments 555
Persons engagedNo.766742683
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,2162,2822,448
     Materials$(000)2,2322,1222,127
     Other expenses$(000)6,9396,6506,562
               Totals$(000)11,38711,05511,137
Value of production$(000)14,89115,36515,784
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,8536,7577,289
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)240248273
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 166216971707
Principal materials—
     Limestoneton(000)680693684
     Clay, marl, cement rockton(000)759792765
     Gypsumton(000)323332
Cement madeton(000)774792808
Concrete Products
Number of establishments 245239215
Persons engagedNo.2,2662,5162,425
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)5,2876,4596,950
     Materials$(000)8,37411,01411,617
     Other expenses$(000)3,5064,1864,982
               Totals$(000)17,16821,65823,549
Value of production$(000)20,35627,25328,643
Net output (net value added)$(000)8,71312,31112,301
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)408485487
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 152318671829
Materials used—
     Portland cementton127,308144,182147,715
     Sand, shingleyd727,684784,645787,169
     Reinforcington12,80516,37214,702
     Marble chipston13,52814,32511,844
     Pumiceyd22,35836,29057,395
Principal products*—
     Roofing tiles and ridgesNo.(000)7,0826,198..
     Fencing postsNo.(000)1,3021,243972
     Telegraph and power polesNo.(000)282726
     Housing bricks and blocksNo.(000)22,34128,70426,989
     Pipeston134,584162,122160,575
     Prestressed concrete beamsNo.4,07910,449..
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments 121516
Persons engagedNo.9329441,197
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,3872,8193,834
     Materials$(000)4,3294,9586,257
     Other expenses$(000)1,6042,0802,818
               Totals$(000)8,3209,85712,909
Value of production$(000)10,10011,96815,429
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,2475,0566,631
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)186198327
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 207024293017
Species of logs used—
     Rimuft(000) (H. Dahl)7,9189,3954,755
     Radiata pineft(000) (H. Dahl)13,66430,15740,153
     Otherft(000) (H. Dahl)3,3854,336x12,067
Veneer produced (1/16 in. basis)sq ft(000)199,244203,463211,920
Plywood made (3/16 in. basis)sq ft(000)51,32455,13651,869
Particle boardsq ft(000)13,92721,99229,644
Range Making*
Number of establishments 656
Persons engagedNo.9879551,082
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,1152,1792,831
     Materials$(000)3,5883,9715,229
     Other expenses$(000)1,1471,2011,760
               Totals$(000)6,8507,3529,820
Value of production$(000)7,0377,85410,559
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,3402,7243,605
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)88136206
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 159016152058
Principal products—
     Domestic electric rangesNo.51,48955,709†58,229
     Domestic electric rangettesNo.3,4732,688
Radio and Television Assembly and Manufacture*
Number of establishments 272720
Persons engagedNo.1,8792,0122,164
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)3,7454,4325,230
     Materials$(000)8,81911,07712,272
     Other expenses$ (000)1,5821,7892,500
               Totals$ (000)14,14617,29820,003
Value of production$(000)14,78818,53721,335
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,5615,7286,708
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)97146127
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 311739714544
Principal products—
     Radios—
          Car and portableNo.56,75992,199†101,396
          TableNo.4,7422,209
     RadiogramsNo.14,62717,631x16,211
     Television setsNo.45,16244,95648,893
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments 181816
Persons engagedNo.3,4803,9784,961
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)8,34110,38614,385
     Materials$(000)65,96384,279119,245
     Other expenses$(000)5,2334,8957,082
               Totals$(000)79,53899,560140,712
Value of production$(000)86,389109,956150,235
Net output (net value added)$(000)15,24920,86324,065
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)3629071,183
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 122415931789
Vehicles assembled—
     Cars and station wagonsNo.44,067x52,791x56,556
     Vans and busesNo.3,100x4,959x9,391
     Trucks and tractorsNo.4,205x8,219x8,261
Motor-body Building
Number of establishments 817678
Persons engagedNo.1,6201,7451,716
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)3,6064,1724,652
     Materials$(000)6,4797,6018,455
     Other expenses$(000)1,2741,4171,702
               Totals$(000)11,35913,18914,809
Value of production$(000)12,59514,41815,657
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,0265,6005,681
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)167193180
Main materials—
     Timberft bm(000)1,2761,4931,941
     Plywoodsq ft(000)1,0691,1601,224
     Paints and oilsgal(000)404237
     Iron and steelton(000)5x6x8
     Trimmings$(000)390362387
     Hardware$(000)9679131,104
     Glassware$(000)148168190
Motor bodies built—
     BusesNo.203179137
     VansNo.372321383
     Trucks-
          CabsNo.66100116
          TraysNo.566587779
     CaravansNo.2,8522,6952,887
Repairs to Motor Vehicles
Number of establishments 2,8342,8872,987
Persons engagedNo.21,37121,44122,301
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)44,35048,66659,756
     Materials$(000)71,32577,63089,808
     Other expenses$(000)17,41919,59922,957
               Totals$(000)133,095145,895172,520
Value of production$(000)144,670158,078189,365
Net output (net value added)$(000)57,12862,13078,025
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,2691,3841,324
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments 211214234
Persons engagedNo.6,0196,4267,067
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)14,74617,33021,337
     Materials$(000)30,79635,26442,007
     Other expenses$(000)7,8469,19311,867
               Totals$(000)53,38761,78775,211
Value of production$(000)61,41070,69084,864
Net output (net value added)$(000)23,20726,79131,747
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,2521,4311,218
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 293531563835
Metal Products, n.e.i.
Number of establishments 353372473
Persons engagedNo.6,4876,8778,791
Production costs—
     Salaries and wages$(000)16,25218,33127,742
     Materials$(000)26,81733,45649,954
     Other expenses$(000)8,3699,23214,089
               Totals$(000)51,43761,01991,785
Value of production$(000)57,66171,021104,423
Net output (net value added)$(000)22,96828,89141,186
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)9451,2251,631
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments 114113171
Persons engagedNo.1,1841,2751,407
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)2,6863,0194,020
     Materials$(000)11,34315,12016,441
     Other expenses$(000)1,3051,4991,849
               Totals$(000)15,33319,63822,310
Value of production$(000)16,05822,71725,117
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,5256,2257,020
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)99144150
Plastics
Number of establishments 134154168
Persons engagedNo.4,2394,8185,192
Production costs—
     Salaries, wages$(000)10,16812,90315,391
     Materials$(000)19,74724,23429,727
     Other expenses$(000)7,3872,56611,413
               Totals$(000)37,30239,70456,531
Value of production$(000)45,44154,53763,874
Net output (net value added)$(000)18,59022,10923,185
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)9891,3071,095
Machinery, n.e.i.
Number of establishments 786821619
Persons engagedNo.14,78116,34315,025
Production costs—
     Salaries wages$(000)37,06045,31647,929
     Materials$(000)54,26768,21873,248
     Other expenses$(000)16,54620,15221,389
               Totals$(000)107,873133,686142,566
Value of production$(000)121,891148,733157,370
Net output (net value added)$(000)52,38862,00364,380
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)2,3142,8042,960
Principal products*—
     Washing machinesNo.44,04947,37455,491
     Refrigerators (home, commercial, and freezers)No.100,922106,818117,076
Industrial machinery—
     Mining, quarrying$(000)1,0921,7341,918
          Road construction$(000)1,6811,8884,760
          Logging, sawmilling, woodworking$(000)3,2724,3634,288
          Refrigeration$(000)3,8534,4055,915
          Heating, air-conditioning$(000)4,4755,7057,812
          Dairy factory$(000)2,7532,6743,226
          Pumping$(000)1,5782,1442,593
          Other$(000)15,45915,84721,237
     Lawnmowers—hand and powerNo.58,86378,36760,948
     Repairs to machinery$(000)17,54317,47729,555
Petroleum and Coal Products
EstablishmentsNo.181818
Persons engagedNo.395400394
Production costs—
     Salaries and wages$(000)1,3151,3911,516
     Materials$(000)58,49257,44462,658
     Other expenses$(000)3,1143,8273,492
               Totals$(000)62,92162,66267,666
Value of production$(000)71,15269,44476,570
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,5508,17810,425
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)525746
Principal products—
     Premium gasolinegal(000)234,842238,721270,965
     Regular gasolinegal(000)115,23191,438x91,198
     Automotive gasoilgal(000)133,804131,546145,425
     Marine diesel oilgal(000)16,69119,655x22,829
     Light fuel oilgal(000)51,17650,07854,467
     Heavy fuel oilgal(000)80,70487,37397,266
     Export fuel oilgal(000)35,77425,14812,990
     Bunker fuelgal(000)19,00316,09117,239
     Bitumengal(000)24,29822,87325,517
     Power station fuelgal(000)15,18422,04830,426

NOTE—More detailed information on individual industries is given in the annual Statistics of Industrial Production obtainable from Government bookshops, or alternatively available for reference at major public libraries.

Details of some of the more important individual industries for the year later than in the preceding tables are given in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Also in the same publication up-to-date monthly or quarterly production totals are given in the tables.

Chapter 19. Section 19
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

GENERAL—For many years there has been a fairly steady long-term increase in the building of houses and flats to meet the housing needs of a growing population, while the expansion of industry, trade, and commerce has led to extensive construction of factories, shops, warehouses, and offices. The erection of more multi-storey buildings, including blocks of flats, in the inner city areas has been a feature of building construction in recent years.

Twenty years ago two-thirds of the value of building permits related to new houses and flats; now this proportion has been reduced to two-fifths of the total annual value of over $500 million or from about 5 percent to about 4 percent of the gross national product. In National Development Council planning it is projected that 4.88 percent of the gross national product in 1978–79 should be represented by the building of new houses and flats.

Nearly 350,000 of the present 810,000 dwellings (that is, 40 percent of the total housing stock) have been built since the National Housing Conference in 1953. The standard house is about 1,030 sq ft in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen. It now costs over $9,000 to build, and stands on a section costing more than $3,000 on average.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. Since the war there has been no significant housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings, At 31 March 1972, 74,353 of these houses and flats had been built and, since 1950, 23,540 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances. Some 264 houses were also built by the State in 1971–72 for the accommodation of Government employees.

Under the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Urban renewal schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, assisted with Government finance. On a limited basis, loans are available to private houseowners to renovate old houses in defined areas of the four main centres.

The Flat and Office Ownership Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY—The industry makes a fairly large contribution to total national output. It supplies between 62 and 67 percent of all fixed capital formation. About two-thirds of this (i.e., from 40 to 42 percent of total fixed capital formation) is in buildings, and a percentage analysis by sectors of ownership and types of building is as follows for 1971–72.

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
 percent
Houses and flats2.00.750.653.2
Hotels and motels 0.13.03.2
Hospitals0.44.10.14.6
Factories0.20.20.19.510.0
Commercial buildings1.70.10.69.311.7
Education buildings6.10.56.6
Miscellaneous1.70.52.36.310.7
                    Total12.00.87.879.3100.0

While the overall investment pattern emphasises the key part played by residential buildings (houses and flats) in annual building programmes, and the level of this investment has increased steadily in line with increasing population, the proportion of total capital investment in residential building has declined steadily for 10 to 15 years. Throughout this time there has been a higher rate of increase in investment in other types of buildings. Residential building accounted for 63 percent of building investment in 1955–56. Although residential building is likely to remain a dominant building group, the trends reflect the development of a more complex and sophisticated economy. This is emphasised by the growth in factories, commercial buildings, office blocks, motels, schools, universities, etc.

Within the residential field a trend has developed away from houses to flats. Whereas new flat units comprised 5.5 percent of all residential units built in 1960–61, the percentage rose to 36.0 for 1971–72. The greatest demand for flats has been in the main urban centres, Auckland and Wellington, and in these areas the trend has been towards multi-unit buildings. This is having important effects on specialist groups within the industry. The industry employs 7 to 8 percent of the total labour force on “on-site” works, and its position as a large market for goods from other sectors also strongly influences employment in these sectors. For example, the concrete and other non-metallic mineral products industry in the manufacturing sector employs up to 6,000 workers and the metal products industry approximately 39,000 workers. In the forestry sector, builders' woodwork has over 5,000 workers, and sawmilling and plywood 12,000. In varying degrees these industries and others rely on the building and construction industry to absorb their output.

In June 1966 the Government introduced a building programme under the Economic Stabilisation Act in terms of which the issue of building permits for works of an estimated value of more than $60,000 could be deferred for periods of up to 3 years. These building controls were removed on 8 March 1968. Regulations came into force on 7 October 1968 requiring construction work costing more than $20,000 to be registered with the Building Projects Registration Authority at the working drawing stage.

Building programming was reintroduced on 27 April 1970 and intensified in October 1970 as one of several measures to deal with growing pressure on the economy. It operates as an extension of the registration scheme by preventing local authorities from issuing permits for buildings costing more than $100,000 without the consent of the Minister of Works.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—Evolving from a committee formed in 1965, there is a Building Industry Advisory Council which is a full sector committee of the National Development Council. Its functions have become: (a) to advise Government through the Minister of Works on matters affecting the building and construction industry; (b) to advise the National Development Council on planning aspects of the building and construction sector; (c) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industry and advise the industry on the likely effects of building trends.

The membership of the council consists of six representatives from sectors of the industry, namely contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—A Commission of Inquiry into Housing met in 1970 to reappraise and establish future long-term requirements of housing. It reported in May 1971 (parliamentary paper H.51). It recommended that planning should be on the basis that about 300,000 new dwellings will be needed in the decade to December 1980 and stated that an increased demand for high-rise flats could be expected in Auckland and Wellington when strata title legislation was enacted. More town houses and terraced houses in central urban areas were advocated. A National Housing Authority is to be set up to follow up recommendations of the commission of inquiry.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Source: Ministry of Works.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950195519601965197019711972
 $    $    $    $    $    $    $    
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,1645,5286,1647,4508,9909,884
Buildings (reinforced concrete) of similar size and type50,20057,60064,20073,40096,000102,700108,900

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION—The latest census of the activities of the building and construction industry shows that the total value of work done in the production year 1968–69 was $814 million compared with $704 million 5 years earlier. If subcontracts and other identifiable intra-industry transactions are deducted, the value of work done became $697 million for 1968–69 and $612 million for 1963–64. The recession in the building and construction industry and the economy generally during 1968 was reflected in the census results for 1968–69.

The reduced activity in the industry in 1968–69 was also reflected in the capital expenditure of the industry. In 1963–64 expenditure by the industry on capital goods for its own use, such as plant and machinery, motor vehicles, and land and buildings, was $40 million; in 1968–69, despite higher prices, it was only $36 million.

Of the total production for 1968–69 of $814 million, $537 million or 66 percent was represented by work on buildings (involving construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or demolition); $138 million was for work on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, dams, drains, wharves, and jetties; $27 million was land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation works, water supply, and well drilling; $24 million was for earthmoving, reclamation, site development, aerodromes, and airstrips; $2 million was for the removal of overburden from mines and quarries; and of the remaining $86 million, the most important components were power development, and work on transmission and telecommunication lines.

One of the main purposes of this 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction was to examine the structure of the industry. Of the total gross output of $814 million in 1968–69, private firms were responsible for output to the value of $637 million both as main and subcontractors. Government departments used their own staff for a value output of $101 million, while local authorities did work to the value of $61 million on their own behalf. Private owner-builders not normally engaged in building and construction undertook $15 million of their own building work.

Of the total output of private firms, $192 million in 1968–69 was done on behalf of the Government and local authorities compared with $141 million in 1963–64.

PRIVATE CONTRACTORS—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1968–69 is summarised in the following table. Further information is given in Building and Construction 1968–69, report of the Department of Statistics (available at Government bookshops).

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs Sub-ContractorTotal
 No.No.$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contractor4,57923,98759.33,452133.2338.015.5353.5
Civil engineering contractor3987,89027.211830.792.99.7102.6
Shop and office fitter301480.4111.21.40.92.3
Electrical contractor8763,5718.739517.516.916.733.6
Plumber and drainlayer1,2553,9299.483324.122.321.944.1
Painter1,1713,0557.31,0745.511.68.119.7
Plasterer2991,1052.82392.22.05.37.4
Roofing contractor646201.5185.61.17.78.8
Bricklayer3339502.42794.12.26.78.9
Glazier926881.6164.52.74.97.7
Flooring contractor1123690.9562.51.92.84.7
Earth mover2111,0612.91121.09.71.811.5
Road sealer354071.192.34.41.05.4
Other2912,6217.211010.314.612.126.7
                         Totals9,74650,401132.86,722244.5521.8115.2637.0

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE ON NEW HOUSING—The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in the latest 3 years and includes both direct expenditure by Government departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by the State Advances Corporation and the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, and amounts advanced in capitalisation of family benefits payable under social security. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

Expenditure1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000) 
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.15,71013,30210,984
Expenditure by Housing Division for other departments3,5923,8992,964
Department of Maori and Island Affairs5,2245,1935,158
Department of Lands and Survey490521x251
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new urban houses47,17545,86445,779
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new rural houses1,6052,0592,204
State Advances loans paid to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.3,8083,8675,351
Department of Health subsidies paid to local authorities for pensioners' flats7869841,103
Advances under capitalisation of family benefits8,3099,8406,653
                                             Totals86,69985,530x80,446

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completed houses and flats include any new flats which are created by the conversion of existing buildings. All houses and flats completed by the Government are included.

Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings.

Year Ended 31 MarchHouses and Flats Completed
195216,300
195316,100
195416,600
195518,500
195619,200
195719,200
195818,600
195919,600
196021,600
196123,500
196224,300
196322,100
196421,100
196523,500
196626,038
196724,704
196823,256
196921,764
197022,280
197122,840
197222,505

The following table shows details, for the latest 10 years, of blocks of flats and flats created by conversions. These figures do not include motels or holiday flats as these are included in commercial buildings with hotels, etc.

Year Ended 31 MarchBlocks of FlatsNumber of Flats in BlocksFlats Created by ConversionsTotal Flats
* Provisional
19635452,0124042,416
19641,0133,3757524,127
19651,5895,4621,0596,521
19661,5685,6751,2486,923
19671,4805,2691,1006,369
19681,3494,5869505,536
19691,6054,8969155,811
19702,0516,0947636,857
19712,5657,4497208,169
19723,212*8,7566839,439

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1968–69, 1,654; 1969–70, 2,188; 1970–71, 2,474; 1971–72, 2,279.

PROJECTIONS OF PERMANENT PRIVATE DWELLINGS—Projections of permanent private dwellings for each year up to 1980 were published by the Department of Statistics as a supplement to the October 1969 Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

A projection is an objective calculation of the effects of the continuance of certain carefully defined trends. It is not a forecast or a target, but provides background information for anyone who wishes to make forecasts or set targets.

The following table shows projections of permanent private dwellings up to 1980, assuming 31 December 1968 head-of-household rates increase by 0.837 percent* a year from 1968 onwards.

Year Ended 31 MarchProjected
Permanent Private Dwellings at End of YearIncrease During YearLosses Through Demolitions, Conversions, Fires, etc.Total New Dwellings Needed
 (000)(000)(000)(000)
1969 (base)841.9......
Assuming Net Immigration of Zero Each Year
1971882.520.75.526.2
1972903.921.45.727.1
1973926.122.25.828.0
1974949.022.96.028.9
1975972.823.86.129.9
1976997.424.66.330.9
19771,022.925.56.431.9
19781,049.226.36.632.9
19791,076.527.36.734.0
19801,104.628.16.935.0
Assuming Net Immigration of 5,000 Each Year
1971886.922.85.628.4
1972910.423.55.729.2
1973934.724.35.930.2
1974959.825.16.031.1
1975985.725.96.232.1
19761,012.526.86.333.1
19771,040.227.76.534.2
19781,068.828.66.735.3
19791,098.429.66.936.5
19801,128.930.57.137.6

* This was the average annual increase in occupancy rates for all head-of-household categories combined between the 1961 Census and 31 December 1968. Another available projection (not given here) assumes that 31 December 1968 head-of-household rates continue unchanged and gives a lower annual pattern of increase.

A lower population increase than projected and a lesser variation in occupancy rates have had a combined effect of reducing the projected number of dwellings required by 4,500 in 1971, 5,200 in 1974, and 6,000 in 1979.

BUILDING PERMITS—The prime source of these statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, and education boards is included, even though permits are not actually taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies more particularly to large buildings.

The value placed on a building for the purposes of the permit is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be greater than originally estimated. These rises are not apparent in building permit figures.

The values of building permits for the latest 6 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
196719681969197019711972

* Includes ancillary buildings.

† Includes alterations and additions.

               Dwellings$(million)
New houses147.8137.0147.6156.0168.7182.1
New flats28.324.627.436.647.464.3
Houses and flats (alteration and additions)26.725.727.128.635.340.2
               Other Buildings
Hotels and boardinghouses12.19.517.322.920.517.0
Hospitals*20.57.313.211.726.225.0
Factories39.628.230.241.546.154.1
Commercial buildings59.948.256.262.067.962.9
Schools*24.716.736.632.733.035.1
Miscellaneous (including churches, sports, and entertainment buildings)31.933.139.956.168.557.9
                                   Totals391.5330.3395.4448.0513.6538.8

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 11 years are shown along with permit values.

Year Ended 31 MarchPermits for New Houses and FlatsValue of New HousesValue of New FlatsValue of Other New Buildings*Total Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
HousesFlats
* Permits issued for new buildings erected on sites where there were already one or more existing buildings were previously classified as “alterations and additions”; now they are included in the classification of new buildings.
 $(million)$(million)$(million)$(million)
196220,8171,577131.07.6..    259.2
196318,6242,012120.19.1..    274.2
196418,3883,375123.716.1..    294.6
196519,8955,462138.826.5..    357.7
196620,2575,675149.127.3124.9381.7
196718,7775,269147.828.3138.2391.5
196816,7794,586137.024.6103.5330.3
196917,4214,896147.627.4149.2395.4
197016,9906,094156.036.6182.0448.0
197116,2307,449168.747.4186.2513.6
197215,5778,756182.164.3193.3538.8

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1971–72 was $10,054, compared with $9,123 in 1970–71, $8,343 in 1969–70, and $7,835 in 1968–69.

The preceding table includes flats on an individual basis.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Sector of Ownership—Permit values for the main groupings of building activity are analysed below according to sector of ownership.

Sector of OwnershipCommercial BuildingsHouses and FlatsSchools and Hospitals
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(million)
Private enterprise48.750.349.424.529.631.91.00.90.2
Households*0.30.40.7177.1207.2240.62.34.03.0
Central Government10.913.69.416.910.810.333.331.134.7
Public corporations0.50.20.50.1–  –  –  –  –  
Local government1.53.33.02.63.63.87.823.122.4
Sector of OwnershipFactoriesMiscellaneousAll Buildings
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
* Including non-profit organisations.
 $(million)
Private enterprise40.545.751.546.151.036.2160.8177.5169.1
Households*–  –  –  9.510.913.8189.2222.5258.1
Central Government0.20.21.010.116.49.171.572.164.5
Public corporations–  –  –  2.81.02.83.41.23.3
Local government0.70.30.610.69.813.023.240.142.8

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION—The following table shows for selected areas the building permit values for the March year 1971–72. (The areas do not conform with urban areas.)

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) Value
NumberValue
 $(000)$(000)
Auckland City6868,53136,698
Takapuna2593,1885,732
Birkenhead2592,8253,419
East Coast Bays4706,0286,953
Mount Albert3842,2973,092
Mount Eden2311,1591,851
Mount Roskill1982,0513,311
One Tree Hill403993,462
Mount Wellington1589963,786
Onehunga2151,5165,442
Howick2212,4452,889
Papakura2532,7263,759
Papatoetoe2161,5772,857
Manukau1,62517,98940,501
Waitemata County1,81017,88828,226
Auckland, Combined7,52975,391164,529
Wellington City7658,98731,146
Porirua1161,2983,387
Tawa951,4422,233
Upper Hutt1811,6942,854
Lower Hutt4844,96310,458
Petone263351,570
Hutt County7709,63712,864
Wellington-Hutt Combined2,46128,65965,241
Christchurch City1,40311,08927,059
Paparua County3573,4816,253
Waimairi County5356,29710,822
Christchurch Combined2,54623,46547,936
Dunedin Combined5816,45013,010
Whangarei2482,4895,107
Hamilton1,15910,23018,193
Tauranga5835,8129,035
Rotorua5274,6398,331
Gisborne1511,5184,453
Napier3833,7398,481
Hastings3393,4686,231
New Plymouth3123,2558,202
Wanganui1111,1393,217
Palmerston North4914,6988,094
Masterton748062,305
Nelson3453,2116,381
Blenheim1311,2503,602
Timaru2092,3246,868
Invercargill3283,2717,059

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
$(million)
Value of Work Put in Place§
196717.1160.2177.328.0205.4
196814.6149.2163.726.7190.4
196912.4155.3167.728.2195.8
197014.9174.9189.830.4220.2
197112.9202.0214.934.5249.3
19729.0228.6237.639.8277.4
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding-houses†Hospitals†FactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchools†Miscellaneous‡Total

* Includes alterations and additions.

† And ancillary buildings.

‡ Includes churches, sports, and entertainment buildings.

§ Value of work actually put in place.

$(million)
Value of Work Put in Place§
196713.910.439.560.520.732.7177.6382.9
196814.813.437.054.019.932.8171.7362.1
196913.515.032.547.821.134.3164.2360.1
197019.712.334.459.325.349.5200.5420.7
197123.115.153.166.732.267.8258.1507.4
197221.219.451.371.139.155.7257.8535.2

EMPLOYMENT—The level of employment in the building and construction industrial group as shown in the Department of Labour's half-yearly survey has varied considerably during the last 10 years. The labour force was fairly constant (approximately 56,000) during 1961 to 1963 but rose sharply during the next 3 years reaching 64,000 in 1966. There was a sharp decline in 1968 when the labour force fell to approximately 59,300, but a rise was experienced in 1969 and 1970. The total at April 1971 was 69,500 and at October 1972 69,600. Employment in the building of houses and flats fell from 15,600 in 1961 to 13,100 in 1970 and to 11,500 in 1971 but rose to 11,800 by October 1972. Part of the decline in the “on site” labour force is believed to be due to “off site” supply industries providing a greater proportion of work done through prefabrication and process working. Apprenticeships in carpentry and associated trades have fallen away. The average “working life” in the industry has been estimated by the Building Industry Advisory Council at about 10 years. The labour force in building has become the main constraint in output. Emergency training schemes are being considered.

BUILDING MATERIALS—The following table shows the production of principal building materials for the latest 11 years.

Production YearRough-sawn Timber*Dressed Timber (from Rough-sawn)Building Sheet†PlywoodWall-board ‡Paints, etc.
Paints and EnamelsVarnishesLacquers

* Source: New Zealand Forest Service, for years ended 31 March.

† Asbestos cement and cement sheet.

‡ Includes fibrous plasterboard.

 ft bm (million)sq ft (million)gal(thousand)
1960–61714.1144.433.848.0170.83,134115264
1961–62692.6157.031.349.3188.43,016130270
1962–63643.4160.228.351.4170.33,096126294
1963–64666.0154.030.152.9168.73,321136346
1964–65736.2176.831.254.2192.93,636138370
1965–66756.9185.034.656.6197.53,617157345
1966–67747.6176.033.657.1181.03,643166365
1967–68674.9165.732.640.5190.53,635192320
1968–69732.6172.535.151.3202.03,731236366
1969–70765.0161.436.155.1218.53,935292379
1970–71784.3198.041.651.9226.74,022301407
Production YearConcrete Roofing TilesBricks and BlocksDrainpipes, Salt Glazed, 6 in. and BelowCement
Building Bricks, ClayConcrete
BricksBlocks
* In millions of effective running feet.
 No. (million)tons(000)
1960–6111.056.40.612.52.88619.6
1961–6211.260.50.512.43.09647.9
1962–639.446.81.412.23.06653.2
1963–649.850.20.816.05.82*754.1
1964–658.851.70.819.56.95*786.5
1965–665.952.40.425.56.89*841.1
1966–675.250.80.624.27.33*859.0
1967–684.842.50.123.56.93*772.5
1968–697.140.30.122.26.86*774.3
1969–706.236.10.228.57.72*792.2
1970–717.029.6..26.56.63*808.3

HOUSING FINANCE—The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the State Advances Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30B. For the year ended 31 March 1972 the State Advances Corporation authorised loans valued at $49.9 million for new urban dwellings. Of the 11,337 housing loans authorised, 782 applicants qualified for 3 percent rebated interest loans involving $5.5 million. Loans of $33.1 million were authorised for the purchase of existing houses.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home, for essential alterations, or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $2.000. Family benefit advances totalling $111.6 million were authorised up to 31 March 1972 by the State Advances Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Social Security Commission.

The State Advances Corporation operates two Housing Mortgage Guarantee Schemes in respect of housing loans on first mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. The maximum loan which may be advanced is $13,500 and the maximum effective interest rate is 7 percent. Under the first scheme, which is confined to approved institutional lenders, the corporation guarantees the amount lent above the institution's normal lending limit (usually two-thirds of value). The second scheme, for which any lender may qualify, provides for the guarantee of the full amount of the loan advanced. Fees are charged according to the amount guaranteed and the degree of risk. The loans must be on a table or similar basis (i.e., repayable over a specified period) and for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat.

Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for a subsidy, known as a suspensory free deposit, of $10 for each $200 when the money is used to acquire a new home to be occupied by the depositor. At 31 March 1972 there were 1,412 accounts open (see Section 29).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—The following table indicates the spread of building costs and section prices of new houses financed by the Corporation during the last 2 years.

Section Cost1970–711971–72House Cost (Excluding Section)1970–711971–72
 percent 
Up to $1,50018.2113.55 percent
$1,501 to $2,00036.3430.96Up to $8,00030.205.28
$2,001 to $2,50027.4229.82$8,001 to $9,00029.8622.46
$2,501 to $3,0008.7010.56$9,001 to $10,00018.6028.30
$3,001 to $3,5004.677.42$10,001 to $11,00010.3919.36
$3,501 to $4,0002.754.03Over $11,00010.9524.60
Over $4,0001.913.66 
                Totals100.00100.00
               Totals100.00100.00 

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department from sales in the major urban areas for the 1971 year gave the average sale price of sections as $3,451, the average sale price of houses as $11,469, and the average sale price of owner-occupier flats as $12,610. (Source: parliamentary paper H.7, 1972.)

URBAN HOUSE PROPERTY PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties transferred during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

It is a combined series for all 25 centres in which prices are collected for the Consumers' Price Index. (Base: Average for year ended June 1965 (= 1000).)

Six Months EndedIndex
1961—Jun874
           Dec883
1962—Jun887
           Dec897
1963—Jun907
           Dec934
1964—Jun948
           Dec979
1965—Jun1021
           Dec1043
1966—Jun1069
           Dec1104
1967—Jun1120
           Dec1124
1968—Jun1132
           Dec1153
1969—Jun1186
           Dec1213
1970—Jun1259
           Dec1323
1971—Jun1405
           Dec1467

Further information on housing finance is contained in Section 30B—State Advances Corporation.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the State Advances Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community accommodation.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government has encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons rather than provide such accommodation itself. To this end a scheme of subsidies was introduced, the balance of the cost being found by way of a loan to the local body with interest at 3+ percent and a term up to 40 years on a table basis. The combination of subsidy and low interest rate is directed at keeping rents within reasonable levels—the current maxima are $5 and $6 or single and double units respectively.

The policy is administered by the Health Department, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality and administers the subsidy. The State Advances Corporation provides technical services and administers the loan. The present subsidy offered is up to 50 percent of the cost of erection—with a maximum of $3,500 per unit. A subsidy of up to $1,000 per flat is available for the cost and development of land. It is required that the accommodation provided be let only to elderly persons with a housing need.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1971–72 was $1,548,888 to provide housing for 438 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1951, subsidy assistance has totalled $12,052,190 for the accommodation of 7,465 persons.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The State Advances Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (about 300 a year) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The State Advances Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington the city council's building programme has been largely financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed under the community housing scheme. The area concerned must first be declared a reclamation area; any loss on land purchase and demolition is eligible for a Government subsidy (administered by the Ministry of Works). The Freeman's Bay scheme in Auckland and the Nairn Street project in Wellington are examples.

Since 1960 over $15.8 million has been authorised for community housing schemes.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the State Advances Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935, the lending authority being the Board of Maori Affairs.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the State Advances Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for the special interest concession the finance is made available at an interest rate of 5 5/8 percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the State Advances Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1972, the department has provided finance to enable 15,691 families to build new houses, 684 to purchase existing houses, and 6,806 to make additions to or repair their houses. A further 9,485 Maori families have obtained houses or rental flats from the State Advances Corporation and the Maori Trustee. A Maori household averages 5.5 persons so that the combined figure, including additions or repairs, of 26,585 houses, means a total of some 146,217 Maori people have been provided with better housing in a space of 33 years.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1,000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training courses operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Accommodation for Maori pensioners has been provided in Kaikohe, Paihia, Tauranga, and Te Kao.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. As from May 1971, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $2,880 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes in order to study or undertake employment and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels, and 75 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The Department of Health is responsible for administering this policy.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $1,817,753 had been approved up to 31 March 1972, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1,470 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—A programme of building State rental houses and flats was commenced in March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of income and need. Since 1950 there has been an income limit on applicants for tenancies for these dwellings.

The Housing Division of the Ministry of Works acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. These activities are covered by the Housing Act 1955.

The totals of State rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 11 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1972 there were 74,353 units completed.

YearNumber of Units
1961–621,972
1962–631,948
1963–641,562
1964–651,622
1965–661,334
1966–671,469
1967–681,489
1968–691,534
1969–701,241
1970–711,194
1971–72661

Planning of New Urban Areas—Such has been the demand for State development in Auckland and Wellington that it has been necessary to acquire large areas of land in these metropolitan areas, which, when developed over a number of years, has resulted in the creation of new towns. These have been comprehensively planned, and developed sites have been made available for central commercial, industrial, and administrative areas as well as civic and neighbourhood amenities. At present the three existing instances of development at this scale are Porirua City, near Wellington, and Otara and Mangere townships within Manukau City, south of Auckland.

In accordance with continuing Government policy, the planning of these towns and State development generally has recognised the need to conserve land and gain as much return from the installation of municipal services as possible. For these reasons, particular attention has been paid to subdivisional pattern and, where appropriate, medium-density housing to an acceptable level has been introduced. In addition, a measure of building of medium and high-density residential accommodation has been undertaken in inner city areas in Auckland and Wellington.

Further substantial areas of land have been acquired in the Albany Basin in Auckland for future development. Part of this land has been made available for the new Albany University. A planning exercise, aimed at achieving the integration of State with private housing in the Albany area and the creation of a high standard of urban environment which will complement the university is currently being undertaken by local authority and departmental officers. Commencement of land development is timed for late 1974 or 1975.

Recognising the need for social diversification in State developed areas it is now policy to make 50 percent of the sections available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Division to 31 March 1972 was 13,189. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the State housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Construction vote in the Works and Trading Account, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchState HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
 $(000)
196211,638685,3261,35418,386
196310,354644,0942,14016,652
196410,764723,9601,84016,636
196510,1021223,3521,88615,462
19669,3941363,2921,86414,686
196711,2341242,7841,89816,040
196810,8651232,7691,92215,680
19699,849893,2921,89015,120
197010,2761343,2642,03615,710
19718,8032,3952,10413,302
19726,5512,4351,99810,984

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Division in the latest 6 years.

YearVote, “Housing Construction”On Behalf of Other Departments (Charged Direct)Total
Construction, Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationLand Development, MuruparaOn Behalf of Other Departments*Total
* Expenditure on behalf of other departments charged meantime to vote, “Housing Construction”.
 $(000)
1966–6715,792112415,9174,66220,579
1967–6815,55712315,6803,33319,013
1968–6915,0318915,1201,80716,928
1969–7015,57613415,7103,59219,302
1970–7113,30213,3023,89917,201
1971–7210,98410,9842,96413,948

Room Content of Units (State Houses and State Services Housing)—The types of units according to number of bedrooms in units built during the 2 latest years, also the totals from 1937 to date, are shown in the following table.

Number of Bedrooms1970–711971–72Totals to Date
Number of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of Total
One bedroom or bed-sitting room201.2161.74,8475.6
Two bedrooms1288.1737.925,43029.0
Three bedrooms1,20176.069675.350,21257.4
Four or more bedrooms23214.714015.17,0538.0
               Totals1,581100.0925100.087,542100.0

Sheathing Materials Used (State Houses and State Services Housing)—The sheathing materials used in the number of units built in the 2 latest years, also the totals from 1937 to date, are shown in the following table.

Materials1970–711971–72Totals to Date
Weatherboards60033849,384
Brick veneer31217615,048
Concrete block veneer2291676,170
Other sheathing including asbestos cement products44024416,940
               Totals1,58192587,542

Land Acquisition and Development—During 1971–72 a total of 122 developed unit sites were purchased as a charge against the Housing Construction vote, also 371 acres of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 485 unit sites. In the same period 918 fully-serviced house unit sites were developed on land already held.

State Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the four main centres at the end of the last 11 financial years for similar types of three-bedroom State rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square foot.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $      $      $      $      $      $      $      $      
1961–626,334(6.03)6,278(5.98)5,472(5.21)6,172(5.88)
1962–636,298(6.00)6,316(6.02)5,452(5.20)6,182(5.88)
1963–646,306(6.01)6,330(6.03)5,686(5.42)6,234(5.94)
1964–656,726(6.41)6,888(6.56)6,104(5.81)6,632(6.32)
1965–666,942(6.61)7,178(6.83)6,434(6.12)6,758(6.42)
1966–676,894(6.58)7,372(7.03)6,488(6.19)6,990(6.67)
1967–686,366(6.06)6,830(6.50)6,273(5.97)6,586(6.27)
1968–696,753(6.43)7,264(6.92)6,669(6.35)7,124(6.78)
1969–707,184(6.84)7,675(7.30)6,759(6.43)7,661(7.29)
1970–718,304(7.90)8,603(8.19)7,566(7.20)8,836(8.41)
1971–7210,021(9.54)10,613(10.11)8,698(8.28)10,236(9.74)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 makes provision for a form of ownership by which a family home will belong not to the husband and wife separately but to both of them so that it may pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. It is possible to settle flats as family homes. There are substantial benefits resulting from settlement under the Act. In the event of claims by creditors or an assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected up to a sum of $8,000. Further, on the death of one of the spouses there is an exemption of $12,000 from estate duty. Settlements under the Act are exempt from gift and stamp duty.

Under the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 there is a condition attaching to capitalisation of the benefits that the home, if not in the sole name of the wife, be settled as a joint family home.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered for the last 11 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
196216,012
196314,627
196413,056
196513,224
196614,149
196712,738
196813,278
196914,040
197014,545
197116,118
197215,232

CENSUS INFORMATION: Nature of Dwelling—The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses at 1966 and 1971.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1966197119661971
* Estimate only.
Inhabited dwellings—
     Permanent private dwellings—
          Private house626,580 86.5 
          Private house, partly sublet1,162 0.2 
          Flat74,999 10.4 
          Dwellings combined with shop, rooms attached to offices, etc.5,820 0.8 
          Bach7,484 1.0 
          Other59  
               Totals716,104800,500*98.9 
     Mobile and temporary dwellings—
          Mobile residence (including caravans)1,035 0.1 
          Other (including tents)134  
               Totals1,169 0.1 
     Non-private dwellings—
          Hotel, boardinghouse, apartment house, hostel5,317 0.7 
          Public or private hospital533 0.1 
          Camp525 0.1 
     Other796 0.1 
               Totals7,171 1.0 
             Grand totals, inhabited dwellings724,444809,837100.0100.0
Uninhabited dwellings—
     Occupants temporarily away14,97918,116
     Untenanted dwelling26,27226,184
     Bach (weekend or summer dwelling)29,53432,446
               Totals70,78576,746
Building—
     Dwellings in course of erection10,6679,182

In 1966 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3,52, compared with 3.56, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Rents—In the following table the average weekly rent for unfurnished five-roomed dwellings is given for selected cities with the largest numbers of rental dwellings in 1966. State rental houses are included in the figures and would have a moderating effect on the rents. The average weekly rent for the 47,362 unfurnished five-roomed dwellings in New Zealand was $6.29, while it was $7.08 for the 33,378 such dwellings in centres of over 2,000 population.

CityNumber of Five-roomed Dwellings LetAverage Weekly Rent
 $   
Auckland2,4438.16
Manukau9957.10
Lower Hutt1,6417.11
Porirua1,2766.72
Wellington1,4849.72
Christchurch2,2367.48
Dunedin1,3046.45
Hamilton1,2567.10
Palmerston North1,0026.95
Gisborne5446.40
Napier6526.45
Hastings5676.69
New Plymouth6576.73
Wanganui7316.36
Timaru4946.61
Invercargill6317.19

The numbers and average weekly rents according to the number of rooms in all rented dwellings and also in flats separately are shown in the following table. (These are also from the 1966 Census.)

Nature of DwellingNumber of RoomsTotal, Including Other
123456
          All Dwellings (including flats)Number
Furnished1,0514,3306,3685,8814,4251,61924,476
Unfurnished2,46110,09922,50238,75547,36212,071137,271
Partly furnished6362,7003,9343,7632,9181,17815,682
All rented dwellings4,14817,12932,80448,39954,70514,868177,429
 Weekly Rent
 $    $    $    $    $    $    $    
Furnished7.3310.1211.6711.9011.7313.9011.58
Unfurnished4.136.488.127.066.296.886.88
Partly furnished6.009.1310.3110.7210.7011.5410.28
All rented dwellings5.247.849.087.956.978.047.84
Nature of DwellingNumber of RoomsTotal, Including Other
123456
          FlatsNumber
Furnished7693,7374,8472,8371,02333913,772
Unfurnished2,0327,60613,48410,6133,48952938,054
Partly furnished4352,2222,9911,7905291488,199
All rented flats3,23613,56521,32215,2405,0411,01660,025
 Weekly Rent
 $     $     $     $     $     $     $     
Furnished8.0910.5812.6314.5816.3918.4012.73
Unfurnished4.286.969.589.758.3410.168.71
Partly furnished7.029.6610.9912.0413.0114.4410.88
All rented flats5.568.4110.4810.9210.4713.559.94

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the inhabited permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19611966
Number of DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedNumber of DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Renting or leasing153,72824.3177,42924.9
Free dwelling provided with job34,0875.435,3875.0
Loaned without payment8,5861.47,9191.1
Owned with table mortgage166,63626.3213,80730.0
Owned with flat mortgage86,35913.780,88511.3
Unspecified mortgage4330.1226
Owned without mortgage181,79328.8197,08527.7
Not specified2,0853,366
               Totals633,707100.0716,104100.0

In the following table the tenure of inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1966 is related to the occupational status of the head of the household.

Occupational Status of Head of HouseholdTenureTotal Dwellings†
Renting or LeasingRent Free*Owned
With MortgageWithout Mortgage

* Includes free dwelling with job, and dwellings loaned without payment.

† Includes dwellings where tenure unspecified

Employer5,5103,32933,94418,72161,948
Worker on own account6,3364,13329,05616,11456,019
Wage or salary earner134,04929,434204,34167,333436,542
Unemployed9031016575802,261
Assisting relative47152046
Not specified15832133191537
               Totals, actively engaged146,96037,036268,146102,959557,353
Retired or independent means9,8142,70210,72152,23775,877
Dependent on public or private support20,6553,56816,05141,88982,875
               Totals not actively engaged30,4696,27026,77294,126158,751
               Total heads177,42943,306294,918197,085716,104

In the following table the tenure of the preceding dwellings in 1966 is related to the income level of the head of the household.

Income Group of Head of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsTenure
Renting or LeasingRent Free*Owned
With MortgageWithout Mortgage

* Includes free dwelling with job, and dwellings loaned without payment.

† Includes cases where income of head of household was not specified.

          $Percentage of Households
Under      600124,15523.34.418.354.0
    600–1,39950,89027.77.521.843.0
1,400–2,199192,22631.88.537.921.8
2,200–2,999196,43426.54.952.915.7
3,000–3,99973,44718.85.357.718.2
4,000–7,99960,2769.85.957.027.3
8,000 and over14,9855.83.651.738.9
               Totals†716,10424.96.141.427.6

Amenities of Dwellings—The next two tables present the various amenities in permanent private dwellings and show whether they were used solely by the occupants of a dwelling or shared by occupants of other dwellings.

AmenityNot SharedSharedNilNot Specified
19611966196119661961196619611966
 Number of Dwellings
Hot water service588,447697,4006,4197,26837,5457,9461,2963,490
Bath or shower607,385697,0617,8495,65017,9089,6905653,703
Flush toilet552,512667,5787,8255,68472,88640,7544842,088
Refrigerator509,461651,7601,9231,999121,17658,8771,1473,468
Telephone..584,735..3,395..123,215..4,759
Washing machine488,253620,1875,8009,486137,60781,2122,0475,219
Television set..452,033..1,132..252,939..10,000
Radio..667,340..979..44,220..3,565
Vacuum cleaner..636,217..3,592..72,287..4,008
 Percentage of Dwellings
Hot water service93.197.91.01.05.91.1....
Bath or shower96.097.81.20.82.81.4....
Flush toilet87.393.51.20.811.55.7....
Refrigerator80.591.40.30.319.28.3....
Telephone..82.2..0.5..17.3....
Washing machine77.387.31.01.321.711.4....
Television set..64.0..0.2..35.8....
Radio..93.7..0.1..6.2....
Vacuum cleaner..89.3..0.5..10.2....
Means of Cooking—1966Number of DwellingsPercentage of Total Specified
Electric range, stove560,23478.4
Electric cooker, stovette1,6520.2
Electric range and coal, wood, coke, range20,8882.9
Electric range and gas range3,4000.5
Gas range72,98810.2
Gas cooker, stovette159
Gas range and coal, wood, coke, range2,7690.4
Coal, wood, coke, range51,5597.2
Oil range or stove326
Oil, other103
Other4290.1
Not specified1,087
No means5100.1
               Totals716,104100.0

At the 1966 Census 44.5 percent of dwellings were heated mainly by open fireplaces, 38.6 percent by electric fires or radiators, 5.6 percent by space heaters, and 2.6 percent by kerosene heaters or radiators.

In 1966, 90.4 percent of all inhabited permanent private dwellings had piped water, while 9.5 percent depended on rainwater tanks, and only 0.1 percent had no water laid on.

In the following table the possession of selected household amenities is related to the income of the head of the household.

Income of Head of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsAmenities*
RefrigeratorWashing MachineTelephoneTelevision

* Including a very small percentage of households sharing facilities.

† Including cases where income of the head of the household was not specified.

          $Percentages
Under      600124,15582.370.972.547.6
    600–1,39950,89086.078.778.049.9
1,400–2,199192,22689.687.976.559.9
2,200–2,999196,43495.094.584.870.4
3,000–3,99973,44797.696.593.174.4
4,000–7,99960,27698.697.297.976.9
8,000 and over14,98599.097.899.080.4
               Totals†716,10491.387.982.163.3

Materials of Outer Walls—The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed. Flats are included individually and not as blocks. Therefore part of the increase, for instance, in brick and concrete construction, is accounted for by a lesser number of buildings than indicated by the increase in number of dwelling units.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
195619611966
Wood411,370431,318455,213
Stone1,1212,4568,910
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,51028,347
Concrete and wood1,0872,0393,093
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,17194,100
Brick and wood3,3326,1378,818
Brick and other material3,4017,0356,263
Wood and iron3,7213,3142,507
Wood and proprietary wallboard2,3697,3351,593
Iron3,8623,0832,554
Asbestos2,0112,1762,684
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type26,25047,96346,954
Roughcast27,94425,55537,045
Other materials3,9226,81716,238
Not specified7,3737781,785
               Totals563,052633,707716,104

Although the number of houses and flats with outer walls of wood increased by slightly fewer than 24,000 between the 1961 and 1966 Censuses, as a percentage of all inhabited permanent private dwellings they decreased from 68.1 to 63.6.

Houses and flats with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total between 1961 and 1966, thus continuing the post-war trend.

Materials for Roofs—Most dwellings (69.5 percent) in 1966 were roofed with sheet or corrugated iron with tiles the next popular choice (22.6 percent).

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1966 according to the number of rooms and the number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of Occupants
12345678 and OverTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
  14,741713220104512713215,8901.3
  211,2578,4512,2581,04042221610913023,8831.9
  314,82821,4059,5786,1073,0891,6538941,09858,6522.6
  424,99650,41328,04022,38911,4395,7102,6822,990148,6592.9
  521,39961,13250,00662,22047,44925,06610,5978,444286,3133.8
  68,32524,52120,70924,66620,52713,6237,1337,534127,0384.1
  72,2946,7776,5187,9667,1394,9742,6922,50740,8674.3
  87462,2622,2232,6052,4901,8349801,01114,1514.4
  92237097428808336103683434,7084.4
101063233173833322921671642,0844.5
11 and over683132782682832371161441,7074.5
Not specified401511337331233147751172,1523.5
               Totals89,384177,530121,226128,95994,28754,38925,82624,503716,1043.5

Of the total number of dwellings (where number of rooms was specified) 562,010, or 78.7 percent had either 4, 5, or 6 rooms and of these 344,096 were occupied by either 2, 3, or 4 persons.

The number of dwellings with only 1 occupant increased from 72,004 in 1961 to 89,384 in 1966, a rise of 24.1 percent; those living alone in dwellings of 3 rooms rose from 11,157 to 14,828; those in 4 rooms from 19,897 to 24,996; and those in 5 rooms from 17,003 to 21,399. A large proportion of those persons living alone were widows.

TENANCY—The Tenancy Act 1955 administered by the Department of Labour governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies entered into since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8,800 tenancies are protected by the Tenancy Act 1955. The Rent Appeal Act 1973 provides for the appointment of rent appeal boards empowered to determine equitable rents for dwellinghouses.

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually over 20 years at the State Advances Corporation, about 15 years at building societies and about 10 years at the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years, seldom running the full term. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings.

The value of house mortgages outstanding to major lending institutions is shown in the following table prepared by the Monetary and Economic Council.

Lending InstitutionsAt 31 March 1965At 31 March 1972

* Average for previews calendar year.

† Estimated.

 $(m)$(m)
State Advances Corporation426581
Building societies126*†228*†
Trustee banks57†134†
Life insurance companies126†202
Private savings banks19
Trading banks2221
               Total7571,185

There are no accurate statistics available for the value of the stock of housing mortgages outstanding from non-institutional sources. Undoubtedly the value is considerable, and it may well exceed the total of mortgages outstanding from the savings banks and building societies.

Chapter 20. Section 20
ENERGY

20 A—ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL—New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. New Zealand's dependence on hydro-electric generation is similar to that of Canada, but Norway and Sweden generate proportionately more of their electricity from water sources. Hydro energy provided 85 percent of the national electricity supply in 1971–72, with 8 percent coming from geothermal energy and 7 percent from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

An important factor governing future plans for electric power development is that the remaining hydro potential is mainly in the lower half of the South Island and the preponderance of population in the North Island. In 1965 the inter-island transmission link began transmitting electricity from Benmore to Haywards, but this link is limited in capacity and in any case by the end of the century the South Island consumers are likely to require all the output from hydro generation in the South Island.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Coal is being used at Meremere steam station south of Auckland. A large station is being built at New Plymouth to use as fuel either natural gas or oil, and a large coal-fired station is to be built at Huntly.

An oil-fired steam station has operated since 1967 at Marsden, near Whangarei, and gas turbines have been generating at Otahuhu since mid-1968. Until the use of nuclear power about 1990, most future North Island stations will be steam stations using natural gas, oil, and coal. These will consume large quantities of irreplaceable material and will have considerable effect on the environment by way of air pollution and the transfer of heat to natural waters used to cool the condensers.

RISING ENERGY DEMAND—The supply of energy in one form or another is basic to our way of life. It is an essential ingredient of our standard of living. It provides light, power, and heat in our homes and is a necessity for both primary and secondary industry. It is essential to ensure that we satisfy our present demands in the most economical way possible, and for the benefit of the community as a whole in both social and environmental terms. The annual consumption of energy over the next 10 years will be unprecedented in New Zealand's history. The demand for electricity alone can be taken as an example. In the 1972 report of the Committee to Review Power Requirements it is estimated that electricity generation will have to grow from about 15,000 GW hours in 1971–72 to over 32,000 GW hours by 1981–82—more than double. Peak power demand over the same period will also more than double, from just under 3,000 MW to nearly 6,500 MW.

The estimated capital expenditure on the generation plant necessary to achieve this output totals $1,089 million spent over the next 10 years. This estimate was made in the 1972 report of the Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development. To the figures for electrical energy must be added the requirements for other forms of energy and the cost of producing them. There are estimates for the next 10 years, which is a relatively short period. A continual review is being made so that a rolling plan can be formulated. Already planners are looking in detail at subsequent years, and giving general consideration to the demand and supply of energy to the end of the century. An immense increase in the demand for energy of all types is being experienced in all developed countries and is causing everyone to reconsider the question of available resources and how they can best be used to meet the demand. Advanced technology is enabling mankind to utilise energy that was unobtainable as recently as 10 years ago.

There are two reasons for reviewing our energy policies on a continuous basis. First, our traditional source of energy is limited, but we are discovering new sources, and so the supply scene is changing. Secondly, the cost of producing and supplying energy from various sources changes, as do consumer preferences. The second point can be best illustrated by looking at our own experience in New Zealand over the last 30 or 40 years. Prior to the Second World War coal provided most of the energy required for domestic and industrial use. Oil was mainly used in the transportation field or for lubrication, the major role of electricity was for lighting, and manufactured gas was largely used as a cheap form of energy for heating and cooking. What has happened in recent years is that the fuels with a high labour content in the cost of supply have moved up in price, whereas those with a low labour content have moved down, and this has steadily improved their competitive position. As a consequence, coal has lost its dominant position. In 1950 coal still held 50 percent of the New Zealand market, but by 1970 its share had dropped to 18 percent. Oil has increased from 38 percent to 58 percent in the same period and electricity has more than doubled its share from 10 percent to 23 percent. In 1971 the total of manufactured and natural gases accounted for about 1 percent of the market.

Looking ahead to about 1981, the ratios for consumer energy in New Zealand are expected to be: coal, about 8 percent; oil, 60 percent; electricity, 29 percent; and natural gas, 2 percent, with manufactured gas still about 1 percent. It is interesting to note that although gas supplies only about 3 percent of the market, this represents very nearly a threefold increase on present consumption. But more than the ratios will change; our demand for energy will also increase rapidly. Countries such as ours are relatively large users of energy, and the experience of the United Kingdom, the United States, and other developed countries indicates that as gross national product increases so does the per capita consumption of energy. The estimated annual increase in consumption, averaged over the next 10 years, is about 6 percent for oil and an even higher rate for electricity. In practical terms, by 1973 the annual increase in demand for electricity will be about 250 MW to 300 MW. By 1983, just 10 years later, it could be round about 500 MW, which is almost equal to an additional Benmore power station each year. To meet this sort of demand in the best way possible for New Zealand we must ensure that indigenous resources are used as effectively and efficiently as possible. We must ensure that they are not wasted either through inefficient use or by making use of them simply because they happen to be there. We also have to maintain reserves for our future needs.

Fossil fuels will need to be used to a greater extent for electricity generation in the future. Our hydro resources in the North Island are almost fully exploited apart from the station on the Motu River and some potential on some other rivers, although this is not very great. In the South Island there is still potential in the Clutha River, but this, apart from the Upper Waitaki, which is now being developed, is about the only hydro power available as an economic alternative to thermal power.

We have developed or are proceeding to develop almost all the remaining economic hydro potential that is available to us, and so it is now necessary to plan and build large thermal generating stations. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered at Kapuni and are presently being distributed to nine North Island gas undertakings as a premium fuel. Another gas field, more than 20 times the size of the Kapuni field, has been discovered off the coast, and an oil refinery has been built at Marsden that is now on the verge of an expansion designed to ensure that it will meet our requirements in the field of petroleum and other products. Changes in social attitudes and a heightened interest in protecting our environment have far-reaching implications in the production, supply, and use of energy.

It is against this increasingly complex background that the need for a co-ordinating body in the energy sector emerges.

MINISTRY OF ENERGY RESOURCES—A Ministry of Energy Resources is provided for by legislation in 1972. It will be the function of the ministry to advise the Government on policies that will ensure the effective and efficient production, supply, and use of all forms of energy in New Zealand, bearing in mind the need to conserve resources. The Ministry of Energy Resources will advise the Government on an overall energy policy and will also provide an independent view on proposals concerning the production, supply, and use of energy in all its forms in both the public and the private sectors.

One of the difficulties in policy-making in the energy sector has been the lack of information relating to it. The Fuel and Power Committee of the National Development Conference pointed out, for example, that there was a lack of information on consumer preference and on consumer demand characteristics, and so the ministry is charged with developing and maintaining a coordinated information service on the production, supply, distribution, and use of energy. The Energy Resources Commission, which was set up as an interim body prior to the establishment of the ministry, has begun work on the development of a matrix on energy supply and use in New Zealand, and this will continue. The gaps in statistics have been pinpointed and work is going ahead to fill in these gaps. The administration of the Gas Council is to be transferred from the New Zealand Electricity Department to the Ministry.

The Government already has the services of the National Development Conference's Fuel and Power Council in an advisory capacity on energy matters, and this council, which consists of representatives of both the public and private spheres of the energy sector, will continue in operation.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in four stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was completed in 1925; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1927. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135,590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58,449 to 284,235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired two small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland.

In spite of the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948, and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in July 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme uses the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, taking advantage of the 600-ft head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the West Arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 700 ft underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a 6-mile tunnel.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining three in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700MW.

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, and 1969. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and is building the Te Anau control works and the Mararoa Dam at Manapouri. This work is scheduled to be finished in 1975.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity has varied between agreements and remains complicated; Comalco pays for the capacity to supply electricity, not for the electricity itself, plus the operating costs of that capacity; the price is based on capital charges. A sinking fund for the civil engineering works covers 80 years while the fund for equipment allows for a depreciation period of 40 years.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 583 ft above sea level to an operating level of 610–620 ft while the minimum lake level was set at 575.5 ft. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri is now being built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River is to be controlled by a dam near its outlet to provide operating levels between 653.6 and 668 ft; this represents an increase of 5 ft on its natural level.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project are fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for five additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased although useful peak-time capacity has been added.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by the New Zealand Electricity Department came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 40 miles south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few miles north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 4, 6, and 8 in. in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft and 4,000 ft.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using oil from the nearby refinery, and at Otahuhu gas turbines went into service in 1968.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth is scheduled to produce its first electricity in late 1973 and attain its full capacity in 1974. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki begin production, the energy source will be 750,000 tons of imported bunker oil a year. A chimney 650 ft high has been built to disperse the hot gas.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A catchment area of more than 1,000 square miles in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro-electric power development. Known as the Tongariro scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and tributaries, and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another. In February 1971, southerly flowing waters of the Wanganui catchment were diverted to flow north to feed into Lake Taupo. A 20,000-ft tunnel connects Lake Rotoaira with the power house at Tokaanu. When the whole project is completed about 1974 it will increase the capacity of the eight existing power stations on the Waikato River by about 18 percent. Also included in the scheme is a 200 MW power station being built at Tokaanu. The total output from the development will be equivalent to one-third of the present output from the Waikato stations.

In July 1968 Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to four power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which should be completed by late 1976.

An oil-fired power station of 133 MW is planned for Evans Bay, Wellington, with construction to commence in 1973 for commissioning in 1976–77 to coincide with the growth in demand for power by the aluminium smelter at Bluff. Future plans include one natural-gas-fired power station in the Auckland area, assuming a successful agreement as to the price of natural gas. Beyond the first natural-gas-fired station, there could be a second larger one south of Auckland. A nuclear programme will be embarked upon earlier if natural gas is not used, otherwise it is expected that nuclear fuel would not be used until about 1990. Due to the delays in coming to an agreement on the price of natural gas, a 1,000 MW coal-fired station will be built at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1978. Investigations by the Mines Department over the years have confirmed the existence of a large underground coal-field sufficient to provide fuel for such a station.

Proposals for Clutha Hydro-electric Development—Investigations into hydro-electric power for the Clutha River are proceeding with emphasis on those proposals which cause the least disturbance to the people of the Clutha Valley.

Although the Inter-departmental Committee's Report on the effects of hydro-electric power development on the resources of the Clutha Valley outlines the effects of various alternatives, there are social and other aspects which are not covered in any depth. These require further attention.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission line and undersea cables. It was considered more economical to transmit electricity from the lower half of the South Island which has abundant hydro resources, rather than develop less attractive North Island schemes or build extra thermal stations.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 25 miles in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 354 mile, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards substation; complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable world-wide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER—Forward planning is continually under review by a series of specialised committees to ensure that future demands are met. The Power and Finance Utilisation Committee of the Electrical Supply Authorities Association, on which the New Zealand Electricity Department is represented, collates detailed estimates of unit consumption and peak demand in each area for a period of 5 years in advance. These estimates, which are revised and extended each year, show when and where power will be required in all parts of New Zealand. The Committee to Review Power Requirements then considers the estimates. (This committee has as chairman the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department, the Assistant General Manager, a representative of the supply authorities, a representative of the Treasury, and the Government Statistician as members.) Its function is to combine and project the supply authority estimates for a further 5 years for the North and South Island requirements and for New Zealand as a whole, also comparing them with the New Zealand requirements as arrived at by statistical methods. A Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, with the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department as chairman, considers the findings of the Review Committee.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

Estimates made in 1972 by the Power Planning Committee of progressive generation were as follows (in million kWh): 1972–73, 17,184; 1973–74, 18,613; 1974–75, 20,460; 1975–76, 21,935; 1976–77, 23,196; 1977–78, 25,199; 1979–80, 28,284; 1980–81, 30,599; 1981–82, 32,892.

There has been a great upsurge in the consumption of electric power. Power generated to meet the demand doubled between 1962 and 1972 to reach 15,194 million kilowatt hours a year. In the same period generating capacity of power plants has more than doubled to reach 4.21 million kilowatts. Projected power requirements are expected to more than double again by 1982 to reach 30,599 million kilowatt hours. To meet the estimated power needs the generating capacity must be increased to 7.5 million kilowatts by 1982.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1962 some $654 million had been expended in generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was $470 million. By 1972 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $1,111 million, and with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on distribution, the total capital outlay had increased to $1,493 million. By 1982 the provision of barely sufficient generating capacity to meet the expected power needs could call for a further expenditure by Government of some $2,000 million. To this must be added the capital needs of the electrical supply authorities who must also increase the capacity of their distribution systems in step with the increasing power demand. In all probability the capital investment in 1982 in all branches of the electrical supply system will be over $2,300 million. Since 1962 a direct contribution has been made from revenue towards capital requirements.

LEGISLATION—Under the Electricity Act 1968 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the networks which supply electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 41 electric power boards actively functioning at 31 March 1972, 15 had generating stations of a total rated generation capacity of 36,673 kW. There were also 23 municipal electric supply authorities, 6 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 78,590 kW. Two Government departments, New Zealand Electricity and Tourist and Publicity, act as distributing authorities for Southland and Rotorua respectively. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. A Rural Reticulation Council can make a levy of up to 1/2 percent of the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings to subsidise the annual cost of supply in remote areas. The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1972 had approved subsidies on 9,713 route-miles of line to supply some 15,147 consumers. At this date 9,320 miles of line were completed and 14,691 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at $16,460,469 and the subsidy paid for the year amounted to $334,718.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1972, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual' energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

Name of StationInstalled capacity at 31 March 1972Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1972Annual Load Factor
Number of UnitsMW

* Owned by Dunedin City Council.

† Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

‡ Comalco's entitlement is 480 MW of continuous power.

§ Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

 Hydroftmillion kWhpercent
Arapuni8157.8175842.858.87
Karapiro390.0100535.564.04
Maraetai10360.0200871.429.97
Whakamaru4100.0124495.954.08
Atiamuri484.081279.140.47
Waipapa351.053257.249.63
Ohakuri4112.0115371.237.33
Aratiatia390.0110275.037.31
Matahina272.0200409.862.79
Mangahao519.289674.140.55
Waikaremoana—
     Kaitawa232.0443163.755.29
     Tuai352.0676310.2
     Piripaua240.0370196.8
Cobb632.01,950183.661.95
Arnold23.14223.781.84
Coleridge934.5490115.334.29
Highbank125.233084.938.04
Waitaki7105.070402.741.91
Aviemore4220.0122736.145.20
Benmore6540.03021,844.343.79
Manapouri‡7700.05802,821.665.89
Tekapo125.2100121.854.18
Roxburgh8320.01501,172.640.68
Monowai36.015434.060.45
Waipori*1165.2132.9
Auxiliary†5339.1213.4
               Sub-totals3,375.2 12,969.7..
Thermal
Meremere7210.0 606.937.51
Wairakei13192.4 1,174.489.55
Marsden2240.0 337.018.60
Otahuhu4180.0 88.85.82
Auxiliary† §1210.7 17.0
          Sub-totals833.4 2,224.0..
               Totals 4,208.6 15,193.7..

ANNUAL GENERATION—During the year ended 31 March 1972 a total of 15,194 million kWh was generated by public utilities, of which 12,970 million kWh (85 percent) was generated by water power, 2,118 million kWh by steam plant, 89 million kWh by gas-turbine plant, and 31,126 kWh by oil plant. A further 16.8 million kWh was purchased by public authorities from generating stations operated by industrial establishments and fed into the supply system, making a total of 15,194 million kWh available for distribution. By far the major portion of the generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants which, in the period under review, generated 12,623 million kWh by the use of water power, 2,118 million kWh by use of steam power, and 89 million kWh by use of gas-turbine power.

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS—The following table gives information concerning generation and distribution by Government establishments, local authorities, and electric power boards for the year ended 31 March 1972.

ItemGovernment EstablishmentsElectric Power BoardsAll Establishments*

* Includes 12 city councils, 11 borough councils, and 2 county councils.

† Excluding stocks and materials.

‡ As at 1 January 1972.

EstablishmentsNo.274193
Persons engaged‡No.4,6705,79412,862
Salaries and wages paid$(000)20,21922,70651,355
ConsumersNo.44,840788,7751,129,375
Prime movers—
     Hydrobhp(000)4,699404,850
     Thermalbhp(000)989121,004
               Totalsbhp(000)5,688525,854
Generators (capacity)—
     A.C.kW(000)4,093374,209
Revenue—
     Sales of power—
          Retail$(000)10,174109,860163,047
          Bulk and interchange$(000)91,1534,70395,860
          Other (including rates)$(000)5491,8743,130
               Total revenue$(000)101,875116,436262,037
Expenditure—
     Power purchased (including interchange)$(000)1,52769,30095,982
     Generating costs$(000)13,37926314,103
     Transmission and distribution costs$(000)6,74613,79325,406
     Management and general$(000)9,36510,89524,477
     Capital charges$(000)63,16317,11985,635
               Total expenditure$(000)94,180111,370245,602
Capital expenditure† —
               Total expenditure to date$(000)1,099,662261,7361,457,676
     Expenditure during year$(000)80,88619,516106,967
Generation—
     HydroMillion kWh12,62314812,970
     SteamMillion kWh2,118..2,135
     Oil/gasMillion kWh89..89
               TotalsMillion kWh14,83014815,194
Retail salesMillion kWh1,6968,25913,112

Employment—Details concerning the number of employees as at 1 January 1972, and the salaries and wages paid are given in the following table for the year ended 31 March 1972.

Category of StaffPersons Engaged*Salaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesTotalCharged to Operation and ManagementCharged to CapitalTotal

* As at 1 January 1972.

† Includes staff from other categories working part-time on construction.

 No.No.No.$(000)$(000)$(000)
Operating6,4751066,58124,6932,17526,868
Management, administration, and design2,7421,0993,84114,11649714,613
Trading and house-wiring departments458575151,951161,967
Construction (equivalent)†1,910151,9251,3466,5617,907
               Totals11,5851,27712,86242,1069,24951,355

Capital Expenditure—The following table gives capital expenditure during 1971–72 and total outlay to 31 March 1972.

ItemExpenditure During Year*Total Capital Outlay to 31 March 1972*
* Accumulated adjustments due to audit during year.
Generating system—$(000)    $(000)    
     Head works, pipelines, etc.37,863536,906
     Powerhouse buildings, cottages, etc.5,895124,666
     Generating plant and machinery, etc.17,448175,484
Transmission and distribution lines, substations, land and houses36,421514,348
Public lighting2817,149
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, service buildings3,89237,029
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, equipment3,19240,277
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, loan conversion premiums, surveys, preliminary expenses, interest during construction)38017,462
Stock and materials (including trading department stocks)2,73034,883
Other items not capable of inclusion above1,5944,354
               Total capital outlay109,6961,492,559

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1971–72 totalled $112,139,000 while deductions, i.e., sales and amounts written off, amounted to $2,443,000. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year.

General Balance Sheet as at 31 March 1972—The next table summarises the balance sheet at 31 March 1972 for all establishments.

Liabilities
 $(000)$(000)
Capital raised—
     Original amount of current loans1,086,225 
          Less amounts repaid186,684 
            Balance owing on 31 March 1971..899,541
Temporary loans..1,165
Sundry creditors—
     Bank overdraft..2,739
     Other..32,218
Reserves—
     Loan repayment reserve..124,367
     Capital expenditure out of revenue..111,551
     Sinking fund reserve..9,565
     Depreciation reserve..185,889
     Renewal fund reserve..6,863
     General and other reserves..187,761
     Surplus in Appropriation Account..18,170
               Total..1,579,830
Assets
 $(000)     
Total capital expenditure1,457,676
Stocks and materials34,883
Sundry debtors42,500
Cash in hand and bank balances—
     Loan accounts1,790
          Other6,030
Investments—
     Loan accounts1,212
     Other34,776
Deficit in Appropriation Account963
               Total1,579,830

Power—The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column “other sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNonproductive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
 million kWh
196811,2653192111,6059,8931,712
196911,8313292512,18510,4541,732
197012,6033012112,92611,0691,856
197113,3603291713,70611,7451,960
197214,8303461715,19413,1122,082

Analysis of Units Retailed—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table “domestic” includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticCommercial, Industrial, and FarmingStreet LightingTramways and Trolley BusesElectric RailwaysOther PurposesTotal
 million kWh
19685,6974,06589212019,893
19695,9924,312931830810,454
19706,1874,74097172811,069
19716,4545,147100172711,745
19726,8116,154103182613,112

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

Consumer Research—A survey of household electricity consumption is being carried out by the Department of Statistics on behalf of the New Zealand Electricity Department and the Electrical Supply Authorities of New Zealand. Provisional results of October 1972 showed that 79 percent of all households used only electricity for cooking purposes; 73 percent used only electricity for water heating; and 30 percent for home heating. The percentages of homes using electric appliances were: washing machine, 90; refrigerator, 96; dryer, 30; vacuum cleaner, 93; television set, 87; radio, etc., 80; and electric blanket, 35. (This was a small sample survey.)

Revenue—Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1971–72 this source was 98.1 percent of the total. The following table sets out the revenue from all sources (excluding bulk sales) for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchSale of Power (Retail)Profits from TradingMiscellaneousTotal*
* Excluding revenue from interchange of power.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1968120,2403362,091122,667
1969136,1473502,334138,832
1970143,2544192,619146,292
1971151,1905322,727154,448
1972163,0474972,634166,177

Expenditure—Of the total expenditure of $149,741,979 (excluding cost of interchange of power in bulk) recorded in the year ended 31 March 1972, 73.5 percent represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating expenses of prime costs stood at 26.5 percent.

Power may be sold more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority, and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their plants and, whenever called upon, to operate them to supplement the State electricity supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure, excluding the cost of bulk interchanges.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1969197019711972
* Does not include the interchange of power between supply authorities.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Operating Expenditure
Cost of power purchased*166148123121
Cost of generation3,1453,6614,6985,488
Fuel3,0586,0275,6925,546
Repairs and stores1,9952,4502,7573,068
Cost of transmission and distribution16,53217,88720,89024,849
Public (street) lighting450470534557
               Totals25,34730,64334,69439,630
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Cost of management13,94315,73619,49023,953
Losses from trading31363641
Other expenditure and insurance174177455482
               Totals14,14815,94919,98124,477
Capital Charges (Including Taxation)
Interest37,80039,29241,15043,623
Sinking Fund1,3392,7472,8042,927
Renewals2,7063,1363,2693,637
Depreciation15,89818,13919,31019,833
Loan repayment14,56413,92214,57215,615
               Totals72,30877,23681,10585,635
               Grand totals111,803123,829135,780149,742

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

ExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
1968196919701971
 centscentscentscents
Operating expenses0.2420.2770.2950.302
Miscellaneous expenses0.1350.1440.1700.187
Capital charges0.6920.6980.6900.653
               Totals1.0701.1191.1561.142

20 B—GAS

HISTORY—Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand The first gasworks was erected in Auckland in 1862 and at that time Auckland had a European population of about 25,000. By 1916 there were 56 establishments engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. Since that date the numbers of gas undertakings has steadily declined because of the difficulties associated with coal carbonisation and the growth of electricity usage. The number of consumers has been steadily decreasing over the years and there has been an approximate reduction of 28 percent in the last 10 years. In this period total gas sales have risen by 45 percent. The increased demand came from the industrial sector. The loss of consumers from the gas industry was viewed with concern both by the Government and those authorities who have to satisfy the energy demand.

A Gas Council was established in 1958. The main function of the Gas Council is to preserve and expand the gas industry, which it can do by way of subsidies and arranging finance to assist the industry. The Gas Council has pursued its basic policy of promoting efficiency and confidence in the industry, and much new plant has been installed.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas at Kapuni in 1959 and the development of this find has followed the formation of the Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand. This corporation was set up by the Government in 1967 and is operating the gas purification equipment and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The gas treatment plant at Kapuni cost over $5 million and the pipelines and compressors over $16 million. In the period to 31 March 1971 there was a trading loss by the Natural Gas Corporation of $112,974; this was increased by interest and depreciation to $1,466,786. Since then natural gas has been supplied to the Otara power station which could double the income from gas sales.

Gas is now expected to compete more successfully with other forms of energy and to arrest the drift away by domestic consumers and to receive an increased usage in industry. Those gas undertakings not receiving a piped supply of natural gas will continue to receive financial incentives which are provided by the Gas Council to help them to convert to more efficient, acceptable techniques of gas manufacture and consumer service.

The following table shows details of the total generation, purchase, and disposal of gas for the latest 3 years.

Item1969–701970–711971–72

* Non-balance of these items is attributable to differing balance dates of the establishments involved.

† Gas disposals for 1969–70 and 1970–71 have been converted to therms and calculated on a proportionate basis, as no details of the breakdown between generated gas and natural gas are available. Conversion factors used were: natural gas 1,000 cu ft, 11.4 therms; generated gas 1.000 cu ft, 4.5 therms.

 Therms(000)
Gas generated during year—
   Coal gas14,47412,9179,184
   Oil gas12,85810,3783,049
   Water gas9348171,099
      Total generation28,26724,11213,332
Natural gas purchased7214,06033,112
Purchases (in bulk for redistribution)*880843
      Total available for disposal29,21939,01546,444
Gas disposal† —
   Used for internal consumption189227274
   Distribution losses6,05912,37316,904
   Sales—
      Retail22,12525,42729,177
      Bulk (for redistribution)*84698790
               Total disposed29,21939,01546,444

The next table summarises the main statistics of the industry for the last 3 years. Because of the introduction of natural gas certain establishments are now only distributors. The natural gas production plant at Kapuni is not included in these statistics.

Item 1969–701970–711971–72
Establishments (including distributors)No.252424
Persons engaged—
     MalesNo.1,060960950
     FemalesNo.12011699
Operating expenditure
     Salaries and wages$(000)3,2273,5273,895
     Costs of purchased gas—
         Natural$(000)24411,495
         Manufactured$(000)196190
     Costs of other materials used, etc.$(000)4,1303,6302,510
     Other expenditure, including interest and depreciation$(000)1,6121,4832,252
         Total operating expenditure$(000)9,1669,27210,153
Revenue
     Products sales$(000)7,9228,1528,471
     Subsidies$(000)1,089987837
     Other revenue (net)$(000)287209407
         Total revenue$(000)9,2989,3489,715
Consumers—
     North IslandNo.78,01077,36973,638
     South IslandNo.39,12737,44435,954
         Total New ZealandNo.117,137114,813109,592
Retail gas sales—
     North Islandtherms(000)13,87317,09721,045
$(000)4,6604,8445,435
     South Islandtherms(000)8,2528,3308,132
$(000)2,2082,3082,439
         Totals New Zealandtherms(000)22,12525,42729,177
$(000)6,8687,1517,874
Average price of gas to consumer per therm$0.310.280.27
Average consumption of gas per consumertherms188.9221.5266.2

The next table gives the average price of gas per therm in the four main centres.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $$$$
1969–700.340.340.250.25
1970–710.280.330.260.26
1971–720.260.310.290.28

Chapter 21. Section 21
MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Products of animal origin average annually over 80 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand is the largest exporter in the world of butter and (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese. Exports of milk powder and casein have grown rapidly since 1947 and approach in value traditional exports such as tallow and hides and skins. The maintenance and expansion of overseas markets for pastoral products must remain a fundamental objective, for if the moderate rate of expansion set as a goal by the National Development Conference is to be achieved, export receipts must rise by between 5 and 1 1/2 percent a year, and over half of the increase must come from the pastoral sector.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk Powder, etc.CaseinTotal (including Other)

* Of New Zealand produce.

† Provisional.

 $(million)
1967109.445.129.818.6205.3205.0174.133.6717.6
1968112.247.430.318.1210.3260.7158.239.1804.6
1969114.842.623.121.7204.7309.4212.455.4968.9
1970109.744.331.125.8213.8368.9204.248.71,064.5
1971x113.948.034.130.2228.9390.8187.850.61,108.1
1972†182.466.277.325.4354.4402.1229.862.51,348.0

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1970–71 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis.

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom83.172.486.79.122.218.1
United States0.610.03.462.80.111.0
Japan0.16.01.31.555.010.3
Canada–   –   0.913.33.50.7
France–   –   0.10.10.28.2
Belgium–   –   0.20.40.310.2
West Germany0.20.40.9–   0.68.1
Italy–   –   0.4–   0.14.4
Other16.111.36.212.818.129.1
                    Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 5 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Uruguay, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The chief flows of trade are to Western Europe, in particular the United Kingdom (which accounts for over one-third of world trade) and, more recently, the United States and Japan. The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb; New Zealand's lamb exports are heavily dependent on this market. Although the Common Market countries are substantial importers of beef and veal, the pattern of trade has been greatly affected by the beef and veal regulations of the common agricultural policy; intra-community trade has increased whereas entries from third countries have been severely reduced.

For some years New Zealand has made a drive for supplementary markets for its increased production and now lists over 100 countries as buyers of its meat. Of these three may be regarded as major markets. They are the United Kingdom which is currently taking about 80 percent of New Zealand's lamb; Japan, which is taking about 53 percent of New Zealand's export mutton production; North America (United States and Canada) which is taking about 75 percent: of the beef and veal exports. In the late 1950s a strong demand developed in the United States for manufacturing grades of beef. This was a result of changes in the composition of the American beef herd which in the main is grain-fed and carries more fat than the consumer requires. The trimmings need to be supplemented with the lean-type beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. But since 1968 the New Zealand producers and exporters have had to contend with what is termed a “voluntary quota agreement” which applies to all United States imports of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat except lamb. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, has agreed to restrict the tonnage of quota meats shipped for arrival in the United States during the calendar year to a pre-set quota figure. If any country exceeds its quota a trigger point could be reached forcing the United States administration to introduce a global quota. Under the terms of the agreement New Zealand was able to send 104,500 tons of quota meat to the United States in 1971, with an additional allocation of 9,000 tons in the last quarter because of a shortfall from other suppliers. New Zealand has had no difficulty in meeting the level agreed under the voluntary quota system. In fact, because this is, in general, New Zealand's highest price beef market, the New Zealand Meat Board has implemented a procedure for equitably restricting the level of shipments by each exporter within the industry. The allocation for 1972 was 112,000 tons. Because of the shortage of beef, in the United States and rising prices, restrictions on imports were suspended in July 1972.

Imports into the United States of some classes of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
196919701971196919701971
 tons(000)
New Zealand10010810810105
Australia219235222332726
Canada192535
Republic of Ireland293128
Mexico303535
Other countries636163
                    Total imports460505491433731
United States production9,6439,9289,914245246244

Canada now ranks as New Zealand's second biggest customer for beef and veal. Shipments in the year ended September 1972 totalled 20,200 tons compared with 29,300 tons in the preceding year.

In Japan there is a demand for mutton which is used mainly for processing into sausage-type foods. Shipments in the year ended September 1972 totalled 62,500 tons compared with 59,700 tons in the preceding year.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. This has been associated partly with the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC (which has a complicated but highly protective system of tariff and levies on imports of foodstuffs), but also because of the need to cushion continued dependence on only one market.

In 1960 there was established the Meat Export Development Company, an organisation charged with the responsibility of the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company whose directorate is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company (known as Devco or Medco) is in Wellington while the North American operations are controlled from Chicago.

There is a Market Development Committee which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade. Each year the committee sets a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom and it levies exporters 2.5 cents per lb on the shortfall below the target figure. The diversion target was set at 10 percent in the first season of the scheme, 12 percent the second season, 13 1/2 percent in 1968–69, 15 percent for the 1969–70 season, 15 1/4 percent for the 1970–71 season, and 22 percent for the 1971–72 and the 1972–73 seasons. Since 1971–72 an incentive bonus of 0.25 cents per lb has been paid for amounts diversified above the set target.

Several promising markets are developing for lamb, despite tariff and other restrictions in many countries. Shipments to Europe in 1971–72 included 16,500 tons to Greece, 4,000 tons to West Germany, 2,700 tons to the Netherlands and 1,800 tons to Italy. There was a decline in shipments to Japan from the peak of 5,800 tons in 1969–70 to just over 3,000 tons in 1970–71 but a rise again to 5,700 tons in 1971–72.

Wool—New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from all the main importing countries to make their purchases of wool. A small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool. The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research. World wool production and wool utilisation were approximately in balance until 1966 when consumption fell behind production.

World wool production increased steadily until 1968–69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. Since the 1968–69 record level, world production has shown a downward trend although New Zealand production reached its highest level to date in the 1970–71 season. Since the Second World War there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whose clips enters the international market to any significant extent. These countries account for 77 percent of world production; of the world total Australia alone produces 33 percent, and with New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa some 52 percent.

The distribution of wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population, since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably. While there is undoubtedly scope for improvement in a number of the lower yielding countries, the yields, are determined by the type of pasture, breed of sheep, average age of flock, and age of sheep at slaughter. Variations in yield between countries, therefore, do not necessarily reflect variations in efficiency, but rather differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
196919701971*1969–701970–711971–72*

* Provisional.

† Revised series; previously included some non-woolled sheep.

 (million)(thousand metric tons greasy)
Australia174.6180.1178.3924889882
New Zealand59.960.358.9328334330
Argentina45.044.342.7201200184
South Africa†34.332.530.3145123112
Uruguay21.719.916.0807850
United States21.220.319.6888580
United Kingdom26.626.126.0484746
U.S.S.R.140.6130.7138.0390419424
Whole world958.0947.0942.02,7872,7562,687

The major importing countries for raw wool are shown in the following table. (Sources Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Import196919701971
 million kg
Belgium96.895.375.6
France161.3158.5171.1
Italy135.8126.9104.3
Japan315.8320.5307.8
Netherlands13.911.211.9
United Kingdom234.3205.6160.5
United States113.291.572.8
West Germany109.598.4111.3

Dairy Produce—Although New Zealand's exports of dairy produce to markets outside the United Kingdom have grown in recent years New Zealand is still largely dependent on the United Kingdom as a market for her dairy produce. Between 1968 and 1970 New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets were hindered by expanded EEC dairy surpluses entering international markets at low subsidised prices.

Diversification of markets by New Zealand have been impeded by the severe and pervasive restrictions imposed by governments on access, especially on the entry of dairy products into all the main industrial countries. These restrictions have been designed to keep prices high in order to support the incomes of domestic farmers. The high prices, by restricting consumption and stimulating production, have created surpluses of some commodities. Disposal of these surpluses at cut rates, with Government support, in such free markets as have existed, has further limited the opportunities for profitable diversification.

New Zealand has had very little success in GATT or in other international organisations in its attempts to negotiate improved conditions of access for agricultural products in world markets outside Britain. It is essential for New Zealand to maintain strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade. A significant step was made in 1971 when the EEC undertook in the Luxembourg Agreement “to make every effort to promote the conclusion of an international agreement on dairy produce; and to pursue a trade policy which will not frustrate New Zealand's efforts to diversify”. In 1970, the GATT minimum international selling price for skim-milk powders of $180 a ton was established, and in 1971 negotiations for the establishment of minimum prices for butter and anhydrous milkfat continued.

In 1970 total world production of butter by 26 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to 4.3 million tons. In the same year world exports by 16 of the leading exporters amounted to about 739,000 tons, that is, only about 17.2 percent of world production entered into international trade. Of this quantity 388,400 tons came onto the United Kingdom market. Total international trade in butter outside Europe is relatively small in relation to total world production and relatively small surpluses in large producing countries when exported via subsidies can have a most disturbing effect on the world trade in dairy products.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Sources: Commonwealth Secretariat; United States Department of Agriculture.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButter (Factory Output)CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197019711970197119701971

* Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

† Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

 tons(000)
Australia*20019376789094
Canada1461289585161134
Denmark12912210911831..
Finland86..40..39..
France440435780812632609
Netherlands1191222672949386
New Zealand†231245106103123194
United Kingdom636512815492107
United States5075139841,063644658
West Germany486454218227339332
EXPORTS
CountryButterCheeseSkim-milk Powder
197019711970197119701971

* Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

† Including donations shipped overseas.

 tons(000)
Australia*6956383349..
Canada21815133107
Denmark86766669..
Finland29..21....
France965897127264222
Netherlands101861711512510
New Zealand*1751549186124152
United Kingdom2332231
United States3933186†160†
West Germany30715157141206

The amounts guaranteed for New Zealand on the United Kingdom market by the Luxembourg Agreement in each year of the transition period are as follows.

YearButterCheeseMilk Equivalent
 percenttonspercenttonspercent
197396165,8009068,60095
197492158,9008061,00090
197588152,0006045,70083
197684145,1004030,50077
197780138,2002015,20071

As from 1 February 1973 New Zealand has been guaranteed a price of £390 a ton for butter and £330 a ton for cheese. There will be an annual review of New Zealand's special arrangement in which it is expected account will be taken of rising costs and inflation.

Skim-milk Powder—The world production of skim-milk powder has expanded over recent years. The skim-milk powder output of 11 West European countries and Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, rose from 2.1 million tons in 1966 to 2.7 million tons in 1968, but eased to 2.5 million tons in 1970.

The international market for skim-milk powder like that for butter, experienced a sharp recovery during 1971. The change began late in 1970 when the effects of a massive reduction in EEC surplus stocks began to influence supplies. In addition, world demand has been buoyant, stimulated by a growing number of milk recombining plants in Asia, South America, Africa, and the Caribbean. The general improvement in prices is reflected in quotations for spot sales of skim-milk powder, which having been as low as US$162 per ton when EEC surplus stocks were at their highest point in mid 1969, rose from US$203 in mid 1970 to US$480 by July 1971, to reach a peak of US$645 in December 1971. (It should be noted that these spot prices provide a guide to the general trend but much of the world trade in skim-milk powder is covered by pricing arrangements set well in advance of delivery).

New Zealand's exports of milk powders have been further diversified to a wide range of markets in the past 2 years, particularly in the less-developed areas. Much of New Zealand's production is now sold to milk recombining plants under 6-monthly contracts with powders manufactured to meet the precise specifications laid down by each buyer.

In recent years, New Zealand's exports to South-east Asia and Central and South America have increased heavily with the growth in trade to milk reconditioning plants. New Zealand's share in the growth, especially in South-east Asia, has been due to three main advantages over other suppliers—nearness to the market, regularity as a supplier, and ability to supply the specialised range of skim-milk powders required to produce reconditioned milk.

Casein—Lactic casein, which is produced from the residual skim milk in butter manufacture, is being put to an increasing range of uses. It is used as high-grade protein in sausage and other food fillings, as the bulk material for various types of pharmaceutical drugs, and in the manufacture of high quality paper. New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with much of the production going to the United States and Japan.

The chief countries exporting and importing casein are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Export196919701971
* Years ended 30 June of following year.
 tons(000)
New Zealand*61.069.248.4
Australia*29.826.526.0
France16.011.214.8
Argentina11.97.06.8
Poland8.24.87.3
Country of Import196919701971
United States49.156.043.2
Japan24.125.324.2
West Germany18.416.316.8
United Kingdom8.88.07.5
Italy10.511.28.9

Since 1970, due to the high prices of skim-milk powder there has been a world decline in the availability of liquid skim milk for casein (much more skim-milk powder than casein can be produced from a given quantity of skim milk). The result was a marked rise in prices of casein, e.g., from $500 a ton in May 1970 to more than double that amount in 1971.

An international shortage of casein supplies, and an increase in price levels, has brought a significant change to the world acid casein market. A history of variable prices and availability caused many industrial users to shift to casein substitutes and in some cases this shift is likely to be permanent. In these changing markets, and with production being reduced by the demand for spray skim-milk powder, sales of acid casein dropped in 1971–72.

On the other hand, there has been an increase in demand for edible casein and sophisticated casein derivatives, a field in which the New Zealand dairy industry is becoming well established. The demand for rennet casein is satisfactory, notwithstanding higher prices.

Diversification of Markets—New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom have steadily increased. In 1955, only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to countries outside the United Kingdom, but by 1970 this had risen to 27 percent. The greatest increases have been in anhydrous milkfat and skim-milk powder to South-east Asia and Central and South America, in cheese to Japan and the Caribbean, and in casein to the United States and Europe. It is expected that the future long-term growth in markets for New Zealand produce will be predominantly outside the United Kingdom, although New Zealand will remain heavily dependent on the United Kingdom as a bulk outlet for her milkfat products.

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products. The British consumer has had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflect close political and economic connections between their people and governments. The arrangements, renewed and extended in 1959 and 1966, provided a basis for the encouragement of New Zealand producers to specialise in the output, especially for the British market, of pastoral products which skills, climate, and resources have enabled New Zealand to produce with unmatched economic efficiency.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the two-way trade between the two countries.

In 1971 the United Kingdom imposed levies on all imports of beef and veal and, more importantly for New Zealand, lamb and mutton. The purpose of the levies was ostensibly to bring about an overall increase in the price of meat in Britain and thereby reduce the burden of deficiency payments imposed upon the British Treasury. The first stage of the lamb levy, namely £9.33 a ton, was introduced on 1 July 1971, and this was increased to £18.67 a ton on 1 January 1972. The proposed third and final stage of the levy was abandoned in November 1972 following representations by New Zealand. The duty on mutton is half that on lamb. On 1 January 1974 Britain is due to begin phasing in the EEC Common Customs Tariff rate of 20 percent on sheep-meat. The levy will be phased out as the CCT is phased in.

In return for concessions to guarantee a market for farm products in 1966 New Zealand guaranteed duty-free entry for certain British goods with margins of preference for some other goods. It has been estimated that, in 1969–70, 84 percent of Britain's exports to New Zealand ($234 million out of $278 million) enjoyed a preference. The average margin of preference was 21 percent and the value of preferences was $59 million.

The 1959 and 1966 trade agreements were terminated by the United Kingdom on 31 January 1973 because the terms of the agreements were incompatible with the obligations assumed by the United Kingdom when it began to apply the EEC's common agricultural policy on 1 February 1973.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the six countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the common agricultural policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place.

In 1970 because of changed political circumstances in Europe, Britain again was able to engage the Six in serious discussions about the “enlargement” of the Community.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the common agricultural policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with Britain, the pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

In response to a request by the Government, the Monetary and Economic Council produced in June 1970 an independent assessment of the possible effect on New Zealand. The council pointed out that if the EEC's common agricultural policy for dairy products was applied to the British market without even a transitional arrangement for New Zealand, an almost immediate loss of $150 million a year in export earnings from butter and cheese would have occurred. It also predicted that further large losses would be inevitable as the production of other commodities for sale in markets outside Britain would have been rendered uneconomic for the New Zealand dairy industry.

The sudden loss of this amount of export income would have provoked a balance-of-payments crisis and the rate of importation of the materials required to sustain other sectors of the nation's economy could not have been achieved. Unemployment and a rapid increase in emigration were seen by the council as an inevitable sequel. When, after a considerable period of time and the expenditure of large amounts of capital in restructuring, the economy had been adjusted to the loss of the United Kingdom dairy market, the prospect was that New Zealand would have suffered a net loss in population and living standards.

The council went on to examine the consequences of a complete phasing out of New Zealand's dairy exports to the United Kingdom over a transitional period. It concluded that while the results of a phased exclusion would be less severe, the economy would still suffer serious damage; even if an estimated $266 million were invested in restructuring there would be a substantial loss in real income and a strong tendency towards emigration. The council emphasised that the consequences outlined for dairy products would be seriously compounded were the EEC to adopt a restrictive regime for sheepmeats.

It was to avoid these harsh effects that the Government formulated a detailed political and economic case for special arrangements. The Government sought, as the basis of a special arrangement, the provision for continuing access at remunerative prices for our exports of butter, cheese, and lamb. Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced, the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

  1. That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

  2. That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

  3. That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this “statement of claim” for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom an understanding that they would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21–23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries to the EEC.

                                                                    Article 1

  1. The United Kingdom is authorised, as a transitional arrangement, to import from New Zealand certain quantities of butter and cheese on the following terms.

  2. The quantities referred to in paragraph 1 shall be:

    1. in respect of butter, for the first five years:

      1973, 165,811 metric tons

      1974, 158,902 metric tons

      1975, 151,994 metric tons

      1976, 145,085 metric tons

      1977, 138,176 metric tons

    2. in respect of cheese:

      1973, 68,580 metric tons

      1974, 60,960 metric tons

      1975, 45,720 metric tons

      1976, 30,480 metric tons

      1977, 15,240 metric tons

    The Council, acting by a qualified majority on a proposal from the Commission, may make adjustments between those quantities of butter and cheese, provided that the tonnage expressed as milk equivalent corresponding to the total quantities laid down for those two products for the year in question remains unaltered.

  3. The quantities of butter and cheese specified in paragraph 2 shall be imported into the United Kingdom at a price, the observance of which must be guaranteed at the c.i.f. stage by New Zealand. That price shall be fixed at a level which enables New Zealand to realise a price representing the average price obtained by that country on the United Kingdom market during 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1972.

  4. The products imported into the United Kingdom in accordance with the provisions of this Protocol may not become the subject of intra-Community trade or of re-exportation to third countries.

                                                                    Article 2

  1. Special levies shall be applied to imports into the United Kingdom of the quantities of butter and cheese specified in Article 1. Article 55 (1) (b) of the Act of Accession shall not be applicable.

  2. The special levies shall be fixed on the basis of the c.i.f. price referred to in Article 1 (3) and of the market price of the products in question within the United Kingdom, at a level such as to allow the quantities of butter and cheese to be effectively marketed without prejudicing the marketing of Community butter and cheese.

                                                                    Article 3

The Council, acting by a qualified majority on a proposal from the Commission, shall adopt the measures necessary for implementing Articles 1 and 2.

                                                                    Article 4

The Community shall continue its efforts to promote the conclusion of an international agreement on milk products so that as soon as possible conditions on the world market may be improved.

                                                                    Article 5

  1. The Council shall, during 1975, review the situation as regards butter in the light of prevailing conditions and of supply and demand developments in the major producing and consuming countries of the world, particularly in the Community and in New Zealand. During that review, among the considerations to be taken into account shall be the following:

    1. progress towards an effective world agreement on milk products to which the Community and other important producing and consuming countries would be parties;

    2. the extent of New Zealand's progress towards diversification of its economy and exports, it being understood that the Community will strive to pursue a commercial policy which does not run counter to this progress.

  2. Appropriate measures to ensure the maintenance after 31 December 1977 of exceptional arrangements in respect of imports of butter from New Zealand, including the details of such arrangements, shall be determined by the Council acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission in the light of that review.

  3. After 31 December 1977, the exceptional arrangements laid down for imports of cheese may no longer be retained.

The special arrangement for New Zealand was only one of the major issues negotiated at the Luxembourg meeting. Sufficient progress was made on the question of Commonwealth sugar, Community finance, the reserve role of sterling, transitional measures for industry and agriculture, to ensure the subsequent success of the negotiations. Negotiations by Norway, Denmark, and Ireland proceeded in parallel to those of the United Kingdom but Norway in a referendum in September 1972 decided against joining the EEC. On the basis of the arrangements negotiated, the British Government sought parliamentary approval to Britain's entry into the Community and won the vote in the House of Commons by a substantial majority.

The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption. In 1968–69 Community butter stocks reached the order of 500,000 tons and while they declined in 1971 they again rose rapidly in 1972. There is growing support within the Community, strengthened by British entry, for the view that a major reorientation of the Common Agricultural Policy will be needed if the recurring surpluses, and the financial burden they impose on the Community, are to be overcome.

The EEC has not yet implemented a common agricultural policy for sheepmeats. This reflects the low consumption in most member countries. The comparative importance of Britain's sheepmeat consumption suggests that Britain should play an important part in developing sheepmeat policy in the enlarged community. It would be severely detrimental to New Zealand if the effect of any such policy were to restrict access and reduce overall net returns from the sale of lamb to an enlarged EEC.

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)—On 27 May 1959 Sweden invited Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (“The Seven”) to join with her in exploring the possibility of forming a free trade area. Discussions began in Stockholm in June 1959, and a Convention for a European Free Trade Association, agreed by Ministers of the Seven on 20 November 1959, became effective on 3 May 1960. Tariffs on industrial goods originating in the area were abolished in 1966, and special arrangements are in force in relation to agricultural produce and fish. Finland was included as an associate member. In March 1970, Iceland became the eighth full member of EFTA. Of particular interest to New Zealand was the fact that the Nordic members of EFTA accorded Iceland preferential entry arrangements for mutton and lamb.

With Norway, Denmark, and Britain preparing to join the EEC, the non-applicant EFTA states, Austria, Finland, Iceland, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland, held discussions in 1972 with the EEC, with a view to concluding a trading arrangement with the enlarged EEC. The exports of these non-applicant EFTA states to an enlarged EEC as a proportion of their total exports are significant, varying from 38 percent for Iceland to over 60 percent for Sweden.

In July 1972 the non-applicant EFTA countries concluded industrial free trade agreements with the Community. These agreements came into force on 1 January 1973, simultaneously with the entry of Britain, Denmark, and the Republic of Ireland to the EEC. The first tariff reduction took place on 1 April 1973 and full duty-free trade in industrial goods is to be established by mid 1977. Negotiations for a similar agreement are expected to take place between Norway and the EEC, in consequence of Norway's decision not to become a member of the Community.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce—New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table, showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, as is also the domestic output of milk powder. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder
19381970197119721938197019711972197019711972
 tons(000)
New Zealand130156144116826570632076
Australia906532281211733
Denmark118836970191011
Ireland, Republic of..323035..202523121917
Netherlands3613171710141719125
Other countries1027110510841556153181112
               Total imports476388367339146154165149543940
United Kingdom production2062659343128154180125148206

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Product193819651966196719681969197019711972
 lb per head
Butter24.119.420.020.519.319.218.717.515.5
Margarine10.012.012.011.711.311.811.812.914.4

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and VealAll Meats*
19381970197119721938197019711972197019711972
* Including pig-meat, offal, bacon and ham.
 tons(000)
New Zealand18429130528952151413333347328
Australia953232311153131668584121
Argentina45354583863583863
Denmark111290288260
Ireland, Republic6293..10210479142170143
Other countries2222368556152158161174
                         Totals3463273483265892622492741,0651,0881,089
United Kingdom production2112232262166049339388952,1561,9542,162

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956 and 1971 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Commission Act 1951, the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all New Zealand butter, cheese, milk powder, and casein intended for export, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members, 11 are elected by the co-operative companies and 2 are appointed by the Government. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 90 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisation. In other markets, the board sells through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct, on a contract basis. The board carries out extensive advertising and publicity of New Zealand produce in the United Kingdom and other markets. Authority for the board to issue bonds, stocks, and securities to the general public, subject to the prior consent of the Minister of Finance was provided for in the Dairy Board Amendment Act 1967. This measure was designed to extend the board's powers to assist capital development programmes of dairy companies.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. The board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals) the levy being 0.075c per pound up to May 1973 when it was raised to 0.35c per pound. The amount from the levy totalled $1.0 million in the year ended September 1972, and the board drew $3.7 million from the industry reserve account to finance its activities. The board's main functions are:

  1. To ensure that all export meat is graded to a standard;

  2. To negotiate shipping freight rates, organise shipping, and allocate space;

  3. To organise advertising and allied promotional work.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer. It is the mechanism through which policy in the interests of the trade is formulated.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. There is provision for this to be extended by Order in Council to cover meat derived from any other stock; the board's previous powers with regard to the sale of these meats in developing markets has been maintained. A sizeable proportion of lambs were purchased by the board in the 1971–72 season

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion in which it is investing some $3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices which are in London, New York, Tokyo and Brussels. The board established an office in Brussels in October 1972, partly for developing the European market and partly for purposes of safeguarding the position of New Zealand meat with Britain joining the EEC.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat and by-products from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

Wool—In terms of the Wool Commission Act 1951 the New Zealand Wool Commission was established on 1 January 1952, with the principal function of assuring minimum prices to growers for greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool sold in New Zealand and the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the commission. To this end the commission has prepared from time to time a table of minimum prices which became effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture. The minimum prices may also be applied, in certain circumstances, to wool sold otherwise than at auction. The commission is also the statutory collecting agent for the Wool Board's levy on growers of 1.55c a kilogram. (This levy averaged nearly $5 million a year from 1967–68 to 1971–72.)

From the operations of the joint organisation set up to clear stocks of wool accumulated during the Second World War, the Wool Commission received an initial capital of $53 million consisting of profits from the joint organisation of about $40 million and also the balance of $13 million remaining from contributory charges paid by woolgrowers. The initial capital of the commission was augmented by interest earnings from investments and by profits on the resale of wool bought in at the floor prices, reaching a peak of $73.7 million at 30 June 1966. In the 1966–67 season it was heavily drawn upon to purchase wool and at 30 June 1967, had fallen to $70.7 million most of which was invested in wool stocks. By 30 June 1971 capital had been reduced to $48.2 million, two-fifths of which was represented by wool stocks. A rise in wool prices in 1971–72, however, resulted in an increase in capital to $52.4 million at 30 June 1972, 67 percent of which was invested in Government securities.

In the 20 years of its existence, up to 30 June 1972, the commission purchased 834,793 bales of wool when trade bids failed to reach the minimum floor price level. Of that total, approximately 706,000 bales were bought in 1966–67 and the early months of the 1967–68 season, following a substantial fail in demand for crossbred wools towards the end of 1966, primarily as a result of economic restraints in several European countries and a marked reduction in speculative demand for wool in the face of increased volume and sharply reduced prices of man-made fibres. Lesser factors tending to reduce demand for wool were change of fashion, the continued extension of central heating facilities in houses and offices, and changes in quality of wool offered.

By mid October 1967, the funds of the Wool Commission had been completely expended. The buy-in level was reduced and a system of supplementing market prices to growers up to the minimum price level was introduced. Arrangements were made with Government to borrow from the Reserve Bank the amount required to meet supplementary payments to growers. Up until 30 June 1972 $10 million had been paid out in supplementation of market prices to growers, $8.7 million of which was paid out in the 1967–68 season.

The commission began its programmed disposal of accumulated stocks in 1967–68. Despite a downturn in prices of fine wools in 1970–71 and the first half of the 1971–72 season resulting in the purchase of 25,953 bales of these wools by the commission, disposal of the coarse wools purchased in 1967–68 continued steadily. The substantial rise in all wool prices in the 1972–73 year also allowed the disposal of the fine wools purchased in 1970 and 1971. As at 30 September 1972 only 27,000 bales of stockwool remained and this was all sold before the end of November 1972.

Under 1972 legislation a Wool Marketing Corporation, replaced the Wool Commission on 1 December 1972. The corporation is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. It will do this by developing a marketing system suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry, by marketing New Zealand wool to the best advantage in competition with other textile fibres, and by bringing about efficiencies in the handling and distribution of wool. It is empowered to acquire the whole of the wool clip.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it now is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
* Retained by board to offset previous seasons' losses.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1961–624723232,628
1962–63−139−1392,489
1963–64−1,248−1,2481,241
1964–65439439*1,680
1965–66−1,823−1,823−143
1966–671,3651,3651,222
1967–685013941071,616
1968–699617532082,369
1969–70−1,410−1,410959
1970–712931691241,128
1971–72−2,631−2,631−1,503

A committee of inquiry into the sale of apples and pears on the local market reported to Parliament on 4 October 1961—see parliamentary paper H.29A. The committee supported continuance of the existing form of marketing with minor variations.

Potatoes—The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the board. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of eight members—five producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control. A subsidy, at present at the rate of 3.33c per dozen, is paid by the Government in respect of eggs received at authorised egg floors (as the licensed distributors are known). This is to offset floor charges and distribution costs which would otherwise be passed on to the consumers.

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples and grapes are the responsibility of a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries as the Government member who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, and Tauranga.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and for export. A levy is made at the rate of 0.833c per pound on honey sold locally and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which is administered by the authority for the benefit of the industry in general.

The authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Primary produce forms the bulk of New Zealand's exports and it comes to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Export and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand's export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping has received special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisation.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the Associated Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services, produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines. The council works through committees concerned with the following subjects: peak shipping requirements; packages and cargo handling; port facilities; port cargo flow; and transport.

PRICES FOR PRIMARY PRODUCTS: Wool—Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand (compiled from information supplied by the New Zealand Wool Commission) are shown in the following tables. The first table gives total quantities and values as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per kilogram of wool sold shown in the table includes variations on account of these additional factors. Under the Wool Commission Act 1951, the Wool Commission prepares a table of minimum prices for the various classes of wool, which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. Up to the beginning of the 1967–68 season the only course open to the commission when trade bids for any lot of wool did not reach the minimum price was to buy the wool at the minimum price. After the start of the 1967–68 season the Act was amended to permit supplementation of the sale price as an alternative to, or in conjunction with purchase of the wool by the commission. In that season and the next the commission decided not to purchase unless auction prices failed to reach a predetermined level below the minimum price, and to make supplementary payment to enable growers to receive the minimum price.

Since the 1969–70 season the commission has continued to operate the two-tier price support system but has had no fixed buy-in level. In 1969–70 it announced that it would purchase wool on levels that might vary up to but not exceeding the minimum price to growers.

The following table shows weight sale value and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the commission.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram of Greasy Wool
* See latest statistical information.
 Metric
Tons
(000)
$
(million)
c    c    
1957–58168.01127.075.6260.63
1958–59184.29122.166.2760.63
1959–60185.61132.282 0360 63
1960–61190.92141.674.1260.63
1961–62192.05138.271.9860.63
1962–63201.44158.578.7060.63
1963–64196.81199.1101.1760.63
1964–65201.03155.677.4064.31
1965–66230.97176.676.4664.31
1966–67242.13156.964.7766.14
1967–68244.85123.450.4255.12
1968–69234.28144.961.8149.05
1969–70224.12126.656.4849.05
1970–71218.22116.653.4246.30
1971–72209.02139.066.4646.00
1972–73***50.00

In the next table details of a wool price index on base: average over all sales 1963–64 season (=1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values. A description of the make-up of this index is given in a supplement to the December 1964 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

SeasonIndex Numbers* Base: 1963–64 (= 1000)
* Based on price on floor, clean.
1947–48466
1948–49473
1949–50689
1950–511584
1951–52749
1952–53840
1953–54903
1954–55886
1955–56832
1956–57985
1957–58750
1958–59663
1959–60812
1960–61745
1961–62731
1962–63788
1963–641000
1964–65780
1965–66775
1966–67683
1967–68533
1968–69650
1969–70603
1970–71560
1971–72693

Dairy Produce: Basic Prices for Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) for butter and cheese were introduced by the Government on 1 August 1936 to give stability to the dairy industry, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 set out the principles which underlay the fixing of the price. (See the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.)

Under the Dairy Board Act 1961 prices for butter are fixed by the Dairy Products Prices Authority after taking into account the following matters:

  1. The necessity in the public interest of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry.

  2. The amount which butter and cheese acquired by the board is realising and the market prospects for the coming year.

  3. The present and prospective state of the Dairy Industry Account, the Dairy Industry Reserve Account, and the Dairy Industry Capital Account.

  4. Any submissions made by the Dairy Board.

  5. Any other matters deemed relevant.

The price fixed for butter in any season must not vary by more than 5 percent from the maximum price fixed for the previous season.

The authority must consult with the Minister before it fixes any prices. The members of the authority are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, and comprise three representatives of the Government, three members nominated by the Dairy Board, and a chairman approved by the board before appointment.

The price of cheese is fixed by the Dairy Board in relation to the price fixed by the prices authority for butter, together with an allowance related to the returns from milk powder and casein. The objective is to ensure that suppliers of whole milk for manufacture into cheese will, on average, receive a return equivalent to the average return they would have received had the milk been manufactured into butter plus milk powder and butter plus casein.

For dairy produce other than butter or cheese, the Dairy Board, after consultation with the Prices Authority fixes advance prices on the basis of an assessment of likely returns from the sale of that produce.

The Dairy Board may authorise the distribution to dairy companies of up to 50 percent of any surplus achieved in a trading year; part or all of the balance may also be distributed at the discretion of the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. There was a substantial surplus in the 1971–72 season; the Government and the Dairy Board agreed to limit the payout to 50c a lb as part of the Government's stabilisation measures.

The prices in cents per pound of butter and cheese for export paid to dairy factories are now given.

Season Ended 31 MayCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93–93 1/2 pt)Cheese (First Grade 92–92 1/2 pt)
* Advance price.
 cents per lb (gross weight)
1963–6424.67715.572
1964–6525.89716.663
1965–6625.90217.820
1966–6725.88417.860
1967–6824.59017.040
1968–6924.67016.820
1969–7024.81017.530
1970–7126.05020.320
1971–7227.35025.800
1972–7328.72026.230*
1973–7428.720 

The prices quoted in the preceding table were designed to enable average dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in cents per pound of milkfat used for butter or cheese manufacture. Also given is the actual average net revenue per pound of milkfat supplied.

SeasonPrice Per Pound of Milkfat Used for—
Butter-making (Basic Price)Cheese-making (Final Price)Butter-making (Average Net Revenue)Cheese-making (Average Net Revenue)

* Plus 1,25c surplus payment at end of season.

† Plus .833c surplus payment at end of season.

‡ Plus 1.20c surplus payment.

§ Plus 6.00c surplus payment at end of season.

∥ Plus 1.50c surplus payment.

 cents per lb
1962–6326.66730.83326.98931.219
1963–6426.667*30.833*27.11331.853
1964–6528.250†34.083†28.68435.347
1965–6628.25037.59228.67238.216
1966–6728.25037.62528.53738.148
1967–6826.59035.05026.77735.242
1968–6926.59032.62026.94233.616
1969–7026.59033.61026.85334.072
1970–7127.850‡37.940‡28.22239.366
1971–72§29.05050.21035.95056.640
1972–7332.28∥50.68∥  

Where a factory receives whole milk and makes butter, the residual skim milk can be manufactured into any of several products, the main ones being skim-milk powder and casein. Production of milk powder and casein has been growing rapidly to meet the needs of growing markets. The increasing value of these “by-products” is reflected in the greater return per pound of milkfat (about 8c per lb) paid to whole milk suppliers, compared with suppliers who separate off the cream on the farm. The supply of whole milk, which is collected in stainless steel tankers, has become increasingly popular with farmers. Four-fifths of all milkfat processed is now collected as whole milk. Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A, Farming.

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 40 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the two first-quality weight grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 20 percent and 35 to 40 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchLamb
First QualitySecond Quality
28 lb and Under29 to 36 lb37 to 42 lb28 lb and Under29 to 36 lb
 cents per pound equivalent
196824.0–24.524.0–24.524.023.6–24.023.6–24.0
196924.9–25.824.5–25.424.024.5–24.924.5–24.9
197026.7–27.626.7–27.625.426.7–27.126.7–27.1
197132.030.026.329.126.5
197234.832.230.432.530.4
197342.9–43.842.9–43.842.142.5–42.943.3–43.6

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The Meat Producers Board keeps a close watch on the prices being received for the meat and all by-products and on processing costs to ensure that the schedule prices give a just and equitable return to the producers. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, or they can sell to a producer co-operative.

At the beginning of the 1971–72 season the New Zealand Meat Producers Board considered that the opening price schedules for lamb announced by the meat operators were not high enough in relation to expected market returns. Accordingly the board, after obtaining an amendment to the Meat Export Control Act to permit it to purchase and market lamb, issued its own schedule of prices.

The board purchased 12.5 million lambs, about half the total export lamb kill, mainly in the first half of the season. As the season progressed overseas prices picked up, exporters were able to exceed the board's schedule (many had done so right through), and the board ceased purchasing. The board made some profit on the operation.

The opening schedules for the last four seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights “on the hooks” at freezing works. The prices for lambs, wethers, and ewes are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for both wool and pelt.

Class of Meat1969–701970–711971–721972–73

* Includes special 4.5 cents premium.

† Under 500 lb.

‡ New Zealand Meat Producers Board schedule prices.

 cents per pound
Lamb—
N.I. Prime (29/36 lb)21.8*20.912.4‡21.3
S.I. Prime (29/36 lb)21.820.912.4‡20.3
Wethers—Prime (49/56 lb)8.258.67.510.0
Ewes—Prime (49/56 lb)6.0†5.06.07.5
 dollars per 100 lb of beef (N.I.)
Beef—
     Ox G.A.Q. (450–620 lb)21.5022.5024.0029.00
     Heifer G.A.Q. (over 400 lb)20.50†21.50†20.5028.00
     Cow G.A.Q. (400–500 lb)19.5020.5022.0026.50
     Boner cow, ox, and heifer (281 lb and over)18.5020.0020.5023.50
     Boner bull (551 lb and over)24.0024.0025.5028.00

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The institution of a system of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand was provided for by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, A Meat Export Prices Committee was established, and consists of two members of the Meat Board, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a chairman nominated by agreement between the Government and the producers. A schedule of minimum prices is fixed at the beginning of the season. Regard must be paid by the committee to the average level of the prices received for each class of meat during the preceding three seasons, the ruling level of minimum prices, and the committee may have regard to the market trend and future prospects for the sale of meat, prices ruling for other farm products, and the general level of costs, prices, and wages in New Zealand.

The following table gives the minimum prices for years ended 30 September for the North Island.

Class of MeatBasic Grade of MeatMinimum Price per pound f.o.b.
1971–721972–73
 c    c    
LambPrime 29–36 lb14.016.0
Wether muttonPrime 49–56 lb7.58.0
Ewe muttonPrime 49–56 lb5.56.0
Chilled beefOx 451–700 lb17.019.0
Ox and heifer quarter beefG.A.Q.: 451–700 lb17.019.0
Quarter cow beefG.A.Q.: 401–500 lb14.016.0
Bone cow, ox, and heiferAll weights, boned-out value20.022.0
Boner bull581 lb and over20.022.0
Veal (sides or quarters)Under 280 lb14.016.0
PorkersPrime 60–100 lb16.017.0
BaconersPrime 111–140 lb16.017.0

Deficiency Payments—Payments are made from the Meat Industry Reserve Account when the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices paid to farmers fall below the minimum price determined for any class of meat in the week to which the schedule relates. No deficiency payments have been made since the 1961–62 season.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a levy on all wool sold at auctions; much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half of the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve accounts at given dates.

YearDairy Account at 31 MayMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepWool Commission Account at 30 June

* Most of this was invested in wool stocks.

† About three-fifths was represented by wool stocks.

‡ About two-fifths was represented by wool stocks.

§ $15 million was contributed to the sheep retention scheme in 1972.

 $(000)
1962−13,38086,33668,470
1963−  8,42888,08870,312
1964−  7,13089,48271,897
1965−      37390,94072,800
1966−      57893,49773,709
1967−11,19195,29670,700*
1968−12,84497,33759,630*
1969−16,00198,19255,835*
1970−20,123100,78652,200†
1971−20,123102,66648,197‡
1972+13,83487,327§52,353

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL—Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the services field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services. The Department of Statistics has conducted Censuses of Distribution in 1953, 1958, 1963, and 1968. These censuses have covered retail trade, wholesale trade, and some service establishments. Quarterly and monthly sample surveys of retail and wholesale trade have been based on the Census of Distribution; these provide valuable economic indicators on the value of sales by the various types of stores and the value of stocks held. A further Census of Distribution is being taken for the year ended 31 March 1973.

The Census of Distribution for 1967–68 revealed retail trade sales of $2,100 million or an average turnover of $71,587 for each of the 29,331 stores. At 31 March 1968 there was one retail shop for every 94 persons, nearly one-half of them selling food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, there being 3,778 such stores covered in the census with a total turnover of $1,591 million. The 3,653 service establishments covered in a limited survey at the census had total receipts of $83 million at an average of $22,661 per establishment. Notable exclusions from the census were petrol and oil sales, newspaper sales other than in shops, and sales by bread bakers, dealers in timber, bricks and roofing tiles, and milk vendors. A full report of the census is given in the publication Census of Distribution 1968.

In the following table the main results of the censuses of 1963 and 1968 for retail trade are set out.

Item19631968Percentage Increase
Number of stores27,68829,3315.9
 $(000)    $(000)     
Sales1,515,8902,099,70738.5
Purchases1,160,6761,609,20238.6
Opening stocks233,178329,72041.4
Closing stocks235,972340,21144.2

Some other features of retail trade shown by the 1968 census together with comparative figures for 1963 are shown in the following table.

Store-type Group Number of StoresAverage Turnover per StoreAverage Labour Force per StoreTurnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per Store
* Includes cars and accessories, but not petrol and oil sales nor garage work, servicing, and maintenance.
 $       $      $     
Food and drink196813,99249,8553.813,136253.2197
196313,41036,8283.610,242195.4188
Apparel19684,11940,8103.411,84361.0669
19633,99238,2183.810,01260.4633
Furniture19681,57874,7774.815,42942.81,746
19631,45167,2565.113,29438.61,742
Automotive*19681,344217,4755.638,530106.12,050
19631,157173,4944.736,73079.42,184
Hardware19681,008118,4456.518,17843.32,733
196385585,0505.415,61228.82,956
Chemists, etc.19681,16750,1013.912,81121.22,361
19631,04937,9033.810,01015.82,409
Miscellaneous—
     General, department and variety1968832283,85722.512,63785.73,311
1963764221,36621.910,10267.03,308
Other19685,29177,4384.716,455148.7521
19635,01057,7924.313,430114.6504
All retail stores196829,33171,5874.715,298762.194
196327,68854,7484.512,304599.891

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1968: Retail Establishments—Of the 29,331 retail stores covered by the census, 20,624, or 70.3 percent, were situated in the North Island, and 8,707, or 29.7 percent, in the South Island.

The following table shows details by statistical areas. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Statistical AreasPopulation at 31 March 1968Number of StoresPurchases During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
 (000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Northland94.71,06258,00574,03211,225
(3.4)(3.6)(3.6)(3.5)(3.3)
Central Auckland644.16,771361,525476,49473,894
(23.4)(23.1)(22.5)(22.7)(21.7)
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty403.94,236239,282309,17749,885
(14.7)(14.8)(14.9)(14.7)(14.7)
East Coast47.142124,90431,8755,534
(1.7)(1.4)(1.6)(1.5)(1.6)
Hawke's Bay128.31,36667,05688,07615,508
(4.6)(4.7)(4.2)(4.2)(4.6)
Taranaki101.21,09357,46273,66211,791
(3.7)(3.7)(3.6)(3.5)(3.5)
Wellington537.15,585326,850431,66069,632
(19.5)(19.0)(20.3)(20.6)(20.5)
Marlborough30.234218,13022,7053,883
(1.1)(1.2)(1.1)(1.1)(1.1)
Nelson68.379331,07341,0977,496
(2.5)(2.7)(1.9)(2.0)(2.2)
Westland24.133010,32213,5992,157
(0.9)(1.1)(0.6)(0.6)(0.6)
Canterbury386.04,015238,173307,83049,517
(14.0)(13.7)(14.8)(14.7)(14.6)
Otago183.22,065100,302131,35122,529
(6.6)(7.0)(6.2)(6.2)(6.6)
Southland106.91,16276,11798,15017,161
(3.9)(4.0)(4.7)(4.7)(5.0)
                         Totals2,755.129,3311,609,2022,099,707340,211
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

In 1968 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 63.2 percent of New Zealand's people, but contained 65.8 percent of all retail stores, with 71.1 percent of total sales or turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Location GroupPopulation at 31 March 1968Number of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)

* Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin.

‡ Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Nelson, Timaru, Invercargill.

‡ Boroughs outside urban areas with population over 4,000.

 (000) $(000)$(000)
Main urban areas* (including Hutt urban area)1,235.013,068987,735158,014
(44.8)(44.5)(47.1)(46.5)
Secondary urban areas† (excluding Hutt urban area)505.86,240503,96785,448
(18.4)(21.3)(24.0)(25.1)
Smaller centres‡244.23,876292,62848,926
(8.9)(13.2)(13.9)(14.4)
Other urban141.32,891167,59927,665
(5.1)(9.9)(8.0)(8.1)
Rural628.83,256147,77820,158
(22.8)(11.1)(7.0)(5.9)
                         Totals2,755.129,3312,099,707340,211
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

Leading results of the census relating to principal urban areas are shown in the following table.

Urban AreaPopulation March 1968Percentage of N.Z. Total PopulationNumber of StoresPercentage of N.Z. Total StoresTurnover During YearPercentage of N.Z. Total SalesStocks at Close of YearPercentage of N.Z. Total Stocks
 $(000) $(000) 
Auckland577,30021.06,18421.1439,14020.968,97020.3
Wellington173,2006.31,8666.4173,7778.327,7248.1
Hutt118,4004.31,0533.677,1583.711,9753.5
Christchurch256,3009.32,7369.3213,19010.234,78710.2
Dunedin109,8004.01,2294.284,4704.014,5594.3
Whangarei31,6001.14131.436,9551.85,4791.6
Hamilton68,0002.58082.882,1013.913,1723.9
Tauranga33,5001.25161.829,0111.44,9501.5
Rotorua35,3001.34181.436,8321.85,7461.7
Gisborne28,5001.03171.127,1921.34,7521.4
Napier39,9001.44511.526,6181.34,7481.4
Hastings39,2001.44491.533,1711.65,8631.7
New Plymouth35,8001.34541.533,1881.65,7361.7
Wanganui38,5001.44941.733,3591.65,6781.7
Palmerston North50,9001.86222.153,0222.59,0132.6
Nelson28,4001.03571.221,9061.04,1581.2
Timaru28,4001.03321.131,0241.55,3261.6
Invercargill47,8001.76092.159,5882.810,8283.2

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 1,000 population not included in the 18 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68
 $(000)
Kaitaia856,343
Kaikohe705,294
Dargaville958,106
Helensville301,848
Pukekohe12913,069
Waiuku492,961
Tuakau322,196
Thames1236,582
Paeroa743,589
Waihi642,764
Te Aroha875,935
Huntly814,735
Morrinsville1106,901
Ngaruawahia431,760
Te Puke806,578
Matamata1056,325
Cambridge1048,071
Whakatane15010,945
Opotiki643,878
Te Awamutu15511,913
Putaruru896,905
Kawerau513,638
Murupara191,346
Otorohanga634,359
Te Kuiti916,085
Taupo1317,572
Taumarunui11310,178
Wairoa1007,993
Waipawa402,075
Waipukurau686,222
Dannevirke1116,919
Woodville331,105
Waitara663,834
Inglewood453,010
Stratford1047,906
Eltham432,186
Hawera14912,047
Patea361,532
Ohakune251,259
Raetihi321,769
Taihape594,155
Marton805,400
Feilding14012,051
Pahiatua673,810
Foxton492,048
Levin17911,263
Otaki693,009
Masterton24320,072
Carterton623,540
Greytown231,241
Featherston371,923
Martinborough261,569
Picton451,360
Blenheim20817,657
Motueka744,144
Richmond633,573
Westport904,280
Rangiora786,342
Kaiapoi642,941
Runanga14503
Greymouth1557,460
Hokitika662,972
Ashburton18618,911
Geraldine353,736
Temuka602,867
Waimate724,629
Cromwell301,172
Queenstown481,902
Oamaru17713,376
Alexandra554,463
Milton432,013
Balclutha707,033
Kaitangata9377
Gore15117,238
Winton472,920
Mataura271,248
Riverton281,173
Bluff421,820

Just under half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink group—grocers, butchers, dairies, etc. This group accounted for 33 percent of the sales, the average turnover per store being $49,855. As against this, the automotive group, which accounts for only 4.6 percent of all retail stores, handled 14 percent of the sales, with an average turnover of $217,475 per store.

The following table shows details by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968Average Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
MalesFemalesTotal
 $(m)$(m)$    $(m)
Food and drink13,99217,67115,79033,46153,1023.853.9697.613,13639.9
Apparel4,1192,8677,37210,23914,1943.416.1168.111,84355.5
Furniture1,5784,4621,8656,3277,6484.813.0118.015,42927.6
Automotive1,3445,3541,0306,3847,5865.613.7292.338,53042.3
Hardware1,0084,2971,3675,6646,5686.511.7119.418,17828.9
Chemist, etc.1,1671,1822,3533,5354,5643.96.458.412,81110.4
Department, variety, and general stores8326,16011,80617,96618,68922.528.5236.212,63746.4
Miscellaneous5,29112,7766,90219,67824,9004.737.8409.716,45589.2
        Totals, all retail stores29,33154,76948,485103,254137,2514.7181.12,099.715,298340.2

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968Salaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
MalesFemalesTotal
                $ ($m)$(m)$(m)
Under 10,0003,0434361,1001,5365,3011.618.94.1
    10,000–    19,9995,1961,5493,5065,05511,6616.477.613.9
    20,000–    29,9994,8012,3624,3706,73212,7549.5118.720.1
    30,000–    99,99912,56415,67417,09732,77148,05954.5658.797.3
  100,000–  199,9991,9628,7545,09513,84915,38626.2267.443.5
  200,000–  499,9991,21411,6206,39618,01618,64234.6369.061.4
  500,000–  1,999,99950611,0106,66717,67717,82434.1443.275.3
2,000,000–and over452,3644,2547,6187,62414.3146.224.6
             Totals, all retail stores29,33154,76948,485103,254137,251181.12099.7340.2

Of the 29,331 retail stores, 14,496 (49 percent) were operated by private registered companies, 8,234 (28 percent) were under individual ownership, 4,331 (15 percent) were run by partnerships, and 1,562 (5 percent) were run by public registered companies.

The following table shows details by type of organisation. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of OrganisationNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
 $(000)  $(000)  
Private registered companies14,4961,166,588197,380
(49.4)(55.6)(58.0)
Public registered companies1,562497,86192,641
(5.3)(23.7)(27.2)
Individual ownership8,234200,69423,167
(28.1)(9.6)(6.8)
Partnership4,331148,13714,741
(14.8)(7.0)(4.4)
Other70886,42812,281
(2.4)(4.1)(3.6)
                         Totals29,3312,099,707340,211
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trade represented only 13 percent of the total stores, but accounted for 37 percent of the total turnover. A multiple store is defined as one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Stocks at
Start of Year (April 1967)Close of Year (March 1968)
Multiple Stores
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Food and drink1,190136,2756,5637,344
Apparel61239,89711,91812,884
Furniture32036,1578,1777,892
Automotive14091,56415,64414,482
Hardware20264,64615,06614,860
Chemists, etc.282,835356347
Miscellaneous1,268402,03582,35383,958
                    Totals3,760773,409140,078141,767
Other Stores
Food and drink12,802561,29930,63332,525
Apparel3,507128,19840,43342,615
Furniture1,25881,84219,79619,721
Automotive1,204200,72327,01927,779
Hardware80654,74713,59514,085
Chemists, etc.1,13955,6329,51410,054
Miscellaneous4,855243,85748,65151,666
                    Totals25,5711,326,298189,642198,445

The following table shows the disposition of the different methods of selling by store-type group and by location group. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

GroupTurnover (1967–68) in the Form of—Total Turnover (1967–68)
CashCharge AccountHire Purchase Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesHire Purchase Assigned to Finance CompaniesInstalment and LaybyBudget Store Credit, etc.Other
$(000)
Store-type Groups
Food and drink617,93078,79072144560626697,574
(48.8)(11.6)(0.1)(0.2)(–)(6.0)(0.7)(33.2)
Apparel138,27621,2972712344,8192,974223168,095
(10.9)(3.2)(0.4)(0.4)(44.7)(29.6)(5.8)(8.0)
Furniture33,11655,11619,0477,9918535101,365117,998
(2.6)(8.2)(28.4)(12.4)(7.9)(5.1)(35.7)(5.6)
Automotive143,17984,16819,57044,936726356292,287
(11.3)(12.4)(29.1)(69.9)(0.7)(0.1)(9.3)(13.9)
Hardware25,82491,4245111,4301262553119,393
(2.1)(13.5)(0.8)(2.2)(1.2)(0.2)(1.4)(5.7)
Chemists, etc.53,4464,962448958,468
(4.2)(0.7)(–)(–)(–)(0.5)(0.2)(2.8)
Department, variety, and general stores136,32076,79014,9122483,7793,736384236,169
(10.8)(11.3)(22.2)(0.4)(35.1)(37.1)(10.1)(11.3)
Miscellaneous118,369264,56612,8019,3001,1252,1531,408409,723
(9.3)(39.1)(19.0)(14.5)(10.4)(21.4)(36.8)(19.5)
               Totals, all retail stores1,266,460677,11367,18564,28310,78410,0593,8232,099,707
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)659,229244,87738,79829,4468,0604,7342,590987,735
(52.0)(36.2)(57.7)(45.8)(74.8)(47.1)(67.7)(47.1)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)285,265177,59816,45319,2211,8442,765821503,967
(22.5)(26.2)(24.5)(29.9)(17.1)(27.5)(21.5)(24.0)
Smaller centres153,353118,5137,74310,2875851,896251292,628
(12.1)(17.5)(11.5)(16.0)(5.4)(18.8)(6.6)(13.9)
Other urban86,88273,1112,9454,007227308119167,599
(6.9)(10.8)(4.4)(6.2)(2.1)(3.1)(3.1)(8.0)
Rural81,73163,0131,2461,3236735642147,778
(6.5)(9.3)(1.9)(2.1)(0.6)(3.5)(1.1)(7.0)
               Totals, all retail stores1,266,460677,11367,18564,28310,78410,0593,8232,099,707
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following table shows, by the store-type group, average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over each year.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentAverage Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
 $       $      $     
Food and drink49,8553.813,136253.1918.8
Apparel40,8103.411,84361.013.2
Furniture74,7774.815,42942.834.2
Automotive217,4755.638,530106.096.9
Hardware118,4456.518,17843.344.2
Chemists, etc.50,1013.912,81121.225.9
Miscellaneous105,4867.114,818234.444.9
       All retail stores71,5874.715,298762.126.4

Self-service Grocery Stores—As might be expected, self-service stores are most common among the larger establishments. A total of 88 percent of grocery stores with turnovers of $100,000 or more have self-service units, and 64 percent of those in the $60,000-$99,999 group. The percentages decline steadily with size of turnover to 15 percent of stores in the $10,000-$19,999 group and only 11 percent of those in the under $10,000 group.

Turnover SizeWith Self-service UnitsWithout Self-service UnitsPercentage of Self-service Units to Total Stores
Number of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Value of StocksNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Value of Stocks
Start of YearClose of YearStart of YearClose of Year
          $ $(000)$(000)$(000) $(000)$(000)$(000) 
Under      10,00014100162311473110612310.9
 10,000– 19,99947789911012614,03944947015.3
 20,000– 39,99941313,1321,1801,26293328,2212,5672,68630.7
 40,000– 59,99956127,8312,3262,43367933,0112,5522,67145.2
 60,000– 99,99965750,0574,0394,13037527,0232,0372,17163.7
100,000–199,99928237,0742,5772,951536,21547851484.2
200,000 and over15559,8063,4843,70945,09022519097.5
                      Totals2,129188,78913,71414,6102,419104,3318,4148,82546.8

Wholesale Establishments—The total of 3,778 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of $1,590.6 million or an average turnover of $421,019 per store. Among businesses excluded from the census were oil companies and dealers in timber, bricks, and roofing tiles.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 89.3 percent of wholesale stores with 95.0 percent of total turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 47.3 percent of stores and 57.1 percent of turnover.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trade by statistical areas and by main location groups. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

AreaPopulation at 31 March 1968Number of StoresPurchases During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
 (000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Statistical Areas
Northland94.76816,67620,0482,111
(3.4)(1.8)(1.4)(1.3)(0.9)
Central Auckland644.11,079401,086517,61280,716
(23.4)(28.6)(32.9)(32.6)(33.7)
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty403.929677,531102,26312,010
(14.7)(7.8)(6.3)(6.4)(5.0)
East Coast47.1468,44110,7061,194
(1.7)(1.2)(0.7)(0.7)(0.5)
Hawke's Bay128.314328,20235,6184,676
(4.6)(3.8)(2.3)(2.2)(1.9)
Taranaki101.29021,85427,7003,938
(3.7)(2.4)(1.8)(1.7)(1.6)
Wellington537.1999365,111487,96174,611
(19.5)(26.4)(29.9)(30.7)(31.1)
Marlborough30.2344,7196,579946
(1.1)(0.9)(0.4)(0.4)(0.4)
Nelson68.36714,15617,5242,344
(2.5)(1.8)(1.2)(1.1)(1.0)
Westland24.1194,4845,675640
(0.9)(0.5)(0.4)(0.4)(0.3)
Canterbury386.0573180,553235,39636,849
(14.0)(15.2)(14.8)(14.8)(15.4)
Otago183.225668,92588,35915,122
(6.6)(6.8)(5.6)(5.5)(6.3)
Southland106.910827,70435,1684,556
(3.9)(2.8)(2.3)(2.2)(1.9)
                    Totals, all wholesale stores2,755.13,7781,219,4411,590,608239,713
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)1,235.02,494914,8121,201,317190,544
(44.8)(66.0)(75.0)(75.5)(79.5)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)505.8880244,396310,74040,676
(18.4)(23.3)(20.1)(19.5)(17.0)
Smaller centres, other urban and rural1,014.340460,23478,5508,493
(36.8)(10.7)(4.9)(5.0)(3.5)
                    Totals, all wholesale stores2,755.13,7781,219,4411,590,608239,713
(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following tables show details of wholesale establishments; by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968
MalesFemalesTotal
Food and drink8677,7742,59910,37310,894
Apparel3691,5649302,4942,759
Furniture2711,3315041,8352,004
Automotive3583,5279224,4494,543
Hardware4814,5409675,5075,713
Chemicals1611,7146682,3822,412
Miscellaneous1,27110,2433,43713,68014,355
   Totals, all wholesale stores3,77830,69310,02740,72042,680
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
 $(000)$(000)$    $(000)
Food and drink12.622,266462,93742,49536,168
Apparel7.55,858106,25838,51319,813
Furniture7.34,25581,75840,79713,762
Automotive12.79,743207,09745,58633,389
Hardware11.812,585171,40430,00234,496
Chemicals15.05,56093,61138,11816,535
Miscellaneous11.330,881467,54432,57085,550
   Totals, all wholesale stores11.391,1471,590,60837,268239,713

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under $40,000 turnover numbered 704 (18.6 percent), but accounted for only $13,980,000, or 0.9 percent of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of $882,865,000 (55.5 percent) was accounted for by only 376 stores (10.0 percent), which had a turnover of $1,000,000 or more.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968Salaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
MalesFemalesTotal
                $ $(000)$(000)$(000)
Under 10,0001496452116309156838218
      10,000–  19,9992011881823705985782,896471
      20,000–  39,9993545963359311,2651,70810,2461,911
      40,000–  99,9997632,3988893,2873,7736,75451,6609,666
    100,000–199,9996272,8819683,8494,1348,32789,10917,254
    200,000–499,9998907,1992,0899,2889,57721,669269,90949,441
    500,000–599,9991221,4013781,7791,8094,11763,77211,365
    600,000–799,9991832,5448203,3643,4017,818122,79321,901
    800,000–999,9991131,7784272,2052,2255,16196,52113,824
1,000,000 and over37611,6443,88715,53115,58934,859882,865113,664
      Totals, all wholesale stores3,77830,69310,02740,72042,68091,1471,590,608239,713

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade.

Commodity GroupTurnover During 1967–68
AmountPercent of Total
 $(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)206,37713.0
Meat (uncooked)37,5832.4
Fish (uncooked)9,9350.6
Fruit and vegetables57,3263.6
Other foods (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)40,3802.5
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.46,8702.9
Beer, wine, and spirits65,9714.1
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries63,3044.0
Medical and pharmaceutical goods45,6092.9
Toiletries and cosmetics17,6341.1
Men's and boys' wear30,1541.9
Women's, girls', and infants' wear39,9142.5
Drapery, dress-piece goods, millinery, haberdashery, etc.43,5612.7
Footwear18,6531.2
Furniture, beddings, soft furnishings, and household textiles29,6451.9
Floor coverings28,3231.8
Television sets and parts7,6810.5
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders4,4330.3
Musical instruments (including records)1,9940.1
Other household appliances and electrical goods40,5952.5
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, glassware31,2262.0
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)63,7404.0
Books, stationery, newspapers, etc.27,1911.7
Motor vehicles118,9117.5
Motor-vehicle parts and accessories (excluding petrol and oil)89,3525.6
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)9,6010.6
Coal, coke, and firewood16,3201.0
Sports goods (including toys and games)13,8270.9
Fertilisers and manures23,3351.5
Grain, bulk seed, and fodder29,0591.8
Florists' goods, seeds, plants, and garden supplies5,8360.4
Industrial machinery (heavy and electrical)54,5513.4
Agricultural machinery15,6301.0
Office machinery and equipment4,2850.3
Other machinery, machine tools, and hand tools, etc.43,0882.7
Leather, luggage, and harness9,1390.6
Paint, glass, and wallpaper29,1631.8
Photographic supplies and equipment7,1730.4
Plumbing equipment and piping33,4822.1
Printers' supplies, paper and inks11,0000.7
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)10,6180.7
Professional and scientific equipment7,2130.5
Other100,9236.3
                                        Totals, wholesale commodities1,590,608100.0

Service Establishments—Only a selected group of services was included in the Census of Distribution 1968. These were grouped in three broad divisions; personal, business and community, and other services.

Of the total number of service establishments, 81 percent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary form of trading was also carried on.

Services covered by the census totalled 3,653 establishments of which 2,629, or 72 percent, were in the North Island and 1,024, or 28 percent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 74 percent of service establishments with 88 percent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

ItemPersonal ServicesBusiness and Community ServicesOther ServicesTotal
Number of establishmentsNo.2,6962646933,653
Sales or turnover during 1967–68$(000)44,26527,04611,47182,782
Location of establishments—
    Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)No.1,2301793251,734
    Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)No.72350179952
    Smaller centresNo.3582387468
    Other urbanNo.284756347
    RuralNo.101546152
Paid employees on 9 April 1968—
    MalesNo.4,3438518796,073
    FemalesNo.9,81644017810,434
    TotalsNo.14,1591,2911,05716,507
Total labour force on 9 April 1968No.17,0461,5601,82320,429
Salaries and wages paid during 1967–68$(000)16,5453,5062,07722,128

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force 9 April 1968Salaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68
MalesFemalesTotal
            $ $(000)$(000)
    Under 2,0002673414432429350
    2,000–    3,999652453263711,0463311,943
    4,000–    5,999649616256861,3596363,216
    6,000–    9,9997442109691,1792,0151,2235,702
  10,000–  19,9996667481,2181,9662,7362,4349,189
  20,000–  39,9993591,0911,1872,2782,6983,03610,021
  40,000–  99,9991991,2601,5062,7662,9514,06812,017
100,000–199,999547861,3912,1772,2182,7377,481
200,000 and over631,8693,1715,0405,0827,63332,863
                       Totals3,6536,07310,43416,50720,42922,12882,782

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969, but was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1969 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey excludes certain types of retail stores which were included in the Census of Distribution 1968; these store types are hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the complete automotive group. Besides the above exclusions, for purposes of the sample survey some changes in the grouping of store types apply. It is important to note the exclusion of motor vehicle sales, which have become fairly volatile as import control has been eased.

The following table shows details of retail trade by commodity groups. In some cases commodity detail was not available; this explains the slight discrepancy from total turnover in other tables.

Commodity GroupTurnover During 1967–68
AmountPercent of Total
 $(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)275,37913.2
Meat (uncooked)104,5325.0
Fish (uncooked)7,7090.4
Fruit and vegetables53,9182.6
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)65,7323.2
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.63,2763.0
Beer, wine, and spirits139,1906.7
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries57,8112.8
Medical and pharmaceutical goods (including dispensing)37,6721.8
Toiletries and cosmetics24,7061.2
Men's and boys' wear68,0293.3
Women's, girls', and infants' wear97,6754.7
Drapery, dress-piece goods, millinery, haberdashery, etc.53,1792.6
Footwear39,9921.9
Furniture37,2931.8
Floor coverings29,2111.4
Soft furnishings, bedding, and household textiles24,5911.2
Television sets and parts (excluding TV rental)15,2180.7
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders11,3170.5
Musical instruments (including records)7,5270.4
Other household appliances and electrical goods50,4082.4
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, and glassware36,7701.8
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)63,9073.1
Books, stationery and newspapers, etc.48,7002.3
Motor vehicles240,83711.5
Motor-vehicle parts and accessories (excluding petrol and oil)57,0282.7
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)14,0650.7
Coal, coke, and firewood5,5620.3
Bicycles, parts and accessories3,2970.2
Sports goods (including toys and games)19,7280.9
Fertilisers and manures42,6902.0
Grain, bulk seed, and fodder46,3912.2
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies10,1630.5
Florists' goods3,9530.2
Industrial machinery (heavy and electrical)16,3330.8
Agricultural machinery27,8951.3
Office machinery and equipment27,4911.3
Sewing machines and accessories2,8860.1
Other machinery, machine tools, hand tools23,7841.1
Souvenirs and novelties5,1750.2
Leather, luggage, and harness4,3830.2
Paint, glass, and wallpaper26,8681.3
Photographic supplies and equipment5,1860.2
Plumbing equipment and piping8,5660.4
Professional and scientific equipment1,8990.1
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)1,3390.1
Other goods76,9133.7
                                   Totals, retail commodities2,086,175100.0

The types of retail stores in 1968 are set out in greater detail in the following table.

Retail Store TypeNumber of Stores
Food and drink—
    Baker, pastry-cook, etc.658
    Butcher1,957
    Delicatessen and poulterer122
    Confectioner129
    Dairy1,012
    Milk bar726
    Fish and chip shop495
    Fish shop209
    Fruiterer, greengrocer1,064
    Grocer4,548
    Hotel, chartered club (sales of beverages, etc.)1,530
    Restaurant, cafeteria, tearoom1,518
    Other food and drink24
                                   Total13,992
Apparel—
    Footwear673
    Draper919
    Frocks and coats1,108
    Hosiery, lingerie, children's clothing, wool, corsets, millinery and haberdashery627
    Men's and boys' clothier692
    Other apparel100
                                   Total4,119
Furniture—
    Furniture428
    Floor coverings and soft furnishings291
    Household appliances627
    Radio and/or television dealer232
                                   Total1,578
Automotive—
    Cars, accessories, etc.1,121
    Other automotive223
                                   Total1,344
Hardware—
    Hardware store214
    Builders' hardware248
    Paint and varnish240
    Crockery, glass, and china168
    Plumbers' supplies27
    Other hardware111
                                   Total1,008
Chemicals—
    Chemist1,139
    Other chemicals28
                                   Total1,167
Miscellaneous—
    General store482
    Department and variety store350
    Bookseller, newsagent, and stationer1,142
    Coal and wood merchant127
    Electrical goods38
    Florist227
    Jeweller487
    Pawnbroker and secondhand dealer301
    Seedsman and nurseryman221
    Tobacconist687
    Toys, novelties, etc.218
    Agricultural machinery and farm equipment153
    Leather goods and harness dealer127
    Music store118
    Office supply store126
    Sports goods dealer226
    Photographic dealer108
    Other miscellaneous985
                                   Total6,123
                        Grand total29,331

The nature of the service establishments covered in the Census of Distribution 1968 is shown in the following table. It should be recognised that there are many other types of services.

Nature of ServiceNumber of Stores or Agencies
Personal services—
    Cleaner (office, window, shop)237
    Funeral director and undertaker105
    Hairdresser and beauty salon1,715
    Laundry, drycleaner, carpet cleaner, dyer374
    Photographer (portrait and commercial)265
                                  Total2,696
Community and business services— 
    Advertising agency85
    Chiropodist28
    Commercial artist93
    Private rental library and book club58
                                  Total264
Other services— 
    Bicycle repairer13
    Blacksmith85
    Footwear repairer191
    Carpet fitter and sewer54
    Electrical repair shop173
    Gunsmith and locksmith14
    Tool repairer and sharpener50
    Watch and clock repairer113
                                  Total693
                        Grand total3,653

Turnover figures for the major service establishments covered were as follows: advertising agencies, $24.8 million; laundries and drycleaners, $16.1 million; hairdressers and beauty salons, $12.0 million; office cleaners, etc., $8.4 million; photographers, $4.3 million; funeral directors, $3.4 million; electrical repairers, $4.6 million; commercial artists, $2.0 million; carpet fitters, $1.9 million; blacksmiths, $1.8 million; footwear repairers, $1.5 million; watch repairers, $0.8 million; tool repairers, $0.6 million.

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments for the above groupings.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedTurnover During 1967–68
Personal service provided by establishments classified as—$(000)
    Service establishments2,69643,237
    Retail stores7163,160
                                                            Totals, personal services3,41246,398
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as—
Service establishments26427,004
    Retail stores88272
                              Totals, community and business services35227,276
Other services provided by establishments classified as—
Service establishments6939,533
    Retail stores1,89213,107
                                                                 Totals, other services2,58522,640
                                                           Grand totals, all services6,34096,314

Retail Sales—The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Groups
 $(million)
1967—Retail Sales
    Mar23.769.346.27.433.915.417.027.711.451.589.0392.4
    Jun24.771.745.79.340.817.517.528.711.258.781.6407.5
    Sep24.275.747.87.434.316.316.227.511.453.180.6394.6
    Dec24.983.052.79.741.418.519.532.613.768.491.3455.7
1968—
    Mar23.277.251.07.032.715.116.829.611.852.189.4405.9
    Jun24.880.249.49.240.417.016.328.911.659.183.0420.0
    Sep24.983.051.27.035.417.816.029.612.155.882.1414.9
    Dec26.290.557.19.843.721.818.633.515.074.6102.8493.5
1969—
    Mar24.384.554.17.234.516.816.530.412.654.493.7428.8
    Jun25.986.851.79.842.819.017.229.512.766.193.3454.8
    Sep26.988.554.07.839.320.617.830.913.861.593.6454.8
    Dec28.798.559.110.048.123.921.235.516.980.7113.8536.3
1970—
    Mar27.091.556.17.637.719.018.531.414.355.7108.9467.6
    Jun29.894.555.510.449.024.422.334.215.068.8111.9515.9
    Sep29.898.656.18.744.023.521.835.317.163.8113.4512.1
    Dec31.0111.964.112.055.627.824.441.620.988.3127.8605.3
1971—
    Mar27.7102.760.49.041.723.119.534.916.662.1112.7510.3
    Jun30.2106.060.012.853.525.021.036.316.976.3114.8553.0
    Sep31.6111.461.79.848.627.821.038.118.970.9119.5559.1
    Dec32.3123.570.213.260.030.022.643.823.394.4138.8652.2
1972—
    Mar30.2115.066.79.747.526.120.439.519.669.2123.6567.5
    Jun32.0116.065.313.459.232.023.441.220.786.1126.4615.6
    Sep33.3123.768.110.255.435.523.743.022.183.3132.9631.3
    Dec35.7138.276.513.668.339.027.949.227.5106.7166.8749.4
Retail Stocks at 31 March
19671.222.85.513.853.416.018.225.49.645.180.1291.0
19681.224.25.713.354.415.717.727.19.945.981.9296.9
19691.325.86.013.352.916.219.129.010.646.185.6305.9
19701.428.76.414.557.718.219.230.512.055.692.8337.1
19711.630.07.015.762.520.818.333.013.363.098.0363.0
19721.230.77.217.470.023.319.836.014.768.1106.3394.6

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately centred moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (=1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957–58 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedIn Current'sIn Constant 1957–58's
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
* Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 = 1000.
 Total Sales
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1969—Mar428.8450.71843321.2337.71381
             Jun454.8461.71888336.7341.81397
             Sep454.8474.51940332.0346.51417
             Dec536.3485.41984390.5353.41445
1970—Mar467.6491.22008334.4351.21436
             Jun515.9523.82141363.2368.71507
             Sep512.1534.32184352.4367.61503
             Dec605.3545.22228401.7361.81479
1971—Mar510.3541.22212334.5354.71450
             Jun553.0559.22286350.5354.01447
             Sep559.2581.12376350.2364.01488
             Dec652.2586.82399400.0359.91471
1972—Mar567.5604.42741341.8364.01489
             June615.6621.02539369.4372.81524
             Sep631.3652.12666375.1387.51584
             Dec749.3672.42750441.9396.71622
 Sales per Head of Population
     $    $     $    $ 
1969—Mar154.51162.391491115.73121.691117
             Jun163.88166.381528121.33123.181131
             Sep163.75170.861569119.53124.771146
             Dec192.03173.801596139.81126.521162
1970—Mar166.42174.811605118.99124.991148
             Jun183.36186.181710129.10131.071204
             Sep181.79189.661742125.07130.491198
             Dec213.28192.101764141.54127.511171
1971—Mar178.64189.481740117.09124.171140
             Jun193.54195.711797122.67123.911138
             Sep195.47203.141865122.42127.261169
             Dec226.19203.491869138.72124.751146
1972—Mar195.01207.701907117.47125.101149
             Jun211.75213.581961127.02128.221177
             Sep216.65223.832055128.74133.001221
             Dec254.73228.662101150.21134.841239

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

It should be noted that this survey has altered coverage of wholesale store types as compared with the coverage of the Censuses of Distribution. For this reason, and because of the lack of uniformity in the trading year for which firms supplied census returns, care should be exercised when comparing the survey statistics with the censuses.

Certain stores (about a third of the food and drink group) which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted to facilitate collection and compilation of data.

The following table shows, by store-type group, the values of sales during the quarter.

QuarterFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicalsGeneral MerchantsMachinery (Agricultural, Heavy Electrical and Industrial)
 $(million)
1969—Mar112.032.822.270.157.030.923.529.1
            Jun107.339.724.379.561.132.926.629.5
            Sep113.143.028.589.363.732.827.335.7
            Dec130.244.627.092.361.736.931.137.6
1970—Mar120.041.024.489.660.534.525.535.4
            Jun118.946.330.5111.367.935.628.439.2
            Sep127.447.135.0111.270.636.134.242.6
            Dec149.451.136.4104.372.140.837.640.8
1971—Mar137.947.227.697.466.637.129.040.1
            Jun141.750.031.5106.767.140.930.139.6
            Sep142.754.833.2111.568.936.534.343.4
            Dec163.149.733.2130.271.442.135.947.1
1972—Mar145.349.528.4118.672.140.528.140.5
            Jun144.250.634.6143.875.438.131.342.2
            Sep149.955.733.9138.281.044.337.945.1
            Dec171.555.043.0152.489.045.540.753.5
QuarterElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryGrain and SeedsRubber, Leather, and Canvas GoodsOffice. Printers' and Photographic SuppliesOtherAll Groups
 $(million)
1969—Mar12.615.47.45.86.631.0456.3
             Jun15.115.37.86.46.133.3484.8
             Sep16.317.48.66.97.135.7525.4
             Dec15.316.87.77.18.942.8560.1
1970—Mar15.017.67.76.27.234.3518.9
             Jun17.617.78.47.67.536.0572.8
             Sep18.018.79.47.98.337.5604.0
             Dec20.419.47.98.011.144.6643.8
1971—Mar18.919.17.67.39.535.5580.7
             Jun24.117.68.78.110.346.4622.6
             Sep23.620.010.38.711.542.7642.0
             Dec24.920.88.18.611.558.9705.4
1972—Mar16.320.98.67.510.147.7634.0
             Jun21.820.58.38.99.851.2680.8
             Sep25.522.29.710.010.555.7719.6
             Dec23.322.28.810.212.967.0749.9

For firms excluded from the continuing survey, the value of sales recorded in the Census of Distribution 1968 was $218.6 million, or 13.7 percent of total wholesale turnover.

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

Though international comparative statistics are usually open to qualification in this field, instalment credit outstanding per head at 31 December 1965 (in NZ$) was: United States, 250; Canada, 206; Australia, 102; United Kingdom, 50; New Zealand, 40; West Germany, 26; France, 22. (The term instalment credit covers hire-purchase agreements, credit sales agreements, and budget accounts.) Source—parliamentary paper H.49, 1968.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation.

Regulations to curb hire-purchase trade have existed in New Zealand since 22 July 1955. Restrictions in recent years are now set out.

CommodityDate EffectiveMinimum Deposit (Percent)Maximum Repayment Period (Months)
* Reduced by 3 months from 6 December 1968, except television sets.
New motorcars and light trucks17 Apr 196166 2/312
7 Sep 19725024
Secondhand cars and light trucks17 Apr 19615018
1 Sep 19655012
11 Feb 196766 2/312
17 May 19685018*
7 Sep 19725024
Motor cycles11 Feb 19675012
17 May 196833 1/318*
7 Sep 197233 1/324
Furniture and furnishings3 May 1962524
11 Feb 19671518
22 Mar 19681024*
19 Sep 19691024
28 Mar 19721030
Other consumer goods3 May 1962524
24 Apr 19642410
11 Feb 19671518*
19 Sep 19691024
28 Oct 19701524
28 Mar 19721030

A limited quarterly survey is made by the Department of Statistics of hire-purchase trade. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and for the 1967–68 March year surveyed business was estimated at 72 percent of hire-purchase sales recorded in the 1968 Census of Distribution. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey.

QuarterMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal Sold on H.P.Total Owing Under H.P. Agreements*Percentage of Payments Overdue*
Sold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. Financed
* As at end of quarter.
 $(m)%
1970—
    Mar22.111.011.03.60.92.70.50.10.47.41.16.433.588.44.0
    Jun25.112.912.23.00.72.30.60.10.59.91.38.538.694.63.8
    Sep29.615.014.64.41.23.20.60.10.510.32.18.244.997.33.5
    Dec37.418.918.66.01.74.30.50.10.412.32.010.356.2108.53.6
1971—
    Mar32.216.615.65.81.34.50.40.10.38.41.66.846.7112.83.1
    Jun29.414.814.67.31.75.60.50.10.49.61.48.246.8115.43.0
    Sep37.919.818.17.72.75.00.40.10.39.71.58.155.7122.93.1
    Dec41.621.620.010.03.46.60.40.10.312.11.910.264.1131.03.3
1972—
    Mar36.218.317.99.32.96.40.40.10.39.21.37.955.1129.93.5
    Jun40.521.319.28.32.75.60.50.10.412.21.810.461.6143.83.3
    Sep43.222.320.98.42.36.10.50.10.49.91.48.561.9140.33.2
    Dec51.726.425.310.32.77.60.40.10.314.22.112.176.6153.43.1

The average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in the quarter ended 31 December 1972 was: motor vehicles, $1,089; machinery, $7,035; television sets, $243; other household and personal goods, $71.

Chapter 22. Section 22
EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL

GENERAL—New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. In the early days of colonisation the infant New Zealand farming industry found a ready market for basic foodstuffs, such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese, in Australia. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool. Wool made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when trade statistics were first compiled; in the 1970s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent; and from 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the United Kingdom economy, to the benefit of both. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce also came later, notably after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 onwards, pastoral farming accounted for over 80 percent of total exports. In 1870 only 52 percent of the exports went to the United Kingdom; by 1880 the proportion had increased to 75 percent. Australia, which had been New Zealand's main trading partner in the early years, was receiving only 21 percent of the exports by 1880 and 15 percent by 1890.

The United Kingdom has remained New Zealand's predominant market for exports and the biggest supplier of imported goods, although in recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually been declining. In 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports but by the year ended June 1971 its share had fallen to 35 percent. However, the United Kingdom has remained New Zealand's best export market, taking the bulk of New Zealand's lamb, cheese, and butter, and about one-fifth of the wool. The marketing of farm products is discussed in Section 21A.

Under the terms of the New Zealand—United Kingdom Trade Agreements of 1932, 1959 and 1966. New Zealand received duty free and unrestricted access to the United Kingdom market for most of its agricultural exports. A system of voluntary restraint on cheese imports and quotas for butter was applied for most of the last decade, with New Zealand's concurrence, as a means of stabilising the market.

Entry into the EEC obliged Britain to terminate the Trade Agreements on 31 January 1973 as they are incompatible with the obligations of the Common Agricultural Policy. A levy on British imports of mutton and lamb had already been applied from 1 July 1971.

Special arrangements to preserve New Zealand's access to the United Kingdom market for butter and cheese after that country's entry into the EEC were negotiated, with the final terms being decided at a meeting of European ministers in Luxembourg in June 1971. The arrangement gives New Zealand guarantees of access and sale in the United Kingdom market for substantial quantities of butter and cheese during the period from 1973 to 1977. In 1973 the guaranteed quantities are for 163,200 long tons of butter and 67,500 long tons of cheese, equal to 96 percent and 90 percent respectively of New Zealand's current entitlements under the butter quota system and the system of voluntary restraint for cheese. In 1977 the guarantees will be 136,000 tons (80 percent) for butter and 15,000 tons (20 percent) for cheese, a total of 71 percent of current entitlements in milk equivalent terms. The arrangement will be reviewed in 1975, when measures will be agreed to deal with the continued entry of New Zealand butter to Britain from 1978 onwards.

The British Government has also expressed its confidence that there will continue to be adequate and remunerative access for lamb from traditional sources of supply after entry into the EEC and the New Zealand Government has accepted this assurance.

The preference given to British goods entering New Zealand will be phased out over a three-year period starting on 1 July 1974.

It is proposed to establish an export-import corporation, a Government trading authority whose objectives would be to supplement the efforts of present exporters and importers.

The prospect of Britain entering the European Economic Community has in recent years lent special importance to New Zealand's efforts in the field of economic diplomacy. Although the terms of the special arrangement concerning the importation of New Zealand butter and cheese into Britain were decided at Luxembourg in June 1971, this was preceded by an intensive programme of official contacts and representations both in Britain and in the countries of the Common Market. New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe were strengthened to handle this work and, over the years, a programme of visits to New Zealand was organised for Ministers, senior officials, and journalists directly concerned with developments in the Common Market. The agreement relating to New Zealand dairy products negotiated in Luxembourg in 1971 has provided a respite, but continued efforts are required to ensure that New Zealand's position is understood during future reviews of the arrangement. The question of the conditions governing trade in New Zealand sheep meats with an enlarged EEC will also need close attention.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States has been circumscribed in the past by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton have been lifted for the whole of 1973, although the situation is reviewed every quarter, as provided by law. New Zealand's exports of dairy products are, however, still subject to a formidable array of quota controls. There is, however, room for some guarded optimism in the willingness of the United States Administration to contemplate increased imports as a means of stabilising prices.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become steadily closer. The volume of bilateral trade has increased and consultations between the two Governments at the Ministerial and the official level on international trade and economic matters have been extended considerably. New Zealand participation in EXPO 1970 involved a major publicity and trade promotion campaign which proved most successful. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports and, although little progress has been made, it is hoped that the growing demands of the Japanese consumer can be reconciled with the need to support the domestic agricultural sector. In this connection, New Zealand has recently benefited from the significant increases which have occurred in our sales of beef and butter as a result of rapidly increasing consumer demands for Western-style foodstuffs.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the Islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links across the Pacific, with the countries of Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed. Now that New Zealand has established embassies in Peru and Chile, a thorough examination is being made of ways to increase trade with the area. Credits have been extended to both Peru and Chile and these have undoubtedly helped build up our trade.

Activity in the trade field has included other countries of the Pacific Basin. From April 1970 New Zealand has extended annual trade credits of $500,000 to Indonesia. In April 1973 the Minister of Overseas Trade visited China, Korea and Japan for talks covering a range of subjects.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in two-way trade. This applies in particular to manufactured goods. The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement, which commenced operation in 1966, has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for combined industrial development, including two motor vehicle rationalisation plans, have been negotiated and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

Britain's prospective entry into the EEC caused an increase in New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and broaden the range of its export commodities. There has already been a marked expansion of New Zealand's overseas markets, notably in the United States, and countries bordering on the Pacific. For example, exports made to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $103 million in the June year 1971. About 68 percent of the exports to Japan in the year ended June 1971 were meat (mainly mutton), timber, and wool; other principal commodities were dairy products, and casein.

The value of New Zealand's overseas trade in relation to national income is among the highest in a ranking of countries of the world.

Except for the growth of trade in pulp and paper products, the composition of New Zealand's exports today does not vary greatly from that of pre-war years. Of recent years from 70–80 percent of the total value of exports is still derived from wool, meat, and dairy produce. Exports of manufactured goods (including those based on agriculture, forestry, and fishing) have risen sharply in recent years; but the steady growth of trade in meat, dairy produce, and wool has meant that the proportions as compared with total New Zealand exports today have remained constant over several decades.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data only, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited StatesOther CountriesYearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited StatesOther Countries
* Provisional.
Exports*Imports*
 percent percent
1860702731860564211
1870524621870583615
18807521221880563149
189075156418906717610
1900771463190061171012
19108493419106214816
1920745165192048171817
193080351219304781827
194088345194047161225
1950663102119506012721
19605341330196043181029
June
Year
June
Year
19664551436196638191132
19674451635196737191331
19684371733196830211138
19693981736196931201237
19703671542197029201338
1971*34817411971*29211238

NAFTA—The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which runs for an initial period of 10 years, is “to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade”.

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

The original Schedule A contained some 990 items. By means of the procedures set out for the expansion of Schedule A some 600 further items have been added. The principal means by which goods have been added in the past has been through nomination by individual manufacturers in each country. Because both Governments concluded that progress by this means had been slow, more systematic study was undertaken in 1972 of the goods not in Schedule A to see whether its expansion could be accelerated (Article 3 of the agreement states the objectives that all goods which enter or might enter into the trade of either Member State, except those whose addition would be seriously detrimental to an industry in either country, should be progressively listed in Schedule A).

On addition to Schedule A, goods free of duty are bound at free; goods with duties not exceeding 5 percent become free; duties of between 5 and 10 percent are halved and eliminated 2 years later; and duties of more than 10 percent are reduced by one-fifth on addition and by a further fifth every 2 years. There is provision for either more rapid or slower reduction of duties with the concurrence of both countries.

In an exchange of letters when the agreement was signed, each country agreed to eliminate margins where duties on goods imported from the other country were higher than the lowest rate applicable to imports from third countries. Australia removed such margins by 1 January 1966; New Zealand agreed to do so by 1 January 1974 and by the end of 1972 only a small proportion of items out of the original list of some 600 remained to be considered by the Tariff and Development Board.

Free trade in a range of forest products was an important element of the agreement for New Zealand and a joint consultative council on forest industries was set up in 1967 to assist the development of trade in this area. The council undertook to produce a report on the forest resources, consumption, production, imports and exports up to the year 2010. This was published in 1970 and is regularly updated. An exchange of letters in April 1971 provided for preferential access to Australia for New Zealand softwood pulp and a similar arrangement for Australian hardwood pulp in the New Zealand market was concluded in 1972. Negotiations on the detailed conditions of access for New Zealand newsprint continued during 1972.

Other important agreements have been made under the aegis of the NAFTA since its entry into force. These have included an undertaking by Australia not to raise duties on products of interest to New Zealand without consulting New Zealand, and a similar undertaking was given by New Zealand to consult Australia when New Zealand tariff rates were being considered for increase; special measures to promote the rationalisation of industry between the two countries; special arrangements under Article 3, paragraph 7 of the agreement for reciprocal concessions on two-way trade in goods not included in Schedule A.

Since 1967 reciprocal arrangements under Article 3:7 had created additional two-way trade of some $54 million by the end of 1972. Many of these involved trade in related products and the two Governments have negotiated procedures that will promote rationalisation of production between related industries on each side of the Tasman.

At the NAFTA Consultative Committee meeting in May 1972 the Australian Minister for Trade and Industry agreed to a New Zealand proposal to establish a joint working committee on dairy products. The committee's terms of reference were, inter alia, to review trends in production, consumption and exports in the two countries; to consider production and marketing policies with particular reference to exports to third countries; to study marketing opportunities in respect of new products and new markets; and to explore ways of furthering co-operation between the industries of the two countries. The committee held its first meetings in the latter part of 1972.

TRADE BY CURRENCY AREAS—The distribution of New Zealand's overseas trade by broad groupings is given in the following table (excluding gold and current coin).

Year Ended JuneSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other CountriesSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other Countries
* Provisional.
 Percentage of Total Export Trade (f.o.b.)Percentage of Import Trade (c.d.v.)
196355.9919.3217.570.706.4368.8613.526.602.348.68
196455.6316.8818.601.117.7767.8613.946.563.538.11
196560.3014.9416.191.177.4065.0315.806.393.149.64
196654.9316.2915.741.0711.9865.6415.876.612.519.37
196754.1518.4711.651.0414.6964.0417.287.382.708.60
196855.8919.5610.530.9113.1261.9516.207.082.9911.79
196952.2920.4012.280.8614.1860.8916.448.032.9511.69
197050.2421.1811.111.0216.4460.4517.697.452.3912.02
1971*50.6721.7610.750.8016.0258.8716.658.882.4813.12

The direction of external trade is shown graphically in the following diagram.

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 11 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
 $    $    $    
1961233.96270.72504.68
1962237.07232.76469.82
1963249.42229.18478.60
1964286.72269.91556.63
1965282.95276.20559.16
1966288.54298.13586.67
1967268.57300.32568.89
1968299.04245.91544.95
1969357.56308.32665.88
1970388.31359.92748.23
1971398.19406.57804.76

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RELATIVE VALUE OF TRADE—For New Zealand exports of goods are of greater importance to the national economy than is the case for most other countries. (Many other countries have a greater proportional income from the exports of services such as travel, investment, insurance, and shipping activities.)

In the following table the values of the exports of goods (excluding services) for some of the main trading countries are given as a percentage of the gross national product, and also the value of total external trade in goods in 1970 per head of population, using c.i.f. valuations for imports. (Source: United Nations Statistical Office.)

CountryExport of Goods as Percentage of Gross National ProductValue of External Trade per Head
196619671970

* Exports include a large volume of goods originating in inland Europe passing through ports.

† Fiscal year beginning 1 April.

‡ Exports of goods and non-factor services.

§ Fiscal year beginning 1 July.

 percent(NZ)$
Netherlands34*32*1,724
Belgium29*36*2,119
South Africa2315237
Switzerland22221,658
Norway21211,417
Israel2013657
New Zealand20†18†785
Sweden19191,531
Canada18181,229
Austria1717774
West Germany1718928
France15‡10‡645
United Kingdom1413657
Italy1313469
Australia13§13§651
Japan109330
Argentina810133
United States44359

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold and specie totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
* Provisional.
 $(000)
1963–6443,234
1964–6517,711
1965–66−25,489
1966–67−85,984
1967–68145,782
1968–69136,210
1969–7079,463
1970–71x−23,809
Jul–Dec 1971x−43,633
Jan–Jun 1972*177,573

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate. A publication entitled External Trade of New Zealand (Country Analyses) is published quarterly.

Annual volumes are also published by the Department of Statistics, the latest available issues being Exports 1970–71 and Imports 1970–71. Part A Commodity by Country, and Part B Country by Commodity.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. The SITC order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification, but a move to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was made on 1 July 1967.

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1969–701970–711971–72
Exports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
 $(million)
Month of July86.785.490.791.093.598.9114.9107.2115.8
2 months ended August164.4155.2165.1176.4182.7195.1237.5203.4219.1
3 months ended September249.5242.5257.6248.7274.2294.1312.8303.1326.5
4 months ended October324.6322.1341.9325.7368.3394.8402.0390.6419.3
5 months ended November418.0385.8410.7401.2464.3497.5478.1490.0525.1
6 months ended December509.2456.8486.7515.9552.8592.4584.5579.6621.4
7 months ended January597.9530.1564.6590.8629.4676.6707.5665.4715.3
8 months ended February703.2591.6629.4722.8711.9765.3853.2756.6813.1
9 months ended March817.2668.0710.1807.2811.8873.5967.2860.5925.2
10 months ended April897.0759.5810.4927.3901.0968.11,110.1950.51,622.6
11 months ended May982.0853.6909.61,038.4986.01,059.31,240.41,056.21,135.8
12 months ended June1,087.0942.31,006.01,131.11,075.11,157.11,376.61,150.31,235.9

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy produce exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) are available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—will vary from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential changes in import prices and in freight rates; (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands; statistics for these territories are given in Section 36 of this Yearbook.

The following table gives the values of the export and import trade for years ended June and December. The movement of specie is not included in these figures and gold is excluded.

YearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsYearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
* Provisional.
 Year ended June$(million)Year ended December
1963627.5523.7576.61963664.3595.7650.7
1964737.3637.4694.01964773.7644.0701.7
1965742.2662.7724.51965729.2703.8766.7
1966767.3729.4792.81966780.0722.4787.0
1967727.2752.2813.21967727.1672.4725.6
1968820.5622.9674.71968920.9749.0805.3
1969989.1799.2852.919691,082.5843.0898.9
19701,086.7944.31,007.219701,093.71,038.31,111.8
1971x1,131.71,070.61,155.51971x1,200.41,097.41,184.5

The following table shows for the June year 1971 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1971
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase
Sterling Area Countries$(000)
     Associated States in Eastern Caribbean5955962323
     Australia87,88296,133225,467251,989
     Bahamas469469149
     Bahrain20204,4623,898
     Barbados2,0792,07988
     Bermuda1,8361,84211
     British Honduras11
     British Solomon Islands4154435656
     British Virgin Islands22
     Brunei11114,069
     Cayman Islands11
     Cyprus1,1711,171128
     Falkland Islands33
     Fiji10,48612,4493,0723,414
     Gambia33
     Ghana2282282,0662,022
     Gibraltar
     Gilbert and Ellice Islands2432572,1652,167
     Guyana404012889
     Hong Kong6,5816,74718,65522,398
     India1,9222,1806,8016,336
     Ireland, Republic of2,7172,723533359
     Jamaica7,6017,602288232
     Jordan1818
     Kenya436436600817
     Kuwait14614620,4649,390
     Libya
     Malawi1421428178
     Malaysia7,8867,9595,5359,296
     Malta, including Gozo50505041
     Mauritius and Dependencies7117136262
     Montserrat3030
     Namibia11
     Nauru2762865,5395,471
     New Hebrides Cond.6109235758
     New Zealand Re-imports1,817160
     Nigeria15915912277
     Norfolk Island554583110
     Pakistan4334353,5873,333
     Papua and New Guinea3,3873,420526426
     People's Democratic Republic of Yemen221,445
     Pitcairn Island1114
     Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms8787
     Seychelles221
     Sierra Leone11111
     Singapore9,1629,4551,6781,820
     South Africa8,8888,9533,2872,746
     Sri Lanka (Ceylon)1,7411,7413,6343,616
     Swaziland1212
     Tanzania (incl. Zanzibar and Pemba)1771781,296612
     Tonga1,5611,659388408
     Trinidad and Tobago5,4935,494109188
     Uganda36361,9301,838
     United Kingdom383,458384,660309,946328,887
     Western Samoa3,0863,4251,5151,668
     Zambia24124111
               Totals, Sterling Area553,114566,272631,490664,020
EFTA Countries (Excluding United Kingdom)
     Austria3153161,6151,368
     Denmark1,9591,9752,7822,720
     Iceland28281
     Norway1,1781,1802,1551,865
     Portugal1,8321,832654606
     Sweden2,0432,1088,5047,956
     Switzerland and Liechtenstein1,4431,45910,8757,846
               Totals, EFTA8,7998,89826,58622,361
EEC Countries
     Belgium and Luxembourg25,48325,5296,7676,017
     France and Monaco27,62627,64811,00110,082
     Germany, Federal Republic29,90430,29749,18446,615
     Italy and San Marino19,21819,22814,36113,367
     Netherlands16,80817,01414,17914,273
               Totals, EEC119,040119,71795,49290,355
Dollar Area
     American Samoa2,2752,48662
     Antarctic Territory (U.S.)319
     Bolivia
     Canada32,09432,18638,37836,711
     Colombia10101,2451,240
     Costa Rica2625
     Dominican Republic1411414,2404,240
     Ecuador1,2871,286
     El Salvador2121
     Guam1,4301,434
     Guatemala1
     Haiti111
     Honduras121
     Liberia1616
     Mexico1,9191,920522502
     Nicaragua11
     Panama Canal Zone385385150
     Panama Republic21621925
     Philippines9,0939,116330314
     Puerto Rico1,1201,120144
     Ryukyu Islands750750
     U.S. Trust Terrs. in Pacific513544
     United States190,702192,754129,857127,344
     Venezuela3413411
               Totals, Dollar Area241,031243,464175,914171,904
Other Countries
     Afghanistan3
     Algeria241
     Angola incl. Cabinda226636
     Antarctic (Foreign)10
     Argentina92921611
     Brazil38381,986166
     Bulgaria7977972221
     Burma535511
     Burundi11
     Central African Republic112929
     Chile1,2201,2239794
     China, People's Republic of1,6541,6554,4483,610
     China, Taiwan2,4832,486725669
     Comoro Islands
     Congo (People's Republic)1212216
     Cuba1
     Czechoslovakia1,6351,6361,8351,697
     Ethiopia and Eritrea171741
     Finland871873517495
     French Guiana5959
     French Polynesia4,2784,3322234
     Gabon22
     Germany, East1,5731,573415366
     Greece12,29012,2909154
     Greenland
     Guadeloupe5555
     Hungary150150155142
     Indonesia1,1891,233904396
     Iran7787788,9841,891
     Iraq32732710387
     Israel468469234180
     Ivory Coast11144139
     Japan (incl. Okinawa)102,461102,684110,272106,792
     Khmer Republic (Cambodia)1717
     Korea, Republic of1,6981,703805429
     Laos1516
     Lebanon46246222
     Macao112
     Malagasy Republic8863
     Martinique138138
     Mongolian People's Republic9
     Morocco154154186
     Mozambique777777153144
     Muscat and Oman4242
     Nepal88
     Netherlands Antilles69069031
     New Caledonia4,0134,079100129
     Peru6,9436,946378
     Poland3,2743,274452445
     Portuguese Guinea11
     Reunion3030
     Rhodesia (Southern)
     Romania188188538
     Saudi Arabia1281284,477996
     Somalia
     South Vietnam462462 1
     Spain1,9621,9621,250955
     St. Pierre and Miquelon1111
     Sudan1471478274
     Surinam66
     Syria2012011311
     Thailand4,3854,453733497
     Tunisia160160
     Turkey4848152108
     U.S.S.R.17,92417,9251,2021,114
     United Arab Republic1171172
     Uruguay2211
     Wallis and Futuna Is.204204
     Yemen33261
     Yugoslavia2,1392,14011573
     Zaire Republic44312
               Totals, Other Countries178,873179,362141,086121,928
               Totals, All Countries1,100,8561,117,7141,070,5671,070,567
Passengers' purchases at duty-free stores1343,593
Ships' stores7,10110,412
          Grand totals1,108,0911,131,7191,070,5671,070,567

The next table shows the values of New Zealand's trade with several groupings of countries.

Year Ended JuneExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports c.d.v.Exports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.(Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports c.d.v.
According to Country of OriginAccording to Country of PurchaseAccording to Country of OriginAccording to Country of Purchase

* Provisional.

† Belgium, Luxembourg, France, West Germany, Italy, and Netherlands.

‡ Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

$(million)
 Sterling AreaDollar Area
1964408.4432.5442.5123.988.985.9
1965444.8430.9443.8110.2104.7106.6
1966418.3478.8495.5124.0115.7104.9
1967390.0482.3495.0133.0130.2132.8
1968454.2385.9399.8158.9100.9106.3
1969511.1486.6507.7199.3131.4132.6
1970540.2570.8597.5227.7167.1165.4
1971x566.3631.5664.0243.5175.9171.9
Jul–Dec      
     1971x269.2349.4369.8141.777.272.1
 EEC CountriesEFTA Countries
1964136.541.840.08.222.521.9
1965119.442.339.78.620.819.9
1966119.848.245.48.118.316.1
196783.955.652.67.519.317.7
196885.644.141.67.418.616.1
1969120.064.261.28.423.620.6
1970119.570.367.311.022.618.9
1971x119.795.590.48.926.622.4
Jul–Dec      
     1971x55.249.146.73.718.416.5

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on. This revised series is described in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics May 1972.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
19638621020777771852....712
1964949970843775836....737
19659801038901753785....733
196610031067916711907....760
196710531137991745750....756
196810541088977856886....860
196910659519699241025....946
1970101997710179911014....997
197110001000100010001000100010001000

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery ApparatusTransport EquipmentAll Groups
1963870787807602654676701
1964992901927742963945833
196510629159637669901006865
1966825986111410048821085940
1967992981103696810921286964
1968845831798669703647725
1969929898956710752830824
197010099669918618181096934
19711000100010001000100010001000

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION—To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licences regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption. The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence had to be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition, the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Control Regulations 1973 require that, except for exempted goods (which comprise over two-thirds of private imports), a written licence, or a written permit granted by the Minister of Customs is necessary for all imports.

Export Control—-Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations 1966 is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

The Export Incentive Scheme introduced in 1962 enabled import licences to be made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so. Import licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence, or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the licensed imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacturer of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

Import provisions are published in annual Import Licensing Schedules. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1972–73 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

In most cases, the 1973–74 Import Licensing Schedule provides for a level of licensed imports at 110 percent of the previous year's allocation. A lower allocation was provided in some instances where it was felt that domestic capital and labour resources had been under-utilised because of imports. Although the Token Licence Scheme was continued Government announced that the allocation of certain token licences would be reviewed to ensure that they had been used for the purpose of giving a variety of imports and had not been concentrated on a few items.

No additional provision was made for licences to be issued under the New Importers Scheme.

TARIFF AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD—The Tariff and Development Board was established under the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961. The Board was constituted on 1 June 1962 and since then has comprised between four and eight members. The board has the functions, when so requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade, to inquire into and report on revisions of the Customs Tariff, having regard to the trade and commerce, and the farming, manufacturing, and distributing industries of New Zealand and also the interests of consumers.

In 1972 the board conducted 40 inquiries to consider the rates of duty and import licensing provisions on a wide range of goods. The main products involved were: marine inboard engines; rye, barley, oats and maize; greenstone; solder; locomotives; electric motors; cement; furskins; paper and board; woodworking, metal working and, packaging machinery; honey; aerated waters; timber; milk and cream; copper tubing; crockery and a range of plastic products.

At the request of the Minister of Overseas Trade, the board in 1972 inquired into and reported on the question of whether certain goods should be added to Schedule A of the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement. The goods on which public inquiries were held were: handbag frames, ammonium salts and hydroxides, arsenical compounds and swim fins and flippers.

The board scheduled 41 inquiries to be held in 1973 arising from a notice of proposed exemptions from import licensing published in a supplement to the New Zealand Gazette of 17 October 1971.

Emergency Protection Authorities—The Tariff and Development Amendment Act 1967 made provision for the appointment of Emergency Protection Authorities. The Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade may, where it appears to the Minister that urgent action may be necessary to protect a New Zealand industry in relation to imports of goods, request an Authority to undertake an inquiry in relation to the importation of such goods and to report to the Minister on the following matters:

  1. Whether urgent action is necessary to protect that industry in relation to the importation of such goods; and

  2. If such action is considered necessary, the nature of the protection that is considered by the Authority to be appropriate in all circumstances, and the extent and duration of such protection.

An Authority which undertakes an inquiry is required to report back to the appropriate Minister not later than 30 days after the date on which he received the request for the inquiry. If the Authority considers that urgent action should be taken to protect the industry, it may recommend to the Minister that protection be effected by either or both of the following measures:

  1. The imposition of a temporary Customs duty.

  2. The temporary restriction of the importation of such goods.

When the Authority so recommends, action may be taken within the terms of the Customs Act 1966, to impose a temporary protective Customs duty or restriction on importation. However the matter must have first been referred to the Tariff and Development Board for its consideration before any temporary protection is imposed. There are limits placed on the duration of temporary protection which is regarded as “holding action” pending the completion of the Tariff and Development Board's inquiries.

The Emergency Protection Authority was established in 1968 and by 31 December 1972 had undertaken 162 inquiries. Most of these inquiries arose following the receipt of objections to proposals to exempt goods from import licensing. After considering the Authority's reports the Government imposed temporary duties in 32 cases, and retained import licensing in a further 33 cases. In twelve cases temporary protection was reimposed and 10 cases were awaiting decision. Temporary protection was not granted in the 75 remaining instances.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Trade and Industry through the service of 29 Trade Commissioner posts—Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Melbourne, Montreal, New Delhi. New York, Noumea, Paris, Perth, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tokyo, Trinidad, Vancouver, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's growing interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. In addition, agreement was reached with Air New Zealand in 1961 that some of its overseas managers should act as trade correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. At present there are Air New Zealand correspondents in Tahiti, American Samoa, and Honolulu. Most Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

TRADE PROMOTION—A Trade Promotion Council was set up in March 1962 as a co-ordinating and advisory agency in a concerted continuous New Zealand trade drive and in September 1969, it accepted an invitation to act as a sector council of the National Development Council. The council advises in the exploration of new or potential markets including trade surveys and missions; the coordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity; and the improvement of facilities, both within New Zealand and overseas, which may assist exporters. An Export Development Conference, called by the Government, was held in June 1963 to examine the problems to be met in a programme of expanded exports. The need to diversify markets and products was underlined when

Britain applied in 1961 to join the European Economic Community. A trade drive was recognised as essential to earn more overseas exchange to continue to improve the standard of living for a steadily increasing population and to expand economic and national development. A scheme of export aids was developed by the Government following the conference, among them an export guarantee scheme to provide guarantees to exporters against losses which might result from circumstances not insurable with commercial insurers. The National Development Conference in 1968 and 1969 studied the export capacity of production sectors and set 5-year and 10-year export targets. To promote the export of manufactured goods, exhibits have been arranged at trade fairs and trade missions conducted in selected areas overseas.

Export seminars have been held in major cities. The first series—on Australia—was held in 1966; the second—on Asia—in 1967; the third—on techniques of exporting—in 1969; the fourth—on export marketing—in 1970, and the fifth—on exporting to Australia—in 1971, and the sixth—on exporting to the South Pacific—in 1972. Contacts with exporters and prospective exporters have been continued by the work of export liaison officers, who travel widely in New Zealand, explaining the facilities and incentives that are available to exporters.

22 B—EXPORTS

GENERAL—The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for “invisibles” in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. (See Section 25E, National Development Council for projections of exports to meet growth requirements.)

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”, except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty, which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since 1 July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) has been used in classifying export trade.

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 9 June years and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972, and the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
ButterCheeseCaseinTotal*
f.o.b. value $(million)
1963173.090.937.08.4146.425.4214.4
1964183.2109.635.111.3168.430.4271.4
1965212.5119.640.716.8197.731.7208.6
1966196.7109.641.720.0195.440.0231.9
1967205.0109.445.118.6205.433.6174.1
1968260.7112.247.418.1210.339.8158.2
1969309.4114.842.621.7204.755.4212.4
1970368.9109.744.325.8213.948.7204.2
1971390.8113.948.030.2228.950.6187.8
Jul-Dec 1971†192.874.926.011.2143.023.075.7
Jan-Jun 1972†209.3107.540.114.2211.539.5154.1
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports

* Including commodities not listed.

† Provisional.

f.o.b. value $(million)
196310.54.87.513.8620.07.6627.5
196412.07.19.617.3728.48.8737.3
196511.17.010.717.0733.78.5742.2
196610.96.512.318.3756.810.5767.3
196712.06.810.716.6717.69.6727.2
19689.96.913.823.9804.615.8820.5
196910.96.516.627.0968.920.2989.1
197014.09.021.628.31,064.522.21,086.7
1971x14.110.121.328.21,108.123.61,131.7
Jul–Dec 1971†6.44.06.316.9570.813.7584.5
Jan–Jun 1972†8.84.916.416.8777.114.9792.1

The commodity groups shown above normally account for more than 90 percent of their total value of merchandise exports.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. In the preceding subsection is set out a table of volume index numbers for these commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

Over 80 percent of exports are pastoral products. Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance in the 6-month period ended December 1971 were: logs of radiata pine ($13.4 m), fish and fish products ($10.8 m), newsprint ($8.7 m), sawn timber ($6.1 m), wood pulp ($5.4 m), apples ($0.9 m), grass and clover seeds ($2.7 m).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the 2 latest years and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1970June Year 1971xJul–Dec 1971*Jan–June 1972*
* Provisional
Mining products—
     Pumice(cwt)17,17413,4755,7095,235
     Cement(cwt)16,3018,2284,8699,077
Fishery products—
     Fish, fresh and frozen(cwt)99,798153,14988,054133,608
     Crayfish(cwt)49,40644,76021,69217,585
     Fish oils and fish-liver oils(gal)6,4195,6261,1064,626
Forest products—
     Kauri gum(ton)211975
     Timber—
          Logs, radiata pine(000 cu ft)62,10661,54329,70532,875
          Sawn(000 sup ft)106,139115,41865,74847,077
          For cases in shooks(000 sup ft)2,3081,254536896
     Wood pulp(ton)80,91295,23253,14959,308
     Newsprint(ton)119,605109,68267,09061,780
     Building board(000 sq ft)15,32417,27012,78711,320
     Plywood(000 sq ft)4,9304,8619,3223,060
Pastoral products—
     Butter(ton)194,892191,39280,862103,853
     Casein(ton)61,01068,43621,58519,862
     Cheese(ton)89,151x91,21739,49548,029
     Milk, dried and condensed(ton)181,439157,91787,034103,189
     Sugar of milk(ton)7,9457,4203,4224,566
     Eggs—
          In shell(doz)69,613154,067106,20278,750
          Not in shell(000 lb)9316,4403,4403,170
     Honey(ton)6441,765960752
     Meat, frozen and chilled(ton)648,389637,811304,827363,500
     Meat, canned(ton)3,3883,0781,605914
     Meat extract(lb)209,396489,833374,673125,146
     Other preserved meat(ton)1,8411,764752927
     Sausage casings(000 hanks)7,6467,2593,2864,911
     Liver meal(cwt)11,0788,1354,5436,224
     Cattlehides(000)1,4821,588873745
     HorsehidesNo.3,0361,4231,2002,649
     Calfskins(000)1,1691,125547300
     Deerskins(000)821283759
     Opossum skins(000)1,605346331186
     Sheepskins and pelts(000)34,01536,27813,99424,093
     Horsehair and other coarse animal hair(lb)60,45359,93523,37316,626
     Wool(metric ton)303,051293,494114,287200,787
     Lard(cwt)114952634
     Edible tallow(ton)4,0692,0241,5951,317
     Edible stearine(ton)640345102176
     Inedible tallow(ton)67,19362,45825,17442,200
     Neatsfoot oil(ton)671572275161
     Live cattleNo.1,8422,3257403,056
     Live sheepNo.111192008
     Live horsesNo.1,1361,325598926
Agricultural products—
     Barley(cental)6331239,691
     Apples(000 lb)120,371114,96812,006117,027
     Pears(000 lb)6,9327,6122655,404
     Hops(lb)60,989183,353105,05118,893
     Potatoes(ton)9,37010,5231,4882,848
     Onions(ton)9,6158,1602,7747,531
     Canned vegetables(000 lb)7,8066,9932,6083,142
     Frozen vegetables(cwt)215,537162,42983,516112,120
     Peas, food(cental)363,061511,609173,063236,182
     Peas, seed(cental)255,813197,501150,222116,485
     Seeds, grass and clover(cental)175,027214,262145,062155,684
     Seeds, other(cental)10,8689,5274,19613,071
Miscellaneous—
     Biscuits(cwt)47,51757,45226,82040,285
     Ale, beer, stout(gal)596,313803,157223,772529,662
     Sugar(cwt)3,9621,91595817,295
     Drinking chocolate(000 lb)7,23211,7592,6466,176
     Cigarettes(lb)146,100191,470123,905155,255
     Cut tobacco(lb)124,628170,20576,13961,269
     Textile waste(000 lb)2,3301,802888974
     Soaps(000 lb)2,7012,8798161,312
     Chamois leather(sq ft)470,609526,88787,289288,021

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1970June Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971*Jan-June 1972*
* Provisional.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Mining products—
     Pumice3422119
     Cement2212612
     Other1041113839
               Totals1601455459
Fishery products—
     Fish, fresh and frozen2,8584,6002,5733,645
     Fish, other9161,4831,2591,386
     Crayfish11,35812,1716,9466,057
     Fish oils and fish-liver oils44271349
               Totals15,17618,28210,79111,136
Forest products—
     Kauri gum151265
     Timber—
          Logs, radiata pine23,45925,10313,40215,043
          Sawn9,72410,6496,1454,425
          For cases in shooks27818887139
     Wood pulp7,2379,3765,3665,806
     Newsprint15,84514,0288,6757,828
     Other paper and paperboard4,5803,9152,2122,540
     Building board587750622570
     Plywood419431536312
     Other6151,163760823
               Totals62,75965,61637,81137,491
Pastoral products—
     Butter109,747113,92674,893107,532
     Casein25,75530,20211,15414,250
     Cheese44,34248,05026,03640,144
     Milk, dried and condensed31,09234,05228,96248,317
     Sugar of milk2,1682,0359241,206
     Other dairy produce2,8712,6821,9261,219
     Eggs—
          In shell30644634
          Not in shell140978483370
     Honey262593370430
     Meat, frozen and chilled364,409385,905189,349207,260
     Meat, canned3,2183,3542,4081,275
     Meat extract280584466164
     Other preserved meat995994572623
     Sausage casings13,97214,1026,4088,767
     Liver meal102844870
     Cattlehides10,3259,7565,6876,876
     Horsehides1910718
     Calfskins2,8891,8711,013599
     Deerskins202382138216
     Opossum skins2,052262397199
     Sheepskins and pelts32,94638,11115,60031,499
     Horsehair and other coarse animal hair3030119
     Wool204,222187,85075,721154,107
     Inedible offals (including dried blood)6,6744,7922,9183,124
     Edible tallow632389289225
     Edible stearine86541930
     Inedible tallow8,3819,7473,7264,670
     Neatsfoot oil1331305934
     Live cattle7529903411,043
     Live sheep306284
     Live horses3,8174,5743,0583,349
     Other2,8222,9681,6081,117
               Totals875,375899,519454,659639,527
Agricultural products—
     Barley462
     Apples8,8648,5969019,312
     Pears50957121421
     Hops321146614
     Potatoes491687173251
     Onions819847276658
     Canned vegetables1,1001,093380512
     Frozen vegetables2,8952,2321,1241,471
     Peas, food1,7192,4411,0311,207
     Peas, seed1,4581,146892710
     Seeds, grass and clover3,5764,8962,7451,733
     Other seeds474854243425
     Other5,9014,1781,3632,370
               Totals27,83727,6549,21419,544
Miscellaneous—
     Biscuits1,6722,1721,0021,481
     Ale, beer, stout486665196453
     Sugar25169172
     Soups1522708584
     Drinking chocolate1,1812,0836421,871
     Infant and invalid food (cereal)799155
     Cigarettes311403243320
     Cut tobacco19026611690
     Textile waste2571807799
     Soaps317455110258
     Scrap metal2,1441,464442478
     Dairy machinery1,2331,081693719
     Chamois leather17520055109
     Vitamins and concentrates1628209
     Other74,92287,50154,60163,234
               Totals83,15996,87558,29669,383
         Totals, New Zealand produce (excluding gold)1,064,4661,108,091570,826777,140
         Gold (excluded from above)29365

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) for the year ended June 1971 and for two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972 are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Exports, New Zealand Produce—Section and DivisionJuly 1970-June 1971July-Dec 1971*Jan-June 1972*
* Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals$(000)
     Div. 00 Live animals5,6313,4794,424
     Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations390,836192,795209,321
     Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs199,752132,346197,616
     Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations18,17310,77311,082
     Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations2,5611,1452,093
     Div. 05 Fruit and vegetables21,3356,31716,432
     Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations2,9421,4491,917
     Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof4,6941,5883,785
     Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including un-milled cereals)4,3471,7552,706
     Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations1,534651620
               Totals, Section 0651,805352,299449,996
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco
     Div. 11 Beverages745254530
     Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures758382413
               Totals, Section 11,503636943
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
     Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed50,56422,95939,513
     Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels853
     Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed
     Div. 24 Wood and cork36,91620,31420,291
     Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper9,4995,4375,832
     Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste188,53975,961154,652
     Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones2189542
     Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap2,4862,0632,115
     Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.26,77213,69515,206
               Totals, Section 2315,003140,528237,653
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
     Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes351746
     Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products7,2214,4613,475
     Div. 34 Gas1
               Totals, Section 37,2574,6353,482
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
     Div. 41 Animal oils and fats10,5604,2595,172
     Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed13
     Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed406185183
               Totals, Section 410,9674,4445,358
Section 5. Chemicals
     Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds1,7251,031774
     Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1
     Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials413305370
     Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products1,4857821,048
     Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations1,943692680
     Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured161513
     Div. 57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products301610
     Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins538286372
     Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products34,13312,66315,107
               Totals, Section 540,28515,79018,373
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
     Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs1,3601,0981,055
     Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.1,167696539
     Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)4,4343,0662,576
     Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof20,43412,51012,111
     Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products13,5988,5707,776
     Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s.2,8991,8001,532
     Div. 67 Iron and steel3,1482,2012,341
     Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals2,7111,45313,209
     Div. 69 Manufactures of metal4,5063,0482,508
               Totals, Section 654,25934,44343,648
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
     Div. 71 Machinery other than electric7,5254,7134,544
     Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances6,8325,0345,604
     Div. 73 Transport equipment2,3121,9201,471
               Totals, Section 716,66911,66811,618
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
     Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings459304248
     Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures996589819
     Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles486310443
     Div. 84 Clothing1,8511,0831,174
     Div. 85 Footwear261111148
     Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches and clocks794538298
     Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.5,4353,4162,906
               Totals, Section 810,2816,3506,035
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions not Classified According to Kind
     Goods under $20 in value24148
     Other381926
               Totals, Section 9623334
     Total New Zealand produce exports1,108,091570,826777,140
     Re-exports23,62813,69114,935
     Grand total, merchandise exports1,131,719584,518792,075
          Exports of gold (excluded from above)365

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS—The United Kingdom has been New Zealand's principal trading partner for over 100 years. The proportion of our exports (including re-exports) going to the United Kingdom market in the years prior to the Second World War was between 70 and 80 percent of the total value of all exports. With the growing diversification of our markets in recent years the proportion of New Zealand's export going to this market has fallen and by the 6-month period July-December 1971 represented only 26 percent of the total value of exports to all countries, compared with 31 percent for the 6-month period July-December 1970.

In recent years trade has been recorded with over 100 countries each year.

TOTAL EXPORTS TO INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES—The following table gives exports (including re-exports but excluding gold, current coin, passengers' purchases, and ships' stores) to each country for the 3 latest June years and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972.

CountryJune Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971*

* Provisional.

† Iceland included in EFTA from 1970.

‡ From 1971 French West Indies shown under Guadeloupe and Martinique.

           Sterling Area$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean437563596556
Australia75,28287,31196,13355,667
Bahamas268367469490
Bahrein8292020
Barbados1,4281,7502,0791,857
Bermuda8841,4121,842499
British Solomon Islands158314443289
Brunei410115
Cyprus1,2721,0071,171984
Fiji7,6388,84812,4497,292
Ghana118140228104
Gilbert and Ellice Islands197244257149
Guyana56564048
Hong Kong3,6734,5976,7473,341
India1,9621,3572,1802,355
Ireland, Republic of1,9571,9872,7231,465
Jamaica3,8834,4367,6026,956
Jordan121018163
Kenya4051,226436535
Kuwait65213146175
Malawi406314274
Malaysia6,3177,2697,9596,404
Malta3742505
Mauritius and Dependencies332550713514
Montserrat23303021
Nauru369359286220
New Hebrides226476923637
Nigeria5438159126
Norfolk Island259469583297
Pakistan2181,832435689
Papua, etc.7442,7903,4201,690
Pitcairn Island14161419
Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms15768793
Seychelles4226
Sierra Leone1321111
Singapore8,4248,7259,4556,896
South Africa2,4723,1978,95310,236
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)1,2422,0491,7411,369
Tanzania212490178220
Tonga1,5161,5861,6591,081
Trinidad and Tobago3,8594,4365,4944,225
Uganda39643666
United Kingdom382,749386,017384,660152,199
Western Samoa1,9463,4313,4252,321
Zambia248295241216
Others20102462
          Totals, sterling countries511,099540,212566,272272,641
     EFTA (Excluding U.K.)
Austria179779316175
Denmark1,8252,4541,975701
Iceland28
Norway1,3261,1981,180564
Portugal1,4991,7981,832526
Sweden2,4932,5922,108887
Switzerland and Liechtenstein1,0352,1501,459892
          Totals, EFTA countries8,35810,9718,8983,743
     EEC
Belgium and Luxembourg19,30421,29225,5299,744
France and Monaco36,78128,68227,64815,869
Germany, Federal Republic28,73429,68230,29714,175
Italy and San Marino21,59123,72419,2287,576
Netherlands13,61116,11317,0148,264
          Totals, EEC countries120,021119,492119,71755,629
     Dollar Area
American Samoa1,6152,3332,4861,414
Canada16,38345,34332,18620,308
Colombia148461013
Costa Rica1153
Dominican Republic141101
El Salvador299212
Guam1,0901,3061,4341,246
Guatemala181
Liberia1314163
Mexico7221,2551,9201,120
Panama Canal Zone10320638575
Panama Republic69472021969
Philippines7,0316,5189,1165,841
Puerto Rico, etc.5781,0361,120244
Ryukyu Islands, etc.7919717501,326
U.S. Trust Territories in Pacific7658254460
United States of America169,802166,493192,754110,790
Venezuela295430341179
Others112215
          Totals, dollar area199,346227,735243,464142,797
     Other Countries
Argentina11469249
Brazil33373847
Bulgaria50264797
Burma4154955216
Chile2513901,2234,459
China, People's Republic of3,6834,0841,65514
China, Taiwan2,4443,0732,486958
Czechoslovakia1,0142,7761,636494
Finland7841,003873216
French Guiana8510559101
French Polynesia3,5433,8854,3322,905
French West Indies72110
Germany, East1,0936671,573634
Greece6,1918,46812,2907,691
Guadeloupe55175
Hungary194859150129
Indonesia757761,233626
Iran3111,318778786
Iraq92932757
Israel914446910
Japan88,001105,557102,68451,521
Korea, Republic of1,4461,6081,7031,001
Laos7174169
Lebanon4918946282
Martinique138147
Morocco5518415480
Mozambique602610777830
Muscat and Oman1434426
Nepal819865
Netherlands Antilles562538690660
New Caledonia1,9863,1714,0792,674
Peru2,3104,1276,9465,506
Poland2,1033,1293,2741,672
Romania31882
Saudi Arabia70108128114
South Vietnam9713246214
Spain4,5384,4751,9621,063
Sudan1010714754
Syria260187201205
Thailand2,5453,1714,4534,077
Tunisia12516077
Turkey2553489
United Arab Republic9053117102
U.S.S.R11,66916,93417,92511,319
Uruguay4492
Wallis and Futuna Islands142204129
Yugoslavia1,6793,7202,140465
Others4656130196
          Totals, other countries138,600176,801179,362101,648
          Totals, all countries977,4231,075,2121,117,713576,457
Ships' stores8,7858,61410,4126,064
Passengers2,8882,8353,5931,518
Destination optional478
          Grand totals989,0971,086,6611,131,719584,518

The table which follows shows for each of the last 7 June years and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972, the percentage of total exports (excluding gold, current coin, passengers' purchases, and ships' stores) taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

CountryJune Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970xJune Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971*
* Provisional.
STERLING AREApercent
     Australia4.694.784.897.117.708.128.609.66
     Fiji0.490.510.520.710.780.821.111.27
     Hong Kong0.200.210.290.310.380.430.600.58
     Jamaica0.470.490.490.640.400.410.681.21
     Malaysia0.840.610.770.830.650.680.711.11
     Singapore0.430.550.730.860.810.851.20
     Trinidad and Tobago0.500.480.440.440.390.410.490.73
     United Kingdom50.8144.5143.7043.3139.1635.9034.4126.40
     Other2.302.902.501.811.972.633.175.15
               Totals, sterling countries60.3054.9354.1555.8952.2950.2450.6647.30
EFTA (excluding U.K.)
     Austria0.010.010.020.070.030.03
     Denmark0.240.250.340.210.190.230.180.12
     Norway0.130.070.120.100.140.110.110.10
     Portugal0.350.250.200.230.150.170.160.09
     Sweden0.420.420.260.240.260.240.190.15
     Switzerland0.020.070.120.130.110.200.130.15
               Totals, EFTA countries1.171.071.040.910.861.020.800.65
EEC
     Belgium and Luxembourg3.272.941.621.411.971.982.281.69
     France4.605.303.453.263.762.672.472.75
     Germany, Federal Republic4.043.442.852.592.942.762.712.46
     Italy2.452.632.081.912.212.211.721.31
     Netherlands1.831.421.661.351.391.501.521.43
               Totals, EEC countries16.1915.7411.6510.5312.2811.1110.719.65
CountryJune Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970xJune Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971*
* Provisional.
DOLLAR AREApercent
     Canada1.431.261.471.301.684.222.883.52
     Philippines0.500.550.710.740.720.610.821.01
     U.S.A.12.6614.1215.8617.0117.3715.4817.2519.22
     Other0.350.360.430.510.630.870.831.01
               Totals, dollar countries14.9416.2918.4719.5620.4021.1821.7824.77
OTHER
     China, People's Republic of0.430.821.140.700.380.380.15
     Greece0.370.480.450.480.630.791.101.33
     Japan4.347.478.858.399.009.829.198.94
     Peru0.290.240.670.490.240.380.620.96
     Spain0.240.450.210.310.460.420.180.18
     U.S.S.R.0.400.771.280.721.191.571.601.96
     Others1.331.742.082.022.273.043.164.23
               Totals, other countries7.4011.9814.6913.1214.1816.4416.0517.63
               Totals, all countries100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below.

June YearUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaFranceWest GermanyUnited StatesOther Countries*Total Merchandise Exports

* Including ships' stores and passengers' duty free stores.

† Provisional.

$(million)
1962286.57.521.536.819.786.2124.7582.9
1963296.49.027.541.122.4107.8123.4627.6
1964347.88.834.046.928.3110.7160.7737.2
1965374.810.634.633.929.893.6165.2742.2
1966339.09.636.440.426.2107.5208.2767.3
1967314.810.635.224.820.5114.2207.1727.2
1968352.010.557.826.521.0138.2214.4820.5
1969382.716.475.336.828.7169.8279.4989.1
1970386.045.387.328.729.7166.5343.11,086.7
1971384.732.296.127.630.3192.8368.01,131.7
Jul-Dec 1971†152.220.355.715.914.2110.8215.5584.5

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries. This table shows the importance of wool as the chief commodity in New Zealand's trade with Europe.

CountryJune YearJuly-Dec 1971*
19671968196919701971x
* Provisional.
 $(000)
Austria3938179779316175
Belgium11,63611,46219,30421,29225,5299,744
Bulgaria63859650264797
Czechoslovakia1,3319461,0142,7761,636494
Denmark2,4421,6841,8252,4541,975701
Finland6487727841,003873216
France24,82526,51036,78128,68227,64815,869
Germany, Federal Republic20,51721,03328,73429,68230,29714,175
Germany, Democratic Republic1,6321,0351,0936671,573634
Greece3,2683,9166,1918,46812,2907,691
Hungary359261194859150129
Italy15,00815,54821,59123,72419,2287,576
Netherlands11,95311,00613,61116,11317,0148,264
Norway8408121,3261,1981,180564
Poland1,6461,3462,1033,1293,2741,672
Portugal1,4611,8981,4991,7981,832526
Spain1,5292,5434,5384,4751,9621,063
Sweden1,8801,9532,4932,5922,108887
Switzerland8471,0251,0352,1501,459892
Turkey20342553489
U.S.S.R.9,1845,83911,66916,93417,92511,319
Yugoslavia1,1901,0471,6793,7202,140465
               Totals112,89511.1,303157,717172,812171,25583,064
 percent
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries15.5213.6616.1416.0715.3214.41
 $(000)
Value of wool exported to European countries76,43075,847106,928102,05699,51540,332
 percent
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)67.7068.2967.8059.0658.1148.56
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)43.9047.9450.3549.9752.9853.26

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest June years.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 metric tons$(000)metric tons$(000)metric tons$(000)
Australia4,2393,2704,5813,7487,0035,296
Bulgaria4492631,351757
Belgium24,18114,05030,01217,21433,66519,173
Canada2,5521,9652,5021,9701,6751,341
China, People's Republic of2,8312,3783,8922,4141,279768
Czechoslovakia1,6671,0014,8102,6763,1161,600
Denmark1,3671,1271,8541,6371,257990
Finland344296465399541435
France45,66729,01630,13518,12626,39915,376
Germany, Democratic Republic1,7131,0921,0656672,4941,573
Germany, Federal Republic22,96917,32620,55215,44120,78915,181
Greece3,3582,9324,6244,1477,9626,889
Ireland, Republic of1,9511,2961,9051,3222,6261,835
Italy19,23213,90018,45213,03212,6388,233
Japan28,40422,62031,56224,34627,24619,351
Mexico655368496297903531
Netherlands9,6045,7937,3434,49113,0027,280
Norway623552865809805669
Poland2,5561,8584,3232,7775,1103,241
Portugal2,2611,3972,8511,7163,0251,723
South Africa8957771,1259851,163963
Spain3,0362,0182,2031,4131,015585
Sweden1,4781,2771,2561,102884737
U.S.S.R.14,67611,66819,45412,83720,74713,317
United Kingdom68,60545,81762,76941,14056,40434,027
United States39,31925,34135,26922,91632,93120,621
Yugoslavia1,4891,4404,0042,9572,3671,635
Other countries2,2461,8054,2333,3805,0963,722
               Totals307,917212,381303,050204,222293,494187,850
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa156143281242298293
Bahamas272045376653
Barbados1,1567191,4269021,381950
Belgium41243723674599
Bermuda5115858728891,0191,162
Canada7,2995,65146,04035,37927,40722,647
Cyprus772554375289482466
Fiji295437725091
France46315865154186
French Polynesia1,3801,6001,3851,7031,4971,949
Germany, Federal Republic452623172831
Greece383743265539
Guam9749241,1911,1161,1541,168
Hong Kong6136886778121,0241,322
Israel
Italy21128770
Jamaica1,2228461,4899971,9491,393
Japan1,9071,3123,3352,5363,2962,603
Korea255195831601446315
Malaysia181179376388173211
Netherlands646492302302801892
Netherlands Antilles433353320276303308
New Caledonia40328622123175
Philippines648585313375504654
Puerto Rico5625288137629751,026
Ryukyu Islands302420609765564690
Singapore1,9141,7482,3602,2672,0342,309
Sweden13020410919085163
Switzerland6485871,1771,302760834
Tonga362247233418
Trinidad and Tobago1,5811,2222,0641,6162,2901,923
United Kingdom10,5997,99514,00410,23716,87215,569
United States95,79480,29687,90385,721106,853106,987
Other countries7527856,1344,0844,6803,483
               Totals131,121109,121174,898154,244178,001170,414
Frozen Lamb
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia5301961336632
Barbados320123375159417205
Belgium and Luxembourg449175633298544278
Bermuda197134331235366289
Canada8,2003,1741,5761,0032,2761,384
Cyprus1,2574311,136513810364
Fiji1,037301862309885327
France and Monaco18310413210312787
French Polynesia238151290208290221
Germany, Federal Republic6872631,7858533,0231,404
Greece7,0572,4368,9003,80710,2974,608
Hong Kong383153456203515249
Italy1,6358128394981,262714
Jamaica186116171111249193
Japan3,5221,4735,6122,7313,7662,022
Malaysia39314248521222892
Netherlands1,3455001,1645332,002968
Singapore1,054434870379742351
Switzerland526228608308416228
Tonga641112699121825154
Trinidad and Tobago295145377200294167
United Kingdom291,865132,594271,076132,753282,818139,853
United States8,4244,76011,4316,8398,3105,444
Western Samoa7171257981401,003174
Zambia42214734213717173
Other countries2,0398713,2331,5612,7241,332
               Totals333,604150,106314,313154,280324,361161,182
Frozen Mutton
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia8613
Barbados89201062212932
Belgium and Luxembourg183441624422277
Canada1,0284186602931,480877
Cyprus29910620465449170
Fiji4479746712934398
France and Monaco140321674415043
French Polynesia56312417137
Germany, Federal Republic1,205224439103675161
Greece2,47245118438921195
Jamaica1,0491931,7514632,024604
Japan90,48418,09082,07519,62150,70913,924
Netherlands2174533788499138
Papua and New Guinea238503639718049
Peru857160
Singapore14332188458620
Tonga145239618418
Trinidad and Tobago1964822363396136
United Kingdom31,8655,00519,6374,63822,4805,589
United States32014420124231
Western Samoa791283166614
Other countries60913710,9062,77613,3273,117
               Totals132,20725,375118,09228,59394,23325,291
Frozen Pork
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Belgium19173243912
Fiji443126227357
France135130105137216272
French Polynesia735954535153
Germany, Federal Republic262148155103155117
Guam3721
Japan2171251501261817
Nauru281675
Netherlands1912962117
New Caledonia1106454452218
Singapore1377518111410
United Kingdom311372
Other countries714261475744
               Totals1,182752672598641619
Other Frozen Meat
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia2334630232814
Canada277216438258357245
Cyprus1185670445034
France2,6911,3222,8702,3092,5582,020
French Polynesia229141253214173139
Germany, Federal Republic2,1321,9492,2372,9082,5433,194
Greece39110214026519178
Hong Kong1394126786354128
Italy2428016598291195
Jamaica1,0283651,180508945468
Japan3501509205591,062680
Netherlands392335425552520618
Netherlands Antilles2239318986225125
Philippines386752263713121
Singapore25110625812818596
Sweden330296304429356435
Trinidad and Tobago29411130514615484
United Kingdom26,12412,73128,18316,77828,27818,057
United States526529506536556639
Other countries7823921,1948141,032858
               Totals37,13519,13640,15826,54040,31828,228
Canned and Other Preserved Meats
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa36632648851984131
Fiji259246284262284282
French Polynesia188230187218321400
Gilbert and Ellice Islands9510510110596109
Italy217363396828463
Jamaica25017118012313497
Japan13642164453416
Nauru95107116130118146
Papua and New Guinea1361151261027355
Philippines12121281211049
Tonga193171196168182176
United Kingdom1,9231,9751,3681,1891,3031,483
Other countries5173179045391,056612
               Totals4,4973,8614,4813,4814,0803,619
Butter
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa81541046810670
Bahamas281165249146360215
Barbados231134251143254154
Bermuda18382284131308159
Canada1,2006131711
Cyprus1136635207949
Fiji633362941551744506
French Polynesia236159206139205138
Germany, Federal Republic355210335190282176
Ghana2012311853
Guyana209177126
Hong Kong319183394208384213
India1861241046911
Jamaica2,1121,2332,0691,3003,2312,132
Japan19395432311158
Malaysia1,432702261121666462
Mexico7453111,8958202,4181,111
Netherlands Antilles11775174105230142
Nigeria163
Panama Canal Zone12098150121120103
Panama Republic784639811670179140
Peru2,2891,0875,0652,2568,0713,644
Philippines1,4397521,3326851,355665
Singapore1,1656661,8367571,8571,002
South Africa7,7504,876
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)737379354175450218
Thailand1,1075671,150557716421
Tonga121791308612281
Trinidad and Tobago1,2347191,2937401,225765
United Kingdom183,973104,333173,59298,662157,50394,711
United States1,263594782389834645
Western Samoa1348814796182121
Other countries2961708524911,615929
               Totals203,118114,760194,893109,747191,392113,926
Cheese
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Ass. States in Eastern Caribbean14187176109211131
Australia8986311,1358051,138868
Barbados504221556248722343
Belgium253124220108
Bermuda62261124814967
Cyprus6732753711256
Fiji643052256732
French Polynesia91661057110272
Germany, Federal Republic648317626295341172
Guyana42
Hong Kong633251268343
Italy
Jamaica1,5265711,4265213,3471,297
Japan4,9542,1396,9163,0076,7082,870
Malaysia47222412147
Netherlands3615361712559
Philippines2941325416697332
Singapore26712224811318489
South Africa95431,8471,046
Trinidad and Tobago1,4345172,1187602,150807
United Kingdom69,17333,64968,00733,00566,88534,782
United States5,5693,7586,8784,9146,0494,804
Other countries173106331202289172
               Totals86,27642,60389,15144,34291,21748,050
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Barbados2644249175540103
Canada9542301,052277941242
China, Taiwan3,1395034,2626693,651798
Denmark1752286940072
Fiji757225953286957321
French Polynesia300852296921073
Hong Kong2604446875677142
India7,5541,1065,8967538,6511,643
Indonesia151391,4002352,583629
Israel492631,968446
Italy507
Jamaica1,7072571,8752806,3681,173
Japan30,7224,17333,7354,35017,3533,287
Kuwait3405873115031077
Malaysia18,9763,50425,3774,63822,3124,924
Mauritius6621651,2763001,168343
Mozambique7371281,1181771,089228
Pakistan1,0141668,2411,1951,373258
Peru6,4891,03011,8241,85416,6473,233
Philippines17,5412,73119,1112,93222,5544,590
Ryukyu1,1291291,45916312515
Singapore5,9781,0229,1891,5517,6491,482
South Africa305504104
South Vietnam213386461161
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)2,6757054,6011,4443,9031,274
Thailand6,7471,14210,8941,76314,8862,976
Trinidad and Tobago1,9249081,9336554,8131,458
United Kingdom19,6204,13029,4846,1497,3891,938
Western Samoa232722498226091
Venezuela78412599914929851
Other countries1,0212773,8316908,3382,081
               Totals132,60523,129181,43931,092157,91734,052
Casein
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Canada8032490193679300
France1,6397433,4531,5293,4691,614
Germany, Federal Republic8,0773,6979,6894,33911,0254,860
India15784
Italy1,1875443,9511,7783,4201,598
Japan14,0025,90112,5895,11316,4397,122
Netherlands1,0995022,6211,1612,8861,316
Spain2851281,0774731,042467
Sweden880368886372999452
United Kingdom5,1402,2485,4902,3215,6992,624
United States16,4047,34518,9217,66419,8748,560
Other countries4271941,8448092,8991,285
               Totals49,23621,70861,01025,75568,43630,202
Edible Tallow
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia15018
Burma30035759
China, People's Republic of3038616
Fiji115152153
Hong Kong126161211913927
India5476412716
Japan889905286931
Malaysia807994426814027
Singapore87710973912639977
Tanzania715825017326649
United Kingdom6037364810133569
Other countries28739961159566112
               Totals5,4466424,0696322,024389
Inedible Tallow
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia9121106539249294
Burma2,942329506
China, People's Republic of5,1514699221392,648442
Fiji77683785130836151
France1,8241735,9477358,1061,269
Germany, Federal Republic822731051312614
India6817642157
Japan9,82798712,1671,59417,3202,720
Kenya1,3201323,46647251180
Malaysia3,0423051,3871852,264368
Mauritius1,6991331,5431521,774241
Mozambique3,6892942,6813002,640419
Netherlands8,7977138,5019655,120695
Philippines2,563224840932,190343
Singapore999103735991,237203
South Africa4,7373962,4872561,123162
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)1,8471321,11713838867
Trinidad and Tobago1,4691311,27614525544
United Kingdom7,82968014,6051,86010,2901,603
Other countries3,3153177,5559595,088827
               Totals64,2415,85967,1938,38162,4589,747
Cattle and Horse Hides
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia1,70523428548647103
China, People's Republic of53573
Denmark1,8212534977348174
Germany, Federal Republic4,8446204,7727632,669368
Greece1,2121881,7733331,783297
Italy26,0983,75827,4664,52134,8665,412
Japan6,8721,01912,0252,20910,4541,768
Netherlands4,8176993,9046852,009310
Norway8121121,1781801,322188
Poland1,49324213133
Spain1,7172441,4272142,889371
United Kingdom2,4723231,891314929134
Yugoslavia1,0101274,2526152,945417
Other countries2,0693052,2673981,791296
               Totals57,4768,19761,73710,35262,9149,769
Calf and Kip Skins
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia40211112433356
France20511365426328287
Germany, Federal Republic32218139718222072
Italy1,0185721,5467373,7391,148
Japan1,5165661,321488560162
Netherlands43624438916235691
Spain8533721,86274810719
United Kingdom1,27374916566351115
United States434236673231
Other countries11531721178942169
               Totals6,5743,1757,2472,8896,5941,871
Sheepskins (With Wool)
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
France3,6656353,0945473,775575
Italy54011385818624444
Netherlands102123307720
Portugal143
Spain2,406441668147704104
United Kingdom338741,477293991219
Other countries40113509218448
               Totals7,0141,2796,5701,2945,9741,011
Sheepskins (Without Wool)
 doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)
Australia2836418797
Belgium2573,9441322,1502193,133
Canada1415886921233
Finland252094135136210
France2583,1213763,5624434,902
Germany, Federal Republic373475546624178
Italy801,3461301,83881977
Netherlands1772,8043215,3482253,133
Spain1041,1891021,12519183
United Kingdom6158,7077268,6266928,524
United States1,40618,2728077,6821,16115,255
Other countries8915042824274
               Totals3,00940,5522,75131,6522,95237,101
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia559646971225
Canada1,8432,5562,4903,8051,8702,899
Germany, Federal Republic4859094799705041,200
Japan124190193413237572
United Kingdom3,6815,0273,1105,8293,0966,037
United States1,1441,9391,1402,4191,3512,973
Yugoslavia6810740932256
Other countries72106147346166341
               Totals7,47210,9297,64613,9727,25914,102
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Belgium7,7904847,81858611,980901
Canada4,9993127,1935204,841363
Fiji574366754569752
Finland2,4681541,5281151,08281
French Polynesia578376514559845
Germany, Federal Republic7,65848010,24976911,004825
Hong Kong2,5761612,3901673,221242
Ireland, Republic of2,4871553,3672533,000225
New Caledonia686436904766850
Norway1,3.63841,5001131,670125
Philippines1,405913602718014
Singapore1,295812,02313698074
Sweden2,3801491,88014160045
United Kingdom48,9873,06469,9685,17865,0774,849
United States3,1401965,7044214,805360
Venezuela2,3981502,4881702,210166
Other countries958641,8821332,342179
               Totals91,7865,741120,3678,863114,9568,595
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 cental$(000)cental$(000)cental$(000)
Australia52,50684452,27393929,141653
Chile14,44224514,78926112,158257
France24,72347529,90951334,134711
Germany, Federal Republic1,968676,23614111,226357
Ireland, Republic of11,5451815,74512512,742228
Italy1,141181,879391,85137
Japan2,939823,5731073,205118
Netherlands1,289423,155784,201131
South Africa4,344535,765668229
United Kingdom59,9261,29545,0621,13595,6712,099
United States1,564491,4724785268
Uruguay1,47641
Other countries2,454635,1691258,259230
               Totals180,3173,453175,0273,576214,2624,896
Peas (Food), Including Frozen
 lb(000)$(000)Lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia9,3001,4174,5196904,333843
Belgium and Luxembourg2,252773,2021015,391158
Fiji1,08364936521,44880
Hong Kong46543724651,401111
Japan7,97225810,59358915,961804
Netherlands1,306461,268432,969101
Singapore806691,023831,800132
South Africa824304,8342059,145464
United Kingdom23,5091,34419,6341,2299,789340
United States583211,4085185029
Other countries1,308875,2594488,903438
               Totals49,4093,45853,4013,55661,9903,499
Peas (Seed)
 cental$(000)cental$(000)cental$(000)
Australia122,82667995,91054068,949404
France6,133343,675203,05916
Germany, Federal Republic24,72814520,0941175,89432
Japan6,3303011,6655530 
Netherlands6,4723910,050585,74131
South Africa3,6702112,078621,3118
United Kingdom90,53549190,676547105,231616
Other countries9,1994511,665597,28640
               Totals269,8931,484255,8131,458197,5011,146
Wood Pulp and Waste Paper
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia64,7175,59472,0286,26881,5337,788
Japan7,0895619691062,772291
Philippines8,6296765,1265676,348781
Other countries8,3476524,2463547,002640
               Totals88,7827,48482,3697,29497,6559,499
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 sup ft sup ft sup ft 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia53,6614,75252,5835,15643,7254,360
Japan37,7692,23834,8191,99837,5542,368
New Caledonia1,7701835,4607715,915982
Tonga97212748660842142
United Kingdom697523,58643914,135934
Western Samoa9251101,2281701,247175
Other countries2,1992615,8917377,9481,048
               Totals97,9937,724104,0539,331111,36610,010
Sawlogs and Veneer (Logs, Conifer)
 cu ft cu ft cu ft 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia3021183114
Japan49,83618,69861,48923,23361,98125,296
Korea, Republic of2,9161,1041,7846711,784705
Other countries871515
               Totals53,06319,92763,31923,93363,76526,001
Fish (Other than Canned)
 cwt$(000)cwt$(000)cwt$(000)
Australia58,2781,94561,8612,18086,4913,064
France3,2176281,5302402,22980
Japan3,6595918,88646122,911602
Netherlands4,3021212,932938,209228
United States59,21314,15645,52710,40343,86211,204
Western Samoa3,010271,915222,27631
Other countries13,00531221,3631,03534,9751,709
               Totals144,68417,248154,01414,433200,95416,919
Newsprint
 cwt cwt cwt 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia2,34415,8362,31215,5092,11013,597
Philippines36125291081870
Singapore145023831763
Thailand1861
Other countries16762814548299
               Totals2,42716,1492,39215,8452,19414,028

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
196619671968196919701971
 $(million)
Whangarei21.622.532.334.835.838.0
Auckland235.3233.2249.2277.8305.4309.6
Hamilton
Tauranga26.929.746.972.189.2116.8
Gisborne7.57.17.19.410.712.3
Napier78.672.183.2105.6113.7130.6
Taranaki64.667.573.779.884.591.5
Wanganui0.50.1
Palmerston North0.1
Wellington96.385.999.9115.5120.1116.8
Picton3.12.53.84.33.54.2
Nelson6.65.88.312.913.614.2
Greymouth0.1
Lyttelton67.060.664.180.282.081.5
Timaru40.034.747.761.561.467.5
Oamaru
Otago44.840.029.438.140.241.8
Bluff74.565.574.696.8104.3106.7
               Totals767.3727.2820.5989.11,064.51,131.7

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually about one-third of all exports being dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-eighth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In latest years, passengers duty-free purchases, ships' and international aircraft stores, make up between one-fifth and one-third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

$(000)
Year
* Provisional.
     19564,767
     19574,528
     19584,377
     19595,321
     19605,400
     19617,183
Jan–June
     19623,335
     19637,563
     19648,844
     19658,512
     196610,454
     19679,601
     196815,838
     196920,219
     197022,195
     197124,022x
Jul-Dec
1971*
13,691
Jan-Jun
1972*
14,935

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest 3 June years and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972 are shown in the following table.

CountryJune YearJuly-Dec 1971*
196919701971x
* Provisional.
 $(thousand)
Australia5,3906,4148,2515,807
Fiji1,5691,1751,9631,104
Hong Kong938016762
Malaysia46307326
Papua and New Guinea611483311
Singapore198174293113
South Africa104746530
Tonga1019998116
United Kingdom1,7792,6211,202723
Western Samoa207717339217
Germany, Federal Republic235319393292
Netherlands55112520643
Canada17711392100
Philippines2104322329
United States1,6151,7462,0521,324
Brazil186
Indonesia62944437
Japan187636223105
Other countries1,3169721,340444
Ships' stores3,5913,1413,3111,656
Passengers goods2,7832,6983,4591,455
               Totals (excluding gold and current coin)20,21922,19523,62813,691

GOODS SHIPPED TO COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands and the values of goods shipped to the islands are summarised below.

YearExports
 $(000)
19561,132
19571,313
19581,501
19591,298
19601,490
19612,081
19621,888
19632,001
June Year$(000)
19642,397
19653,020
19662,846
19672,796
19683,461
19693,590
19705,024
1971x6,995
* Provisional.

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 38.

22 C—IMPORTS

GENERAL—Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade.

IMPORT CONTROL—Reference to import control is made in Section 22A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by Sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised). It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its relatively limited range of exports.

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
$(thousand)
196230,8325,62523,46745,93389344,741
196335,2537,51922,60644,33595047,707
196448,6277,00327,53047,8191,10555,450
196535,4697,74531,02851,6911,08865,379
196637,1178,14634,95439,9451,27380,238
196731,3848,40736,68044,8631,14377,674
196831,9618,64931,81148,0421,35176,766
196934,31710,55443,68956,2481,415102,861
197045,2128,66651,39659,0941,709116,345
1971x55,31212,23747,35460,6252,586134,804
July-Dec 1971*26,0866,86024,86029,3531,44274,625
Jan-June 1972*30,1646,00320,46437,2451,30268,354
Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and TransportMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
* Provisional.
$(thousand)
     1962162,334156,17933,2074,617507,828
     1963167,333159,45435,4463,137523,741
     1964187,870217,96041,4812,523637,368
     1965195,223230,98342,2261,833662,667
     1966216,289263,40346,8251,236729,426
     1967210,863290,90846,3573,926752,206
     1968182,032196,38243,6332,280622,908
     1969233,280254,90559,5572,371799,197
     1970x271,612319,71366,5524,027944,324
     1971x296,296370,81177,22813,3141,070,567
July-Dec 1971*149,104217,91944,7084,660579,616
Jan-June 1972*137,026225,46739,4495,185570,658

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions for the year ended June 1971 and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972.

Section and Division S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971*Jan-June 1972*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
* Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals$(thousand)
     Div. 00 Live animals3,5943,8111,1251,2161,2541,462
     Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations606686189234216227
     Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs285277122131109123
     Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations5,9956,4311,8382,0001,5951,757
     Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations6,3187,7362,8173,4321,2981,577
     Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables13,36116,3147,4268,3477,93510,393
     Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations12,20016,5746,4407,29810,75011,707
     Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof12,22614,9155,7397,1266,6378,104
     Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including un-milled cereals)2873757510292154
     Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations438470316330278288
               Totals, Section 055,31267,58926,08630,21530,16435,793
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco$(thousand)
     Div. 11 Beverages5,7946,5093,9954,5613,2983,684
     Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures6,4427,1352,8663,0292,7042,917
               Totals, Section 112,23713,6446,8607,5906,0026,601
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
     Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed529570279316346385
     Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels1,8932,0611,0741,1451,0761,245
     Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed7,0857,6363,4383,7983,2413,453
     Div. 24 Wood and cork3,7415,3871,8842,6941,2881,852
     Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper2,3762,9759461,196738865
     Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste7,3008,2353,3743,8682,7473,140
     Div.27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones17,66128,49111,12718,5638,53215,019
     Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap1,9282,139107128118132
     Div.29 Animal and vegetable4,8415,1712,6302,7672,3782,502
               Totals, Section 247,35462,66624,86034,47520,46428,593
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
     Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes21429918427259
     Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products60,25283,22029,09538,92737,16247,818
     Div.34 Gas15917574867894
               Totals, Section 360,62583,69329,35339,28537,24547,921
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
     Div. 41 Animal oils and fats678231342935
     Div.42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed2,2522,6001,2891,5171,1341,339
     Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin267310121145138169
               Totals, Section 42,5862,9911,4421,6951,3011,543
Section 5. Chemicals
     Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds37,56740,51924,10926,37721,36823,170
     Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas371478295403207248
     Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials9,0329,0494,8454,8004,0063,945
     Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products27,86624,87614,34012,47814,65912,995
     Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations4,4004,4072,4352,5792,0872,116
     Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured7,33110,0253,6264,7444,2615,335
     Div. 57 Explosives2,1192,083852890788815
     Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins30,39029,49914,82714,69613,80513,373
     Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products15,72817,1999,29610,1117,1737,856
               Totals, Section 5134,804138,13574,62577,07768,35469,853
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
     Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs1,3081,368845895690739
     Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.i.8,0187,9064,5304,4784,4664,380
     Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)2,4872,8511,4931,7099971,169
     Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof12,05113,2806,5977,1346,0636,615
     Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products94,68899,64255,91759,01448,51352,144
     Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.i.15,30017,4147,7058,5256,9617,807
     Div. 67 Iron and steel81,99991,53134,55736,70833,86636,377
     Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals42,22541,50217,80417,30017,13916,365
     Div. 69 Manufactures of metals38,21938,98719,65520,19618,33018,861
               Totals, Section 6296,296314,481149,104155,958137,026144,459
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
     Div. 71 Machinery other than electric162,853166,08292,10895,57485,07188,343
     Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances69,53069,93035,43935,56135,98036,500
     Div. 73 Transport equipment138,428145,12290,37293,701104,417109,237
               Totals, Section 7370,811381,133217,919224,836225,468234,080
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
     Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, lighting fittings, and fixtures1,1141,237568629546593
     Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures322355188207174193
     Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles1491611151246874
     Div. 84 Clothing3,0203,1621,3861,4681,8542,014
     Div. 85 Footwear1,5741,6827337901,2311,391
     Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks31,21029,30116,69315,72214,63313,953
     Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.i.39,83941,73925,02426,50420,94221,995
               Totals, Section 877,22877,63844,70845,44439,44840,213
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind13,31413,5584,6604,8355,1855,447
Grand totals, merchandise imports1,070,5671,155,528579,616621,409570,658614,502

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—The United Kingdom has been the chief supplier of New Zealand imports since the eighties of last century. Prior to that the main supply was from Australia. In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June year 1971 only 28.9 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. In the year ended June 1971, 21.0 percent of imports came from Australia. Japan is becoming an important trading partner; in the latest year 10.3 percent of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentages received from the various currency areas.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 11 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.
* Provisional.
 $(million)
     196322997462199748524
     19642591325724713359637
     19652621327824212875663
     19662891437527813584729
     196729115010127514397752
     19682081417518813368623
     1969267172102243158100799
     1970300220123279198123944
     1971x3292521273102251301,071
July-Dec 1971x17515052165*133*56*580*

The next table gives imports on a c.d.v. basis by countries of origin for the year ended June 1971 and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972.

CountryJune Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971*
Sterling Area$(000)$(000)
Australia22,467133,490
Bahamas1415
Bahrein4,4622,700
British Solomon Islands5630
Brunei4,069765
Fiji3,0722,500
Ghana2,066793
Gilbert and Ellice Islands2,1651,902
Guyana12833
Hong Kong18,65510,379
India6,8016,218
Ireland, Republic of533269
Jamaica288248
Kenya600159
Kuwait20,4648,669
Malawi8131
Malaysia5,5352,482
Malta, including Gozo5010
Mauritius and Dependencies6219
Nauru5,5393,429
New Hebrides Cond.571
New Zealand Re-imports1,817747
Nigeria12268
Pakistan3,5872,438
Papua and New Guinea526299
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen1,445178
Singapore1,6781,599
South Africa3,2871,414
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)3,6342,444
Tanzania (incl. Pemba)1,296418
Tonga388197
Trinidad and Tobago10927
Uganda1,930530
United Kingdom309,946164,516
Western Samoa1,515685
Other4615
               Totals631,490349,715
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)
Austria1,615939
Denmark2,7822,079
Iceland1
Norway2,1551,116
Portugal654598
Sweden8,5048,129
Switzerland and Liechtenstein10,8755,795
               Totals26,58618,657
E.E.C.—
Belgium and Luxembourg6,7673,080
France and Monaco11,0016,048
Germany, Federal Republic49,18426,015
Italy and San Marino14,3618,289
Netherlands14,1795,632
               Totals95,49249,064
Dollar Area$(000)$(000)
Canada88,37819,995
Colombia1,24516
Costa Rica2611
Dominican Republic4,240
Ecuador1,287679
Mexico522474
Philippines330253
United States129,85755,833
Other294
               Totals175,91477,265
Other Countries
Angola incl. Cabinda6675
Argentina168
Brazil1,986954
Bulgaria222
Central African Republic2926
Chile9789
China, People's  
Republic of4,4482,916
China, Taiwan725679
Congo (People's Republic)21
Czechoslovakia1,835818
Finland517354
French Polynesia225
Germany, East415182
Greece9135
Hungary15562
Indonesia904486
Iran8,9844,554
Iraq10314
Israel234143
Ivory Coast14412
Japan110,27267,940
Korea, Republic of805445
Morocco189
Mozambique153106
Netherlands  
Antilles3118
New Caledonia100 
Peru3713
Poland452224
Romania5322
Saudi Arabia4,4771,854
Spain1,250871
Sudan8216
Syria134
Thailand733637
Turkey152114
U.S.S.R.1,202563
Yemen261463
Yugoslavia115159
Zaire Republic3110
Other3435
               Totals141,08684,914
          Grand Totals1,070,567579,616

On a country of origin basis the following table shows for the latest 7 June years and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972 the percentage of the value (c.d.v.) of total New Zealand imports.

CountryJune Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967June Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971xJuly-Dec 1971†

* Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore together formed Malaysia on 16 September 1963. Singapore independent from August 1965.

† Provisional.

‡ Alaska and Hawaii included from 1966.

Sterling Areapercent
     Australia19.3118.5219.0021.3319.8120.9521.0623.03
     Bahrein0.130.030.120.060.210.390.420.47
     Fiji0.120.170.160.110.310.100.290.43
     Ghana0.150.270.160.330.130.290.190.14
     Hong Kong1.301.281.262.091.721.891.741.79
     India1.311.500.940.941.110.900.641.07
     Malaysia1.480.840.780.750.830.680.520.43
     Nauru0.380.400.520.660.770.670.520.59
     Singapore*0.170.400.290.380.320.160.28
     South Africa0.280.340.320.380.490.420.310.24
     Sri Lanka (Ceylon)0.670.650.590.710.620.470.340.42
     United Kingdom36.5038.1336.5930.1630.4729.5528.9528.38
     Western Samoa0.170.140.110.220.160.150.140.12
     Other3.233.223.173.923.893.673.732.94
               Totals65.0365.6464.1261.9560.8960.4558.9960.34
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)
     Austria0.140.130.110.120.110.150.150.16
     Denmark0.240.250.250.300.230.260.260.36
     Norway0.170.160.290.170.190.140.200.19
     Portugal0.080.060.660.080.080.070.060.10
     Sweden1.570.920.971.301.170.770.791.40
     Switzerland0.940.990.891.021.160.991.021.00
               Totals3.142.512.572.992.952.392.483.22
E.E.C.
     Belgium0.560.460.470.440.520.470.630.53
     France0.690.720.800.830.830.831.031.04
     Germany, Fed. Rep.2.833.063.573.384.233.894.594.49
     Italy0.921.051.411.341.391.261.341.43
     Netherlands1.391.321.151.071.051.021.320.97
               Totals6.396.617.397.088.037.458.928.47
Dollar Area
     Canada3.874.063.924.743.813.973.583.45
     U.S.A.‡11.3311.4912.8310.9712.4713.0412.139.63
     Other0.600.320.550.490.160.680.720.24
               Totals15.8015.8717.3016.2016.4417.6916.4313.33
Other Countries
China, People's
     Republic of0.300.380.410.460.620.460.420.50
     Czechoslovakia0.170.160.210.210.190.190.170.14
     Indonesia0.100.290.240.110.130.170.080.08
     Iran1.840.910.761.571.271.210.840.79
     Japan5.546.165.848.258.088.2710.3011.72
     Netherlands, Antilles0.230.020.020.01
     Saudi Arabia0.300.360.510.580.520.530.420.32
     Other1.161.110.620.590.761.190.931.06
               Totals9.649.378.6111.7911.6912.0213.1814.65
          Grand Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1970 and 1971. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1969–701970–71
 $(000)
Oranges
     Australia1,4401,499
     All countries1,8681,965
Sugar (not refined)
     Australia4,4412,934
     Fiji6412,796
     All countries10,12311,206
Bananas
     Costa Rica59
     Ecuador8251,284
     Tonga15575
     Western Samoa178127
     All countries1,2791,534
Dried Fruits
     Australia3,7843,490
     U.S.A.1,0051,256
     All countries5,4295,248
Whisky
     United Kingdom1,7172,312
     All countries1,8972,600
Tobacco
     (Unmanufactured)
     South Africa332335
     U.S.A.3,4354,942
     All countries3,9906,075
Rubber (Crude and Synthetic)
     Canada601366
     France141196
     Malaysia3,9383,008
     United Kingdom409276
     U.S.A.1,1061,191
     All countries7,5137,085
Wood (Shaped or Simply Worked)
     Australia750720
     Canada880414
     Ghana444661
     U.S.A.1,790814
     All countries4,3623,136
Pulp and Waste Paper
     Canada402413
     Finland559177
     Germany, Fed. Rep.23
     Sweden99
     All countries1,6112,376
Wool and Other Animal
     Hair  
     Australia2,1111,545
     United Kingdom1,0531,101
     All countries3,1712,676
Natural Phosphates
     Australia2,6842,651
     Gilbert and Ellice Islands1,8032,165
     Nauru6,31755,39
     U.S.A.433
     All countries11,23710,357
Raw Coffee
     Brazil1,0151,770
     Papua/New Guinea387470
     Tanzania811605
     Uganda1,1461,903
     All countries3,7245,301
Cocoa
     Ghana2,2521,399
     Netherlands1,270635
     All countries4,3972,306
Tea
     India.198269
     Sri Lanka (Ceylon)4,1933,407
     All countries4,6234,182
Petroleum Spirit
     Australia1,7632,686
     Iran4,0842,982
     Malaysia13016
     People's Democratic  
     Republic of Yemen1,356467
     Singapore671386
     Venezuela
     All countries9,4818,227
Kerosene
     Australia2,6563,691
     Iran1,191840
     People's Democratic Republic of Yemen1,010816
     Singapore308
     All countries6,1316,138
Lubricating Oils and Greases
     Australia1,7643,484
     United Kingdom586406
     U.S.A.911405
     All countries3,3784,419
Organic Chemicals
     Australia4,4795,386
     Germany, Fed. Rep.1,2892,054
     Japan2,3653,277
     United Kingdom4,5154,723
     U.S.A.5,2496,665
     All countries21,12524,917
Inorganic Chemicals
     Australia2,8312,997
     Germany, Fed. Rep.868981
     Japan8431,916
     United Kingdom2,3102,320
     U.S.A.1,7392,129
     All countries10,31812,501
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Products
     Australia6,0458,012
     Germany, Fed. Rep.2,0582,251
     Switzerland2,0752,913
     United Kingdom8,6839,895
     U.S.A.2,6922,527
     All countries23,12327,866
Sulphur (Other Than Sublimed, etc.)
     Canada5,7042,390
     U.S.A.2,1561,240
     All countries7,9073,684
Plastic Materials, Regenerated Cellulose, and Artificial Resins
     Australia4,9576,304
     Germany, Fed. Rep.2,0373,311
     Japan4,1415,319
     United Kingdom8,0757,339
     U.S.A.3,4234,832
     All countries26,31530,390
Rubber Tyres and Tubes
     United Kingdom840825
     U.S.A.916725
     All countries2,5832,428
Paper and Paperboard
     Australia1,3161,628
     Japan1,4591,673
     United Kingdom3,8473,875
     U.S.A.1,0661,264
     All countries9,268x10,083
Textile Yarn and Thread
     Australia2,8813,272
     Hong Kong2,2573,117
     Japan1,1201,549
     United Kingdom4,2084,064
     All countries13,05814,475
Cotton Fabrics Suitable for Manufacture of Apparel
     Australia1,017682
     China, People's Republic of1,154922
     Hong Kong3,7934,375
     Japan3,4023,056
     United Kingdom707571
     U.S.A.410548
     All countries12,16311,936
Cotton Furnishing and Household Fabrics
     Hong Kong2,2822,956
     India622811
     United Kingdom1,4191,308
     All countries6,3397,719
Manufactured Fertilisers
Canada1,4982,032
     Germany, Fed. Rep.880905
     U.S.A.2,2882,839
     All countries5,9217,331
Woven Fabrics of Synthetic Fibres
     Australia1,1541,372
     Japan8,2609,873
     United Kingdom1,1011,188
     U.S.A.817743
     All countries13,45715,836
Woven Fabrics of Regenerated Artificial Fibres
     Japan1,9321,582
     United Kingdom2,7382,555
     U.S.A.485458
     All countries7,6077,068
Knitted or Crocheted Fabrics
     Australia556720
     Hong Kong2,0682,212
     United Kingdom1,3301,364
     U.S.A.250223
     All countries4,8015,321
Household Linens
     China, People's Republic of216219
     Hong Kong600726
     India136167
     Japan511475
     United Kingdom427394
     U.S.A.111126
     All countries2,3232,544
Glass
     Netherlands305486
     United Kingdom2,2112,319
     U.S.A.304635
     All countries3,5314,567
Bars and Rods of Iron or
     Steel  
     Australia3,1883,315
     Canada327995
     United Kingdom1,2541,300
     All countries5,6787,459
Woven Woollen Fabrics
     Australia780850
     United Kingdom3,4372,867
     All countries4,7954,349
Woven Jute Fabrics
     India2,5292,103
     United Kingdom82166
     All countries2,7772,788
Universals, Plates, and Sheets of Iron or Steel
     Australia11,2388,223
     Japan16,62218,967
     United Kingdom5,5764,215
     All countries35,07133,299
Hoop and Strip of Iron or Steel
     Australia866939
     Japan642750
     United Kingdom1,2891,227
     All countries3,1753,350
Iron and Steel Wire
     Australia2,0342,354
     United Kingdom1,9902,094
     All countries4,6905,627
Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings of Iron or Steel
     Australia5,5156,588
     United Kingdom3,6013,768
     All countries11,27512,218
Copper and Copper Alloys
     Australia15,24812,906
     Canada1,6071,950
     United Kingdom2,8112,834
     All countries19,84517,894
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
     Australia3,2424,378
     Canada7,1747,373
     United Kingdom535620
     U.S.A.1,093962
     All countries13,11115,098
Nails, Screws, Nuts, Bolts, etc., of Iron, Steel, Copper
     Australia462880
     United Kingdom1,3981,422
     All countries2,7963,394
Angles, Shapes and Sections of Iron or Steel
     Australia4,1873,499
     Japan1,2553,656
     United Kingdom1,1431,865
     All countries6,84810,267
Aircraft Engines
     United Kingdom529739
     U.S.A.4,6153,114
     All countries5,1823,893
Internal Combustion Engines, Not Aircraft
     Australia727785
     Canada9791,873
     United Kingdom3,7864,558
     U.S.A.3,0464,419
     All countries9,30313,546
Agricultural Machinery and Appliances
     Germany, Fed. Rep.528427
     United Kingdom1,5741,612
     U.S.A.661498
     All countries3,6953,557
Tractors
     Italy1,1471,051
     Japan8321,042
     United Kingdom9,6478,000
     U.S.A.3,3233,383
     All countries16,39514,569
Office Machines
     Germany, Fed. Rep.994626
     Japan2,0421,599
     United Kingdom2,1732,981
     U.S.A.3,4222,517
     All countries10,4879,924
Metalworking Machinery
     Australia488562
     Germany, Fed. Rep.7341,007
     Japan313627
     United Kingdom2,9712,971
     U.S.A.222672
     All countries5,8787,114
Textile Machinery
     Germany, Fed. Rep.1,0472,318
     United Kingdom3,6114,239
     U.S.A.482431
     All countries6,8379,765
Cutlery
     Australia780942
     Japan327464
     United Kingdom9581,128
     All countries2,6503,242
Excavating, Levelling, Boring, etc., Machinery
     United Kingdom1,4572,113
U.S.A.1,2424,063
     All countries4,5557,647
Pumps and Centrifuges
     Australia2,1942,849
     United Kingdom4,1384,336
U.S.A.1,7782,072
     All countries10,76412,385
Mechanical Handling Equipment
     United Kingdom2,3994,551
     U.S.A.1,2382,290
     All countries5,05212,110
Ball, Roller, and Needle Roller Bearings
     Sweden365429
     United Kingdom1,7222,094
     U.S.A.526619
     All countries3,7044,548
Taps, Cocks, Valves
     Australia8971,149
     United Kingdom1,9272,081
     U.S.A.607794
     All countries4,0804,833
Transmission Shafts and Cranks
     Australia813911
     United Kingdom2,3852,526
     U.S.A.9591,171
     All countries4,7215,355
Electrical Power Machinery and Switchgear
     Australia2,6403,480
     Germany, Fed. Rep.1,3721,367
     Italy513259
     Japan5783,330
     Sweden876956
     Switzerland482463
     United Kingdom9,18611,027
     U.S.A.9351,456
     All countries17,73024,010
Printing and Bookbinding Machinery
     Germany, Fed. Rep.1,5501,029
     United Kingdom1,5632,032
     U.S.A.1,4651,510
     All countries5,6945,866
Electrical Measuring and Controlling Apparatus
     United Kingdom2,1312,416
     U.S.A.1,5561,031
     All countries4,7244,813
Telecommunications Equipment
     United Kingdom6,7898,088
     U.S.A.1,606528
     All countries11,13112,881
Railway Vehicles
     Australia939260
     Canada14
     Japan117192
     United Kingdom299364
     All countries5,3251,459
Motorcars
     Australia21,63725,691
     France8571,920
     Germany, Fed. Rep.1,6432,677
     Italy1,0361,763
     Japan2,2483,578
     United Kingdom34,28440,702
     All countries62,46276,922
Lorries, Trucks, and Vans
     Australia6,6316,601
     United Kingdom13,03317,863
     All countries23,20629,488
Aircraft
     United Kingdom500398
     U.S.A.19,4551,398
     All countries21,0665,046
Ships and Boats
     Hong Kong2,600 
     United Kingdom4552,405
     All countries3,1482,501
Equipment for Distributing Electricity
     Australia9721,403
     United Kingdom2,6532,564
     All countries4,5964,867
Watches and Clocks
     Germany, Fed. Rep.399519
     Switzerland1,0301,177
     United Kingdom473603
     All countries2,9143,806
Photographic Films, Plates, and Paper, (Not Developed Cinematographic Film)
     Australia3,0043,650
     United Kingdom1,3481,264
     All countries6,3397,552
Clothing
     Australia275351
     Hong Kong417445
     United Kingdom1,5851,385
     All countries3,0213,006
Printed Books and Pamphlets
     Australia1,6843,076
     United Kingdom7,2077,254
     U.S.A.2,4462,722
     All countries13,12714,795
Newspapers and Periodicals
     Australia1,9032,123
     United Kingdom1,5541,672
     U.S.A.864877
     All countries4,3924,753

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantity imported during June years 1969 to 1971 and two 6-month periods ended December 1971 and June 1972 of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 JuneJuly-Dec 1971*Jan-June 1972*
196719701971
* Provisional.
Fish, canned, and fish preparationslb(000)3,8784,63910,5773,7872,980
Wheat, unmilledbushels(000)1855532,941920550
Ricecwt(000)6182994751
Orangeslb(000)36,92530,36831,98814,68121,528
Bananas          ″     50,25053,35448,87920,47733,075
Fruit—
     Dried          ″     20,90823,45021,41411,9039,968
     Canned          ″     8,48010,49814,1906,3549,716
Desiccated coconut          ″     3,0922,6382,8261,5601,343
Edible nuts          ″     2,9162,5462,5181,2141,319
Sugarcwt(000)3,2432,9593,3021,4742,005
Coffee, rawlb(000)8,03913,48915,4595,5118,892
Tea          ″     18,42616,83914,7029,6658,286
Cocoa          ″     4,93216,5078,9223,4865,574
Winegal(000)333346340252201
Whiskyproof gal(000)563357489302203
Tobacco, unmanufacturedlb(000)7,5224,7507,4473,3023,041
Synthetic and artificial fibres          ″     6,2345,9347,0633,7162,926
Woven fabrics      
     Synthetic fibressq yd(000)20,95125,22829,02620,10318,392
     Artificial fibres          ″     16,51714,07712,3466,6274,718
Yarn and thread of silk, rayon, and synthetic fibreslb(000)4,4695,0035,6533,1282,996
Yarn of wool and animal hair          ″     173240222245254
Meat wraps, cotton          ″     4,7114,2204,3612,2252,245
Textile fabrics coated with plasticsq yd(000)9851,1041,6281,1121,115
Bags, sacks, wool packsdoz(000)812761610454180
Cotton yarn and threadlb (000)6,0657,2828,3564,4533,184
Cotton fabrics, woven, unbleachedsq yd(000)8,8039,0179,3236,6004,102
Cotton canvas and duck          ″     1,0721,3831,7071,223549
Cotton fabrics suitable for the manufacture of apparel—
     Flannelette, winceyette, diaper cloth          ″     10,17510,1879,4165,6014,351
     Other kinds          ″     28,40026,66725,61614,73212,944
Cotton furnishing and household fabrics          ″     18,46620,56125,55716,35413,059
Woven silk fabrics          ″     19919317911359
Woven woollen fabrics          ″     2,3953,3252,931975842
Woven linen, ramie, and hemp fabrics          ″     1,1391,6541,554756604
Woven jute fabrics          ″     23,36523,33526,44911,88718,582
Rubbercwt(000)383393400217205
Timber, sawnsup ft(000)17,13722,69516,4557,9365,392
Wood and paper pulptons11,21213,12817,2547,1525,564
Nitrate of soda          ″     1,05845013736510
Fertilisers, phosphatictons(000)1,0301,070982660522
Gypsum, crudecwt(00)1,8832,0342,0721,0151,228
Sulphurtons157,741242,997187,02510969
Saltcwt(000)691710611319215
Asbestos          ″     1151711648349
Petroleum, crudetons(000)1,6581,6821,8828371,078
Petroleum, partly refinedtons(000)1,0451,0291,025325488
Motor spiritgal(000)64,87086,15070,87732,99255,153
Distillate fuels          ″     42,97262,61150,43426,02129,993
Kerosene and white spirit          ″     53,77659,25657,67928,84625,917
Lubricating oils and preparations          ″     12,19811,14413,5656,7125,111
Cream of tartar and substitutescwt(000)70.495.2137.153.428.2
Acids          ″     40.831.137.523.317.8
Caustic soda          ″     139.9143.9223.8128.5123.9
Carbonate of soda          ″     532.8425.4424.0255.8401.7
Calcium carbide          ″     56.970.869.926.036.9
Sulphate of ammoniatons18,76324,02520,76111,3467,770
Potash          ″     131,458162,024194,99778,13099,131
Pig iron and ingotscwt(000)199.7231.8534.1102.984.9
Bars and rods of iron or steel          ″     1,585.51,814.71,536.5291.9317.1
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steel          ″     1,004.41,147.71,622.3420.7427.8
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel          ″     4,477.14,863.74,321.52,243.23,021.7
Hoops and strip of iron or steelcwt(000)253.5264.3250.7130.7131.0
Rails of iron or steel—fish plates, etc.          ″     203.2178.4291.2179.329.1
Iron and steel wire          ″     343.2414.6469.1168.8189.2
Tubes, pipes, and fittings of iron or steel          ″     1,044.11,030.01,016.0430.7262.2
Silver and platinum not fully workedoz(000)1,886.61,268.41,351.6629.0654.2
Copper and copper alloyscwt(000)221.5233.1245.5116.592.5
Aluminium and aluminium alloys          ″     309.3401.0448.1156.7164.8
Lead and lead alloys          ″     88.5117.081.170.168.5
Finished structural parts and constructions          ″     262.7138.1243.5114.5164.6
Wire products          ″     100.0123.796.938.649.4
Nails, screws, nuts, bolts, etc.          ″     30.841.654.134.429.1
Hand toolsdoz(000)500.3458.7471.6255.1228.4
Knives, kitchen and table          ″     104.985.699.566.036.9
Spoons and forks          ″     123.5138.7207.4146.192.0
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)number79,415102,585106,36146,05433,159
Agricultural mowers—crops, lawn, weed, scrub cutting          ″     1,5581,7622,1561,380310
Agricultural harvesters and threshers—forage, tobacco          ″     33721212218228
Earthmoving machines          ″     225255305105154
Typewriting, calculating, and accounting machines          ″     37,85835,27630,62819,67718,291
Domestic sewing machines          ″     16,68423,30142,16218,21420,791
Electric motors—
     Under 1 bhp          ″     333,965410,935409,311194,008204,209
     1 bhp and over          ″     14,47518,90223,8389,2907,656
Sparking plugs(000)580637436223253
Tractorsnumber4,7816,3864,5802,4551,857
Motorcars—
     Unassembled          ″     50,02456,13658,00831,18633,040
     Assembled          ″     3,7527,16513,41410,20911,939
Lorries, trucks, buses, vans, etc.—
     Unassembled          ″     7,05818,20920,99712,9628,343
     Assembled          ″     154278204411331
Motor cycles          ″     3,4184,27415,47611,9337,830
Bicycles          ″     5,6676,4577,1835,5082,235
Rubber tyres and tubes (excl. bicycle)lb(000)2,3973,2773,2151,9462,814
Plywoodsq ft(000)1,4941,1801,449659914
Newsprint papercwt(000)20.110.810.14.52.5
Printing and writing paper—
     Machine made, not processed          ″     93.599.7102.151.245.5
     Impregnated, coated, or printed          ″     129.0143.0155.279.080.2
Machine-made paper and paperboard, n.e.s.          ″     52.361.262.829.032.5
Greaseproof paper, etc.          ″     40.838.041.423.914.7
Wallpaperrolls(000)1.263.746.111.635.6
Linoleum and similar floor coveringssq yd(000)1,010.21,352.7919.1505.7341.5
Carpets and carpeting of or with wool          ″     21.223.630.327.316.7
Glass plate and sheetsq ft(000)7,2168,21310,2704,1244,284
Table ware and toilet potterylb(000)2,371.52,486.72,516.71,745.51,146.5
Footweardoz. pr(000)82.891.585.052.045.8
Cameras, photographic(000)146.054.4104.774.727.6
Watches          ″     335.9201.8265.0167.581.4
Clocks, other than electric          ″     468.5200.9269.4153.6159.1
Electric clocks          ″     84.234.739.520.815.4
Electrical capacitators          ″     14,77016,26818,2257,4087,407
Insulated wires and cablescwt(000)58.557.939.021.919.9
Telephone handsets(000)84.392.690.459.832.1
Electric accumulators          ″     20.439.932.419.415.6
Electric lamp bulbs and tubes          ″     9,689.75,664.37,650.83,540.43,217.1
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes          ″     2,1501,8771,778978798
Crystal valves          ″     2,7544,7125,9982,2602,230

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications.

Class of Goods Imported†Year Ended June
1967196819691970x1971x
† For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
 $(million)
Finished Capital Goods115.993.7122.1132.3164.2
     Agricultural machinery and plant21.810.216.921.420.3
     Industrial machinery and plant34.231.738.342.253.6
     Construction machinery and plant2.70.72.73.36.2
     Transport and communication items12.415.224.113.918.9
     Other complete items44.835.940.151.565.3
Components and Materials for Capital Goods109.478.389.1119.0149.7
     For agricultural machinery and plant6.14.35.87.07.2
     For industrial machinery and plant12.610.010.613.114.8
     For construction machinery and plant1.00.50.60.91.1
     For transport and communications items29.320.924.642.050.3
     For building, construction, roads6.09.36.26.310.6
     For other capital items54.433.341.349.765.6
Finished Goods and Components
     (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)102.779.4105.5130.2157.5
     Complete transport items18.710.49.119.529.6
     Parts for transport items54.443.460.169.777.7
     Other complete items12.88.715.016.318.7
     Parts for other items16.816.921.224.731.4
Consumer Goods191.7175.8213.5241.0280.2
     Finished consumer goods93.285.3106.4116.0136.6
     Components for consumer goods98.590.4107.1125.1143.6
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere264.8245.4315.6365.5391.0
Stores Used Only for Defence28.72.17.119.113.0
               Totals813.2674.7852.91,007.21,155.5
 percent
Finished Capital Goods14.313.914.313.114.2
     Agricultural machinery and plant2.71.52.02.11.8
     Industrial machinery and plant4.24.74.54.24.6
     Construction machinery and plant0.30.10.30.30.5
     Transport and communications items1.52.32.81.41.6
     Other complete items5.55.34.75.15.7
Components and Materials for Capital Goods13.511.610.411.813.0
     For agricultural machinery and plant0.80.60.70.70.6
     For industrial machinery and plant1.51.51.21.31.3
     For construction machinery and plant0.10.10.10.10.1
     For transport and communications items3.63.12.94.24.4
     For building, construction, roads0.71.40.70.60.9
     For other capital items6.74.94.84.95.7
Finished Goods and Components
     (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)12.611.812.412.913.6
     Complete transport items2.31.51.11.92.6
     Parts for transport items6.76.47.06.96.7
     Other complete items1.61.31.81.61.6
     Parts for other items2.12.52.52.52.7
Consumer Goods23.626.125.023.924.3
     Finished consumer goods11.512.612.511.511.8
     Components for consumer goods12.113.412.612.412.4
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere32.636.437.036.355.5
Stores Used Only for Defence3.50.30.81.91.1
               Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1971 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortJune Year 1966June Year 1967June Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971x
 $(thousand)
Whangarei32,23138,63133,49137,31536,98243,359
Auckland291,103301,230269,058345,966418,284473,792
Hamilton2,5352,7372,1662,7523,8774,285
Tauranga9,20820,4909,1097,6418,04712,276
Gisborne830817644829818610
Napier14,18815,70814,84117,16918,64221,715
Taranaki8,8659,63610,02415,47816,35217,160
Wanganui9809999901,1301,2141,400
Palmerston North2,6662,7092,3182,9014,3403,998
Wellington227,113219,144169,549222,266271,201306,508
Picton425395530238254390
Nelson4,9006,6294,3745,5006,2089,614
Greymouth531418475405404511
Lyttelton91,63588,54971,341102,163114,606117,353
Timaru3,3814,7083,4263,2973,5862,436
Otago27,89427,92520,46224,92728,90529,131
Bluff10,45311,48210,1109,22010,60626,024
               Totals728,939752,206622,908799,197944,3251,070,567

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Lyttelton occupies third place and with the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached fourth place in importance, followed by Otago.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Lyttelton figures. The value of imports by air in the 6-month period ended December 1971 was $31.9 million, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the to the May 1972 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to the main islands of New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with New Zealand territory overseas.

June YearValue of Goods
 $(000)
19631,187
19641,562
19651,867
19661,582
19671,564
19681,656
19691,852
19702,659
1971x2,664

The value of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands during the June year 1971 and the 6-month period ended December 1971 was as follows:

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
1971xJuly-Dec 1971*
* Provisional.
 $      $      
Oranges, whole fruit109,22945,014
Tangerines and mandarins, whole fruit42,08526,421
Lemons, grapefruit, etc., whole fruit10,7916,300
Bananas83,52155,200
Honey17,0617,780
Pineapples, whole fruit7,561
Citrus fruit juices781,717406,006
Pineapple juice137,4018,620
Preserved fruit231,855110,518
Fresh tomatoes762
Arrowroot, etc.14,1492,445
Copra246,824118,804
Coral and shells, etc., unworked or simply prepared238
Wood manufactures (not furniture)35,52621,433
Textile clothing (not knitted, etc.)—
      Men's and boys' outer garments680,979341,546
      Women's and girls' outer garments22,3913,763
      Men's and boys' undergarments124,54261,451
      Women's, girls' and infants' undergarments
Basketwork, wickerwork, etc.2,839838
Compressed gas cylinders, etc.10,6008,799
Other miscellaneous items103,97172,704
               Totals2,664,0421,297,642

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF—Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from obtaining revenue, has for its objects the following:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in bilateral and multilateral trade agreements.

When New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 the intention was to raise revenue and to some extent to give preference to goods of British origin. The tariff changes of 1851 and 1864 widened the scope of the tariff but retained its revenue aspects, though at this time the duties were mainly specific rather than ad valorem. In 1888 ad valorem rates became more general and the rate of duty was raised to 20 percent, which was double the amount charged in earlier years.

The prevailing economic philosophy was, of course, that of free trade, and in New Zealand's case it was underlined by the fact that Parliament predominantly represented the farming community. Even so, the depression of the eighties had so affected some of New Zealand's manufacturing industries that protection by tariffs became practical politics in 1888. The tariff revision of 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries, and at the same time it eliminated the duties on many items which entered into the cost of living of those residing in urban areas. These tendencies were continued in 1900, 1907, and 1921, with British preferences becoming more evident.

In 1921 provision was made for an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This was the first occasion when the legislature tried to cope with twentieth century economic conditions which threatened to cut across tariffs designed to give protection to industries which were supposed to develop in a manner normal to the nineteenth century. In 1921 provision was made for anti-dumping duties, another attempt to meet so-called abnormal practices. The depreciated currency duties ranged from 2 1/2 to 20 percent; the dumping duty was not to exceed the difference between the sale price and the current domestic value.

The 1927 tariff revision extended further British preferences and increased the number of duties imposed for protection purposes. Further important items, if of British origin, were also placed on the free list. In 1930 surtaxes on dutiable goods were imposed for revenue purposes and the general tariff rate was increased by about 5 percent. In 1931 a primage of 3 percent was charged on imports (except in specified cases) which were otherwise free of duty.

In the meantime there had been a change in trade policy, which had tended to become one of protection rather than one of free trade.

As a result of the changing conditions the Ottawa Conference was called. The outcome of this conference was the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, the effect of which was to give further preference to British goods and to inhibit the use of the tariff by New Zealand for purely protective purposes. (The United Kingdom, for its part, granted duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and applied tariff rates on butter and cheese from foreign countries and undertook to place quota restrictions on meats from foreign countries. See Section 21A—Marketing of Primary Produce.)

In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which in the main adhered to the already established principle of British preference, and actually reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in more cases than it provided protection. The adoption of this report by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934 resulted in a wide range of items being made dutiable for revenue purposes, while a small group of items with a low to moderate duty gave limited protection against goods of British origin. Thus New Zealand's tariff remained an expression of the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

The Board of Trade, in November 1957, completed a comprehensive review of the whole structure and incidence of the tariff and reported to Government.

From 1 July 1962 there was introduced a revised tariff which took its structure from the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), a document of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, designed to list in a systematic manner the goods of world commerce according to their economic significance. It was keyed to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature (B.T.N.), an internationally agreed nomenclature which has carefully drafted rules of definition and in which articles are grouped in logical sequence often according to the nature of the material of which they are made. A new tariff based on the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was introduced on 1 July 1967. The duty rates remain unchanged and the statistical details conform to the requirements of the S.I.T.C. (Revised). A further revised tariff was introduced on 1 January 1972.

The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled the Customs Tariff of New Zealand. This publication is available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in “multi-column” form listing rates of duty under (a) the British preferential tariff, special rates under Australian and Canadian agreements being shown against the items concerned; (b) the most-favoured-nation tariff (under which goods from countries adhering to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and goods from certain countries with which New Zealand has separate trade agreements are admitted); and (c) the general tariff.

The most-favoured-nation column in the tariff also lists special preferential rates of duty prefixed by the letters “DC”. These are special preferences accorded by New Zealand to developing countries in accordance with Government's decision to participate as a donor country in the UNCTAD scheme of preferences for less developed countries.

Duty is generally calculated according to ad valorem rates; where, in certain cases, specific rates are prescribed, they are of a simple nature.

IMPORT CONTROL—Import licensing applies to approximately one-third of private imports and is explained in Section 22A.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities are as follows.

Beer—As from 22 August 1947 the excise duty on beer became 30c per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,036, increased by .84c for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on beer was increased to 60c a gallon where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036, advancing by 1.67c for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60°F is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco—The following table sets out the rates of excise duty on tobacco.

DescriptionRates at Dates Shown
27 June 195822 July 19604 May 196727 Oct 1970  
Cigarettes—$    $    $    $    
     Exceeding in weight 2 1/2 lb per 1,000Per lb2.802.563.564.76
     Not exceeding in weight 2 1/2 lb per 1,000Per 1,0007.006.408.9011.90
Cigars and snuffPer lb1.201.202.382.98
Other manufactured tobaccoPer lb2.272.022.823.54

Sugar—There was an excise duty of $18.66 per ton on sugar manufactured in New Zealand but this was abolished in February 1972.

Alcohol—Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures, the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in manufacture: perfumed spirits, $3.60 per proof gallon; toilet preparations, $3.40; culinary and flavouring essences, $2.00; medical preparations containing more than 50 percent of proof spirit, 45c per proof gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 percent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

Distilleries—-Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other basically derived white spirit liquors approved by the Minister of Customs, which are produced by three rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $13.50 per proof gallon.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and excise duties is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther Excise and Customs DutiesTotal Excise and Customs Duties
BeerSpiritsTobaccoSugar
* Includes gross motor spirits duty credited to Consolidated Revenue Account.
 $(000)
196734,7355,71136,6042,38747,310126,747
196835,5915,82845,0002,48753,266*142,172*
196935,8266,66048,5702,41061,733*155,199*
197037,2827,18050,1732,47059,695*156,800*
197139,6537,23057,3972,54671,702*178,528*
197240,7007,66769,5312,38177,695197,974

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties, but motor spirits duty paid into the Consolidated Revenue Account until 31 March 1971 is included in “Other Excise and Customs Duties”.

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government finance.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY—The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or in other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff and in a few cases lower.

Reciprocity With United Kingdom—Under the Ottawa Agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 percent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 percent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom.

In 1958 New Zealand sought new arrangements with the United Kingdom and on 25 November 1958 the two Governments signed Heads of Agreement. This provided the basis for a new agreement to give New Zealand the right to reduce the margins of preference applied to United Kingdom goods entering New Zealand to 5 percent on certain imports essential for industry, to 7 1/2 percent on an extensive list of welfare and producer goods, and to 10 percent on all other goods. The formal text of the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement was signed in Wellington on 12 August 1959.

On 28 June 1966 a “Record of Understanding” was agreed between New Zealand and the United Kingdom and this formed the basis for the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement signed on 24 November 1966. New Zealand undertook to maintain duty-free entry for a short list of items and minimum margins of preference from 10 percent to 20 percent on another list of items. Otherwise the margins of preference in the 1959 Agreement were continued. On its part the United Kingdom undertook that, until 30 September 1972, it would admit without restriction of quantity, imports of the following New Zealand goods:

  1. Beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and the edible offals thereof, and chilled and frozen pork.

  2. Butter, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, and casein.

Consequent upon the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973, the tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market will be phased out in steps beginning on 1 July 1974 and being completed by 30 June 1977. Some exceptions to this phasing arrangement are being made for certain classes of goods such as plant and raw materials not produced in New Zealand. For these goods preferences will be eliminated in one step on 1 July 1974. The necessary amendments are to be incorporated in a new Tariff which will be introduced with effect from 1 July 1974.

Reciprocity With Australia—(a) An agreement, completed in April 1933 and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act of that year, came into operation on 1 December 1933, and remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the agreement each country grants to the goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods, enumerated in the Schedules to the agreement, on which special rates are fixed.

The agreement provided for lower duties than those prescribed under Australia's British preferential tariff on many classes of New Zealand products entering Australia, including fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Minor modifications have been made to the Schedules of the agreement from time to time, but they remain substantially the same as originally negotiated.

The agreement must be read subject to the 1965 Free Trade Agreement with Australia.

The setting up of an Australian - New Zealand Consultative Committee on Trade was agreed on by the Australian and New Zealand Governments in August 1960.

(b) The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the 1933 agreement and, in particular, 1933 agreement rates which are higher than the equivalent British preferential rates are to be reduced to the British preferential level not later than 1 January 1974.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover 60 percent of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. The first review of the NAFTA resulted in the addition of further items to Schedule A, the duty reductions on which entered into force on 1 January 1968 at the same time as the second stage reductions on the original Schedule A items. As a result of subsequent reviews further items have been added to Schedule A on 1 January and 1 July in 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1972.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The agreement is to remain in force for 10 years and thereafter shall remain in force unless terminated 180 days after appropriate notice is given by one country and the prescribed consultations between the two countries have been held.

Reciprocity with Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

Reciprocity with Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade. The agreement remains in force until 6 months from the date on which notice of termination is given by either Government.

Other Trade Arrangements—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. In some earlier cases New Zealand automatically became a party to arrangements concluded by the United Kingdom; in others she became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to such arrangements. Other arrangements again resulted from direct negotiations between New Zealand and the countries concerned. In practice many of these arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) are superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, some remain separately in force, and, in addition to those countries which are contracting parties to the General Agreement, New Zealand grants most-favoured-nation tariff treatment to Bulgaria, Hungarian People's Republic, Liberia, Philippines, People's Republic of China, Socialist Republic of Romania, Somalia, Tunisia, and U.S.S.R.

The trade arrangements between Switzerland and New Zealand dating from 1938, under which New Zealand receives a guaranteed import quota for apples and pears, continues in force but the portion of the arrangement relating to most-favoured-nation treatment for imports has been superseded since Switzerland became a contracting party to GATT on 1 August 1966. Since 1957 the arrangement has been extended also to Liechtenstein.

The Federal Republic of Germany and New Zealand concluded a trade agreement in April 1959. The agreement is designed to facilitate as far as possible the exchange of goods and services between the two countries. New Zealand is granted quotas on certain primary products while for some others New Zealand will be considered as a source of supply for imports into Germany under the import programme. The agreement was concluded following international discussions under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on problems arising out of the Federal Republic's import restrictions. The circumstances under which the negotiations with the Federal Republic were initiated were thus somewhat different from the usual, and because of this New Zealand is not required under the agreement to make any special arrangements regarding German exports. As contracting parties to the General Agreement the two countries already granted each other most-favoured-nation tariff treatment.

A trade agreement with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics entered into force on 1 August 1963, and is subject to 3 months' notice of termination on either side.

The trade agreement provides for the mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters concerning trade and shipping between New Zealand and the Soviet Union. In particular each country has agreed to grant to the other, most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to Customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on the importation or exportation of products from the other country. Similarly most-favoured-nation treatment will apply in relation to prohibitions or restrictions whether in the form of quotas, import or export licences, or other controls.

A trade agreement with the Polish People's Republic entered into force on 7 July 1965 and will remain in force for a period of 5 years and thereafter continue in force until the expiration of 6 months' notice of termination from either country. This agreement provides for mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters relating to import and export duties and charges, and also in regard to prohibitions or restrictions whether by way of quotas, import or export licences, foreign-exchange controls, regulations, directions, or other control measures.

The Republic of Korea and New Zealand entered into a trade agreement on 31 January 1967 providing for mutual most-favoured-nation treatment in all matters of trade between New Zealand and South Korea, including non-discrimination in the treatment of foreign exchange for trade purposes. Similar agreements were made with the People's Republic of Bulgaria on 7 March 1968, with the Socialist Republic of Romania on 13 October 1969, and with the Hungarian People's Republic on 22 December 1970.

A trade agreement with the Republic of the Philippines entered into force on 19 July 1968. The agreement provides most-favoured-nation treatment being extended to the trade between the two countries, including the allocation of foreign exchange. Initially the agreement runs for 1 year, thereafter it may be terminated by either country on 6 months' notice.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—Tariff negotiations took place in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each participating country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multilaterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. Concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase. The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

The foreign countries to whose products the concessionary rates (i.e., the most-favoured-nation rates) of duty apply by virtue of their membership in GATT or some special arrangement in GATT are: Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Congo (Brazzaville), Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dahomey, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Gabon, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Haiti, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malagasy, Mauritania, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Togo, Turkey, United Arab Republic, United States of America, Upper Volta, Uruguay, Yugoslavia. Eire is also a member of GATT but receives the concessionary rates of the British preference tariff.

The following Commonwealth countries are members of GATT: Australia, Barbados, Canada, Cyprus, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Kingdom, and Northern Ireland (and dependent territories).

Some other countries, as newly-independent states, apply the GATT on a de facto basis: Algeria, Botswana, Cambodia, Congo (Democratic Republic), Equatorial Guinea, Lesotho, Maldive Islands, Mali, Singapore, Southern Yemen, Swaziland, and Zambia. Tunisia has acceded provisionally to the GATT.

While the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade has been the principal aim of the General Agreement it has also provided an internationally accepted code of rules in world trade, and its regular sessions have been useful as a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

Developments have tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports reasonably expected to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised countries and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries like New Zealand. This has been due primarily to the growing use of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The results of the Kennedy Round which was concluded in June 1967 have not corrected this imbalance, although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of agricultural products exported to some GATT countries. As compensation New Zealand has undertaken to reduce most-favoured-nation rates of duty by up to 50 percent of existing rates on a number of items.

The last of the five equal annual reductions by which the commitment was implemented was made on 1 January 1972.

SUGAR AGREEMENTS—New Zealand's annual requirements of raw sugar now stand at about 150,000 tons. This quantity is purchased in accordance with two arrangements; the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement and the International Sugar Agreement.

Though not a member of the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement, New Zealand is associated with it by a Memorandum of Understanding which came into effect on 1 January 1957. The Memorandum provides that New Zealand will buy and the exporting members will provide 75,000 tons annually. The price paid by New Zealand under the Memorandum is the London Daily Price plus a Commonwealth Premium of £Stg3.75 per ton less the cost of freight from source to London, plus the cost of freight from source to Auckland. The usual sources of supply under the Memorandum of Understanding are Fiji and Queensland.

Prior to the 1957 Memorandum, New Zealand's purchases of raw sugar under the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement were governed by the 1951 Exchange of Letters between the New Zealand and British Governments. Under this Exchange which was to operate from 1953 to 1958 inclusive the Ministry of Food agreed to supply 75,000 tons annually to New Zealand at a price negotiated by Britain and Commonwealth exporting countries. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory from New Zealand's point of view because in many years the Commonwealth negotiated price was higher than the world price. The arrangements under the Exchange were terminated prematurely and replaced by the Memorandum in 1957.

Under the current Memorandum the prices paid by New Zealand for raw sugar are roughly equal to the world price.

The balance of New Zealand's requirements for raw sugar, that is over and above the 75,000 tons supplied by Commonwealth exporters, is purchased at the world price which is regulated by the International Sugar Agreement of 1968, to which New Zealand is a party.

This agreement has the same basic objectives as the 1958 Agreement which it replaced; that is, to assure supplies to importing countries and markets for exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Exporters undertake to regulate their sales on the “free” market according to agreed quotas while importers agree to restrict their purchases from non-members while sugar prices remain within he range specified in the agreement.

In 1961 the members failed to reach agreement on the quotas for 1962 and 1963 and as a result the provisions for limitation of exports, regulation of imports and stabilisation of prices broke down. The agreement expired on 31 December 1963, but even though those articles relating to quotas and prices remained ineffective, it was extended annually by a series of protocols pending the negotiation of a new agreement.

The 1968 Agreement safeguards against the failure of the 1958 Agreement by setting a series of price levels which trigger automatic changes in export quotas and thus regulate the flow of supplies on the market. This Agreement is due to be renegotiated in 1973.

INTERNATIONAL COFFEE AGREEMENT—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1968 which entered into force on 1 October 1968 and is due to expire on 30 September 1973. This Agreement replaces an earlier one, concluded in 1962, to which New Zealand was also a party.

The objects of the Agreement are to ensure continuity and adequacy of supplies of coffee and to maintain stable and equitable prices for both consumers and producers.

Remunerative prices are of particular importance to coffee producing countries which are mainly developing countries of South America, Africa, and South-east Asia. Their economies are in many cases heavily dependent upon coffee export earnings.

The 1968 Agreement has similar provisions to the 1962 Agreement incorporating a few changes in regard to the composition of the Executive Board and to the basic annual export quotas and their revision and adjustment. Importing members are required to purchase all but a minor portion of imports of coffee from exporting member countries, while exports from member countries are strictly controlled by means of annual quotas and certification requirements. The Agreement also contains special consultation and arbitration provisions to deal with any disputes that may arise concerning processed soluble coffee (instant coffee). These provisions were inserted to resolve differences between Brazil and the United States which delayed the renegotiation of the Agreement.

New Zealand signed the Agreement in London on 27 March 1968 and upon Ratification by the New Zealand Government on 7 August 1968, the Agreement was extended to cover the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands. The renegotiation or extension of the Agreement is currently being considered by member countries.

The Customs Import Prohibition Order (Coffee) promulgated on 1 April 1967 restricts New Zealand's imports of coffee by requiring compliance with obligations under the Agreement. Coffee imports under this Order are prohibited save with the consent of the Minister of Customs. The Minister has given general consent to imports of coffee from member countries provided they are accompanied by the required documents of origin as specified in the Agreement. Imports of coffee from non-member countries can only be made with the special permission of the Minister, and total imports of non-member coffee must not exceed the small annual quota of 361 bags (of 60 kilogrammes) allocated to New Zealand by the council.

Chapter 23. Section 23
PRICES

CONSUMER PROTECTION: Control of Prices Act 1947—The Control of Prices Act 1947 established a Price Tribunal and also set out the general duties and functions of that body as:

  1. The fixing of prices for goods and services;

  2. The investigation of complaints with respect to all prices; and

  3. The maintenance of a survey of the prices of goods and services and the institution of legal proceedings for offences in relation to prices and the taking of such other steps as in its opinion may be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public.

The Price Tribunal has delegated the power to perform these functions to the Secretary of Trade and Industry, who has in turn subdelegated that power to senior officers of the Distribution Division of the department. As a result, the tribunal now exercises original pricing jurisdiction over only a small selection of reserved items for which prices are normally approved on a New Zealand-wide basis. In all other instances the tribunal acts as an appellate authority for the purpose of considering appeals against pricing decisions made by departmental officers acting under their delegated powers.

The Price Tribunal (or officers of the Department of Trade and Industry operating under delegated powers) with respect to items subject to direct price control may:

  1. Make price orders fixing, in such manner as is thought fit, the actual or the maximum or the minimum price for any goods (or services) sold in a specified market and under specified conditions. Price orders are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and must generally be displayed in any shop where the goods to which they relate are sold;

  2. Approve selling prices by special authorisations made in terms of section 16 of the Act. In this case approved prices are promulgated by letters of authorisation addressed specifically to the traders directly affected—or to any representative trade group acting on their behalf.

Price Control—From 1948 to 1970 successive Governments followed a continuing policy of removing goods and services from price control where competition in the field concerned was considered sufficient to regulate prices effectively. This meant that there was progressively less stress placed on direct price control but much greater importance attached to price surveillance over a wide range of goods and services having a significant bearing on the cost of living.

Price surveillance involves the investigation of complaints made by members of the public about unreasonable prices, and the carrying out by the Department of Trade and Industry of market surveys of key decontrolled commodities at regular intervals.

If, as a result of an investigation made by the department, it appears that a trader has charged an excessive price calculated to yield more than a fair and reasonable rate of commercial profit for any goods or services, action may be taken against him in the Court for profiteering. This is regarded as a serious offence, and the relevant section of the Control of Prices Act 1947 may be invoked with regard to sales of any goods or services, whether they are subject to direct price control or not.

By early 1970 inflationary pressures were resulting in an increasing concern at rising prices and a temporary departure from previous pricing policy was initiated.

In its first form this appeared as a voluntary early warning system under which manufacturers of several commodities agreed to supply the Department of Trade and Industry with details of cost increases which necessitated an advance in prices.

The period following the introduction of the early warning system coincided with a strong wage/price spiral, and on 17 November 1970 a price freeze was imposed. The Price Freeze Regulations which were initially intended to terminate on 17 January 1971 but were subsequently extended to 14 February 1971, froze all prices except for a few exemptions, at the levels prevailing on 12 November 1970.

The price freeze was followed on 15 February 1971 by a Price Justification Scheme, details of which were embodied in a price order (No. 2154) issued by the Price Tribunal. This price order specified a wide range of commodities, on which manufacturers and packers were required to obtain the approval of the Price Tribunal before applying price increases. Such price increases as were approved were limited to a level sufficient to recover no more than proven increased costs. In addition, Price Order 2154 also froze distributive margins of all goods (except secondhand goods) at the levels which normally applied on 12 November 1970, that is, the base date adopted for the price freeze which preceded the Price Justification Scheme.

In terms of the Price Justification Scheme a manufacturer or packer was entitled to assume approval and proceed to charge increased prices as sought if, within 21 days of the date of the receipt of his application by the Department of Trade and Industry, no objection had been raised or no further information had been sought. If, however, the department intervened in either of these ways the applicant was required to await a specific decision from the department before increasing his prices.

The Control of Prices (Positive List) Notice 1971 set out those goods and services subject to price control on and from 15 February 1971. It contained three sections—the first schedules those items which were subject to price control prior to the introduction of the Price Justification Scheme and remained so subject; the second those goods where manufacturers and packers had to seek approval of the Price Tribunal in terms of the Price Justification Scheme before increasing prices; and the third listed the goods specified in the second schedule to Price Order 2154 (that is, those on which the Price Justification Scheme froze distributive margins).

The list of items subject to price control other than as a result of their inclusion in the Price Justification Scheme comprised about 40 items as well as all drugs coming within the scope of the Social Security Scheme. Control continued to be exercised in this field because of the importance of the cost of drugs in the annual expenditure on pharmaceutical benefits under the scheme. The other items still subject to price control fell into the following two broad categories:

  1. Certain essential food items, which in the main were, until February 1967, subject to the payment of subsidies for the purpose of keeping prices down to the consumer (e.g., bread, butter, and flour).

  2. Items where retention of price control is considered necessary because conditions of monopoly or quasi-monopoly apply at the level of manufacture or distribution, or other factors exist which impede the operation of competition as an effective regulator of prices.

Among items coming within this group are sugar, yeast, bananas, and imported oranges, tobacco and cigarettes, woolpacks, bottles and jars, inorganic fertilisers, motor vehicles, and motor tyres. Price control is also exercised over storage batteries, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, basins, sanitary earthenware, and pipes.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation do not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act 1947. For example, maximum and minimum prices of motor spirits are fixed by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Trade and Industry) under the Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933. Milk and cream prices are set by Order in Council on the recommendation of the New Zealand Milk Board under the Milk Act 1944.

A price freeze applied again from mid February to the end of March 1972 and was succeeded by other measures designed to combat inflation.

Subject to limited exceptions, both goods and services were subject to regulations which came into force on 1 April 1972 under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

The Price Justification Scheme was revoked and under the new system a number of items were added to the positive list of the Control of Prices Act. This augmented list is called Category A.

The regulations provide that in general the Price Tribunal or other pricing authorities shall not allow adjustments to be made for increased costs (including wages and salaries) unless they accord with criteria strictly defined in the regulations.

Goods and services not subject to direct price control are known as Category B items. Prices for such goods and services may not be increased except to recover actual costs determined in accordance with the criteria laid down.

As long as the criteria are fully observed in fixing prices, notification and formal approval of increases are not required.

However, firms with a turnover exceeding $1,000,000 a year are required to make quarterly reports of all price increases and other firms may be required to do so.

The Department of Trade and Industry investigates claims of excessive price increases and makes random checks continuously.

All margins continue to be frozen unless it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the pricing authority that strict adherence to them would prejudice the viability of a business.

The Wool Prices Stabilisation Regulations 1973 provided for stabilisation or equalisation payments for goods containing wool.

On 22 March 1973 the Government announced further price control measures. These comprised (a) A freeze on mutton and lamb and fish until prices can be fixed by the Department of Trade and Industry; (b) A rollback of sheepmeat prices by 2c a pound applied when the freeze was lifted on 9 April and prices were held at that level with State subsidies to wholesalers; (c) The fixing of maximum retail prices, which must be displayed on the package, for certain manufactured and processed goods—initially essential foodstuffs, footwear and clothing but eventually the whole range of goods normally sold in supermarkets; (d) The bringing of apples and pears under full price control; (e) A bar on auctioneering firms or their subsidiaries from bidding at their own auctions and setting artificially high fruit and vegetable prices.

Trade Practices—Under the Trade Practices Act 1958, a Trade Practices and Prices Commission was established and an Examiner of Trade Practices and Prices appointed. The functions of the commission are (a) to inquire into trade practices reported to it by the examiner for the purpose of ascertaining whether they are contrary to the public interest, and (b) to make orders requiring the amendment or discontinuance, or prohibiting the repetition of any such practices found to be contrary to the public interest. A trade practice may be judged contrary to the public interest only if it has the effect of increasing unreasonably, costs, prices, or profits; unreasonably reducing or limiting, or preventing competition; or limiting or preventing the supply of goods to consumers.

Appeals against decisions of the commission are heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

The examiner is obliged to investigate any trade practice, either on complaint or on his own volition, which appears to be contrary to the public interest. On receipt of a report and recommendation from the examiner about a trade practice, the commission is obliged to hold an inquiry unless it is satisfied that all parties likely to be affected are in agreement with the order which the examiner recommends should be made. In these circumstances the commission is empowered to waive an inquiry and make an order by consent. Inquiries by the Trade Practices and Prices Commission are generally held in public and the parties, including the examiner, are usually represented by counsel.

As well as his more formal functions in terms of the Trade Practices Act, the examiner considers a number of cases where it may be possible, by negotiation with the parties, to secure on a more informal, voluntary basis, some satisfactory amendment to the restrictive trade practices concerned.

Collective tendering and collective bidding at auction are offences, and also collective pricing without the approval of the Commission.

Consumer Information—The basic aims of the Consumer Information Act 1969 are for informative labelling and marking of goods, and for the prevention of deceptive or misleading packaging, labelling and advertising. The Act has general application to goods, including services, but the majority of the sections exclude foods, drugs, and medical devices as these are dealt with by the Department of Health under the food and drug legislation. There are provisions dealing with misleading advertising, misleading packaging, and false representations as to prices, and all goods packaged in New Zealand must show the name and address of the packager on the label. Provision is made for other specific packaging and labelling requirements, including the declaration on the label of the quantitative contents of the package—to be stipulated from time to time by the publication of notices in the Gazette or by regulations made by Order in Council.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council, whose functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services, was established in 1959 and reconstituted under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The Council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative appointments committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also members.

The council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of Consumers' Institute. It has appointed three District Consumer Committees and encourages the formation of local consumer associations. Citizens are invited to become members of the institute on payment of an annual subscription of $3. Membership was 90,000 at 31 August, 1972.

The institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services, research into and advice on legislative and financial matters, etc. Subscribing members receive the institute's monthly magazine Consumer. A separate $3 subscription covers Consumer Car Reports, a quarterly magazine with results of car tests. In addition, the institute prepares a weekly radio broadcast, teaching notes for schools, and books on various subjects.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions and co-operates with other consumer organisations throughout the world.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—A Monetary and Economic Council was established under the Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961 to report on the extent to which stability in prices and other economic objectives are being achieved. In its first reports the council dealt with the economic situation and the longer-term problems of slow growth and instability, and subsequent reports have dealt largely with the current economic situation and outlook.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail and wholesale prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics; the chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—The Consumers' Price Index was revised in 1965. Complete details of the revised index are contained in the Consumers' Price Index Revision 1965 report. A brief summary of the salient features of the latest index is as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates primarily to urban and country-town dwellers living as families.

  3. About 90 percent of personal expenditure is covered.

  4. The number of items regularly priced is 535.

  5. The base is: 1962–63 consumption costed at 1965 prices.

  6. (f)The sources of group and commodity weights were: (1) Census of Distribution 1962–63; (2) industrial or factory statistics; (3) import and export data; and (4) extension of regularly compiled statistics of consumable goods. Where considered desirable the base weight assigned to selected items was broadened to allow for expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  7. Prices are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 2 combined areas.

  8. A scientific sample of rented houses and flats was selected.

  9. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits, vegetables, and eggs, and for transport charges.

  10. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its subgroups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and subgroups at quarterly intervals.

  11. Index numbers are published for the 4 chief centres and 10 larger centres individually. Combined index numbers are published for these two groupings and also for six smaller North Island centres and five smaller South Island centres. Each centre and grouping of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  12. To provide a continuous series the pre-revision all-groups index has been converted to a 1965 base.

Costs of the following items are, for various reasons, outside the scope of the index: hotel accommodation, licensed and private; air transport; legal fees; commissions on sales, other than those incurred in the erection of house properties; gambling; church and charitable donations; private and boarding school fees; instalment credit interest and similar financial charges; personal accident insurance; photographers' charges; wages of domestic servants, jobbing gardeners, etc.; fees to chiropractors, herbalists, chiropodists, etc.; sundry licences (marriage, dog, etc.); direct taxation; savings, including amortisations of capital debts, investments, and life insurance; spirits and wine; jewellery and florists' goods; durable goods other than replacements; and private holiday transport.

In general the index assumes a constant pattern of expenditure for all centres, whether large cities or provincial centres, whether with warm or cool climates, etc. In transportation, however, the index compromises by setting up a constant base expenditure on transport for all centres, but allowing a varying dissection between the various modes of transport from centre to centre, according to local circumstances. Consequently there are no true “each on all” indexes for transportation, but “each on each” indexes can be used to produce “all on all” indexes. (“Each on all” means an index for an individual centre which uses as base the average for all centres, etc.)

A Consumers' Price Index Revision Advisory Committee was set up in June 1971 under the chairmanship of the Government Statistician to investigate changes that should be made to the index. It reported in September 1971. Its recommendations in parliamentary paper A. 40 were accepted in June 1972 and it is expected that the revised index will commence to operate in 1974.

The revised Consumers Price Index will retain its basic objective of providing a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand.

The revised Consumers Price Index will substantially retain the present group and sub-group structure.

The weights in the revised Consumers Price Index are to be based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather than on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are to be obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The coverage of the index is to be extended from the present 92 percent of household consumption to as close as possible to all household expenditure. Savings and direct taxation are not regarded as consumer expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—is to be widened to include more fields of expenditure, more pricing outlets, and a wider geographical coverage of market centres than at present. This will reflect more adequately both the expenditure patterns of all New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

Current Consumers' Price Index—The tables which now follow relate to the current Consumers' Price Index only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—
TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
     Percentages of base expenditure30.0917.9911.2113.129.4418.15100.00
Calendar year—
     19651000100010001000100010001000
     19661018105310101016103710341028
     19671092111710631044110211051090
     19681126117711051071117011671137
     19691180124511401119121812351193
     19701258132711861199128013361271
     19711373142813041356146314911403
     19721438156113941444158416051500
Quarter ended—
     1971–31 Mar1348138812501304139014421359
               30 Jun1357141512941346144614761389
               30 Sep1377143813121376149215111416
               31 Dec1408147013581398152515371447
     1972–31 Mar1427150013781417155215871474
               30 Jun1435154213921436156916021492
               30 Sep14381579139811450160016161508
               31 Dec1452162414091473161416131526
TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruits and VegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther Foods and EggsRentHome OwnershipFuel and LightHome FurnishingsDomestic Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
     Percentage of base expenditure5.899.2214.985.5012.492.825.592.80
Calendar year—
     196510001000100010001000100010001000
     196610301040100010481056102010031014
     196711051073109911121120108310231122
     196811381101113611661182116010601140
     196911031222118512241254117311191148
     197011801348123312851346117911841197
     197113841429133313511461121513061387
     197213741522141114981590125114011526
Quarter ended—
     1971–31 Mar13991400129613261415119012661279
               30 Jun13801415131313381448121012951374
               30 Sep13681442134013591473122613151394
               31 Dec13891459138513831509123413491502
     1972–31 Mar14281470140014181537124113761521
               30 Jun14391485140214831568125113961525
               30 Sep13511527141715281602125314081526
               31 Dec12781605142715621652125914231532
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
     Percentage of base expenditure10.912.212.387.067.645.664.85100.00
Calendar year—
     196510001000100010001000100010001000
     196610131030102110431023103710471028
     196710391069108211081098109611251090
     196810671090110411931159115411931137
     196911131144114012441213122412841193
     197011921234118913111328133013541271
     197113551364144314701475146715461403
     197214401466160915751533160717141500
Quarter ended—
     1971–31 Mar13021314134814041470138714601359
               30 Jun13451351138414671470144015281389
               30 Sep13751381148914931479150115731416
               31 Dec13961408154915171480154016221447
     1972–31 Mar14151426158915391522158016961474
               30 Jun14321457160815561534159617171492
               30 Sep14461473161715951534161817441508
               31 Dec14671506162216111544163217001526

The average level of consumer prices rose by 6.9 percent in 1972, compared with a rise of 10.4 percent the year before. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index with the exception of fruit and vegetables the major contributions to the overall result came from the rent, domestic supplies and services, private transport, and other services.

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers' price index numbers.

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, 1965 (=1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
196519711972196519711972196519711972196519711972
Auckland100013841436100014511585100013301410100013671458
Wellington-Hutt100013641439100014171550100013101420100014021492
Christchurch100013601431100014231563100013011401100013711437
Dunedin100013421391100014521589100012911368100013721460
     Four chief centres100013691430100014371572100013141405100013761461
Hamilton100013991476100013451499100012671352100013121415
Tauranga100013391413100014411577100013131412100013141410
Rotorua100013561450100014781643100012881384100013661446
Napier-Hastings100013741438100014671605100012991393100013381411
New Plymouth100013861455100014461594100012881378100013061399
Wanganui100013931465100016901510100012821377100013851468
Palmerston North100013881456100014931624100012981369100013331426
Nelson100013901465100014531577100013431435100013501440
Timaru100013791425100013291439100012701381100013081393
Invercargill100013441403100014111513100012591342100013531454
     Ten larger centres100013791450100014191555100012861374100013321424
     Six smaller North Island centres100013691440100014301554100013051396100013341421
     Five smaller South Island centres100013701430100013731496100013101418100013631457
     Twenty-five centres combined100013731438100014281561100013041394100013561444
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
196519711972196519711972196519711972
Auckland100015001637100015041610100014211515
Wellington-Hutt100014781612100014811599100014051511
Christchurch100014721580100014941599100014011496
Dunedin100014931659100015041617100014021497
     Four chief centres100014881621100014961606100014111508
Hamilton100014431564100014941608100013851491
Tauranga100014551564100014851598100013891491
Rotorua100014441563100014841589100014041513
Napier-Hastings100014441554100014821599100014021498
New Plymouth100014561554100014761608100013891500
Wanganui100014481539100014841601100014011495
Palmerston North100014231520100014861617100014091506
Nelson100014471572100014911621100014141517
Timaru100014391550100014791588100013721460
Invercargill100014411540100014961608100013831471
Ten larger centres100014421551100014871606100013951494
Six smaller North Island centres100014301531100014821597100013941489
Five smaller South Island centres100014291538100014891600100013901485
Twenty-five centres combined100014631584100014911605100014031500
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (=1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
196519711972196519711972196519711972196519711972
Auckland10141403145611141616176699513241403101313841477
Wellington-Hutt1012138014561182167518339791282138999914011491
Christchurch1002136414359261317144710011302140299013571422
Dunedin10121358140889513001422102313211400101013861475
     Four chief centres10111384144610611526166999613091400100413821468
Hamilton98513781454967130114509641222130498512921394
Tauranga10211367144311041591174197212771373100413201416
Rotorua10021359145210111494166110041294139099313561436
Napier-Hastings9621322138491213381463103613461444100613471420
New Plymouth97913561424926133914769841268135699512991392
Wanganui97313551426813113012289811257135199413771459
Palmerston North979135814269181370149198012721342101913581453
Nelson955132713999311352146897113051394100513561447
Timaru99313691416101713521463102212981411100513141399
Invercargill10241377143795313451441104213121399100813641466
     Ten larger centres985135914299511349147899312771365100013321424
     Six smaller North Island centres1002137214439151309142210301343143798113091394
     Five smaller South Island centres986135114108971232134210221338144999413551448
     Twenty-five centres combined100013731438190014281561100013041394100013561444
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
196519711972196519711972196519711972
Auckland10001500163799915021608102614571553
Wellington-Hutt100014781612101915081629103714571567
Christchurch1000147215809981491159598613811474
Dunedin1000149316599831479159098613821475
     Four chief centres100014881621100114981608101514311530
Hamilton1000144315649931483159798213611465
Tauranga10001455156499914831596102214201524
Rotorua100014441563101615071614100514101521
Napier-Hastings1000144415549941473159097713701463
New Plymouth1000145615549961471160297713661466
Wanganui1000144815399971480159695513381428
Palmerston North1000142315209931476160697813781473
Nelson1000144715729891474160396913711470
Timaru100014391550101014951604100613801468
Invercargill10001442154099114831594100313871475
     Ten larger centres1000144215519961481159998513751472
     Six smaller North Island centres10001430155110091496161298813771471
     Five smaller South Island centres1000142915389951482159397813601452
     Twenty-five centres combined100014631584100014911605100014031500

Retail Prices—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1972 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers' Price Index are shown hereunder.

ItemUnitPrice
* Because of extended coverage in pricing these items cannot be compared with those for earlier years.
 cents
Potatoes, newlb8.85
Potatoes, oldlb6.20
Appleslb16.89
Cabbagelb8.50
Carrotslb17.08
Onionslb9.61
Orangeslb18.46
Peaches, canned29 oz tin42.50
Peas, frozen30 oz packet49.69
Beef—
     Porterhouse steaklb95.81
     Prime riblb65.09
     Rump steaklb87.06
     Blade steaklb68.72
     Mincelb49.64
     Corned silversidelb69.91
Sausages, beeflb29.77
Hogget—
     Cut leg, knuckle endlb49.10
     Forequarterlb27.79
     Chops, middle loinlb48.01
Pork—
     Leg, wholelb68.34
     Chops, middle loinlb69.86
Tripelb23.09
Sheep's liverlb41.89
Sheep's tongueeach6.18
Ham, cooked, slicedlb143.42
Bacon, sidelb94.55
Tarakihi filletslb63.42
Groper (hapuku) pieceslb63.57
Sole or flounder, guttedlb52.84
Smoked fishlb59.13
Salmon, fancy pink7 3/4 oz tin51.91
Milk, fresh deliveredpint3.98
Butterlb32.77
Cheese, tasty, rindlesslb65.34
Milk powder, full cream2 1/2 lb tin137.87
Bread28 oz loaf15.19
Block cake, madeiralb46.75
Flour25 lb174.85
Oatmeal, pre-cooked3 lb packet50.19
Prepared breakfast food wheaten24 oz packet36.42
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten7 1/2 oz packet27.47
Ricelb16.70
Sugar6 lb54.76
Honey1 lb carton38.38
Jam, apricot14 oz tin31.71
Tea1/2 lb37.46
Cocoa1/2 lb packet32.80
Coffee pure, ground, looselb104.91
Coffee, instant4 oz jar76.11
Salt, polythene wrapped5 lb bag24.56
Baked beans16 oz tin29.72
Tomato sauce10 oz bottle30.19
Tomato soup11 oz tin18.60
Aerated water*10 oz bottle9.15
Ice cream, vanilla*pint block25.48
Chocolate, block*per 6oz33.90
Meal, restaurant, three courseeach149.31
Eggs, 22 oz (in carton)dozen57.25
 $    
Weekly dwelling rent, unfurnishedeach dwelling10.25
Concrete blocksper 10027.88
Wallpaperroll2.08
Paintgallon tin9.98
Weekly costs of owner-occupancy of dwelling—rateseach dwelling1.86
Coal, domestic1/4 ton7.14
Electric current (excluding water heating)150 kWh per month2.21
Electric current (including water heating)510 kWh per month5.55
Gas, domestic 1,600 cu ft (7.2 therms Nat. Gas)per month3.13
Kerosene, domestic usegallon0.32
  $    
Fuel oil, domestic heating, deliveredgallon0.24
Refrigerator 9.25 cu fteach215.00
Washing machine, semiautomatic, spin dryeach269.00
Vacuum cleanereach67.50
Radio, transistor, portableeach59.80
Television set, 24 in. consoletteeach381.36
Electric radiatoreach49.38
Electric frying paneach35.07
Electric jugeach16.42
Electric toastereach11.62
Electric iron, dryeach15.46
Electric blanketeach22.03
Electric hand drilleach19.42
Lawn mower, hand typeeach38.77
Lawn mower, rotary typeeach204.00
Piano, uprighteach578.62
Perambulatoreach67.94
Dining room suiteeach113.13
Cocktail cabineteach151.38
Tallboyeach39.41
Child's coteach34.83
Lounge suiteeach302.95
Bedsteadeach31.95
Mattress, kapok, 3 fteach22.78
Mattress, inner spring 4 ft 6 in. with baseeach94.60
Mattress, foam rubber 4 ft 6 in.each63.14
Venetian blinds, 72 in. wide, 54 in. dropeach32.69
Alarm clockeach9.63
Carpet, broadloomper yd38.53
Doormat, coireach2.23
Drapery—
     Blankets, single, all woolpair22.15
     Sheets, singlepair6.37
     Pillow, kapokeach2.16
     Towel, turkish, 24 in. by 48 in.each2.45
     Tea towel, lineneach0.90
Plate 10 in., replacement typeeach0.73
Knives, table, stainless steel1/2 doz7.51
Forks, table, E.P.N.S.1/2 doz7.03
Preserving jars, glass, quart 8 in. with rings and sealsdoz2.65
Casserole dish, 3 pinteach3.64
Mixing bowls, stainless steel, 8 in.each2.86
Saucepan, aluminium, 8 in.each8.21
Broomeach3.95
Scrubbing brusheach0.74
Bucket, plastic, 2 galloneach1.26
Hammer, carpenter's steel shafteach5.49
Planeeach8.30
Garden spadeeach7.95
Soap powder42 oz packet0.55
Detergents, plastic container19 1/2 oz0.47
Household cleaning pastestandard tin0.33
Disinfectant110 ml0.37
Fly spray12 oz can1.05
Boot polish2 3/4 inch tin0.20
Floor polish8 oz tin0.58
Electric light bulb, 100 watteach0.33
Torch battery, dry celleach0.14
Telephone rental, private (main exchange)1 year59.94
Telegram, 15 wordseach0.44
Postage, lettereach0.04
Dry cleaning, men's two-piece suitper suit1.59
Laundering sheets6 single1.04
Men's—
     Raincoat, terylene mixture or similareach39.09
     Parka, unlinedeach13.53
     Raincoat, nyloneach7.09
     Hat, felteach8.97
     Suit, worsted, ready-made, two-pieceeach62.67
     Sports-coat, ready-madeeach45.39
     Trousers, sportspair19.28
     Trousers, jeanspair4.87
     Shirt, businesseach7.39
     Shirt, brushed cottoneach3.04
     Cardigan, all wooleach16.93
     Bathing trunks, bri-nyloneach4.41
     Pyjamas, flannelettepair5.06
     Singlet, athleticeach1.12
     Sockspair1.70
     Handkerchiefeach0.32
Women's—
     Suit, coat and skirt, ready-madeeach58.31
     Coat, woollen, wintereach55.98
     Raincoat, lightweighteach29.87
     Frock, summer, houseeach11.12
     Skirt, winter weighteach17.42
     Slacks, tailored, ready-madepair11.83
     Cardigan, all wooleach13.37
     Swimsuit, bri-nyloneach15.54
     Nightdress, nyloneach6.05
     Nightdress, winter weighteach4.32
     Underslip, nyloneach5.20
     Vest, silk and wooleach2.40
     Panties, interlockpair1.31
     Brassiere, cottoneach3.40
     Corset, lycraeach12.88
     Nylons, panty-hosepair1.52
     Umbrellaeach6.19
Boys'—
     Raincoat, cottoneach13.60
     Blazereach18.56
     Trousers, shorts, worstedpair6.46
     Shirt, cotton, college styleeach4.22
     Shirt, T-shirt, cottoneach1.57
     Pullover, woolleneach7.33
     Sockspair1.61
Girls'—
     Gym frockeach15.84
     Frock, summer uniformeach10.22
     Blouse, college, cottoneach3.85
     Pyjamas, winceyettepair2.92
     Bloomers, interlockpair0.95
     Sockettespair0.87
Infants—
     Nursery squaresdoz5.98
     Baby's vesteach0.70
     Baby wool1 oz0.38
Piece goods—
     Tweed, velour coatingyard5.37
     Viyellayard2.74
     Sailclothyard0.95
Dress patterneach0.90
Wool, hand knitting 4 ply1 oz0.38
Men's—
     Boots, heavypair16.87
     Shoes, lightpair16.42
     Sand shoespair2.72
     Jandals (thongs)pair1.62
     Slippers, leatherpair7.55
     Shoe repairs, half-soled and heeledpair3.73
Women's—
     Shoes, heavypair12.61
     Shoes, lightpair13.68
     Slippers, feltpair3.54
     Shoe repairs, covered leather sole, heel tips and toe platespair2.68
Boys'—
     Football bootspair9.37
     Shoes, heavypair8.30
     Gumbootspair5.15
     Shoe repairspair2.74
Girls'—
     Shoes, schoolpair6.87
     Shoes, lightpair7.32
     Shoe repairspair1.92
Infants' shoes, plastic solepair2.05
Petrol, 83 octanegallon0.46
Petrol, 96 octanegallon0.49
Bicycle, men's sports roadstereach69.00
Bicycle tyreeach2.90
Bicycle tubeeach1.50
Cigarettespacket of 200.43
Tobacco, cigarette2 oz packet0.75
Aspirin, packet of 25per packet0.23
Toothbrusheach0.34
Toothpaste, large tubeper tube0.34
Toilet, soap, bath-sized tableteach0.15
Toilet paperper 3 rolls0.37
Face powder, block typeeach0.67
Hair rinseeach0.95
Razor blades, stainless steelpacket0.65
Electric razoreach25.13
Baby talcum powdersmall tin0.36
Attache case, fibreeach4.53
Leather briefcaseeach24.28
Suitcase largeeach14.11
Men's watch, wristleteach44.73
Newspaper, dailyeach0.06
Library subscriptionper book0.14
Popular book, paperbackeach0.85
Writing padeach0.21
Envelopes, 3 3/4 in. by 4 3/4 in.packet of 160.14
Developing and printing black and white filmper film0.84
Camera film, coloureach3.85
Tricycle, child'seach35.05
Teddy beareach7.48
Junior engineering construction seteach5.60
Tennis racqueteach11.59
Tennis ballspair0.89
Bowls, outdoorset of 438.29
Rifleeach40.97
Ammunition, 303box of 204.43
Opticians' fees, full examination and spectacles with caseeach22.18
Dental extractioneach3.54
Dental fillingseach2.83
Denturesset89.41
Medical expenses (excess over social security) private general hospitalper day7.89
Cinema admissionseat0.79
Football admissioneach0.32
Football club subscriptioneach4.09
Tennis club subscriptioneach13.42
Television licence1 year20.00
Haircut, meneach0.72
Haircut, womeneach0.79
Hairseteach1.69
Permanent waveeach7.01
Union dues (annual subscription)per member10.37
Funeral, burialeach276.85
Funeral, cremationeach243.52

International Comparisons—The table following provides a comparison of retail prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the Imperial liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity. Prices shown for the United States of America do not include sales tax. A similar table of wholesale prices is shown on page 653. Currency conversion basis: Australia, A$1 = NZ$1; Great Britain, $1 = NZ$1.9724; South Africa, 1 Rand=NZ$1.07; United States, US$1 = NZ83.668c; Canada, $1 = NZ85.092c.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS
(At December 1972 in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)Great Britain* (London)South Africa (Cape Town)United States (Average 56 Cities)

* November 1972.

† 1 3/4lb.

†† Cake flour.

‡ At price for 3 lb lots.

‡‡ Mixed coffee.

§ Loose.

∥ December quarter, 1972.

¶ Sirloin.

** Cooking quality only available.

g Hogget.

p 29 oz.

Sources:

Australia: Commonwealth Statistician.

Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner.

South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics.

U.S.A.: Bureau of Labor.

  centscentscentscentscents
Bread21 b15.2†24.019.7†11.941.8
Flour25 lb175.1260.0152.0‡195.5††256.0
Tealb75.965.263.183.9..
Coffeelb105.4§..89.754.8‡‡79.6
Sugarlb9.210.78.48.111.8
Milk (fresh)pint4.013.511.88.614.6
Butterlb32.758.044.441.673.0
Cheeselb65.352.461.150.393.0
Baconlb99.295.075.373.186.6
Pruneslb43.9..27.942.7..
Canned peaches30 oz tin41.8p32.829.128.3..
Beef, rib roastlb66.065.8∥80.964.0¶107.4
Mutton, leglb49.4g36.4∥ 75.8..
Pork—      
     Leglb70.067.9∥67.154.5..
     Chopslb71.064.2∥126.256.3108.2
Margarinelb**42.021.733.027.5

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is calendar year 1965 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1961893938932852779869949
1962916935942893832905960
1963935940959944895924972
1964967962976972929955984
19651000100010001000100010001000
19661028103010371023105110391030
19671090106210741057109210651059
19681137109111191107115011151104
19691193112311691177121311761163
19701271116712081244130812511232
19711403123712421312138813681284
19721500131013021393145114661327

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX—The present Wholesale Prices Index was described in a special supplement to the October 1959 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices. A brief summary of the salient features of this revision appeared in the 1960 Yearbook (pages 992–994).

The index is not a single wholesale prices index, but a series of price index numbers related to broad groupings of the inter-industry transactions distinguished in the department's input-output tables for the New Zealand economy. Thus each of the index numbers relates to a group of commodity transactions occurring at certain price levels between defined sectors in the economy. Capital goods as well as goods for current consumption or usage are represented in the various commodity flows.

Wholesale Prices Index Numbers—The table which follows is divided into two parts; the first covers “input” prices and the second “output” prices. Within the first part of the table there is a breakup into goods for industrial use (analysed by sector destinations), for consumption, and for export. In each flow imported goods are distinguished from locally produced goods. In this part of the table all prices are inclusive of sales tax and excise duties and net of subsidies; the prices for exports marketed overseas are the prices in these markets brought to an f.o.b. basis, i.e., their “input” prices to other countries.

In the second part of the table the broad producing sectors are distinguished. Here the prices of their outputs are used. They are taken before the addition of sales and excise duties or the deduction of subsidies. The prices for export meat and dairy products are those payable to producers under the different stabilisation and minimum export-meat-prices schemes.

The primary produce processing industries group comprises the two major industries, meat export works and dairy factories, processing farm products mainly for export.

The expression base for the index is the calendar year 1958.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX
Base: 1958 (= 1000)
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sectors of Destination
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used byAll Commodities
Domestic IndustryConsumersDomestic Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
196210119929981033103510351016100710091049101610161016
19631034101310201040105010471035102510281160103510541050
19641039107110601037108810761038107710651259103811161097
19651058111110931054111110971057111110941184105711261109
19661075113111131076112411131075112911131159107511351120
19671104112311171143119811851114114811381042111411251122
19681238117411951287126312691250120412181144125011911206
19691299124512631322131713181305126912801224130512591271
19701392130613341375140814001388134013551234138813181335
19711496139514291483153915251493144414591382149314301446
19721597150315341571161216021591154015551859159116091605
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesAll Other Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
FarmingAll Other Industries
19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000
196210038391023940990919921101210521034
19639898481026943964952953103910711056
1964999967103099799510491047104311071078
19651028114910561091105910911090106111221094
19661046126111061162108810751075107711411113
19671068116211471139113310031007110711751144
19681154105812101134125610841089124512361240
19691213112012431184125811961198130812921299
19701309121012871257124912191220140213711385
19711381128713691336140612561260150814911499
19721471144314481450159213291337160916131612
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Manufacturing‡ IndustriesBuilding and Construction
ImportedHome ProducedTotal
Other Manufacturing IndustriesAll Other IndustriesImportedHome ProducedTotal
19581000100010001000100010001000
19621006103410381021104610721063
19631048103911131061104210721061
19641043108011811085107010951086
19651044108411721084109611411124
19661063109212091105111011711149
19671091116311541125114912031183
19681250123112241239128412541265
19691322129813011311134912981316
19701407137613311381150814201452
19711500147814091473164916081623
1972∥1601160316271607175516961717
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Transport and CommunicationOther Industries§
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal

* The prices used in this table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e., including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are NZ$ f.o.b. equivalent of overseas market prices.

† This consists of manufacturing industries (excluding primary produce processing industries), building and construction, transport and communication, wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

‡ Other than Primary Produce Processing Industries.

§ Includes wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

∥ Provisional.

1958100010001000100010001000
196299210721014101610601048
1963100910661025102110631051
1964101710541027103410861071
1965107210721072108311031097
1966107310821076110811061107
1967109611111100113711871173
1968118911481178121312461237
1969122711861216125212881278
1970130712541292130913701353
1971143013581410141514811463
1972∥153614291507149915531538
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sector of Origin*
Calendar YearPrices Received for Commodities Produced in New Zealand
Output ofUsed by
FarmingOther Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesPublic UtilitiesAll Domestic Industry†Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)

* The prices used in this part of the table are those receivable by producers, i.e., before addition of indirect taxation or deduction of consumer or user subsidies; prices for dairy produce and meat are those payable to producers under the schemes to stabilise returns from year to year.

† Comprises the outputs of the five sectors mentioned in this part of the table.

‡ Provisional.

195810001000100010001000100010001000
196295711469541041106610031005995
19631020115697910621076103710241079
196411111186107110961094109910781166
196511131231109511091106111211141106
196611181286111711261116112611331105
19671027132710461158117811021134994
196810531431114312301292116711911086
196911191486123612961298123512581161
197011441531127313841308129013281163
197112011700134015121322138214301222
1972‡13981791158716281386154515321585
COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
(At November 1972 in New Zealand currency)
For currency conversion basis see page 649
ItemUnitNew Zealand*CanadaGreat BritainUnited States

* Priced once each quarter.

† Price excluding tax.

Sources:

Canada: Prices and Price Indexes – Dominion Bureau of Statistics.

Great Britain: wheat and oats – Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food: butter and cheese— New Zealand Dairy Board: motor spirits - Department of Trade and Industry.

U.S.A.: Survey of Current Business.

 $    $    $    $    
Wheatbushel1.5001.9831.7061.866
Oatsbushel0.8000.9310.8540.858
Flourshort ton101.587149.081..    116.098
Sugarcwt9.01911.818..    11.432
Butterlb0.3100.6040.3790.588
Cheeselb0.415..    0.4240.616
Motor spiritgallon0.413..    0.6730.120†

EXPORT PRICES—The Export Prices Index was revised in 1972 and the base changed to the year ended June 1971. The revision of the Export Prices Index had as its main objectives:

  1. The broadening of the commodity coverage now that a more detailed and expanded classification is in use. (The first full trade year for which statistics using this new classification are available is the year ended 30 June 1971). (b) Revision of the classification of commodity groupings. (c) The devising of an index which provides for a continuous updating of the pattern of exports. (d) The provision of complementary price and volume indexes.

The revised index series are constructed in a manner similar to the import series and this is a positive step towards standardisation.

Approximately 95 percent by value of all exports in the new index are explicitly dealt with. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average.

To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current quarterly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items.

A departure from the previous index is that the f.o.b. value of wool as recorded on export documentation is used, and not data derived from the Department of Statistics' wool price index which is based on auction sale data adjusted to an f.o.b. basis. (During the 1970–71 season 347,000 bales of wool were sold privately and 520,000 bales were scoured on account of buyers.)

In the following table are given export price index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year ended June 1971 (=1000)
Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and ByproductsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
19639497858686031399855859..  ..  ..  850
1964102376691164117711004976..  ..  ..  960
196510628269817381377948957..  ..  ..  944
19669588239407211365958952..  ..  ..  938
19679098259067211218892897..  ..  ..  887
1968933912944787944834867..  ..  ..  862
19699509249428571151964957..  ..  ..  953
19709519229359551070991974..  ..  ..  973
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)
YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsYearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsYearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
Calendar Year19321911941952806798
19331891941953900888
191424123919342362391954915905
191527527119352282331955939529
191632732019362642661956917906
191736736319373113111957906893
191837336919382862881958767761
191939739019392792821959879868
192040439819403243251960851843
192138437919413313341961802797
192229729819423413421962818813
192335535119433563571963903890
192439739019443743761964987970
192541841019454054061965950937
192633733419464434441966942927
192733533119475615571967854846
192837436719486246191968914911
192935835319496055991969972966
193027827719508608461970974971
193121021319511009992197110711067
June Year19403173201957934923
19413273301958781773
192543042219423423421959814805
192636636119433513521960900889
192733433119443663681961813807
192836936219453983991962797791
192937336719464164171963859850
193030830519475175131964976960
193122722919486236181965957944
193220220419495995941966952938
193318318819506946851967897887
19342352371951108410621968867862
193521722119528098031969957953
193625425719538718591970974973
19373033041954921909197110001000
19382962971955912903 
19392812821956934922

The brisk demand for New Zealand wool displayed after the resumption of auction sales in September 1946, and greatly heightened during 1950 and the early part of 1951, resulted in the peak index numbers reached in 1951. After that wool prices fell away, and this, combined with low prices for dairy produce resulted in troughs in the index in 1958 and 1961. Wool prices had a like effect in 1967 and 1968. Recovery in 1969 was due, almost entirely, to improved meat prices, and this trend continued into 1970 and 1971.

IMPORT PRICES—Since 1949 the Import Prices Index has been derived from chained Fisher “Ideal” indexes. In this method two price indexes are calculated for each year on base previous year, one using the quantitative weighting pattern of the previous year and the other quantitative weighting pattern of the latest year. The geometric mean of these two becomes the definitive index for the year, on base previous year, and is linked on to the index for that year on some earlier expression base. Since the trade statistics have, since 1962, been prepared for years ended June, the definitive import and export price indexes, and consequently terms of trade, are calculated accordingly. As from 1959 the price index is designed to reflect changes in the true c.i.f. cost of imports. Previously the calculations were based solely on the current domestic values of imports in the countries of origin as verified by the Customs Department. Differential changes in prices of and freight rates for a substantial number of import items with a low value per unit of weight can result in current domestic valuation changes being only a poor indication of c.i.f. cost movements. By measuring current domestic valuation price changes at the item level, and adjusting for changes in c.d.v. and c.i.f. valuation ratios at the division level, the index shows changes in the true cost of imports to the New Zealand economy.

The Import Prices Index has been revised and the base changed to the year ended June 1971. Opportunity has been taken to prepare sub-indexes for several commodity groupings of major interest. These are presented in the following table back to 1963, and further groupings will be available in future.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)
Year Ended 30 JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
1963745939653663833657..  ..  ..  ..  718
1964707913645680835649..  ..  ..  ..  727
1965734901671702851650..  ..  ..  ..  730
1966752895664720839660..  ..  ..  ..  734
1967691881661714798680..  ..  ..  ..  773
1968898892719787902762..  ..  ..  ..  808
1969946929779912990828..  ..  ..  ..  898
1970898970880919974864..  ..  ..  ..  935
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000

The following table shows a long time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the new expression base. Series are available for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearYear Ended 31 December (Calendar Year)YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 December (Calendar Year)
19263151950541554580
19273011951592612679
19282841952709730741
19292791953732716698
19302761954698694689
19312581955690692703
19322441956706715721
19332501957729735745
19342471958746743742
19352431959740734724
19362421960725732734
19372571961734732738
19382581962735733721
19392581963716718721
19402971964724727732
19413311965734730732
19423631966733734734
19434021967734733745
19444201968776808878
19454281969887898912
19464781970920935967
1947569197198310001023
1948581 
1949529

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (=100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES
Base: Calendar Year 1957 (=100)
PeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade
* Provisional.
Base Year—
    1957100100100
Year Ended June—
    1963969599
    196497108111
    196598106108
    196699105107
    19679899101
    19681089789
    196912110788
    197012610987
    197113411283
Quarter—
   1969–31 Mar12210890
            30 Jun12210687
            30 Sep12111191
            31 Dec12511189
   1970–31 Mar12610885
            30 Jun13010883
            30 Sep13011084
            31 Dec13411082
   1971–31 Mar13711181
            30 Jun13611686
            30 Sep*13911885
            31 Dec*13712592

SHARE PRICES INDEX—The Share Prices Index is described in the special supplement to the March 1961 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title of Share Prices Index—1960 Revision. The index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. Within the subgroups the weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used to combine the subgroup indexes to obtain the group and all-groups indexes are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

Share Price and Dividend Yield Index Numbers—The following table shows the averages for the last 13 calendar years.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—GROUP INDEX NUMBERS
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
Calendar YearIndustrialDistributionFinanceAll Groups
 Prices
19601000100010001000
1961990930944968
19629588641026963
1963109497411421089
19641330114311531252
19651369111910581245
1966127990210421153
1967112573810281031
1968133475313481232
1969168688116881541
1970174189517051581
1971149783715291380
1972162494016591500
 Dividend Yields
19601000100010001000
19611151112511351143
19621257126111591228
19631159117611301153
19641037107011331067
19651054113812821120
19661166143213681250
19671369171814261433
19681196159711701238
19691019138410461068
19701083148511071135
19711310168812751351
19721214153411841251

SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS—A comparative table of index numbers of various related prices series from the year 1927 onward is as follows. All index numbers are quoted on a New Zealand currency basis; index numbers of terms of trade on base 1965 = 100, all others on base 1965 = 1000.

YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeWholesale Prices*Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll ExportsImportedHome Produced†All Commodities†FoodAll Groups

* The three series have been individually linked.

† Includes only those home-produced items used by domestic industry and consumers.

192741135335486333342332355402310
1928389393392101326347330362404321
192938237737799322346328365403336
193037829329678317333319351394391
193135222122865310293299305364234
193233320120762308276291280336222
193334219920761326271299264319259
193433724825576323279301279324303
193533224024875324302310301336321
193633127828486324310313314347305
193735132833295351333339345370309
193835230130888354340344357382289
193935329430286358363355379397275
194040734134785423371396388415288
194145234935679476392435398431289
194249635936574523411470407445292
194354937538169576415502409455339
194457539440170595425517416464369
194558642743374604433525415470389
194665446747372602440527416474429
194777859259576615417547442488543
194879465766183691517609499527439
194972363363988676528605513536424
1950792905903114717601649563566476
195192810631059114836699768647629519
1952101384985284942758853713678429
195395594794899895802844756709428
1954942963966103855839837795741492
1955961988992103870841846814760522
195698696596898893887878860786538
1957101995395394916880889858803587
1958101480781280946900914871839555
195998992692794970910928876871629
1960100489690090956920931889877803
1961100984485184960914928897893778
196298686186888961906922902916773
196398595195096979923940919935875
19641001103910351039829699739729671006
1965100010001000100100010001000100010001000
196610039929909910171016101710181028926
196710198999038910541034104010921090828
196812019629728111831084111311261137990
196912461023103283123511421170118011931238
197013221025103778131312091240125812711270
197113881127113979141213001334137314031108
1972 150513951421143815001205

Various price index numbers for March and June years are given in the following table.

YearBase: Calendar Year 1965 (= 1000)
Import Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale Prices*Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups

* The two component series have been individually linked.

† Provisional.

Year ended 31 March
1940..  ..  368367362384401280
1945..  ..  597425518415465371
1950740..  679534610517539432
1952969879875720799669647498
19531000863937764853723685419
1954954964881814842768718442
1955944975855846840801747504
19569651001876840849819764527
1957996962900885882862792543
19581020915917889893865809596
19591011822959909924875853549
1960991948966913929876872675
19611004881956919931894881823
19621005842961913927899900758
1963979888964906924902921791
1964989990984932948929941913
1965100310239839809829859781026
1966100299410061005100610061007974
1967100497110241019102110311039900
1968106190310821043105611001103829
19691213992120110971128114211521076
197012571030124711561183119212071271
197113421046133812331264129113031224
1972 1171†144113201356139214311110
Year ended 30 June
1940..  341383371373387405284
1945..  426599426520416467374
1950757732687549621528545443
1952998857903734822687660474
1953978917926775851732692415
1954949970870827840783728459
1955947964860846842806751512
1956977984880849855827769533
19571005986908888887865797555
19581016825919889894867813587
19591003860972912930875864557
19601001949962918931876873726
19611001861957917930897884827
19621002844962910925902907755
1963982907971908927906926808
19649941024982945956941948945
196599810079909889899939861034
19661004100210071011101010141015957
1967100394710361025102910511055877
1968110592011131051107011061113855
196912281017121411121143115611671144
197012791039126311701198121012221286
197113531068136512561289131813371186
1972 146113411378141214571120

Chapter 24. Section 24
CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

CONSUMPTION IN NEW ZEALAND—The estimates of consumption per head of population in New Zealand, in the tables which follow, have been compiled by deducting net exports from the sum of production and imports, and allowing for recorded and estimated movements in stocks of commodities.

While the estimates may be generally accepted as being reasonably accurate there are some deficiencies to which attention needs to be directed. These relate principally to the quantities of fruit, vegetables, poultry, eggs, and milk which enter into consumption. Little information is available on the quantities of these foodstuffs produced by householders for their own requirements, or on the extent of wastage which occurs in the marketing of these and other foodstuffs. In all these cases estimates have been compiled from the best available data and the quantities shown under consumption have been adjusted to allow for these circumstances.

The absence of particulars of stocks of certain commodities will result in some variation in imputed consumption from year to year but generally the figures do indicate a fairly accurate trend in consumption patterns. Consumption of food is measured in general at producer level. As a result no allowance is made for wastage before the foodstuffs are consumed (either at retailer or consumer level) but this wastage is probably diminishing to negligible proportions with more efficient distribution and storage facilities.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. While changes in consumption patterns of milk, cream, cheese, fats, and eggs have been slight over recent years there has been a steadily rising consumption of ice cream.

Estimated figures of annual consumption per head of mean population for the main items of dairy and similar produce are given below.

ProductUnit19381967196819691970
* Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.
Fresh milkpint220246246248250
Creampint75555
Processed milk*lb518171618
Cheeselb57899
Ice creampint321242533
Butterlb4142414140
Lard, tallow, animal fatslb..7765
Vegetable oils and other fatslb..3334
Eggsdozen2026272526

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—There are gradual changes taking place in consumption patterns in meats, poultry, and fish, with a gradual decline in the consumption of beef and a steady increase in the consumption of mutton, lamb, and poultry, with little change in the consumption of veal, pork, ham, and bacon.

In estimated average annual consumption of meats an allowance has been made for killings on farms. The weights shown are in each case on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Estimates have been made of non-commercial catches of fish, and home production of poultry in the figures shown below.

ProductUnit19381967196819691970
Beeflb114102999996
Veallb88887
Muttonlb6964666868
Lamblb22222021
Porklb914141415
Ham and baconlb1715161516
Edible offallb910101111
Poultrylb4991113
Fish—
    Fresh, frozenlb111210109
    Shellfishlb12233
    Cannedlb31122

Vegetables and Fruits—Domestic garden production is taken into account for fruit and vegetables, although it is difficult to calculate consumption quantities from this source. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season, consumer resistance to higher prices, or a change in consumption pattern.

Annual consumption per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

ProductUnit19381967196819691970

* Includes asparagus, beans, brussels sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnip, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

† Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

‡ Includes apricots, nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarilloes, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

Fresh vegetables
    Potatoeslb119122153160147
    Kumaraslb85566
    Cabbagelb3025243330
    Carrotslb1223232930
    Cauliflowerlb..27272725
    Lettucelb..15141614
    Onionslb..15152114
    Pumpkinlb..15151414
    Tomatoeslb2020222123
    Other vegetables*lb..22232723
Canned vegetableslb222161917
Quick-frozen vegetableslb..16141715
Fresh fruit
    Orangeslb1614141311
    Other citrus fruit†lb65658
    Bananaslb2023191517
    Appleslb4544494353
    Pears and quinceslb610111011
    Berry fruitslb..4445
    Peacheslb..16181719
Other fruits‡lb..13121214
Dried fruitlb..8888
Canned fruitlb1818171218

Other Foodstuffs, Beverages, etc.—The most significant change in consumption of foodstuffs is the fall in wheat products (flour, bread, etc.).

There have been gradual changes in the preferences for beverages with a gradual rise in the consumption of beer and a relatively faster increase in wines.

ProductUnit19381967196819691970

* Includes treacle and golden syrup.

† Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

‡ Includes barley, and maize used for cornflower and corn flakes only.

§ Calculations are based on total imports in the period—no information is available on stocks held, hence short-term trends are not readily apparent.

Foodstuffs
    Refined sugarlb9783949190
    Syrups, etc.*lb..87109
    Honeylb..5544
    Pulses†lb23334
    Nutslb..4464
    Cocoalb22212
    Cereals
        Wheatlb178169165164162
        Oatslb94444
        Ricelb53334
        Other‡lb..2231
Beverages
    Beergal11.124.224.324.525.7
    Grape winegal0.20.80.91.11.2
    Spiritsgal0.30.40.40.40.4
    Tea§lb6.66.26.65.85.5
    Coffee§lb0.32.82.92.85.6
Tobaccolb3.85.35.15.25.5

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—A considerable proportion of the foodstuffs produced in New Zealand are not consumed in New Zealand and the following table indicates the percentage of the main commodities exported.

Product19661967196819691970
* In some cases exports may exceed production for the period, the balance being drawn from stocks in store.
Dairy products
    Processed milk75.675.473.087.1106.7*
    Cheese93.698.183.994.388.1
    Butter73.282.480.178.580.8
    Tallow and animal fats71.573.377.275.774.5
Meat, poultry, fish
    Beef53.355.160.561.7 
    Veal56.559.858.058.0
    Pork3.31.72.91.3
    Mutton49.357.060.973.4
    Lamb92.991.792.391.6
    Offal71.274.275.977.1
    Other meat18.922.922.818.3
    Fresh fish18.019.325.425.938.2
    Shellfish39.545.852.369.741.8
Fruit and vegetables
    Apples48.240.440.744.244.5
    Pears21.515.517.314.116.3
    Berryfruits1.04.95.58.95.4
    Potatoes2.91.82.42.24.8
    Onions17.022.734.514.032.0
    Canned vegetables7.86.09.48.513.5
    Quick-frozen vegetables15.514.529.626.336.8
Other foodstuffs
    Barley2.10.8
    Sugar1.01.32.01.91.5
    Honey5.95.83.55.310.2
    Pulses67.062.454.948.954.5
    Eggs0.91.31.93.03.3

CONSUMPTION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES—The following table shows consumption per head of dairy produce and similar products in various countries.

CountryYearFresh MilkCheeseButterMargarineEggs
  pintslbslbslbsdozen
Australia19672267.821.610.617
Canada19672089.016.49.421
Denmark196723020.620.939.717
New Zealand19692489.538.825
Sweden196726818.316.336.317
United Kingdom196825011.119.211.421
United States196719910.65.610.824
Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The table which follows presents statistics for selected countries of food consumption extracted from the Food and Agricultural Organisation's Production Yearbook. Total consumption in calories per person per day is shown, and includes foodstuffs not specifically mentioned in the table (i.e., pulses and nuts, eggs, fish, fats, and oils, all of which are consumed in considerably smaller quantities than the foodstuffs shown in the table).

CountryYearGrams per Day per PersonCalories per Day
CerealsPotatoes, StarchesSugars, SyrupsVegetablesFruitsMeatMilk Products

* Provisional.

† Estimated.

Europe
    United Kingdom*1968–692022801321651502055953,180
    Italy*1968–69357127743943081293872,940
    Yugoslavia*196751418167167155852813,200
    Israel1967–6830597953174281453732,930
Africa
    South Africa†1964–6646744114431001142152,810
    Ghana†1964–661611,077243026182,130
    United Arab Republic1966–676003358268260351202,960
Asia
    India*1966–6837044431,900
    Japan*196837018161370141371232,460
North America
    Canada*19671862101342282272506383,180
    U.S.A.19681781221393142232996713,240
    Mexico†1964–663695810933182531562,600
South America
    Brazil*19662694539852242741792,700
    Chile†1964–6640917887207122952702,720
Oceania
    Australia*1967–682211401421842252906313,110
    New Zealand19672211581162471733025633,292
    New Zealand19682161961312381743035373,358
New Zealand19692152071292781573055473,324
    New Zealand1970213191124252180 548 

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items were introduced in 1942 as part of the economic stabilisation policy during the war. The subsidies on butter, bread, and flour were removed as from 11 February 1967. Prices of butter and sugar were stabilised at March 1972. A subsidy on sheepmeat was introduced in April 1973.

The subsidies paid on food items have been as follows.

ProductUnit196719681969197019711972

* As at 31 March.

† Average subsidy for year ended 31 August.

 cents
Eggs*dozen3.333.333.333.333.333.33
Milk†gallon19.9318.2216.7519.6826.8336.05

The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other government expenditure. The total amount of all subsidies will be found in the section on National Income and Expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19681969197019711972
 $(thousand)
Milk14,67613,31314,02618,17125,700
Eggs1,2491,2721,3551,6151,546
Coal gas1,3581,3491,3181,202935
Industrial coal (rail transport)550489481420519
                              Totals17,83416,42317,18021,40828,700

Chapter 25. Section 25
ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—The national accounts record the value of goods and services produced by a country and the way in which these are used. Within the accounts the flow of production and disposal of goods and incomes are analysed in various ways to provide information on the inter-relationship between industrial and institutional sectors of the economy and between the economy and the rest of the world. The accounts are used as the statistical framework within which economic policy and planning is formulated and applied, the values of the various items in the accounts providing a quantitative measure of the country's economic performance and a benchmark against which to compare other measures of economic and social well-being.

National Income—The principal aggregate is that of “national income”, which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of direct taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways, and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments and pay and allowances of armed forces represent the return to labour for services rendered, and included in this concept is supplementary income in kind such as board and lodging provided by the employer.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rent (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farmhouses).

Other personal income (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income other than salary and wages received by salary and wage earners—e.g., rent and interest. Surplus of producer boards and of primary produce stabilisation accounts represents the increase (or, if negative, the decrease) in the revenue balances of producer boards, and the credits relating to primary production stabilisation schemes held by producer boards.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and not as personal income.

Apart from these incomes, which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a “non-productive” nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These transfer incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of private income, which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned transfer incomes received by or accruing to persons. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of private disposable income. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.—are, however, excluded both from private income and national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local authority trading profits and the deduction of transfer incomes, as already detailed, gives the concept of net national income at factor cost or, more briefly, national income. This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the national income to market price valuation.

Gross National Product—Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to national income at market prices, and represents the value of output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence attributable to the factors of production supplied by New Zealand residents during the year.

Gross Domestic Expenditure—This represents the total final expenditure of New Zealand residents daring the year, irrespective of where the expenditure was incurred. It is the sum of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross domestic capital formation, and changes in stocks. These four components are described in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Personal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and Services represents the value of the purchases of households and non-profit-making organisations. Besides the day-to-day expenditure on food, clothing, rent, travel and other services, etc., it includes expenditure on such items as motorcars for private use and household durables. The notable exception is expenditure on the purchase of houses; this is recorded under private capital formation.

Public Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and Services shows the current expenditure of the non-trading organs of the Central Government and local authorities. It does not include payment of pensions, monetary social security benefits or subsidies which are transfers and do not, in themselves, represent an expenditure on production. A more detailed analysis of public authority current expenditure is given later.

Gross Capital Formation represents the expenditure in New Zealand on new assets such as buildings, roads and other construction, plant, machinery and motor vehicles for business use. It does not include the value of land and secondhand assets purchased during the year which is a transfer of an asset. Nor does it include expenditure on financial assets such as company shares; such transactions do not result in direct expenditure but transfer claims from one person or organisation to another.

Change in Stocks—This represents changes in the value of stocks which may be the result of changes in volume, changes in unit values, or a combination of the two.

By adding the value of exported goods and services to gross domestic expenditure and deducting the value of imports, an estimate of the expenditure on gross domestic product is arrived at. This represents the value of goods and services produced in New Zealand during the year. The deduction of payments for the use of overseas-owned factors (capital and labour) completes the reconciliation of expenditure with the value of gross national product.

The following table shows for March years some of the more important aggregates.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES OF INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
Item 1964–651965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
* Provisional.
National Income$m3,0023,2603,3703,4683,6494,0514,6565,392
Gross national product$m3,4913,7833,9324,0834,3104,7565,4526,260
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services$m2,1342,3612,4082,5412,5802,7693,2673,642
     As percentage of gross national product 6162616260586058
Gross capital formation in New Zealand$m8129159608699531,0941,2841,427
     As percentage of gross national product 2324242122232423
Public authority current expenditure on goods and services$m4605155655986507198591,001
     As percentage of gross national product 1314141515151616
Private income$m3,1943,4593,5903,6943,8774,2964,9715,727
Private savings$m421391411373498630621815
     As percentage of private income 1311111013151214

In the year ended 31 March 1972 the gross national product was valued at $6,260 million, an increase of 14.8 percent on the 1970–71 figure of $5,452 million. Preceding annual increases were 14.6 percent in 1970–71, 10.4 percent in 1969–70, and 5.5 percent in 1968–69. These aggregates are expressed in current prices, and the increasing rate of growth of recent years reflects both the high rate of inflation in these years as well as the increases achieved in real terms.

The three main components of national income, namely, salaries and wages, company incomes, and “other personal income”, when expressed in current values increased by 16 percent, 6 percent, and 13.9 percent respectively. Within “other personal income” fanning income increased by 4.8 percent.

In 1971–72 New Zealand had a surplus of $4 million on current account with the rest of the world; this can be compared with deficit of $205 million in 1970–71, a surplus of $27 million in 1969–70 and a surplus of $44 million in 1968–69. Exports of goods at $1,335 million and imports of goods at $1,075 million gave a balance of commodity trade of $260 million in 1971–72, compared with $68 million in 1970–71. The income accruing to overseas investors stayed the same in 1971–72 as in 1970–71 at $75 million.

Total savings showed an increase of 23.6 percent in 1971–72, compared with 4.8 percent in the previous year. As a proportion of gross national product, total savings rose to 25.9 percent compared with 24 percent in 1970–71.

Gross domestic expenditure, at $6,260 million, was 10.9 percent greater in 1971–72 than in 1970–71, compared with a 14.8 percent rise in gross national product. The percentage increases in the components of gross domestic expenditure in 1971–72 over the preceding year were as follows: personal consumption increased by 11.5 percent to $3,642 million; Government and local authority current expenditure on goods and services by 16.5 percent to $1,001 million; Government and local authority capital expenditure by 13.9 percent to $492 million. Private capital expenditure, including that of public corporations, rose by 9.7 percent to $935 million. Private capital expenditure has fluctuated considerably in the past 4 years with a rise of 17.4 percent in 1968–69 and subsequent annual increases of 23, 19.7 and 9.7 percent.

The estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. Whatever inherent error may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be reliable because the method of estimation remains the same.

In these national income aggregates, no allowances have been made for any possible understatement of income shown in the taxation returns on which the estimates are based. Also, because these aggregates are based on taxation data, there has been no deduction of current years' losses incurred by companies and by individuals operating businesses, while losses in past years carried forward for taxation purposes do result in a reduction of these aggregates. Any over or understatement of the gross product total arising from these sources will therefore be reflected in a similar over or understatement of personal consumption which is shown as a residual item in the break-up of national expenditure. Direct estimates are made of public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand by private and public authority sectors, and the balance of overseas payments on current account (sometimes termed net overseas investment or net lending abroad).

After ascertaining personal consumption in the manner outlined above, it becomes possible to make an estimate of private savings. By deducting personal expenditure and direct taxation from aggregate private income, another residual is obtained—viz, private savings. Being a residual item it will, of course, contain certain minor errors of estimation inherent in the aggregates from which it is derived. It will be free, however, from the major apparent error which is caused by the understatement of incomes through tax evasion; this is due to the fact that the underestimate is cancelled out by being included both in the minuend and subtrahend, and the residual is consequently not affected.

Full details of the methods used and a description of the items in the tables are given in National Income and Expenditure 1971–72, obtainable from Government bookshops.

It is recognised that in this form the accounts do not completely fulfil the present needs of Government or those of the National Development Council. Work on a more sophisticated system of national accounts is proceeding. Meantime it is intended to continue the present series.

CONSTANT PRICE ESTIMATES OF THE MAIN AGGREGATES—National accounting aggregates are, by their nature, summations of the values of all goods and services produced or consumed in a particular year. If the values of goods and services are expressed in current prices (i.e., the market prices prevailing in each particular year) then any comparison between 2 or more years is affected not only by changes in the volume of production between those years but by annual price movements as well. The effect of annual price movements is eliminated if all annual values are expressed in the average prices of a base period; the base used here is the year 1954–55. By expressing the aggregates in constant prices, and not in current values, their real value in terms of goods and services, either produced or available for use, can be better appreciated.

Three of the principal national accounts aggregates, gross national product, gross domestic product, and gross domestic expenditure, are expressed in current as well as 1954–55 prices in the following table.

YearAt Current PricesAt Constant 1954–55 Prices
Gross National ProductGross Domestic ProductGross Domestic ExpenditureGross National ProductGross Domestic ProductGross Domestic Expenditure
* Provisional.
 $(million)
1954–551,8601,8771,9271,8601,8771,927
1955–561,9651,9792,0151,9321,9461,961
1956–572,0612,0782,0791,9681,9841,955
1957–582,1842,2012,2652,0712,0872,102
1958–592,2702,2942,2962,1232,1452,031
1959–602,4342,4542,3382,2122,2302,086
1960–612,6222,6592,7122,3342,3672,359
1961–622,7222,7532,8142,4182,4462,394
1962–632,9212,9662,9492,4832,5212,418
1963–643,1973,2403,2112,6392,6752,633
1964–653,4913,5503,5062,7912,8382,842
1965–663,7833,8373,9392,9693,0113,105
1966–673,9323,9984,0723,0843,1353,229
1967–684,0834,1384,1473,0713,1123,019
1968–694,3104,3914,2513,1183,1762,944
1969–704,7564,8534,7123,2853,3523,123
1970–715,4525,5275,6433,4393,4863,399
1971–72*6,2606,3356,2603,534 

The graph which follows demonstrates the use to which resources available in New Zealand were put during selected years.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE—The following table gives the composition of the national income by factor shares plus net indirect taxation and depreciation allowances entering into the market prices of all goods and services the production of which can be attributed to New Zealand residents (gross national product); the other side of the product account is a description of final expenditure on gross national product by type of expenditure. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct estimates.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany IncomePublic Authority Trading IncomeLess Public Debt Interest Paid in New ZealandNational Income at Factor CostPlus Indirect TaxationLess SubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesPlus Depreciation AllowancesGross National Product
* Provisional.
 $(million)
1951–5165617303721116040−  351,250142−321,360861,446
1952–536962133400815539−  341,317134−301,421961,517
1953–547692437445318150−  371,471135−311,5751061,681
1954–558622440462119560−  411,603161−271,7381221,860
1955–5693724434621118864−  421,688171−251,8331321,965
1956–579902446512−1019761−  471,773168−271,9151462,061
1957–581,0682648543−3921165−  531,870182−272,0261582,184
1958–591,1162550496121974−  571,923208−272,1041662,270
1959–601,18126515332024282−  592,075217−262,2661682,434
1960–611,2772751581−1129191−  652,242226−312,4371852,622
1961–621,3652760556−10288100−  702,315231−282,5182042,722
1062–631,44529815916323105−  772,504228−292,7032192,921
1963–641,55430866589370123−  892,742254−302,9662323,197
1964–651,723329668111418136−  953,002276−353,2422493,491
1965–661,89035109708−  6480147−1043,260289−393,5102733,783
1966–672,04139119678−  9471147−1163,370301−393,6313013,932
1967–682,12742130671−  4460167−1243,468317−213,7643204,083
1968–692,24043136666−  6520185−1363,649343−193,9743364,310
1969–702,49345149723−  8596202−1494,051377−284,3993574,756
1970–713,008561687831628171−1594,656462−525,0653875,452
1971–72*3,4906818289165665200−1705,392538−895,8404206,260
GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesPublic Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksGross Domestic ExpenditureExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesExpenditure on Gross Domestic ProductNet Factor Payments to Rest of WorldExpenditure on Gross National Product
PrivatePublic Authority
* Provisional.
 $(million)
1951–52956186186106741,508526−5751,459−131,446
1952–53938212202147261,525516−5131,528−111,517
1953–541,049226215158−421,606525−4411,690−  91,681
1954–551,201227277164581,927507−5571,877−171,860
1955–561,275249266187382,015565−6011,979−141,965
1956–571,326274256203202,079595−5962,078−172,061
1957–581,445287287214322,265593−6572,201−172,184
1958–591,459302290214312,296576−5782,294−242,270
1959–601,465324297226262,338671−5552,454−192,434
1960–611,723346366233442,712630−6832,659−372,622
1961–621,793363393241242,814634−6952,753−312,722
1962–631,878394387255352,949671−6542,966−462,921
1963–641,993417423286923,211788−7593,240−423,197
1964–652,1344605003121003,506837−7933,550−593,491
1965–662,3615165733421473,939831−9333,837−543,783
1966–672,4085655893711394,072881−9553,998−663,932
1967–682,5415984933761394,147861−8704,138−554,083
1968–692,580650579374684,2511,114−9744,391−814,310
1969–702,7697197123821304,7121,264−1,1234,853−974,756
1970–713,2678598524322335,6431,284−1,4005,527−755,452
1971–72*3,6421,0019354921906,2601,547−1,4726,335−756,260

The following tables provide some more detailed analyses of particular aspects of the national accounts.

Private Income and Outlay—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes are spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. An analysis of other personal income is also given.

The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table and this time private savings is obtained as a residual item. The limitations of these two residual items have already been mentioned.

Revenue Account of Public Authorities—-The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of Central Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was available for capital formation and other capital transactions.

Combined Capital Account—This account indicates the manner in which resources for capital formation have been made available (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of public authorities, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, Central Government, and the local authority sectors, plus the net change in stocks of trading concerns.

Rest of World Account—An account of external economic transactions between New Zealand and other countries; it is in essence, a balance of payments on current account for the period, presented here in abridged form.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures are at prices current during the period and consequently are inflated to a greater or lesser extent by price movements over the period.

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value of Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeCompany Income Before DistributionPrivate Income (Before Tax)
FarmingBusiness and InvestmentChanges in Balances of Income Retention AccountsSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation Accounts
* Provisional.
 INCOME $(million)
1951–526561710530209168−5111601,350
1952–536962110733232180−1281551,420
1953–547692411537259197−1131811,572
1954–558622412240263210−1111951,706
1955–569372412843257218−13111881,794
1956–579902413246290234−12−101971,891
1957–581,0682613948287256–  −392111,997
1958–591,1162516050249247–  12192,065
1959–601,1812619851279255–  202422,251
1960–611,2772721351289291–  −112912,429
1961–621,3652721860251304–  −102882,503
1962–631,4452921981272320–  63232,694
1963–641,5543022986315334893702,937
1964–651,72332234963213582114183,194
1965–661,89035242109332381−5−64803,459
1966–672,04139252119298384−4−94713,590
1967–682,12742269130294387−3−54603,694
1968–692,24043278136286381–  −65203,877
1969–702,493452981493024173−35964,296
1970–713,00856328168315467116284,971
1971–72*3,49068366182378513–  656655,727
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesNet Transfers to Rest of WorldDirect TaxationPrivate SavingsPrivate Outlay
Undistributed Profits of CompaniesOther Private Savings
* Provisional.
OUTLAY $(million)
1951–52956−428449651,350
1952–53938−3292391541,420
1953–541,0491308581561,572
1954–551,2012336571101,706
1955–561,275348421291,794
1956–571,326370461491,891
1957–581,445−1345451631,997
1958–591,459344264972,065
1959–601,4656420772832,251
1960–611,7238493831222,429
1961–621,7938531611102,503
1962–631,8789505872152,694
1963–641,99375421082872,937
1964–652,134106291013203,194
1965–662,361176911542373,459
1966–672,408177551442673,590
1967–682,541137671582153,694
1968–692,58087912272713,877
1969–702,769108872683624,296
1970–713,26751,0782493724,971
1971–72*3,642−151,2852615545,727
REVENUE ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES (CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES)
March YearTaxationTrading IncomeDirect Taxes Paid by Public Authority Trading UndertakingsTotal Revenue
DirectIndirect
* Provisional.
REVENUE $(million)
1951–5228814240−  4466
1952–5329613439−  5464
1953–5431113550−  4492
1954–5534216160−  5558
1955–5635417164−  6582
1956–5737616861−  6599
1957–5835018265−  4593
1958–5944720874−  5724
1959–6042521782−  6718
1960–6149922691−  7809
1961–62538231100−  7862
1962–63512228105−  8838
1963–64551254123−  9919
1964–65640276136−111,040
1965–66702289147−111,127
1966–67767301147−121,203
1967–68780316167−131,250
1968–69806343185−151,320
1969–70904377202−171,466
1970–711,093462171−161,710
1971–72*1,299538200−152,022
March YearCurrent Expenditure on Goods and ServicesTransfer IncomeSubsidiesBalance of Revenue Over ExpenditureTotal Expenditure Plus or Minus Revenue Balances
Social Security Benefits and PensionsNet Transfers to Rest of WorldInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand
* Provisional.
 EXPENDITURE $(million)
1951–5218610543532104466
1952–532121073343078464
1953–542261153373181492
1954–5522712244127138558
1955–5624912834225135582
1956–5727413244727116599
1957–582871394532782593
1958–5930216045727174724
1959–6032419745926108718
1960–6134621246531152809
1961–6236321847028179862
1962–6339421947729115838
1963–6441722968930148919
1964–65460234595352121,040
1965–665162426104392201,127
1966–675652526116392251,203
1967–685982696124212321,250
1968–696502787136192311,320
1969–707192988148282631,466
1970–718593289158523031,710
1971–72*1,00136611170893862,022
COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT
March YearPrivate SavingsRevenue Balances of Public AuthoritiesDepreciation AllowancesTotal SavingsGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksNet Investment OverseasTotal Investments
PrivateCentral Government Trading UndertakingsLocal Authorities Trading UndertakingsPrivateCentral GovernmentLocal Authorities
* Provisional.
 Savings$ (million)Investments
1953–54214809211340221511444−4271402
1954–551671381061434272771154958−72427
1955–561711351141534372661295838−54437
1956–571951161271644572561386520−22457
1957–58208821351844482871407432−85448
1958–591611741412055022901377731−33502
1959–60360108141225636297142842687636
1960–612051521552465423661498444−101542
1961–621711791732465533931479424−105553
1962–6330211518526763538715310235−42635
1963–6439514819727777442318010692−27774
1964–65421212213279882500196116100−30882
1965–663912202352810884573218125147−178884
1966–674112252573310936589242129139−163936
1967–683732322733512925493244132139−83925
1968–6949823128239151,06457923713668441,064
1969–7063026329943161,251712235147130271,251
1970–7162130332644171,311852270162233−2051,311
1971–72*81538635745181,62193530918319041,621
REST OF WORLD ACCOUNT
March YearExports ofImports ofNet Factor PaymentsNet TransfersSurplus on Current Account
GoodsServicesGoodsServicesPrivatePublic Authorities
* Provisional.
$(million)
1951–5250125−474−101−134−3−62
1952–5347640−415−98−113−3−9
1953–5449134−362−79−9−1−371
1954–5547136−459−98−17−2−4−72
1955–5652441−498−103−14−3−54
1956–5754847−488−108−17−4−22
1957–5854053−545−112−171−4−85
1958–5952848−468−110−24−3−4−33
1959–6062249−442−113−19−6−487
1960–6157456−546−137−37−8−4−101
1961–6258153−550−145−31−8−4−105
1962–6360763−509−145−46−9−4−42
1963–6472067−601−158−42−7−6−27
1964–6576770−616−177−59−10−5−30
1965–6674982−722−211−54−17−6−178
1966–6778795−723−232−66−17−6−163
1967–68753109−638−232−55−13−6−83
1968–69978136−722−253−81−8−744
1969–701,117147−828−294−97−10−827
1970–711,109174−1,043−356−75−5−9−205
1971–72*1,335213−1,075−396−7515−114

DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE INCOME—The following table gives an analysis of private disposable income with the amount of direct taxes on gross private income shown in parentheses. In the following table the items of private income are shown as percentages of the whole.

PRIVATE DISPOSABLE INCOME (WITH DIRECT TAXATION ON PRIVATE INCOME SHOWN IN PARENTHESES)
March YearSalary and WagesPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Surplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountCompany Income (Before Distribution)Total
* Provisional.
DISPOSABLE INCOME $(million)
1957–58975 (93)24 (2)583 (147)−39109 (102)1,652 (345)
1958–59982 (134)22 (3)505 (200)1113 (106)1,623 (442)
1959–601,035 (146)23 (3)620 (162)20133 (109)1,831 (420)
1960–611,130 (148)24 (3)629 (216)−11165 (126)1,936 (493)
1961–621,197 (168)24 (3)622 (211)−10138 (150)1,972 (531)
1962–631,272 (173)26 (3)707 (184)6179 (144)2,190 (505)
1963–641,378 (177)27 (3)774 (199)9207 (164)2,395 (542)
1964–651,517 (206)29 (4)788 (223)11221 (196)2,566 (629)
1965–661,654 (236)30 (4)821 (239)−6268 (212)2,769 (691)
1966–671,772 (269)34 (5)798 (250)−9240 (231)2,835 (755)
1967–681,844 (283)36 (5)826 (244)−5226 (234)2,927 (767)
1968–691,933 (308)37 (6)822 (258)−6298 (220)3,086 (791)
1969–702,146 (346)38 (6)879 (290)−8353 (244)3,409 (887)
1970–712,545 (463)48 (9)963 (315)1337 (291)3,894 (1,077)
1971–72*2,881 (609)57 (11)1,082 (359)65359 (303)4,443 (1,285)
PRIVATE INCOME ON PERCENTAGE BASIS
March YearSalary and WagesPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal Income (Excluding Company Dividends)Surplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountCompany Income (Before Distribution)Private Income
* Provisional.
PERCENT
1957–5853.51.37.02.427.2−2.010.6100.0
1958–5954.01.27.72.524.0- -10.6100.0
1959–6052.41.28.82.323.7−0.910.7100.0
1960–6152.61.18.82.123.9−0.512.0100.0
1961–6254.51.18.72.422.2−0.411.5100.0
1962–6353.61.18.13.022.00.212.0100.0
1963–6452.91.07.82.922.40.312.6100.0
1964–6553.91.07.33.021.30.313.1100.0
1965–6654.61.07.03.220.5−0.213.7100.0
1966–6757.11.17.03.318.9−0.313.0100.0
1967–6857.71.17.33.518.2−0.112.4100.0
1968–6957.41.17.13.517.2−0.213.3100.0
1969–7058.01.17.03.516.8−0.213.8100.0
1970–7160.51.16.63.415.8- -12.8100.0
1971–72*60.91.26.43.215.51.111.6100.0

PUBLIC AUTHORITY SECTOR—The Revenue Account of Public Authorities shown earlier is a consolidation and simplification of two separate and more detailed accounts—the Central Government Revenue Account and the Local Authorities Revenue Account. The consolidated account eliminates all transfers between the two levels of Government and aggregates the respective totals of economically significant flows.

(a) Central Government—The Revenue Account of the Central Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the Public Account. In the case of trading department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken “net” in all cases, sundry departmental receipts being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only current revenue items and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the Public Accounts in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. 1].

Current expenditure on goods and services by Government rose from $656.2 million in 1970–71 to $759.4 million in 1971–72. A better measure of the relativity of Government expenditure is given by comparing it with gross national product. In 1971–72 Central Government expenditure amounted to 12.1 percent of gross national product compared with 12 percent in 1970–71.

Although all Government transfer expenditure—social security cash benefits and pensions, interest on public debt, and subsidies—is also paid from the Government's taxation revenue and trading profits, it is not part of Government final consumption. It only becomes final consumption in the hands of recipients, or, in the case of subsidies, can be looked upon as an offset to indirect taxation which reduces prices to consumers. For this reason the best measure of transfers is the national income itself on which they are a charge and which they redistribute.

Social security benefits and pensions, the most important item of the transfer group, were $361.4 million in 1971–72 or 13.1 percent higher than in 1970–71. Expressed as a percentage of national income, they were 6.2 percent in 1971–72, whereas the average in the latest 5 years was 6.6 percent.

With the removal of subsidies from some basic foodstuffs in earlier years their importance declined, but they increased markedly from $28 million in 1969–70 to $52 million in 1970–71 and $89 million in 1971–72.

Interest on Government debt paid in New Zealand was 2.4 percent of national income in 1971–72 compared with 2.6 percent in 1970–71 and 3.4 percent in 1969–70. Interest on Government debt paid overseas, $32.9 million in 1971–72, is treated as a factor payment to non-residents and is included in current expenditure totals.

Transfers to local authorities comprises two items, namely, finance provided by the Central Government to hospital boards, and transfers to other local authorities. The former, as a proportion of national income has remained quite constant, averaging 2.6 percent over the last 5 years. The latter represents a shift from local to national taxation and in 1971–72 it amounted to 2.6 percent of the total Government revenue from taxation, a reduction from the 3.5 percent average of the previous 4 years.

The balance of revenue over expenditure is the Government's surplus on current transactions and is, together with the depreciation provisions of Government trading undertakings, available for capital formation, lending, and debt repayment. Its magnitude changes appreciably from year to year both absolutely and in relation to total current revenue and is the result of short-term changes in fiscal and economic policies pursued by the administration. Year-to-year changes in the Government's surplus are, however, complementary to changes (in the opposite direction) in private savings. This is of course, merely a reflection of the fact that changes in taxation policies are a major cause of the redistribution of total savings as between the private and Government sector. From a long-term point of view, however, it is important to observe the changes in Government fiscal policy from pre-war to present days: in 1938–39, 4.8 percent of the Government's revenue was saved. In 1971–72 the proportion was 15 percent.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT
Item1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
* Provisional.
1. TAXATION
     (a) Direct:REVENUE $(million)
          Income tax443.4440.3456.7779.2957.31,161.1
          Social security taxation221.0232.5234.8
          Land tax3.54.42.72.93.13.8
          Death duties22.521.423.626.129.224.8
          Other
Totals690.4698.6717.9808.1989.51,189.7
     (b) Indirect:
          Sales tax78.975.482.897.6125.3139.5
          Customs and excise duties126.8131.1142.2152.8178.5198.0
          Motor vehicles taxation70.187.094.298.4104.0108.6
          Other22.220.221.024.127.330.5
          Payroll tax20.540.8
Totals298.0313.7340.3372.9455.6517.3
2. Totals, all taxation988.31,012.31,058.21,181.01,445.11,707.0
3. TRADING INCOME112.0127.8142.7158.5127.2155.8
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading departments−11.7−13.1−15.1−16.9−15.7−15.0
Totals100.3114.7127.6141.6111.5140.8
5. TOTAL REVENUE1,088.61,127.01,185.81,322.61,556.61,847.8
6. CURRENT EXPENDITUREON GOODSAND SERVICES
EXPENDITURE $(million)
     (a) General administration53.553.055.263.273.491.1
     (b) Interest17.221.628.830.832.136.3
     (c) Law and order12.813.413.016.320.726.6
     (d) Development of primary and secondary industries38.440.042.347.762.962.2
     (e) Health69.273.377.786.8103.7115.8
     (f) Education124.4136.8145.6168.4214.9279.6
     (g) Other social services3.45.27.04.95.87.8
     (h) Defence86.283.795.9102.6122.8121.7
     (i) Rehabilitation1.31.21.11.11.00.9
     (j) Maintenance of public works and services12.014.218.216.118.917.4
Totals418.4442.4484.8537.9656.2759.4
7. TRANSFERS
     (a) Monetary social security benefits and pensions245.4263.0270.9292.4319.5361.4
     (b) Family benefit advances6.26.16.66.08.54.5
     (c) Net transfers to rest of world6.36.46.67.79.310.7
8. Interest on Central Government debt paid in New Zealand88.794.2103.6113.4120.9130.6
Totals346.6369.7387.7419.5458.2507.2
9. TRANSFERSTO LOCAL AUTHORITIES
     (a) Hospital boards92.594.9101.1113.3135.0170.2
     (b) Other38.938.539.241.944.045.1
Totals131.4133.4140.3155.2179.0215.3
10. SUBSIDIES39.221.018.928.552.189.3
11. TOTAL EXPENDITURE935.6966.51,031.71,141.11,345.61,571.2
12. Balance of revenue over expenditure153.0160.5153.9181.5211.1276.6
13. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PL US REVENUE BALANCES1,088.61,127.01,185.61,322.61,556.71,847.8

(b) Local Authorities—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the Central Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities including hospital boards. In 1971–72 the Central Government contributed 55.8 percent of the revenue of local authorities through transfers. Trading profits contributed a further 11.4 percent, and rates and licence fees at 33.4 percent continued the pattern of recent years.

Current expenditure on goods and services by local authorities in 1971–72, at $241.4 million was 19.0 percent higher than in the previous year, whereas the increase in Central Government current expenditure on goods and services was 15.7 percent. The limitations in the scope of local government activities as compared with those of the Central Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT
Item1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
* Provisional.
14. TAXATIONREVENUE $(million)
     (a) Direct: Rates76.381.288.695.5103.6109.7
     (b) Indirect: Licence fees2.92.83.04.06.020.2
Totals79.284.091.599.5109.6129.9
15. Trading income34.939.542.643.643.644.3
16. Transfers from Central Government131.4133.4140.3155.2179.0215.3
17. TOTAL REVENUE245.5256.9274.3298.3332.2389.5
EXPENDITURE $(million)
18. Current expenditure on goods and services146.9155.3164.7181.6202.8241.4
19. Interest on local authority debt paid in New Zealand27.030.132.335.037.538.9
20. TOTAL EXPENDITURE174.0185.4196.9216.6240.3280.3
21. Balance of revenue over expenditure71.671.577.481.791.9109.2
22. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES245.5256.9274.3298.3332.2389.5

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

GENERAL—A country's balance of payments is an account of economic transactions which take place between that country and all other countries. The balance of payments is part of the national accounting system. The present series of New Zealand balance of payments estimates is largely based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual published by the International Monetary Fund and is in conformity with the methods used in other countries. For a more detailed description of statistical concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates, refer to the Report on the Balance of Payments for the year 1970–71, obtainable from the Government Printer.

The statement is divided into a current and capital account. The balances on both accounts are, by definition, the same; the capital account showing how the surplus or deficit on current account was financed.

Current Account—The current account records all transactions between New Zealand and the rest of the world other than changes in overseas assets and liabilities. As far as possible transactions are recorded on a gross credit-debit basis rather than on the basis of net settlements. The current account includes credits and debits for goods, services (invisibles), and transfers (donations). The difference between current credits and current debits is the balance of payments surplus (deficit) on current account. This is the measure of the extent to which a country does or does not live within its current income and it is the most significant datum emerging from a balance of payments compilation.

Capital Account—The capital account records changes in claims on, or liabilities to, the rest of the world. These may consist of changes in overseas private investments in New Zealand and New Zealand private investments overseas; borrowing or repayments overseas by the Government and official institutions and changes in Government overseas cash balances, net overseas assets, monetary gold, multilateral transfers, and other capital movements. Of the items comprising the capital account, the category of net overseas assets (the overseas exchange holdings of New Zealand's banking system) is most widely known and appreciated. Its importance lies in the fact that it records changes in overseas liquid resources which, by their nature, can be made immediately available for purposes of imports, public debt repayments, capital investments, etc. Within the confines of the balance of payments capital account the movement in net overseas assets is only one of several other capital movements with which it forms an integral part; it is the combination of all these capital changes which must be studied in order to understand the financing of the current surplus or deficit.

MERCHANDISE TRANSACTIONS: Exports—The source of export figures is Custom's export entries (exclusive of ships' stores) at f.o.b. valuation; exports from New Zealand to its island territories have been excluded, but exports from island territories to other countries have been added to New Zealand totals. The remaining adjustments are for items which are included in export and import entries (relief supplies, and some ships and aircraft), items where the valuation requires correction, e.g., parcel post, or items which are accounted for elsewhere in the balance of payments (export of gold).

Imports—The basic import figures originate from import entries. Some aircraft and ships not included in imports by Customs Department are added. New Zealand imports from its island territories have been excluded, but imports into island territories from other countries have been included.

It is necessary to comment here on the valuation method adopted for imports. Balance of payments accounts treat freight and marine insurance payments on imports (as far as they are made to non-residents) as invisible payments. As a result, merchandise transactions are shown on a f.o.b. valuation basis for imports and exports alike. This method of treatment has many advantages, and international comparability of merchandise movements is one of them. A special estimate is therefore made of imports f.o.b. for balance of payments purposes.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD-–There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b. country of export; the exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation boundary (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the “cash book” of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an “income and expenditure” account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

The New Zealand figures include transactions of New Zealand's dependent island territories. In this respect they differ from the rest of the world account included in the national income and expenditure estimates, where the rest of the world account refers to New Zealand only, and does not cover the island territories. However, this difference in coverage only slightly affects the grass figures, and the final outcome of the balance of payments current account differs very little from that of the rest of the world account.

The regional areas and countries comprising them have been defined as follows:

Other Sterling Countries—Commonwealth countries (excluding the United Kingdom and Canada) and their trustee and dependent territories, the colonies, protectorates, and trustee territories, etc., of the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Iceland, and South Africa.

EEC Countries—The six members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Asian Development Bank, the International Finance Corporation, and the South Pacific Air Transport Council and other international organisations are included.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their “centre of interest” in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.) are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

SUMMARY TABLES, CURRENT AND CAPITAL ACCOUNTS—The following table summarises current transactions with all countries.

CURRENT ACCOUNT
Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
* Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
Credits
Exports f.o.b.749.6 974.2 1,113.2 1,102.7 1,311.0
Non-monetary gold
Transportation60.271.274.688.9112.2
Travel17.420.126.033.645.1
Insurance1.57.33.00.90.2
International investment income—23.531.834.842.847.0
     Income from direct private investment5.9 8.3 11.3 13.6 13.1 
     Other private investment income9.916.514.624.814.5
     Government and official institutions7.76.98.94.419.4
Government transactions—8.6 11.2 14.0 15.8 17.8
     Foreign Government expenditure4.66.9 9.6 8.9 11.0 
     New Zealand Government receipts4.0 4.34.36.96.8
Miscellaneous receipts20.9 26.3 29.1 35.2 37.2
Transfers—31.637.137.947.869.2
     Government transfers     
     Personal remittances and other donations19.725.828.335.549.3
     Migrants' funds8.77.05.98.314.6
     Legacies3.34.43.84.15.3
                              Total credits 913.4 1,179.3 1,332.6 1,367.7 1,639.7
Debits
Imports f.o.b.637.4 720.4 827.1 1,042.0 1,074.7
Non-monetary gold
Transportation121.2122.8139.6171.9185.2
Travel40.442.250.161.975.5
Insurance3.92.51.54.24.6
International investment income—78.2112.5132.4117.9122.2
     Income from direct private investment39.4 72.6 88.8 70.3 76.7 
     Other private investment income12.38.47.914.612.6
     Government and official institutions26.531.235.332.632.8
     Local authority interest0.20.40.40.1
Government transactions— 22.6 25.1 27.8 29.9 40.1
     New Zealand Government expenditure22.6 25.1 27.8 29.9 40.1 
Miscellaneous payments 44.4 60.1 75.5 88.4 91.1
Transfers—51.451.555.961.865.1
     Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan6.4 6.6 7.7 9.3 10.7 
     Personal remittances and other donations and transfers15.617.618.021.323.1
     Migrants' funds25.022.623.223.922.6
     Legacies4.44.67.07.38.8
                              Total debits 999.5 1,137.2 1,309.9 1,578.0 1,658.5
          Balance on current account−86.142.222.7−210.3−18.8

The consolidated capital, account shown below summarises capital transactions with all countries; some of the items are presented in simplified form (by adding or offsetting capital movements where these have occurred in respect of equally defined items).

CAPITAL ACCOUNT
Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus (−) sign denotes decrease.

* Provisional.

† Allocation of special drawing rights and holdings in New Zealand currency are not increases in liabilities, but are entered here as contra entries to maintain the correct balance of the capital account.

Long-term capital (Private)—NZ$ (million)
     Overseas direct investment in New Zealand28.138.976.2130.0100.9
     New Zealand direct Investment overseas−1.36.311.07.810.5
     Other long-term capital movements42.317.63.68.790.5
Long-term capital (Government)—
     Government investments15.1−7.726.131.412.2
     Public debt60.415.42.950.672.2
     Local Authority debt−2.0−1.3−1.3−1.4
     Asian Development Bank—
          Holdings of New Zealand securities0.81.01.01.0
          New Zealand subscription1.62.62.62.6
     International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)—
          Holdings of New Zealand securities0.4
          New Zealand subscription and security0.4
          Other20.64.6−4.2−11.51.3
Monetary institutions—
     Reserve Bank of New Zealand—
     International Monetary Fund—
          Drawings and repurchases35.5−57.4−18.4−35.0
          Allocation of Special Drawing Rights23.6†19.3†19.1†
          Increase in Quota40.2
          IMF holdings in New Zealand currency30.1†
     Other borrowing and lending−12.4−9.427.9−5.1−5.4
     Monetary gold−0.11.0−6.4−0.1
     Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks—
          Assets of New Zealand banking system69.9−17.221.7−32.4159.0
          Special Drawing Rights of IMF23.6−4.027.9
     Official export credits5.74.3
Short-term capital (Government)—
     Government cash balances−0.5−0.1−0.1
     Other6.712.3−18.2−0.357.6
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions2.254.311.573.813.1
Balance on capital account −86.1 42.2 22.7 −210.3 −18.8

ANALYSIS OF CURRENT ACCOUNT—Total debits to the rest of the world in 1971–72 maintained the high level experienced in 1970–71, but the latest annual movement was very much less than for any year since 1967–68. Total credits moved ahead again, especially earnings from the exports of goods. This upsurge largely rectified the very high deficit in the current account which had been present in 1970–71.

The balance of payments estimates show that for the year ended 31 March 1972 New Zealand's deficit with the rest of the world on current account was $18.8 million. It was $210.3 million for the 1970–71 financial year.

(a) Merchandise Transactions—As compared with 1970–71, the value of exports rose by $208.3 million to $1,311.0 million, whereas imports (measured f.o.b. country of shipment) were only $32.7 million greater than in 1970–71 at $1,074.7 million.

The long-term trend of a declining share of exports destined for the United Kingdom continued through to 1970–71. In 1952–53, 68.4 percent of New Zealand's exports, by value, were sold in the United Kingdom; by 1960–61 this proportion had fallen to 52.9 percent, and in the last 3 years the percentages have been 38.6 for 1968–69, 38.2 for 1969–70, and 35.7 percent for 1970–71. The 1971–72 figures were not available for this publication.

The following table shows how trade with each area has moved.

Year Ended 31 MarchUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther Countries*Total. All Countries
* Includes International Organisations.
Exports (f.o.b. N.Z.)NZ$(million)
     1967–68318.696.3150.569.5114.7749.6
     1968–69377.0133.4193.6119.6150.6974.2
     1969–70425.4151.7221.4142.1172.51,113.2
     1970–71393.3179.8214.9135.9178.81,102.7
Annual Change—
     1968–69+58.4+37.1+43.1+50.1+35.9+224.6
     1969–70+48.4+ 18.3+27.8+22.5+21.9+ 139.0
     1970–71−32.1+28.1−6.5−6.2+6.3−10.4
Imports (f.o.b. Overseas) —
     1967–68227.9182.1109.343.974.1637.4
     1968–69241.6222.7119.451.785.1720.4
     1969–70277.9257.3128.260.1103.6827.1
     1970–71304.8327.7174.981.5153.11,042.0
Annual Change—
     1968–69+ 13.7+40.6+10.1+7.8+11.0+83.0
     1969–70+36.3+34.6+8.8+8.4+18.5+106.7
     1970–71+26.9+70.4+46.7+21.4+49.5+214.9
Balance of Trade (Exports Less Imports)
     1967–6890.7−85.841.225.640,6112.3
     1968–69135.4−89.374.267.965.6253.8
     1969–70147.5−105.693.282.068.9286.1
     1970–7188.5−147.940.054.425.760.7
Annual Change—
     1968–69+44.7−3.5+33.0+42.3+25.0+141.5
     1969–70+12.1−16.3+19.0+14.1+3.3+32.3
     1970–71−59.0−42.3−53.2−27.6−43.2−225.4

(b) Invisibles—The deficit on the other items of the current account, invisibles, was $259.2 million for 1971–72 as compared with $257.0 million in 1970–71.

Large deficits occurred in the transportation and travel accounts. The transportation debit item includes freight on imports, passenger fares to non-resident shipping lines and air carriers, earnings and disbursements overseas by New Zealand carriers and disbursements in New Zealand by nonresident carriers (such as port disbursements, ships' stores and bunkers). The higher freight component of this item was affected by rises in freight rates.

Investment income credits include income from New Zealand direct investment overseas, other private investment income and interest on investments of Government and official institutions. The debits include income derived from overseas direct investment in New Zealand, other private investment income and interest on Government and local authority debt.

The following table gives details of invisible transactions by areas.

NET DEFICIT ON INVISIBLE ACCOUNT BY AREAS
YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
 NZ$(million)
1969–70119.229.150.119.127.8245.5
1970–71120.738.245.621.531.1257.0
1971–72124.543.845.317.927.6259.2

In 1971–72 transactions with the United Kingdom accounted for 48.0 percent of the invisible deficit, those with the other sterling countries for 16.9 percent, those with the United States and Canada for 17.5 percent, those with the European Economic Community for 6.9 percent, and those with other countries for 10.6 percent.

(c) Transfers—Transfers consist of legacies, personal remittances, migrants' funds, Government contributions to international agencies, gifts and donations in cash or kind, for which there is no quid pro quo.

Analysis of Capital Account—The capital account of the balance of payments records changes in claims on and liabilities to other countries; such changes have direct reference to current transactions and the net difference between acquisition of new claims and the increase in liabilities explains how the current account was funded.

An analysis of the 1971–72 capital account is now presented.

Nature of CapitalNet Outflows of Capital (Increase in Claims)Net Inflows of Capital (Increase in Liabilities)
 NZ($million)
Long-term private180.9
Long-term Government59.9
Monetary institutions177.5
Short-term Government57.6
Other short-term (including errors and omissions)13.1
Excess of capital inflows over outflows (equals balance on current account)18.8
                          Totals253.9253.9

One of the major categories of private long-term capital movements is that of direct investment in New Zealand by overseas firms in branches and subsidiaries. In 1971–72 the increase in investment by overseas firms was $100.9 million compared with $130.0 million in 1970–71 and $76.2 million in 1969–70.

The two main components of Government long-term capital movements are Government investment overseas which increased by $12.2 million and the external public debt which rose by $722 million. The following table shows the movements during 1971–72 in the external public debt.

Loans RaisedAmountDebt RepaymentAmount
 NZ$(million) NZ$(million)
In United Kingdom30.9In United Kingdom33.3
In United States5.8In United States13.5
In EEC65.1In EEC0.4
In Japan2.2In Japan0.2
In Swiss Francs21.9In Swiss Francs1.9
International Bank of Reconstruction and Development0.4International Bank of Reconstruction and Development4.8
 Transfer of securities from UK to NZ register0.1
Net addition to external public debt54.2
                        Total loans raised126.4 72.2

Under the heading Monetary Institutions are included the international transactions entered into by the Reserve Bank. On 1 January 1972 the third and final allocation of the special drawing rights from the International Monetary Fund was received. In addition New Zealand acquired a further $8.9 million under the fund designation programmes during the year. It was settled by transfers of foreign exchange of the same value. Credits were made available to Peru and Indonesia and Greece drawn on during the year to the extent of $4.3 million. Finally the assets of the banking system rose by $159 million.

Government short-term capital is mainly composed of short-term securities held overseas. During 1971–72 it rose by $57.6 million.

The last item of the capital account is the short-term private capital and errors and omission due mainly to timing differences. No precise breakdown of this figure can be given but, as with 1970–71, the inflow of short-term private capital was around $24 million; the amount included in the lag between the import and export of goods and their payment at the beginning and end of the year (which in 1970–71 was a large factor) appears to have to some extent corrected itself in 1971–72.

BALANCES BY AREAS-–The following tables for current account and capital account for 1970–71 respectively, analyse the balance of payments by area. The 1971–72 figures are not yet available.

A. CURRENT ACCOUNT BY AREAS 1970–71
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
  Credits NZ$(million)   
Exports f.o.b.393.3179.8214.9135.9178.91,102.7
Non-monetary gold
Transportation59.618.53.53.24.188.9
Travel5.216.711.30.20.233.6
Insurance1.8−0.3−0.80.10.9
International investment income—
     (a) Income from direct investment overseas5.97.30.60.1−0.413.6
     (b) Other private investment income12.010.32.10.20.224.8
     (c) Interest on investments of Government and official institutions4.44.4
Government transactions—
     (a) Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand1.31.53.70.31.70.58.9
     (b) New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas2.11.53.20.16.9
Miscellaneous receipts12.710.48.81.42.035.2
Transfers—
     (a) Government transfers
     (b) Personal remittances and other donations and transfers15.312.26.21.20.635.5
     (c) Immigrants' funds4.72.11.20.20.18.3
     (d) Legacies2.51.10.30.10.14.1
               Total credits520.7261.1255.0142.9187.50.51,367.7
  Debits NZ$(million)   
Imports f.o.b.304.8327.7174.981.5153.11,042.0
Transportation104.211.611.818.525.8171.9
Travel16.731.69.51.82.361.9
Insurance3.20.30.74.2
International investment income—
     (a) Income from direct investment in New Zealand25.322.219.51.22.170.3
     (b) Other private investment income13.20.80.10.514.6
     (c) Interest on Government debt22.30.65.83.932.6
     (d) Interest on local authority debt0.40.4
Government transactions—
     Current Government expenditure9.79.77.22.01.329.9
Miscellaneous payments31.027.423.43.03.688.4
Transfers—
     (a) Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan0.41.50.56.99.3
     (b) Personal remittances and other donations and transfers6.010.31.71.51.70.121.3
     (c) Emigrants' funds6.613.22.31.20.623.9
     (d) Legacies2.93.40.80.10.17.3
               Total debts546.3460.3257.8111.2195.47.01,578.0
Balance on current account (minus sign (–) dedeficit) notes−25.6−199.2−2.831.7−7.9−6.5−210.3
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT BY AREAS 1970–71
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and Canada
Increase InIncrease InIncrease In
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
Long-term capital (private) —NZ$(million)
     Overseas direct investment in New Zealand37.030.712.9
     New Zealand direct investment overseas−3.18.80.7
     Other long-term capital movements−3.715.25.424.60.1−28.5
Long-term capital (Government)—
     Government investments35.8
     Public debt7.514.5
     Local authority debt
     Asian Development Bank Holdings of N.Z. securities
          New Zealand subscription
     Other−0.1−1.0−6.8
Monetary institutions—
     Reserve Bank of New Zealand—
          International Monetary Fund Drawings and repurchases
          Allocation of special drawing rights
          Increase in quota
          Holdings in New Zealand currency
          Other borrowing or lending−5.1
          Monetary gold
     Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks—
          Assets of New Zealand banking system−2.4
          Special drawing rights of International Monetary Fund
          Export credits
Short-term capital (Government)—
     Government cash balances
     Other4.1−.6
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions33.3162.34.0
Multilateral transfers
                    Balance on capital account−25.6−199.2−2.8
ItemEEC CountriesOther Countries and unallocatedInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
Increase InIncrease InIncrease InIncrease In
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus (−) sign denotes decrease.

† Allocation of special drawing rights and holdings in New Zealand currency are not increases in liabilities but are entered here as a contra entry to maintain the accounting balance of the Capital account.

‡ Monetary gold in Total, All countries only.

Long-term capital (private)—NZ$(million)
     Overseas direct investment in New Zealand23.725.7130.0
     New Zealand direct investment overseas0.11.37.8
     Other long-term capital movements−0.5−4.2−0.12.81.29.9
Long-term capital (Government)—
     Government investments−4.531.4
     Public debt2.728.3−2.450.6
     Local authority debt−1.3−1.3
     Asian Development Bank Holdings of New Zealand securities1.01.0
     New Zealand subscription2.02.0
     Other5.64.6−6.9
Monetary institutions—
     Reserve Bank of New Zealand—
          International Monetary Fund—        
             Drawings and repurchases−35.0−35.0
             Allocation of special drawing rights19.3†19.3†
             Increase in quota40.240.2
             Holdings in New Zealand currency30.1†30.1†
          Other borrowing or lending−5.1
          Monetary gold−0.1‡−0.1‡
     Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks        
          Assets of New Zealand banking system−32.4
          Special drawing rights of International Monetary Fund−4.0−4.0
          Exports credits5.75.7
Short-term capital (Government)—
     Government cash balances
     Other−1.24.5−0.3
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions55.735.031.573.8
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account31.7−7.9−6.8−210.3

The following diagram shows New Zealand's balance of payments by monetary areas for the latest 5 years.

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivations, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies) under control of an overseas company, branches of overseas companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall under this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as already mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following four tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investment assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

* Included are movements in intercompany claims between areas in which affiliated companies operate, the adjustments are offsetting and the movement in the “total, all countries” column is not affected.

† Provisional.

 NZ$(million)
1960–6120.79.32.40.71.234.2
1965–6622.825.815.11.4−2.462.8
1968–69*20.8−1.42.815.21.538.9
1969–7018.231.516.61.48.576.2
1970–7137.030.712.923.725.7130.0
1971–72†7.433.760.5−8.07.4100.9

The graph now presented shows changes in the overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the “All Countries” total correspond to the “Income from Direct Investment” debits shown in the regional current accounts.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
* Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
 Dividends
1960–614.73.15.40.213.4
1965–665.74.56.90.11.018.2
1968–695.86.15.30.10.217.6
1969–707.47.57.70.10.523.2
1970–7112.06.74.00.61.324.6
1971–72*9.08.28.41.62.029.2
 Undistributed Earnings
1960–616.83.52.80.313.3
1965–668.09.95.20.40.323.8
1967–6810.08.3−7.4−0.7−0.210.0
1968–6921.58.29.2−0.40.338.8
1969–7022.110.715.00.448.1
1970–717.411.513.80.60.533.8
1971–72*14.710.215.9−0.1−3.936.8
 Net Earnings of Branches
1960–618.73.20.50.913.3
1965–667.64.41.113.0
1967–687.24.01.312.5
1968–6911.63.80.40.416.2
1969–709.53.52.52.017.5
1970–715.94.01.70.311.9
1971–72*3.04.42.90.310.7
 Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1960–6120.29.88.60.90.540.1
1965–6621.318.713.20.51.255.0
1967–6821.218.8−0.1−0.60.139.4
1968–6938.918.114.9−0.20.972.5
1969–7039.021.725.10.42.688.8
1970–7125.322.219.51.22.170.3
1971–72*26.822.827.21.7−1.676.7

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1968–691969–701970–711971–72*
* Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing-0.11.11.9
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying2.32.211.5−0.5
Manufacturing—
     Food, drink, and tobacco3.26.11.00.4
     Meat and dairy products0.615.66.3−0.6
     Textiles, clothing, and footwear0.31.10.71.8
     Wood, cork, and furniture production0.10.10.40.2
     Pulp, paper, and printing5.2−2.54.92.9
     Leather and rubber products1.81.71.32.3
     Chemical and mineral products5.41.68.816.5
     Metalworking4.18.545.237.8
     Engineering and transport equipment3.77.810.011.0
     Miscellaneous manufacturing1.27.43.02.0
Building and construction−0.41.50.32.6
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade5.114.420.814.3
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property6.24.89.59.5
Transport and communications−0.75.14.3−1.8
Services0.90.80.80.6
               Totals38.976.2130.0100.9
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing---0.2
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying0.6−0.21.5
Manufacturing—
     Food, drink, and tobacco4.94.74.75.1
     Meat and dairy products14.918.51.7−2.9
     Textiles, clothing, and footwear0.82.01.02.1
     Wood, cork, and furniture production0.10.10.20.1
     Pulp, paper, and printing7.44.73.34.1
     Leather and rubber products1.72.31.71.5
     Chemical and mineral products6.55.88.210.2
     Metalworking2.22.53.2−0.8
     Engineering and transport equipment9.112.910.711.5
     Miscellaneous manufacturing1.14.14.03.8
Building and construction−0.12.00.62.5
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade14.920.721.227.3
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property7.06.18.48.4
Transport and communications1.01.81.10.6
Services0.50.60.41.5
               Totals72.688.870.376.7

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding, viz, direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
* Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
 Direct Investment
1966–67−2.42.12.52.3
1967–681.1−3.61.2−1.3
1968–696.10.5−0.36.3
1969–70−2.29.93.311.0
1970–71−3.18.82.17.8
1971–72*10.91.7−2.110.5
 Income from Direct Investment
1966–671.23.61.05.8
1967–681.43.90.55.9
1968–692.64.90.98.3
1969–704.66.40.311.3
1970–715.97.30.313.6
1971–72*7.25.00.913.1

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

As a background to economic policy formation, and particularly with regard to planning of industrial development, it is desirable to have an overall view of the pattern and industrial relationships of all parts of the economy. This applies at a national level and also at lower levels of, say, an industry or group of industries, when decisions involving the direction of growth have to be taken.

Such a view can be provided in the first place by input-output tables, resulting from inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. These show in matrix form the transactions which took place between industries in the country and what inputs they required in a chosen year to deliver an output of goods and services to final demand users such as households, Government, and export. From these tables of commodity transactions, further tables of co-efficients are computed to show not only the degree of dependence of any one industry directly on other industries and on external producers, but also the indirect requirements of any industry on all others for each unit of its output. The relationships thus established can be held to be reasonably stable for several years in a developed country and also, for major planning purposes, can be up-dated by mathematical procedures which incorporate more recent data which may become available. In this way the tables can be made to serve until completion of a fresh inter-industry study, an undertaking requiring several years of investigation and processing.

One aim of inter-industry studies is to establish a connection between demand for finished products and its implications for production, employment, capacity utilisation, and raw material requirements of industries which may be significantly, even if remotely, involved in meeting this demand.

The input-output tables of the New Zealand economy compiled from the Department of Statistics' Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 were published in 4 parts and depict the productive sector as divided into 110 industries. A description of the industrial classifications is contained in the final volume together with an explanation of the input-output system of analysis.

An inter-industry study for the year 1965–66 is currently being worked upon and results are likely to be published during the next year. Previous studies were completed for the years 1952–53 and 1954–55 but the classification of industries was limited to 12 groups only.

The publications are available from the Government Printer.

25 D—PRODUCTIVITY AND REAL DOMESTIC PRODUCT

INDEX OF PRODUCTION—The index of production measures the volume of output of all goods and services in the country, regardless of ownership of factors of production. It is the equivalent of an index of real gross domestic product and can be used to prepare a series of statistics showing the gross domestic product valued in prices of the chosen base year; the gross national product, valued in the same prices, can then be calculated.

All industries are represented in the Index of Production in proportion to their net outputs, plus depreciation. The weighting of the main industry groups for the base year, that is the 12 months ended 31 March 1955, is as follows.

 Weight (percent)
Farming20.7
Forestry and logging0.8
Fisheries, etc.0.3
Mining and quarrying1.0
Manufacturing21.6
Building and construction8.2
Power and gas1.6
Services45.8
 100.0

Production Index—The following are the figures for the index equated to base 1954–55=1000.

YearIndex
* Provisional.
1954–551000
1955–561039
1956–571059
1957–581115
1958–591146
1959–601191
1960–611265
1961–621307
1962–631349
1963–641430
1964–651518
1965–661612
1966–671679
1967–681665
1968–691700
1969–701795x
1970–711868*
1971–721917*

The following analysis of the Index of Production breaks it into industry groups.

Industrial Group1954–551959–601960–611961–621962–631963–641964–651965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71x1971–72x

† Decrease.

Farming10001194124012621338136913971494154315921627159716271766
Forestry and logging10001284131513341295135414771542155915671778200721132047
Fisheries, etc.10001153119511421218125012691332145515331543136715431604
Mining and quarrying10001289140913391290136414181550166114601450156617461983
Manufacturing10001244136614361501165818732001212020962162242125582619
Power and gas100014351525165418322016220424272581266027812943x31353520
Building and construction100012481312135013101317137915671633156515131633x16301609
All services100011421208124812751355141114661513148515161581x16501692
               Total, all groups100011911265130713491430151816121679166517001795x18681917
Annual percentage increase in production index3.96.23.33.26.06.26.24.2−0.8†2.15.64.12.6

For the most heavily-weighted group, Services, the increase recorded has been below the All Groups average. Service industries may be said to be of two kinds, those for supplying the needs of final consumers, and those which service industries of all kinds. The volume index for these service industries covers many activities such as wholesale and retail trade, transport, communication, finance, education, and personal services.

INDEX OF PRODUCTIVITY—The term productivity has a number of meanings according to the statistical concept employed. The most usual concept is that of “ratio of net (unduplicated) real output to real factor (labour, capital) inputs”, whether this is taken at industry level or for all industries combined and therefore at national level. The index expression is merely the ratio of the index of outputs divided by an index of inputs.

The real output of the economy or industry is largely the end result of undifferentiated labour working on or using the undifferentiated capital equipment and natural resources of land. However other influences besides the main factors of production help determine the real output produced from a given combination of resources. For instance, innovations in production processes, managerial interventions and other similar measures can and do increase output without necessarily using additional factor resources.

The purpose of what economists call production functions is to determine, in measurable form, how quantities of resources combined affect real output. Much effort has been put into establishing such relationships, often of a very complex mathematical nature, but with varying degrees of success. Difficulties encountered are connected either with statistical inference or measurement (e.g., the problem of measuring a unit of capital). Because of this, productivity is still being expressed only as the relationship of output per unit of labour input, the latter being a more measurable unit than the other factors influencing output.

The three indexes set out below are equated to base 1954–55 = 1000.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of ProductivityAnnual Percentage Increase in Productivity Index

* Provisional.

† Decrease.

1954–55100010001000
1955–561039102010191.9
1956–571059103810200.1
1957–581115105910533.2
1958–591146108210590.6
1959–601191109310902.9
1960–611265111811313.8
1961–621307114311431.1
1962–631349116111621.7
1963–641430119212003.3
1964–651518123012342.8
1965–661612127412652.5
1966–671679131412781.0
1967–68166513151266−0.9†
1968–691700131912891.8
1969–70179513521328*3.0x
1970–711868x13891345*x1.3*x
1971–721917*1407*1362*1.3*

It can be seen that the Productivity Index is a little more sensitive to changes in economic tempo than is the Index of Production. Output is influenced by changes in all the inputs to production, including materials, capital, management and skills, as well as labour, but at this stage an index has not been developed to permit an assessment of relative contributions of each input to economic growth.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT IN CONSTANT PRICES—The fact that the Index of Production is a volume index covering the output of all goods and services means that it can be readily modified into an index of real gross domestic product. In New Zealand the most important change is to include the service of defence. The derived index is compared with the Index of Production in the following table.

YearIndex of ProductionIndex of Real Gross Domestic Product
* Provisional.
1954–5510001000
1955–5610391037
1956–5710591057
1957–5811151112
1958–5911461143
1959–6011911188
1960–6112651261
1961–6213071303
1962–6313491343
1963–6414301425
1964–6515181512
1965–6616121604
1966–6716791670
1967–6816651658
1968–6917001692
1969–701795x1786x
1970–711868x1857x
1971–721917*1905

Having obtained an index of real gross domestic product it can be used to obtain gross domestic product and gross national product at constant prices from the original estimates expressed in current price terms. In the table below gross domestic product and gross national product are shown, firstly, in current prices as they appear in the annual estimates of national income and expenditure and, secondly, valued in constant 1954–55 prices. In this case the method used to obtain constant prices is to project the value of the gross domestic product for 1954–55 by the derived index.

YearGross Domestic Product in Current PricesGross National Product in Current PricesGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesGross National Product at 1954–55 Prices
$(million)
1954–551,8771,8601,8771,860
1955–561,9791,9651,9461,932
1956–572,0782,0611,9841,968
1957–582,2012,1842,0872,071
1958–592,2942,2702,1452,123
1959–602,4542,4342,2302,212
1960–612,6592,6222,3672,334
1961–622,7532,7222,4462,418
1962–632,9662,9212,5212,483
1963–643,2403,1972,6752,639
1964–653,5503,4912,8382,791
1965–663,8373,7843,0112,969
1966–67x3,9983,9323,1353,084
1967–68x4,1384,0833,1123,071
1968–69x4,3914,3103,1763,117
1969–70x4,8534,7563,3523,285
1970–71x5,5275,4523,4863,439
1971–726,3356,2603,5763,534
* Provisional.

When correction is made for price changes in the values of exports and imports of goods and services, gross domestic expenditure may also be expressed in constant prices, as is done in the following table.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesImports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesGoods and Services Available for Use* at 1954–55 Prices

* This is also called gross domestic expenditure.

† Provisional.

$(million)
1954–551,8775075571,927
1955–561,9465685831,961
1956–571,9845925631,955
1957–582,0875966112,102
1958–592,1456635492,031
1959–602,2306805362,086
1960–612,3676586502,359
1961–622,4467076552,394
1962–632,5217386352,418
1963–642,6757837412,633
1964–652,8387697732,842
1965–663,0117958913,105
1966–673,1358329253,229
1967–68x3,1128657813,028
1968–69x3,1761,0027672,941
1969–70x3,3521,0778483,123
1970–71x3,4861,0669793,399
1971–723,5761,160 

The following table assesses movements caused by changes in the terms of trade, by showing gross domestic product at constant prices corrected for the terms of trade. By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1954–55 prices, a much better picture can be obtained of the purchasing power, both here and abroad, of the income it represents.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeEffective Gross Domestic Product
$(million)
1954–551,8775075071,877
1955–561,9465685521,930
1956–571,9845925631,955
1957–582,0875965482,039
1958–592,1456635382,020
1959–602,2306806392,189
1960–612,3676585922,301
1961–622,4467075952,334
1962–632,5217386462,429
1963–642,6757837542,646
1964–652,838769790x2,859
1965–663,0117977883,004
1966–673,1358338343,137
1967–68x3,112870x7663,013
1968–69x3,1761,015x8663,040
1969–70x3,3521,098x9483,223
1970–71x3,4861,0869013,321
1971–723,5761,160 
* Provisional.   

25 E—NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL

BACKGROUND—Responsibility for advising the Government on long-term economic planning rests with the National Development Council. It is assisted by a Targets Advisory Group and 16 sector councils with wide coverage of economic, social and cultural life in New Zealand, namely, Agricultural Production Council, Manufacturing Development Council, Forestry Development Council, Fisheries Development Council, Mineral Resources Council, Fuel and Power Council, Tourist Development Council, Trade Promotion Council, Building Industry Advisory Council, Transport Advisory Council, Distribution Council, National Research Advisory Council, Advisory Council on Educational Planning, Environmental Council, Social Council, and Cultural Council. The Manpower Planning Unit of the Department of Labour, and the Vocational Training Council are advisory bodies.

The objectives of the council include (a) a faster economic growth rate than would otherwise be possible, (b) balanced growth in which the aspirations of all main sectors are taken into account in the national targets and goals, and (c) the linking of economic and non-material objectives.

Currently 187 persons serve in this structure (excluding the Targets Advisory Group), 42 from the Government and 145 from outside the Government. The secretariats of the NDC and all sector councils number 49 persons, of whom over half are engaged full time on council work.

During the 1950s and 60s, “key sector” conferences were held on housing and industrial, export, and agricultural development*. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference in particular, medium- and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning. Targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences, namely the Trade Promotion Council and the Agricultural Production Council.

The Agricultural Production Council's purpose was to review agricultural sector targets and to advise the Government on how to achieve them. Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and 631 recommendations. Two-thirds of these recommendations have been implemented.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL—The National Development Council (NDC) was set up on the recommendation of the National Development Conference, with senior Ministers as chairman and deputy chairman. Members include the Secretary to the Treasury, the Secretary of Trade and Industry, and representatives of Federated Farmers, the Federation of Labour, the Manufacturers' Federation, the National Council of Women, producer boards, the universities, other institutions, and the younger age group.

The NDC first met in July 1969 and has met monthly since then. Its terms of reference are: (a) To keep under review:

  1. the targets and objectives set as a result of the National Development Conference; and

  2. ((ii) the measures necessary for their implementation;

(b) To propose changes in the targets and objectives and in the measures for their co-ordinated implementation; (c) To consider matters referred to it by Government or sector councils; (d) To convene periodically, but at intervals of not less than once a year, joint meetings with the chairmen of sector councils to consider progress in the attainment of the targets; (e) To advise Government on the constitution (terms of reference, membership, and appointment), time of establishment, and functioning of new sector councils.

A review of targets was undertaken in 1970 and 1971, and revised targets were, on the advice of the council's Targets Advisory Group, set at the second National Development Conference in March 1972.

* National Housing Conference 1953; Industrial Development Conference 1960; Export Development Conference 1963; Agricultural Development Conference 1963–64.

The terms of reference of most of the sector councils require them to keep under review their objectives or targets set and the measures necessary to meet them; to advise the NDC and the Government on changes in their objectives and other matters referred to them; and to co-operate with the NDC to ensure consistency between national and sector targets and objectives.

Activities of the National Development Council*—The planning structure envisaged by the 1969 conference ensures that there is a continuing stream of information flowing between sector councils and the NDC. Some of the issues considered by the Council in the year ended 31 March 1973 included:

Beech Forests—A Committee was established by the NDC to examine the Forest Service proposals for the management and utilisation of the South Island beech forests. The report was submitted to the Government in April 1973.

Industrial Protection—-This committee was set up to review National Development Conference Recommendation 209A on the level of protection to be accorded the manufacturing sector. The committee findings which are now embodied in a revised recommendation 209A require extensive consultations, between individual industries and the Government departments with which they are concerned before the industry comes under review by the Tariff and Development Board. These consultations are expected to: (a) analyse and record the level and pattern of past growth of each industry and the contribution it has made to the total growth of the manufacturing sector; (b) obtain the views of the industry concerned on its own future development; (c) assess the likely economic and social advantages or costs of projected future development.

Women in National Development—A committee report presented to the National Development Council in May 1973 covered some education, employment and social issues.

Stability in the Building Industry—A study group has examined the many problems involved in meeting the demand for housing.

Population and Migration—The Targets Advisory Group reached the general conclusion that New Zealand is better placed than many other nations with respect to population problems and has the ability to support a larger population without any major resource constraint.

Statistics—The first National Development Conference recommended the establishment of a special technical committee to assess the range of adequate up-to-date statistical services essential for planning. A committee was set up, and reported to the NDC in October 1969. The main conclusion of the committee was that major extensions to New Zealand official statistical services, centred on a modernised and extended system of national accounts, were necessary to meet national development planning needs. The council supported this view in general and recommended to the Government accordingly.

Discussions with Sector Councils—Each year, sector councils present information reports to the NDC. Subsequently representatives from the sector meet with the council to discuss the major problems facing them. This procedure has raised many issues resulting, on occasions, in recommendations to the Government. In addition a joint meeting is held each year with all the chairmen of sector councils.

Publicity—The NDC tries to keep the public fully informed on important economic and other issues. Most of its meetings are open, in part, to news media. Publicity aspects of the work of the Council and sector councils are co-ordinated by the NDC director of publicity. A regular newsletter dealing with topics of interest in the council and sectors is widely distributed.

*A fuller account of most of these activities of the NDC and its sector councils may be found in the council's annual reports (parliamentary paper B.4).

ORIGINAL NDC TARGETS—The main targets set for the economy by the 1969 Conference for the period 1968–69 to 1972–73 can now be compared with the statistics of the outcome for the period.

CategoryOutcomeTarget
1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–735-year Average5-year Average
* Estimate
 Percent a year
Growth of real GNP1.54.74.02.6*4.5*3.54.5
Growth of real GNP per head0.63.62.41.0*2.4*2.02.7
Gross investments as % of GNP23.725.727.825.824.1*25.425.5

Targets for growth in real consumption per head averaging 2.0 percent a year in the five years to 1972–73 were also set by the 1969 Conference. No accurate estimates are available of the actual out-turn for this target.

REVISION OF THE TARGETS—As the conditions on which the original targets were based had altered substantially since 1969, and a decision was then imminent on the UK application to join the EEC, the National Development Council decided early in 1971 to prepare a new set of targets for four 3-year periods ending 1972–73, 1975–76, 1978–79 and 1981–82. Each sector council was asked for detailed information on the current state of its sector, the expected output, the volume and prices of exports and investment and manpower requirements for the target years.

From the information received the Targets Advisory Group projected the possible growth rates for the economy and, after discussions with the sectors, examined the conflicting demands for resources from sectors.

On 17 November 1971 the NDC held a 1-day consultation on growth, productivity and exports. The consultation highlighted the critical issues of New Zealand's development as (a) growth of productivity, and (b) growth of export earnings.

A report from the Targets Advisory Group noted that higher productivity growth would require changes in attitudes and policies by all groups in the economy—management, labour, and Government—and should include not only farming and manufacturing but also the servicing sectors. The report listed the key factors for productivity growth as: control of inflation; improved industrial relations; greater skills on the part of management and labour; increased investment in labour-saving plant; increased domestic savings in order to finance the investment; better all round use of resources and speedy application of the latest technology.

The export targets adopted by the National Development Conference on 9 March 1972 are set out in the following table.

Sector Classification1969–70 Base Year1972–731975–761978–791981–82
 $(million)
Pastoral products9101,1371,2861,5521,857
Other agricultural products3244587392
Totals, agricultural products9421,1811,3441,6251,949
Manufacturing68155231345517
Forestry6394181228281
Fisheries1518233959
Minerals17232943
Other goods (including re-exports)2231395165
Totals, goods1,1121,4851,8412,3172,914
Tourism264674119178
Transport88129183253313
Other services476584107138
               Totals, goods and services1,2731,7252,1822,7963,543

It was estimated that the projected exports of goods and services, together with an assumed external borrowing of 2 percent of GNP, would finance a level of imports sufficient to support the following growth rates, given the productivity growth indicated.

Growth RateThree Years Ending in Year Shown
1975–76 Target1978–79 Target1981–82 Target
(percent a year)
Real GNP per head2.82.72.7
Real GNP4.54.54.5
Productivity growth required2.52.52.5
Real consumption per head2.02.52.7

The growth rates adopted will require a radical improvement in productivity growth—export growth alone will not be sufficient. Present trends and policies indicate that productivity growth is unlikely to increase much above the long-term average of 2 percent a year. Therefore, if higher growth rates are required, further policy changes in all sectors to increase the efficiency of resource use and allocation will be necessary.

It is clear that deep consideration must be given to improving productivity. For this reason the programme for the conference in March 1972 centred on the twin objectives of increasing productivity and export returns—the theme for the meeting being “New Zealand in the 1970s—Growth for Better Living”. Background papers are available from Government bookshops.

PRODUCTIVITY ADVISORY COUNCIL—Early in 1973 the Government appointed a Productivity Advisory Council to initiate action which would demonstrate the chances for productivity improvement in New Zealand management, manufacturing, and servicing industries.

By promoting the most effective use of resources and eventually a lowering of unit costs, the productivity drive is expected to prove one of the best ways of combating inflationary trends.

A significant long-term rate of economic growth, with reasonable price stability, is dependent on improved productivity which, in turn, could have its impact on future living standards, investment climate, and international competitiveness.

The council will be based on the Department of Trade and Industry.

The private sector members of the council, besides representing the manufacturing and servicing industries, will provide a close link between the work of the centre and such interested national bodies as the Manufacturers' Federation, the Associated Chambers of Commerce, the Employers' Federation, the Institute of Management, and the National Development Council.

They will also bring to the deliberations of the council keen personal interest in and knowledge of productivity improvement.

The Productivity Council will aim to stimulate interest in improving productivity, disseminate and develop productivity measurements and techniques, and encourage a better use of resources.

It will co-operate with other agencies working in the field and act as an extension service to industry.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Regional development, with special reference to manufacturing, was the subject of a report by a sub-committee in regional development published in February 1972.

In 1973 moves were made to set up regional development councils in priority areas. Their terms of reference include the following responsibilities. (1) To investigate and to assist and advise the Minister of Trade and Industry on matters relating to the economic and social development of the region and to ensure that the assets of the region are best developed in the national interest. (2) To give particular attention to the retention and expansion of existing industry, having regard also to the longer-term aim of attracting viable new industry. (3) To ensure that development is carried out in an orderly and desirable way, there should be a careful and progressive monitoring of the environment and social conditions. (4) In carrying out these objectives the regional development council may: (a) distribute and administer incentives and assistance, and spend such money as authorised by the Minister of Trade and Industry; (b) establish advisory committees; (c) promote research into specific aspects of development of the region; (d) seek and investigate opportunities for industrial and economic development in the region; (e) review and where appropriate encourage the development of infrastructure and facilities, including State-provided facilities, contributing to the economic and social development of the region; (f) provide information services to local industry and to prospective new industry on matters relevant to their expansion, establishment, or continuation of their activities in the region.

Regional development policies are basically concerned with seeking a better balance between the rates of growth of the different geographical areas of a country as it develops. In most countries overseas, regional policy measures were initially framed to deal with severe problems of income disparity, unemployment, or under-development concentrated in particular areas or urban centres of a country, or associated with particular sectors of the economy.

The specific attention that is now being given to regional policies in New Zealand follows on the initiatives for national economic planning, on a sectoral basis, which have taken place in the past few years. The criterion of the greatest national benefit is applicable to both a regional approach and a sectoral approach to development. In the case of regional development, the optimum for which all governments strive is a spatial distribution of population and economic activity which, after taking into account social costs and benefits to the community, can provide the greatest contribution to national development.

Chapter 26. Section 26
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, telecommunications, and on other functions such as social security, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditures, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions and child benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, full employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficiency, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

The Public Revenues Act 1953 is the governing legislation on the administration of public money.

THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—This is a single financial account held at the Reserve Bank. The following funds and accounts controlled by the Treasury are included in the Public Account; the Consolidated Revenue Account, Works and Trading Account, Trust Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, and National Roads Fund. The Trust Account represents only lodgements or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government money. (The Loans Redemption Account is dealt with in the subsection on indebtedness.)

The receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account over a long period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament, which normally meets in June.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the board areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity.

It is to be remembered that the Public Accounts as shown in this section are prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1970–711971–72
GrossNet*GrossNet*
* Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.
Administration—$(million)
     General administration56.853.262.057.1
     Law and order36.325.044.632.2
     Government services57.233.065.037.9
     Miscellaneous services11.22.113.93.4
     Stabilisation21.421.428.728.7
 182.9134.7214.2159.3
Foreign Relations—
     Defence109.1104.4121.2118.8
     Foreign Affairs15.314.518.715.4
 124.4118.9139.9134.2
Development of Industry—
     Land use135.368.4175.4102.9
     Fuel and power115.14.9124.010.2
     Other industrial services33.227.838.833.1
 283.6101.1338.2146.2
Education—
     Education267.6125.5337.8335.0
Social Services—
     Social welfare339.4336.6378.2375.6
     Other social services22.519.120.516.3
 361.9355.7398.7391.9
Health—
     Health245.3244.2292.9291.8
Transport and Communications—
     Transport239.9127.0262.3128.4
     Communications158.735.9180.316.0
 398.6162.9442.6144.4
Debt Services and Miscellaneous—
     Debt services154.1154.1168.0168.0
     Miscellaneous investment transactions76.760.797.991.5
 230,8214.8265.9259.5
               Totals2,095.11,597.82,430.21,862.3

The following table shows financing of Government expenditure.

Item1970–711971–72

* Net expenditure.

† Excludes Treasury bills issued and redeemed of $195.9 million in 1970–71 and $318.4 million in 1971–72.

‡ Includes $10 million deposited with trading banks in 1970–71; $20 million in 1971–72.

§Includes the purchase of Government securities from the Reserve Bank of $40,3 million in 1971–72.

¶ Excludes supplier's credits and currency realignment adjustments.

Expenditure$(million)
     Administration134.7 159.3 
     Foreign relations118.9 134.2 
     Development of industry101.1 146.2 
     Education265.5 335.0 
     Social services355.7 391.9 
     Health244.2 291.8 
     Transport and communications162.9 144.4 
     Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions214.8 259.5 
               Total expenditure 1,597.8 1,862.3
Financed from
     Taxation—
          Income tax957.3 1,161.1 
          Customs, sales tax, and beer duty303.9 337.5 
          Highways tax82.0 89.7 
          Other taxation101.8 118.6 
               Total taxation1,445.0 1,706.9 
Interest, Profits, and Miscellaneous Receipts72.2 83.1 
               Total Taxation, Interest, etc. 1,517.2 1,790.0
Amount to be financed from borrowing 80.6 72.3
Borrowing in New Zealand187.7 218.3 
     Less repayments in New Zealand109.2 118.7§ 
 78.5† 99.6† 
     Plus sales (less purchase) of investments+20.0‡ −14.0‡ 
     Net borrowing in New Zealand 98.5 85.6
Internal surplus (+) deficit (–) + 17.9 + 13.3
Borrowing overseas48.0 106.6 
     Less repayments overseas21.1 53.9 
 +26.9 +52.7 
     Less purchase of overseas investments−29.8 −69.0 
     Net borrowing overseas −2.9 −16.3
Purchase of gold, etc. (I.M.F.) (A.D.B.) −11.6 
Cash surplus (+) deficit (–) +3.4 −3.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Tables are now given to show receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account.

By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Revenue Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19681969197019711972
 $(million)
Direct taxation—
     Income and social security income tax672.8691.5779.2957.31,161.1
     Estate and gift duty21.724.126.329.325.0
     Land tax4.42.72.93.03.8
               Total—Direct taxation698.9718.3808.4989.61,189.9
Indirect taxation—
     Customs duty95.5106.4115.5138.9157.3
     Beer duty35.635.837.339.740.7
     Sales tax75.482.897.6125.3139.5
     Racing duty11.311.212.113.215.6
     Stamp and other duties8.49.411.513.414.2
     Motor spirits duty10.411.93.53.9
     Highways taxation63.066.378.882.089.7
     Payroll tax20.540.8
     Other taxation13.916.316.418.519.2
               Total—Indirect taxation313.5340.1372.6455.4517.0
               Total—Taxation receipts1,012.41,058.41,181.01,445.01,706.9
Interest—
     On capital liability—
          Electric supply30.032.834.736.338.3
          Post Office11.411.812.212.914.7
          Other30.433.936.841.044.0
     On other public moneys4.15.66.27.59.4
               Total—Interest76.084.189.997.7106.4
Profits from trading undertakings11.05.49.716.115.4
Departmental receipts56.260.164.471.280.2
Special receipts4.813.717.119.03.3
               Total—Other147.9163.3181.3204.0205.3
               Total—Receipts1,160.31,221.71,362.21,649.01,912.2
Total taxation as percentage of national income29.3%28.8%29.3%31.2%31.7%

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1969197019711972
Permanent appropriations—$(000)
     Under Special Acts of Legislature—
          Civil List678671906990
               Debt services—
                    Interest132,359144,195153,019166,808
                    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account—
                         New Zealand Loans Act 1953—
                              Section 5915,00032,25342,25337,397
                              Section 57 (c)1,3407,7477,74712,603
                    Administration and management1,0791,0021,1141,200
                    Total—Debt services149,778185,197204,133218,008
Special Acts—
     Superannuation Act 195617,65919,45422,92520,182
     Miscellaneous2,8503,1533,2506,370
                    Total—Special Acts20,50922,60726,17526,552
                    Total—Permanent appropriations170,965208,475231,213245,551
Annual Appropriations—
     Administration—
          General Administration—
               Vote—
                    Audit7388239431,122
                    Broadcasting29332223
                    Customs2,5222,7453,5464,631
                    Inland Revenue6,4086,8598,30610,117
                    Internal Affairs6,5647,3349,81711,613
                    Legislative8909691,2081,472
                    Prime Minister's Department53586684
                    State Advances Corporation382768
                    State Services Commission7017649311,039
                    Statistics1,2681,3471,7993,586
                    Treasury2,0552,2222,5872,643
                    Valuation1,6281,7732,1572,801
                    Total—General administration22,89424,95431,38839,139
          Law and order—
               Vote—
                    Crown Law159184225264
                    Justice9,99911,91013,30816,306
                    Police12,88514,85918,81123,139
                    Security Intelligence Service374434
                    Total—Law and order23,04326,95332,71840,143
          Government services—
               Vote—
                    Government Printing Office6,0117,2179,1099,353
                    Works37,80939,84446,75454,044
                    Total—Government services43,82047,06155,86363,396
          Stabilisation—
               Vote—
                    Stabilisation16,42317,18021,40828,700
                    Total—Administration106,180116,148141,377171,378
                    Foreign relations—
                         Defence—
                              Defence85,33689,721109,075121,169
                         Foreign affairs—
                              Foreign affairs11,52614,69515,18118,038
                              Total—Foreign relations96,862104,416124,256139,207
                    Development of industry—
                         Land use—
                              Agriculture20,57728,83954,48088,663
                              Forest Service7,2538,1559,7724,122
                              Lands and Survey5,7486,2847,6387,041
                              Total—Land use33,57843,27871,89099,826
                         Fuel and power—
                              Mines2,6871,5281,2101,751
                         Other industrial services—
                              Trade and Industry3,4854,9945,3525,526
                              Labour6,6405,0166,3437,853
                              Scientific and Industrial Research8,6649,73813,20413,872
                              Tourist and Publicity5,3125,9236,8157,565
                              Total—Other industrial services24,10125,67131,71434,816
                              Total—Development of industry60,36670,477104,814136,393
                    Education—
                         Education175,919196,333251,917319,250
                    Social services—
                         Social Welfare286,378307,935339,415378,210
                         Maori and Island Affairs7,7628,0719,2349,954
                              Total—Social services294,140316,006348,649388,164
                    Health—
                         Health181,680202,690241,951288,800
                    Transport and communications—
                         Transport—
                              Marine2,9773,8734,1084,602
                              Roads, etc.4,7122,2412,0662,359
                              Transport13,73016,03520,15923,001
                              Total—Transport21,41922,14926,33329,962
                              Total—Annual appropriations936,5661,028,2191,239,2971,473,154
Adjustment on currency realignment194
Unauthorised expenditure51,309303159
Defence credits and other special entries39,39417,13419,0393,271
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account20,00045,00060,000
Transfer to National Development Loans Account15,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund11,00020,000
Transfer to Works and Trading Account10,000
Provision for Supplementary Estimates
                              Total Payments1,146,9301,275,1371,560,8521,812,329

* Includes amount for transfer to Decimal Currency Account.

† Included in Vote: Maori and Island Affairs.

‡ Previously included in Vote: Justice.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–72
* IBRD harbour projects.
               Receipts$(thousand)
Stock issued182,603157,924216,524261,665
Advance subscriptions2,4452,0402,386
International Monetary Fund—
     Allocation of Special Drawing Rights23,55019,29819,118
     Securities issued to Asian Development Bank—
          Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes1,0071,0071,007
     Securities issued to I.M.F.—
          Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes29,730
     Securities issued to IBRD—
          Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes394
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account15,000
                                   Totals186,055184,521283,945281,177
               Payments
Charges and expenses on raising and repaying loans1,426565192,246
Transfer to Works and Trading Account—
     Public Works39,00039,50052,50053,600
     Electric supply50,50037,00047,50054,000
     Land settlement12,00011,00010,7509,100
     State Coal Mines6002001,000
     Working Railways7,3285,4412,36510,444
Capital equipment credit arrangements5,40314,265
Advances to—
     Post Office6,40010,50031,40012,900
     New Zealand National Airways Corporation1,5005001,000
     New Zealand Steel Ltd.4,1851,300
     State Advances Corporation38,00051,00061,00075,000
     Development Finance Corporation2,900
     Tourist Hotel Corporation6188651,0001,000
New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation1,000
Christmas Island Phosphate Commission1,000500
Natural Gas Corporation5,61510,5373,1651,764
Calls on shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,4871,039
Acquisition of shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.4,832
Acquisition of shares in Air New Zealand Ltd.2,20010,400
Calls on shares in New Zealand Wool Topmaking Investigating Co. Ltd.62
Loans to Harbour Boards*—
     Auckland102
     Lyttelton
     Napier3
Holding of I.M.F. Special Drawing Rights transferred to Reserve Bank23,55019,29819,118
Further subscription to I.M.F.10,449
Further security in favour of I.M.F.29,730
Encashment of securities in favour of I.M.F.90
Encashment of securities in favour of Asian Development Bank20
Currency subscription to Asian Development Bank1,0071,0071,007
Security in favour of Asian Development Bank1,0071,0071,007
Further subscription to IBRD42
Further security in favour of IBRD394
Advance subscriptions from previous year allocated2,8752,4452,0402,385
                                   Totals176,853197,447279,305277,390
                 Balances at end of year62,03649,11053,74957,537

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT—The Works and Trading Account receipts and payments are shown in the following table.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–72
               Receipts$(thousand)
Airport development167103171185
Electric supply84,73091,35996,579100,139
Forest development17,12821,39723,67826,717
Housing construction2,0263,8082,7152,861
Land settlement—
     Crown lands21,06126,09226,26127,597
     Maori land settlement8,9989,95310,86211,619
Public buildings2,7043,3557461,327
Railway construction8681014
State coal mines12,48712,99712,39211,954
University and technical institute buildings4294
Working railways91,553101,103105,048123,444
Miscellaneous323345253525
                         Sub-totals241,189270,581278,724306,386
Contributions from National Development Loans Account109,42793,141113,115128,144
Capital equipment credit arrangements5,40314,265
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account—
     From vote “Mines”2,4001,2308771,352
     Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account10,000
                              Totals353,016364,952398,119460,147
               Expenditure
Annual Appropriations—
     Vote—
          Airport development5871,1224,3575,602
          Electric supply96,35886,48799,053107,200
          Forest development19,72023,74825,91837,278
          Housing construction15,12115,71013,30210,984
          Land settlement—
               Crown lands21,22522,77123,58323,415
               Maori land settlement9,67110,08010,31010,943
     Public buildings13,24714,22116,02318,702
     Railway construction6301,5964,5114,445
     State coal mines15,44513,62014,02514,231
     University and technical institute buildings12,03612,73215,69918,543
     Working railways91,15898,256117,166131,242
                         Sub-totals295,198300,344343,947382,585
Subsidies to Government Superannuation Fund1,7812,1312,6093,818
Interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue Account—
          Electric supply32,75234,70536,28338,331
          Land settlement10,04910,72811,36510,981
          Working railways (EBRD loan)1,3671,7322,0472,398
Contributions to Loans Redemption Account6,1506,9259,83210,487
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements5,40314,265
Land acquired other than from annual votes1,3912,9952,4402,771
Miscellaneous expenditure324234345218
Unauthorised31
                                   Totals349,012359,794414,271465,825

Works Programme—Details of the works programme expenditure by special categories are shown in the following table. (Roading is included).

ItemYear ended 31 March
197019711972

* Forestry planting programme is no longer included in Works programme.

† Previously included in Education buildings.

Administration—$(million)
     Works—
          National water and soil conservation7.0 7.3 7.6 
     Public building maintenance2.3 3.3 3.1 
          Irrigation and water supplies0.9 1.1 1.6 
     Public Buildings—
          Government services2.0 2.9 3.6 
          Law and order2.4 2.8 3.5 
     Miscellaneous2.6 3.7 2.6 
               Totals 17.2 21.1 22.0
Foreign relations—
     Defence6.3 6.4 5.2 
     Public buildings—overseas posts 0.1 0.7 
               Totals 6.3 6.5 5.9
Development of industry—
     Forestry15.5 17.3 3.3* 
     Land utilisation5.6 5.1 4.0 
     Electricity67.0 74.0 79.8 
     Tourism1.3 1.5 1.5 
     Miscellaneous1.4 1.2 1.9 
               Totals 90.8 99.1 90.5
Education—
     Primary, secondary and special education—
          Buildings21.1 28.0 30.7 
          Maintenance5.7 6.2 6.9 
     Tertiary education—
          University buildings9.9 11.3 14.6 
          Technical institutes2.8 4.2 4.0 
     Teachers' colleges1.4 2.3 2.9 
               Totals 40.9 52.0 59.1
Social services—
     Housing construction 15.7 13.3 11.0
Health—
     Health and hospital buildings 3.4 3.9 4.7
Transport and communications—
     Railways7.1 9.9 9.2 
     Roading79.9 87.8 90.5 
     Air transport2.0 5.0 6.0 
     Post Office26.4 27.3 27.2 
     Broadcasting1.7 1.9 1.9 
     Miscellaneous0.3 0.3 0.3 
               Totals 117.4 132.2 135.1
               Grand Totals 291.7 328.1 328.3

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–72
 $(thousand)
                      Receipts
Highways revenue66,32578,83681,95789,667
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account3,000101010
Miscellaneous7618308131,865
Interest70607867
                                        Totals70,15679,73782,85891,609
                      Payments
State highways maintenance12,45612,17914,05714,396
State highways construction25,78628,73531,21932,838
Local authorities' subsidised works28,20230,65333,21133,790
Administration and general expenses6,3106,0677,2407,073
Unauthorised expenditure6766
                                        Totals72,76077,64185,73388,103
                             Balance at end of year1,5673,6637884,294

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
1969197019711972
* Cash received but not yet allocated.
 $(thousand)
Consolidated Revenue Account30,16937,53842,86751,219
Works and Trading Account18,52323,6827,5301,852
Loans Redemption Account46,35945,00253,80796,510
National Development Loans Account62,03649,11053,74957,537
National Roads Fund.1,5673,6637884,294
Reserve Fund44,13644,89359,23184,771
Suspense Account*287254265304
Trust Account22,96824,69525,67627,391
                                        Totals226,045228,836243,913323,878

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1969197019711972
 $(thousand)
Cash57,48569,50372,91369,865
Imprests8,23911,33313,24713,280
Investments in New Zealand79,83360,49840,46854,467
Investments overseas80,48887,502117,285186,266
                                        Totals226,045228,836243,913323,878

26 B—TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION—A summary of taxation revenue during the last 11 March years is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDirect Taxes on Income (i.e., Income Tax and Social Security Taxation on Income)Total Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$     $(million)$    
1962457.0187.2063.8716.4293.40
1963432.8173.2063.3684.0273.80
1964466.5182.9062.8742.3291.10
1965547.7210.5564.8844.5324.65
1966606.0228.9266.0918.2346.86
1967664.4246.5667.2988.9366.98
1968672.8245.9866.41,012.7370.25
1969691.5250.5465.31,058.6383.54
1970779.2278.9866.01,181.3422.93
1971957.3337.4766.21,445.3509.51
19721,161.1403.6768.01,707.2593.54
* Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Act; this comprises refunds to persons entitled to exemption from the additional payment of Customs duty from 27 June 1958.

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during the latest 5 years.

HeadRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19681969197019711972

* At 1 cent per gal; excludes 2.3 cents per gallon paid to National Roads Fund.

† Included in National Roads Fund.

Consolidated Revenue Account—$(million)
     Customs revenue95.5106.4115.5138.9157.3
     Beer duty35.635.837.339.740.7
     Motor spirits duty less refunds10.411.93.5*3.9*
     Motor vehicles fees and charges13.215.315.717.918.9
     Sales tax75.482.897.6125.3139.5
     Film-hire tax0.30.30.30.40.3
     Mileage tax0.40.70.40.2
     Estate and gift duties21.724.126.329.325.0
     Duty on instruments5.86.88.810.711.3
     Racing taxation11.311.112.113.215.7
     Payroll tax20.540.8
     Other taxation2.82.82.93.03.2
     Land tax4.42.72.93.13.8
     Income tax440.3456.7779.2957.31,161.1
     Social security income tax232.5234.8
National Roads Fund—
     Highways revenue (less rebate)63.066.378.882.089.7
                                        Totals1,012.71,058.61,181.31,445.31,707.2

The sources of revenue are shown in the following diagrams.

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income.

YearNational Income at Factor CostCentral Government Taxation
Total RevenuePercentage of National Income
* Provisional.
 $(million)percent
1961–622,315716.430.9
1962–632,504684.027.3
1963–642,742742.327.1
1964–653,002844.528.1
1965–663,261918.228.2
1966–673,370988.929.3
1967–683,4681,012.729.2
1968–693,6491,058.629.0
1969–704,0511,181.329.2
1970–714,6561,445.331.0
1971–725,392*1,707.231.7

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the headings of Customs does not include receipts from tyre tax and from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest six years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise Duties†Proportion of Total Taxation

* Including excise duties other than beer duty.

† Includes gross motor spirits duty.

 $(thousand)percent
196792,01234,735126,74712.8
1968106,58135,591142,17214.0
1969119,37335,826155,19914.7
1970119,51837,282156,80013.3
1971138,87539,653178,52812.4
1972157,27440,700197,97411.6

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—The National Roads Fund derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas decided to make the levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenues. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes have been as follows during the latest six years, excluding rebates.

Year Ended 31 MarchPetrol TaxMileage TaxFeesTotal
$(000)
196750,8122,90116,35770,070
196850,5363,1959,26062,991
196953,6013,6049,12066,325
197064,9923,8999,94578,836
197166,8664,85810,23281,957
197273,1356,09110,44189,667

INCOME TAX—Income tax is levied under the Land and Income Tax Act 1954, the Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, and amendments.

Exemptions—Certain specified incomes and types of income are exempt from income tax. The incomes of local and public authorities (except for certain Government trading departments), building societies (with the exception of rental income), co-operative dairy and milk treatment companies, trustees of superannuation funds (subject to certain investment requirements), friendly societies, charitable societies, and others of similar character are exempt from income tax. The general principle is, when a society or association carries on business exclusively for the purpose for which it was established and does not operate for the private pecuniary profit of any individual, the income is exempt from income tax. Monetary benefits from the Consolidated Revenue Account (except the universal superannuation benefit), sick benefits from friendly societies, workers' compensation payments, war pensions, and for individuals the first $100 of income from interest, are exempt from income tax.

Pay as You Earn Income Tax—Payment of income tax is on a “pay as you earn” basis. It applies to all individual taxpayers and to estates. It does not apply to companies, unless incorporated after 25 July 1957, or unless the company voluntarily elects to come within the PAYE provisions.

The main features of the scheme are:

  1. Income tax on salary and wages is deducted by the employer. In the main, taxpayers whose income consists solely of salary and wages are required to furnish a return of income only when their income during the year exceeds $2,600. However, they may furnish a return if they wish to have an adjustment made. In such cases the taxpayer is assessed on the basis of the annual return and receives a refund when tax assessed is less than the tax deducted by the employer.

  2. All other individuals (including self-employed, except for certain classes of farmers), estates, and companies within the scheme, pay provisional tax in two instalments on a provisional declaration of the current year's income. The actual income of the previous year is commonly used as a basis for computing the provisional tax. Farmers in some circumstances may pay in three instalments. There is an adjustment at the end of the year when the return of income is furnished.

Tax Code Declarations—Employees are required to deliver a tax code declaration to the employer each year before 1 April. The tax code declaration specifies whether or not the taxpayer has a dependent wife, and the number of other dependants.

There is no obligation on the employer to check the accuracy of the tax code declaration. Except for cases when the employee ends and commences employment during the week, the employee must not have more than one tax code declaration current during the pay period. However, there is provision for secondary tax code declarations when the employee has two or more employers at the same time.

At the end of the year or on the termination of employment the employer completes the tax code certificate by entering the amount of wages and salary paid and the amount of tax deductions made, hands one copy to the employee, and sends the other copy to the Commissioner.

In considering the incidence of income tax in New Zealand as illustrated by the next table it should be noted that under the provisions of the Social Security Act a family benefit of $156 a year is paid usually to the mother, for every child under 16 years of age irrespective of the income of the parents or the child. The allowance may continue to be paid up to age 18 years if the child is still attending school full time

Amounts paid by an employee to a superannuation fund are deducted from the gross salary for the period: the taxable income is the income after deduction of superannuation payments.

When there is no tax code declaration or special tax code certificate, the tax deduction is at the “no declaration” rate shown in the tax deduction tables. This deduction is at flat rate of not less than 25c in the dollar.

Special Tables—Special tables are provided for shearers and for casual agricultural employees. These are tables of deductions from daily earnings.

There are also tables of deductions at the flat rate of 19c and 21c in $1. These apply to payments of extra emoluments and to secondary employment unless a special tax code certificate is issued by the Commissioner. Extra emoluments, e.g., end of year bonuses and retrospective wage increases, are treated as separate payments and taxed at 21c in the $1. Secondary employment exists when the taxpayer has two or more employers at the same time. The secondary employer deducts tax according to the flat rate table of 19c in the $1, while the principal employer uses the normal table.

Employer's Duties—The employer is required to keep a record for each employee showing the amounts of net payments, and superannuation and tax deductions. Not later than 20 April each year he must deliver to each employee a signed tax deduction certificate showing the total amounts of payments and tax deduction for the year (or period of employment if less than one year). A similar certificate must be given to the employee within seven days from the cessation of employment.

The aggregate amount of all tax deductions is to be remitted to the Commissioner each month. Not later than 15 May each year the employer must deliver to the Commissioner a reconciliation statement showing the total amount of tax deductions paid to the Commissioner in respect of deductions made during the year, and the total amount of tax deductions shown in the certificates for employees. The reconciliation statement is accompanied by signed copies of all tax deduction certificates.

Withholding Payments—These are payments for services rendered, but in circumstances where there is no real employer-employee relationship. Examples are company directors' fees, agricultural contract work, fees for free-lance journalists. Tax is deducted from the gross amounts of such payments at flat rates which vary from 7 1/2c to 25c in the dollar according to the nature of the work.

Provisional Taxpayers—Provisional taxpayers are those who derive any assessable income which is not subject to tax at source. However, the first $100 of interest is exempted from income tax, and is therefore not assessable income. Estates, trusts, and companies incorporated after 25 July 1957, are also provisional taxpayers. Companies existing at that date may voluntarily elect to become provisional taxpayers.

Tax on provisional incomes is payable in two instalments during the year, by 7 September and 7 March. Normally the provisional income is an amount equal to the taxpayer's income for the preceding year. When the taxpayer anticipates that the income will be less than that of the preceding year, he may make an estimate of the provisional income and pay provisional tax on the estimated income. The taxpayer may estimate or re-estimate his provisional income at any time before the date for payment of any provisional tax instalment. If he does this and his estimated provisional tax is less than the normal provisional income (actual income of the previous year) and less than 80 percent of his actual income for the year, he may be liable to a penalty of 10 percent on the amount of provisional tax underpaid.

Alteration of Tax Code Declaration During Year—When the employee changes employment during the year, he must deliver a declaration to the new employer. If the declaration is delivered before the end of the first pay period, it applies from and including the first pay.

Employees who become entitled to claim allowances for new dependants during the year may deliver a new tax code declaration immediately the event occurs (e.g., marriage). The new tax code applies to the pay period commencing after the pay period in which the declaration was delivered.

When it becomes apparent that a dependent wife's income will exceed $650 for the year, the employee must immediately deliver a new tax code declaration omitting the wife as a dependant. The new code applies to the pay period following that in which it was delivered.

In other cases when a dependant ceases to be a dependant during the year—e.g., when a dependent wife dies—the employer is entitled to retain the tax code including them as dependants until the following 31 March. This applies even when the employee delivers a new code declaration on a change of employment.

Tax Deduction Tables: Principal Tables—The tax code declaration bears a code (M if the taxpayer is entitled to a wife's exemption; S if not so entitled): the tax deduction tables specify for each code the amount of tax to be deducted from the salary or wage payment for the period.

The amounts of tax shown in the tables are calculated as follows:

  1. The weekly income has been converted to an annual basis and after deduction of the special exemptions to which the taxpayer is entitled the amount of income tax is computed and is then divided by 52 to arrive at the weekly deduction.

  2. Fortnightly, three-weekly, four-weekly, and monthly tables of deductions are based on multiples of the basic weekly tables.

PAYE Tax Deductions—The tax rates for the purposes of PAYE tax deductions at source are the amounts shown in the tax deduction tables. These deductions are fixed according to the current amount of exemptions and tax rates. Some examples of these tax deductions are given for selected weekly incomes in the table which follows.

Weekly EarningsNot Entitled to Wife's ExemptionEntitled to Wife's Exemption
Operative from 1 July 1972
  $$  $  
100.33
120.470.10
140.610.24
160.750.38
180.920.52
201.300.66
221.670.80
242.051.05
262.431.43
282.811.81
303.192.19
323.562.56
343.942.94
364.323.32
384.703.70
405.144.08
507.516.20
6010.178.72
7013.1311.52
8016.3914.63
9019.8618.01
10023.5221.57

Employees who, in addition to their income from employment, derive interest, dividends, or rents, not exceeding $200 in the aggregate, are not required to pay provisional tax on this income which has not been taxed at source.

Provisional taxpayers are required to furnish returns of income, irrespective of the amount of income. The Commissioner then makes an assessment of terminal tax. Any difference between that assessment and the amount paid as provisional tax is either payable by the taxpayer or, if an overpayment, refunded to him.

Farmers who satisfy the Commissioner that they regularly derive more than half their income from an agricultural business and that more than half their gross cash income is derived after 7 February, and whose balance date falls between 1 April and 30 September, may pay provisional tax in three instalments.

Statistics relating to the incidence of income tax are given in Section 28 of this Yearbook.

Taxation of Individuals: Rates—The rates of income tax increase in steps ranging from a minimum of 7.26 percent on the first $650 of taxable income to a maximum of 46.25 percent of taxable income in excess of $12,000. The following table shows the rate of income tax for each step of taxable income for the year ended 31 March 1973.

Taxable IncomeTax on Each Dollar
$        $    cents
Up to 6507.261
651–1,70019.425
1,701–2,00022.663
2,001–2,50025.438
2,501–3,00028.213
3,001–3,50031.450
3,501–4,00034.225
4,001–4,50036.075
4,501–5,00037.925
5,001–5,50039.775
5,501–6,00041.625
6,001–7,00042.550
7,001–8,00043.475
8,001–10,00044.400
10,001–12,00045.325
Over 12,00046.250

The above rates include a 7 1/2 percent rebate allowable for the 1972–73 year.

Dividends—Dividends received by individual shareholders are included as part of their assessable income and assessed in the same manner as other income. A rebate of up to 10 percent of the taxable dividends is allowed when the taxable income including dividends is $4,000 or less. It abates $1 for every $10 of additional taxable income to disappear at $8,000. When profits from the realisation by a company of capital assets are distributed in cash, the amount of such profits may be exempted.

Special Exemptions from 1 April 1972—In determining the taxable income of individuals certain special exemptions are deductible from the taxpayer's assessable income. These exemptions are as follows:

Personal Exemption—A special exemption of $275 is allowable as a deduction from the assessable income of every taxpayer, except for non-resident taxpayers.

Wife Exemption—A special exemption of $275 is allowable as a deduction from the total assessable income of a married taxpayer. This exemption applies only when the taxpayer supports his wife during the income year. It is reduced $1 for each $1 of the wife's income in excess of $375 up to $650, so that the taxpayer receives no exemption when the wife's income exceeds $650.

Child Exemption—This exemption was withdrawn as from 1 July 1972. A residual allowance of $35 a child is provided for the 1972–73 year to cover the months April–June inclusive.

Dependent Relative Exemption—A special exemption of the amount contributed towards the support of a dependent relative of the taxpayer or $135, whichever is the less, is also allowable. Where more than one taxpayer contributes towards the support of the same dependent relative, the exemption is apportioned between them. The exemption is also allowable in the case of amounts paid towards the support of a separated or divorced wife.

Housekeeper Exemption—A special exemption equal to the wife exemption or the amount of wages paid, whichever is the less, is allowable in respect of payments made to a woman or a day nursery, playcentre, creche, or kindergarten to care for a widowed, divorced, separated, or unmarried taxpayer's child under the age of 18 years, or any child who by reason of mental or physical infirmity is unable to earn a living. The exemption is also allowed to a working wife who pays a woman or a day nursery, playcentre, creche, or kindergarten to care for a child while she works, and to a taxpayer employing a housekeeper to look after the taxpayer's home because of the mental or physical infirmity of the taxpayer or his spouse.

Donations and School Fees—A special exemption is allowable for cash donations for religious and charitable purposes and for tuition fees incurred in sending a child of the taxpayer to a registered private school or a special school for handicapped children provided that in each case the school is not run for private pecuniary profit. The maximum exemption under this heading is $200.

Insurance and Superannuation—A special exemption is allowed for premiums paid in respect of policies of life insurance, sickness, and accident insurance on the life of the taxpayer and his wife and children, and for contributions to an approved superannuation fund. The maximum exemption allowable is $950 but is limited to $700 when the taxpayer is a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation scheme.

No special exemption is allowed for premiums on any policy which has been assigned or mortgaged as a security for money borrowed and invested in or loaned to certain property syndicates formed after 3 September 1971. Where a taxpayer moves in or out of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund during an income year the basic special exemption of $700 is increased by $21 for each month the taxpayer is not a contributor to an employer-subsidised scheme.

Taxable Income—In the case of individuals, income tax is assessed on the taxable income. This comprises total income less expenses less (a) any income exempted from income tax and, (b) the amount of the special exemptions to which the taxpayer is entitled.

A summary of the changes in the principal special exemptions and in the rates of ordinary income tax for the last 6 years is given in the following table.

Income Year Ended 31 MarchSpecial ExemptionOrdinary Income Tax
PersonalWifeChildCharitable Donations and School Fees*Insurance and SuperannuationBasic Rates IntroducedRebates
Member of Subsidised Scheme*Others*RateMaximum

* Maximum.

† $140 for each child in excess of four.

‡ Upon amalgamation of income tax and social security tax.

 $$$  $$$ %$
1968936312156100500650196110200
1969936312156100500650196110200
1970275‡240‡135†‡1005006501969
1971275275135†1007009501969
1972275275135†1007009501970
19732752753520070095019707 1/2

Taxation of Companies: Rates—The rates of income tax for 1973 are as follows:

Resident Companies and Public Authorities—The rate of income tax for every dollar of taxable income in the case of companies and public authorities is:

  1. When the taxable income does not exceed $6,250, 20c increased by 0.002 of $1 for every dollar of taxable income;

  2. When the taxable income exceeds $6,250, tax on the first $6,250 is calculated as given above and there is a flat rate tax of 45c for every dollar of income in excess of $6,250.

Non-resident Companies—(a) When the taxable income does not exceed $6,250, the rate of income tax for every dollar of taxable income is 25c, increased by 0.002 of $1 for every dollar of taxable income.

(b) When the taxable income exceeds $6,250, tax on the first $6,250 is calculated as in (a) above and tax on the excess is charged at a flat rate of 50c in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax—Bonus share issues are generally subject to a flat rate tax of 17 1/2c in the dollar which is payable by the company making the bonus share issue. Bonus issues arising from capitalisations of capital profits, share premium reserves, and the writing up of capital assets are exempt.

All companies which are, or are deemed to be, resident in New Zealand are liable for the bonus issue tax on bonus share issues they make. The sole exception is a petroleum mining company.

Excess Retention Tax—Excess retention tax is assessed to “privately controlled investment companies” if the amount of dividends paid is less than 40 percent of the income after taxation. The basic rate of excess retention tax is 35c in the dollar of the insufficient distribution of income.

Grouping of Companies—Two or more companies which are two-thirds commonly owned in terms of paid-up capital, or nominal value of allotted shares, or voting power, or entitlement to profits, constitute a “group” of companies. The assessable incomes of companies included in a group are aggregated for the purpose of determining the rate of income tax. Provision exists for offsetting losses incurred by companies within a group and for the making of subvention payments. A tax credit is also available to qualifying minority shareholders for a proportion of the additional tax paid by the company consequent on the application of the grouping provisions.

Non-resident Investment Companies—Special provisions exist to limit the income tax payable by a non-resident investment company on income derived from investments or assets which are used wholly or principally in projects which are of importance in the development of New Zealand.

Unit Trusts—Unit trusts are treated as companies, and income and other payments to unit holders are treated as dividends.

Taxation of Trusts—Trusts created after 18 July 1968, with the exception of trusts created by will or intestacy, or other specific cases such as trusts created by Court order and statutory trusts such as the Official Assignee as trustee for creditors, are subject to a minimum rate of income tax of 35 percent on income classified as trustee's income.

The trustee of a trust other than a specified trust is entitled to a special exemption of $100 and is subject to a rate of tax calculated by reference to the trustee's income at the rate for individuals.

Deductions of Expenditure From Total Income—Any expenditure or loss necessarily incurred in carrying on a business for the purpose of gaining or producing assessable income may be deducted.

Deductions are also allowed to salary and wage earners for expenditure or loss which is incurred in producing assessable income. Types of expenditure which qualify are maintenance of tools of trade, instruments and equipment, reference books and technical manuals relating directly to the taxpayer's trade or occupation, subscriptions to trade and professional journals, the maintenance of any licence or certificate essential to the occupation of the taxpayer, and costs of short refresher courses or seminars connected with the taxpayer's trade or profession.

No deduction is allowed for expenditure which is of a capital nature or of a private or domestic nature.

Depreciation Allowances: Ordinary Depreciation—On buildings the allowable ordinary depreciation rates vary from 2 1/2 percent of cost price for wooden-walled and framed buildings to 1 percent of cost price for buildings of reinforced concrete. There are higher rates for certain buildings, such as cool stores, chemical works, glasshouses, etc. Various rates of depreciation have been fixed by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue for different classes of plant, machinery, and equipment. These are normally expressed as percentages of the diminishing value of the asset.

Special Depreciation—Special depreciation allowances are given on the cost of: plant and machinery (excluding motorcars and station wagons); employee accommodation; new farm buildings and extensions (other than residences); private bathrooms, showers and water closets installed in existing hotels; new hotels erected pursuant to an “approved project”; new buildings or extensions erected to provide storage for frozen meat or meat products.

Special depreciation is limited in the aggregate to 20 percent of the cost of the asset and is allowed in addition to ordinary depreciation.

Additional Depreciation—Additional depreciation is allowed on: plant, machinery, and equipment used for scientific research; safety frames on tractors; capital expenditure arising from compulsory surveys of fishing boats; capital expenditure in erecting or extending meat export slaughterhouses and meat packing houses; capital expenditure in erecting or extending buildings used for processing or storing fish or fish products for export.

Supplementary Depreciation—New farm buildings (other than residences) qualify for a supplementary depreciation allowance of up to 6 percent of cost. The overall deduction in conjunction with ordinary depreciation cannot exceed 10 percent of cost in any year. New hotels and motels catering for the travelling public qualify for a supplementary depreciation allowance of 1 percent of cost.

Tax Incentives—A number of taxation incentives designed to encourage investment in productive activities are available to industrial and agricultural enterprises. These incentives include:

Livestock Value—A farmer's livestock is treated as trading stock. Apart from the usual valuation options for trading stock used in a business, farmers are permitted to use a “standard value” for each class of livestock, thus reducing in some degree fluctuations in income which might occur if market prices or other valuations were used. The standard value system is universally used except for high-value stud stock. The value adopted for any particular class of animal is usually somewhat below actual cost and also usually below sale value. The disposal of all or a substantial part of a farmer's livestock may result in an unduly high income for the year. The tax law provides special measures to alleviate the tax burden if that happens in the following circumstances: (1) death of the farmer, (2) retirement from farming, (3) expiry of a lease or acquisition of the farm land by the Crown, and (4) forced sale of livestock due to an adverse event (e.g., fire, flood, drought, disease among livestock).

The term “adverse event” means any happening which is declared by the Minister of Finance to be an adverse event.

Increased Livestock Incentive—An optional incentive scheme aimed at maintaining and accelerating the growth of livestock numbers is available. It applies to sheep, cattle, and pigs in a farming business and provides for the establishment of base livestock numbers. Increases in stock above the base livestock number may, at the taxpayer's option, be brought in at a “nil” value. Because there may be changes in the type of livestock carried from year to year a system of equivalents is provided, namely, one head of cattle equals six sheep, one head of cattle equals four pigs, and three sheep equal two pigs. The equivalents are not based on standard or market values but on food intake.

Sharemilkers—A sharemilker who sells his livestock, or a farmer on leasehold land who quits the land and sells his livestock in order to purchase his own farm, is allowed to spread forward the excess income arising from the sale of the livestock. The excess income is the difference between the amount realised and the standard value adopted for the livestock. The excess is assessed as income in the fifth income year after the year of sale unless the taxpayer elects to have all or part of the amount assessed in any one or more of the intervening four income years.

Farm Income Equalisation—This is a scheme whereby farmers may deposit up to a maximum of 25 percent of their income, with a minimum deposit of $200, in an income equalisation reserve account. Deposits are deductible in the year of deposit and withdrawals constitute assessable income in the year of withdrawal. The maximum period in which deposits may be held in the reserve is five years; thus the scheme offers a means whereby a farmer can reduce fluctuations in his income.

Capital Development Expenditure—Taxpayers engaged in agricultural pursuits and in rock oyster farming or mussel farming may deduct certain capital development expenditure or spread it over a period of 10 years. In the case of rock oyster and mussel farming, development expenditure includes the cost of acquiring and preparing suitable surfaces for collecting spat.

Export Market Development and Tourist Promotion—A 150 percent deduction, subject to an overall limit, is allowable for qualifying expenditure as an incentive to promote the export of New Zealand goods and services; the overseas use of New Zealand trade marks, patents, designs, or copyright; and to develop the New Zealand tourist industry. Self-employed professional people can claim up to 50 percent allowance in respect of their own time spent on promoting their services for overseas projects. A formula is provided to value the time.

Forestry Encouragement Grants—Under a scheme introduced in 1970 the Government makes grants in respect of the planting, maintenance, and development expenditure of companies and individuals who undertake approved forest planting programmes. This grant for expenditure is not assessable income and a deduction is not allowed for the expenditure unless and to the extent that it is more than twice the amount of the grant. Grants are also made for the personal labour of the taxpayer and his family. These grants are assessable income.

Increased Exports—This incentive is to encourage exports by manufacturers who produce mainly for the local market. If the value of qualifying goods exported during the year has increased by comparison with the average value of goods exported during a “base period” of three years, 15 percent of the increase can be deducted. The “base period” is the first 3 of the previous 6 years.

Industrial Research and Development Grants—Grants made under the Industrial Research and Development Grants Act 1970 will not represent assessable income to the recipient. When the grant is in respect of deductible expenditure the amount ordinarily allowable is reduced by the amount of the grant. When the grant is for capital expenditure, e.g., plant, the cost of the asset is reduced by the amount of the grant in determining the amount of depreciation to be allowed.

Investment Allowance—An allowance of 20 percent of the cost of new plant and machinery which qualifies for the special depreciation allowance, is allowed in addition to the depreciation allowances.

Investment Allowance (West Coast, South Island)—30 percent of the cost of plant and machinery, and of buildings acquired, erected or extended, used for development projects in specified areas of the West Coast, South Island, is deductible, in addition to all depreciation. This allowance is to attract new industry to the area.

Mining—-The mining industry has special methods of tax assessment, and investors may make a deduction of one-third of calls paid on shares in mineral or petroleum mining companies.

Post Office Bonus Bonds—Prizes received in respect of Post Office Bonus Bonds are exempt from tax.

Post Office National Development Bonds—An additional tax exemption is available in respect of the accumulated interest on Post Office National Development Bonds. The exemption is available to individuals only, and is subject to a maximum exemption of $500 in any income year. The interest is paid on maturity or surrender and is deemed to be derived in the income year in which the bond matures or in the year in which it is surrendered.

Scientific Research—Special incentives to encourage scientific research are available. Expenditure on research equipment acquired for scientific purposes directly relating to the business of the taxpayer may be written off over a period of 5 years. Also the cost of research directly relating to the business of the taxpayer may be deducted in the year in which it was incurred, and gifts of money made by companies to universities and approved institutes for education and research are, subject to certain limitations, deductible.

Stamp Duty Exemption On First Conveyances—To encourage builders to start private housing schemes, when new houses and sections are sold the duty payable on the instrument of conveyance is computed on the unimproved value of the land only.

Visiting Experts—A special rebate is provided for approved visiting experts who provide (either as independent consultants or as employees) specialist, technical, or managerial expertise essential to the development in the initial years of an approved new and continuing enterprise in New Zealand; or provide expertise that is not generally available in New Zealand; or who are engaged in approved research work in institutions or universities. The effect of the rebate is to limit the New Zealand tax payable on income from the visiting experts' services to an average rate of 35 percent.

Land Tax—Land tax is levied on the total unimproved value of land held at 31 March by each owner after making, by way of special exemption from that value, the following deductions: where the value does not exceed $60,000, a deduction of $60,000; where the value exceeds $60,000 a deduction of $60,000 diminished at the rate of $1 for each $1 of that excess, so as to leave no deduction when that value amounts to or exceeds $120,000.

Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable for land tax and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and are liable severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if they consist of substantially the same shareholders. Two or more companies are deemed to consist of substantially the same shareholders if they are two-thirds or more commonly owned by the same persons. The ownership may be measured in terms of paid-up capital, or nominal value of allotted shares, or voting power, or entitlement to profits.

The rates of land tax on a “step” basis are as follows: where unimproved value after allowing the special exemption does not exceed $20,000 the rate is 5/12C for each dollar; where it exceeds $20,000 but does not exceed $30,000 the rate is 5/6C for each dollar; where it exceeds $30,000 but does not exceed $40,000 the rate is 1 1/4c for each dollar; where it exceeds $40,000 the rate is 1 2/3C for each dollar.

There is a rebate of a sum equal to 50 percent of the tax so assessed.

Land used for farming or agricultural activities is exempt from land tax.

Payroll Tax—A payroll tax was introduced as from 1 August 1970. The tax is paid by employers at a flat 2 percent on all remuneration which is liable for the tax. Subject to an exemption of $7,800 a year for each employer, the gross amount of all salaries, wages, bonuses, commissions, and benefit allowances which are paid to employees are liable. In addition, directors' fees, honoraria, and certain other payments are liable for the tax. (This tax was abolished from 1 October 1973.)

Other exemptions are:

  1. Most farmers, agricultural contractors, and primary processing industries.

  2. Hospitals, schools, charitable organisations.

  3. The normal administrative functions of the Central Government and local authorities—although their trading activities are liable.

There is provision for rebates against payroll tax for sales of certain export goods. Payroll tax is deductible for income tax purposes.

Mining Companies—These companies are taxed on a conventional profit and loss basis. Exploration and development expenditure, much of which would normally be classified as capital expenditure, may be claimed against income. Tax is levied on mining income at two-thirds of the rate applicable to the income of non-mining companies. Other assessable income is taxable at normal company rates.

Property Syndicates—Unincorporated associations of not less than 11 persons formed after 3 September 1971 for the sole or principal reason of holding real property for investment or sale are treated as companies assessable at ordinary company rates. Any interest paid to members of the syndicate is not deductible for tax purposes but, together with any other distributions to members, is treated as dividends to members. A special exemption is not allowed for premiums paid on life policies assigned for the purposes of financing investment in property syndication.

Legislation 1972—Principal amendments to legislation in 1972 included the following—

Pollution—New provisions have been introduced to allow business taxpayers, other than farmers, to claim a deduction for business expenditure incurred to prevent or combat environmental pollution. The deduction relates only to expenditure in the construction of earthworks, ponds, settling tanks or other similar improvements on land in New Zealand. Twenty percent of the expenditure is deductible in the year incurred and 20 percent in each of the 4 succeeding years.

Charitable Gifts By Public Companies—These companies are allowed a deduction for charitable gifts subject to a limit of $1,000 to any one donee and overall to 5 percent of the company's assessable income. The definition of public companies includes any company (other than a private company), any private company which is controlled by any such company or companies, and any local or public authority.

Hardship Relief For Divorced or Separated Parents Supporting Children—When a taxpayer is a divorced or separated person and has a child dependent upon him in any income year he may be allowed a special exemption of up to $135 for each child, not exceeding three. The taxpayer does not get this concession if he is entitled to a dependent relative exemption for the child nor does he qualify if the child lives with him for a substantial part of the year.

ESTATE AND GIFT DUTIES—The legislation dealing with estate duty and gift duty is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 and amendments.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person exceeds $12,000, estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. Exemptions are provided for the successions of a wife, husband, or infant child of a deceased person. (For this purpose an infant child is widely defined to mean a child, or stepchild, of a deceased person, under the age of 20 years; and includes any other person, other than the wife of the deceased, who is living and under the age of 20 years, and is in the opinion of the Commissioner, a dependant of the deceased.) These exemptions are subject to the following limitations and operate by way of a deduction from the duty of so much as is attributable to the exempted succession or exempted portion of the succession. In the case of a wife, the exemption applies to the value of her succession or $40,000, whichever is the less; in the case of a husband, to the value of his succession or $40,000, whichever is the less; and in the case of an infant child, to the value of the child's succession or $1,000, whichever is the less.

There are also various exemptions which operate by way of the exclusion of certain property in computing the amount of the final balance of the estate as, for example, for an interest in a home settled under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 which passes to the surviving spouse; accrued amounts of war pensions and superannuation benefits; certain defined personal chattels to a value not exceeding $2,000; the property in an outright gift made before death to a charity; certain superannuation allowances for widows and infant children; and the wood value of growing trees on any land, a proprietary interest in which forms part of the dutiable estate.

An exemption is also provided for charitable bequests of up to $25,000 in aggregate in any estate. The amount of the charitable bequest is not excluded from the final balance of the estate but the rates of duty are adjusted to give the same result as if this had been done.

Relief is provided for quick successions where estate duty is payable twice on the same property by reason of the two deaths occurring within a short period. The duty is reduced in the second estate according to the interval between the two deaths as follows: second death within four months, 75 percent reduction; within eight months, 60 percent reduction; within one year, 50 percent reduction; within two years, 40 percent reduction; within three years, 30 percent reduction; within four years, 20 percent reduction; within five years, 10 percent reduction.

Income tax in respect of a deceased person up to the date of death is treated as a debt of the deceased in all cases.

Estate duty is due and payable to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue on the death of the deceased. Interest is charged at the rate of 5 percent on all duty unpaid within six months of date of death. In addition a penalty of 5 percent is payable if duty is not paid within three months after notice of assessment, but is not imposed earlier than six months after death. The time for payment of duty without incurring a penalty may be extended in certain cases.

There is a right of appeal to the Board of Review constituted under the Inland Revenue Department Amendment Act 1960, against decisions of the Commissioner in the exercise of his discretion under certain sections of the Act. There is also a right of appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court.

The following table gives the scale of rates of estate duty which applies to estates of deceased persons dying on and after 25 June 1970.

Final Balance of EstateBasic PaymentRate on Excess
$          $     $     percent
Up to 12,000–    
12,001–  14,000–    7
14,001–  16,0001408
16,001–  18,0003009
18,001–  20,00048010
20,001–  22,00068011
22,001–  24,00090012
24,001–  26,0001,14013
26,001–  28,0001,40014
28,001–  30,0001,68015
30,001–  32,0001,98016
32,001–  34,0002,30017
34,001–  36,0002,64018
36,001–  38,0003,00019
38,001–  40,0003,38020
40,001–  42,0003,78021
42,001–  44,0004,20022
44,001–  46,0004,64023
46,001–  48,0005,10024
48,001–  50,0005,58025
50,001–  52,0006,08026
52,001–  54,0006,60027
54,001–  56,0007,14028
56,001–  58,0007,70029
58,001–  60,0008,28030
60,001–  70,0008,88031
70,001–  80,00011,98032
80,001–  90,00015,18033
90,001–100,00018,48034
100,001–110,00021,88035
110,001–120,00025,38036
120,001–130,00028,98037
130,001–140,00032,68038
140,001–150,00036,48039
Exceeding 150,00040,38040

Gift Duty—A gift means any disposition of property situated in New Zealand (or of property outside New Zealand if the donor is domiciled in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without fully adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. There is provision for a deduction from the value of the gift of money payments adequately secured to the donor which were fixed or ascertainable at the date of the gift. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within 12 months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary does not exceed the value of $4,000. Gifts up to $200 in any year to the same person are not taken into account for gift duty (or estate duty) if made as part of the donor's normal expenditure. Various other exemptions, including gifts to any charitable trust, are contained in the Act.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made exceeding $2,000 (or the value of which when aggregated with the value of all gifts made by the donor within 12 months previously exceeds $2,000) are required to be furnished for assessment of duty, if any, within three months of the date of the gift, and if the duty is not paid within six months of making the gift a 5 percent penalty is imposed. Interest is also payable at 5 percent on any gift duty not paid within three months of the date of the gift and on any penalty from the date it was incurred.

The following table gives the scale of rates of gift duty on gifts made on and after 19 July 1968.

Value of Gift
(Together With Value of
All Aggregated Gifts)
Basic PaymentRate on Excess
* Of total value of gift.
$          $     $    percent
Up to 4,000–    
4,001–  6,000–    9
6,001–  8,00018011
8,001–10,00040013
10,001–12,00066015
12,001–14,00096017
14,001–16,0001,30019
16,001–18,0001,68021
18,001–20,0002,10023
20,001–22,0002,56025
22,001–24,0003,06027
24,001–28,0003,60023
28,001–32,0004,52025
32,001–36,0005,52027
36,001–40,0006,60029
40,001–44,0007,76031
44,001–48,0009,00033
48,001–52,00010,32035
52,001–56,00011,72037
56,001–60,00013,20039
60,001–64,00014,76031
     Over 64,000–    25*

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest six years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
 $(thousand)
196721,1581,90623,064
196820,2411,49021,731
196922,0502,06224,112
197024,6691,63326,303
197127,7511,58929,340
197223,6701,37925,049

Board of Review—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more boards of review. There is at present only one such board. Members of a board are appointed by the Governor-General and consist of a chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than seven years' practice, and two other members. The functions of a board are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of a board is final as to any question of fact, but subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on any question of law. However, questions of fact may be referred direct to the Supreme Court if both parties consent or if the Court considers it desirable that the objection be determined by it.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Particulars of deceased persons' estates certified during the year ended 31 March 1972 are given in the tables following. Totals for the previous three years are appended. Estates of Maoris, other than hereditary interests in Maori land, are included.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Net
Value of Estates
Estate Duties Assessed
* Fifteen months to 31 March 1969.
$(000)               $(000) $(000)$(000)
    Under              25675901,1571,429–    
    2 and under     49049131,8175,390–    
    4 and under     69507831,7338,644–    
    6 and under     88677031,57010,982–    
    8 and under   107525711,32311,848–    
  10 and under   126103911,00110,968–    
  12 and under   144092556648,63539
  14 and under   163162315478,20776
  16 and under   182832014848,197118
  18 and under   202401774177,902146
  20 and under   221831573407,120161
  22 and under   241721022746,294164
  24 and under   3043323466717,826641
  30 and under   4048222770924,5051,254
  40 and under   5031613745320,2541,507
  50 and under   602327530716,8011,564
  60 and under   701477021713,9491,649
  70 and under   801154115611,6621,589
  80 and under   9083231068,9741,297
  90 and under 1007315888,3481,344
100 and under 1201132313614,8392,685
120 and under 1405114658,3471,660
140 and under 160258334,8801,004
160 and under 180212233,8771,000
180 and under 200143173,179749
200 and over45115618,7625,945
                 Totals, 1971–728,4035,95714,360271,81824,592
                 Totals, 1970–718,6626,15214,814264,69425,995
                 Totals, 1969–708,4155,92614,341251,11628,611
                 Totals, 1968–69*10,2617,02117,282278,94529,069

The average net value per estate certified in 1971–72 was $18,928 (males $22,105; females $14,448), compared with $17,867 (males $20,809; females $13,726) in 1970–71. Duty on estates of males amounted to $17.7 million and on estates of females $6.9 million, the respective figures for 1970–71 being $18.5 million and $7.5 million.

The law relating to death duties is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 which came into force on 1 January 1969. From 26 June 1969 the exemption for both a widow and a widower has been $40,000 and estates up to a value of $12,000 are exempt from duty.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now given. The rates of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Average Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
* Fifteen months to 31 March 1969.
$(000)           $(000)$    $    $    percentpercentpercent
Under               10–    –    –    –    –    –    
  10 and under   12–    –    –    –    –    –    
  12 and under   1431101580.20.80.4
  14 and under   16961951380.61.30.9
  16 and under   181723412421.02.0134
  18 and under   202025473481.12.91.8
  20 and under   222956804731.43.22.3
  22 and under   244029325991.74.12.6
  24 and under   307311,3859602.75.23.6
  30 and under   401,4362,4731,7684.27.15.1
  40 and under   502,8014,5393,3276.310.27.4
  50 and under   604,5706,7075,0928.412.29.3
  60 and under   706,9199,0307,60010.714.111.8
  70 and under   809,39712,39310,18412.616.613.6
  80 and under   9011,38015,31112,23313.518.014.4
  90 and under 10014,55018,81415,27715.319.916.1
100 and under 12018,81424,31319,74417.222.318.1
120 and under 14024,50029,33725,54219.122.619.9
140 and under 16030,42630,41330,42320.520.820.6
160 and under 18043,43343,92143,47625.726.325.8
180 and under 20041,40956,53844,07822.229.723.6
200 and over105,240109,925106,16031.333.531.7
             All estates, 1971–722,1041,1581,7129.58.09.0
             All estates, 1970–712,1361,2171,75410.38.99.8
             All estates, 1969–702,2311,6601,99511.211.711.4
             All estates, 1968–69*1,9521,2871,68210.610.110.4

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate passed for duty in the March year 1972 is now given.

ItemSize of Estate (Net Value)
Under $6,000$6,000–$9,999$10,000–$19,999$20,000–$23,999$24,000–$39,999$40,000–$99,999$100,000–$199,999$200,000 and OverAll Estates
Gross Assets—$(000), except average per estate $
    Cash6,2026,50111,8313,4828,28711,7294,1151,52853,675
       Average per estate1,3172,2473,8005,6716,0228,83815,01927,2783,737
    Furniture, effects, etc.7459731,5173799851,3144602826,664
        Average per estate1603364876187169891,6785,02746
    Farm stock, implements, etc.74882551005942,5091,8945086,022
        Average per estate1530821624311,8906,9139,064419
    Private business interests942544422571,1972,6751,6815987,197
        Average per estate19871414188702,0156,13410,677501
    Assurance policies1,5382,0953,9591,0523,5085,1971,95249219,793
        Average per estate3267241,2711,7132,5493,9167,1228,7911,378
    Loans8121,6074,3411,6486,92216,0895,5511,96738,937
        Average per estate1725551,3942,6845,03012,12420,25835,1162,711
    Shares, stocks, etc.8211,5044,0631,7696,85915,4668,5157,13346,131
        Average per estate1745191,3052,8804,98511,65431,076127,3823,212
    Real property6,0199,27915,2613,72311,41319,6856,7372,89575,012
        Average per estate1,2783,2074,9026,0638,29414,83427,87151,6975,286
    Other property7247751,9736221,8963,1641,28192811,362
        Average per estate1532676331,0121,3772,3844,67416,565791
    Notional estate1,1591,6432,7259882,5574,1771,88975615,984
        Average per estate2465678751,6081,8583,1476,89413,5061,106
    Foreign property911525312228142,8461,9642,4859,106
        Average per estate19521703615013,1447,16644,370634
Debts—
    Unsecured1,4621,0831,5423971,3662,3661,1655819,962
    Secured1,3609591,4474311,3372,4976522298,911
        Total2,8222,0422,9898282,7034,8631,81780918,873
        Average per estate5997059601,3481,9643,6646,62914,4491,314

Realty comprised 26.1 percent of gross New Zealand assets, while the proportion of cash was 18.5 percent.

The number of deceased persons' estates in each group for 1971–72 are classified below according to net value of estate.

Age Group of Deceased Person, in YearsUnder $2,000$2,000–$3,999$4,000–$5,999$6,000–$7,999$8,000–$9,999$10,000–$19,999$20,000–$23,999$24,000–$29,999$30,000–$39,999$40,000–$59,999$60,000–$79,999$80,000–$99,999$100,000–$199,999$200,000 and OverTotal
Under 20111611961366
20–2492213231236231121
25–29151013185275511100
30–348106910222585321192
35–3913261412824510683129
40–4425352426237510131410523265
45–493342604236862123141811610402
50–54419667535314134313230187145622
55–5980114117112872233742555726222551,002
60–641031451731591132846072847233234541,370
65–691252212191901493357378759644254091,679
70–74183276245182199402937010010251213871,969
75–79180238215228202442811119910349313282,019
80–841452612602352094648910110112769242662,117
85–891111851901621433166267798040182561,484
90–94458674775515433242630157121639
95–9913222220540586124223164
            Unspecified1712101382924982411120
                        Totals1,1571,8171,7331,5701,3233,1136146677097603731942745614,360
                      Percent8.0612.6512.0710.939.2121.684.284.644.945.292.601.351.910.39100.00

In the following table deceased persons' estates for 1970–71 are analysed by occupations.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$
6,000 to 9,999
$
10,000 to 19,999
$
20,000 to 23,999
$
24,000 to 39,999
$
40,000 to 99,999
$
100,000 and over
$
Totals
Males
Architects, engineers, chemists, etc.2627462128155168
Doctors, dentists, and medical workers111324620296109
Teachers, clergy, and jurists25365812362510202
Artists, draughtsmen, and related workers292839823213151
Executive officials, directors, and managers1081001594613916171784
Bookkeepers, typists, and clerical workers2161712134367275742
Working proprietors, wholesale, and retail trade121629589281
Insurance, real estate, and all salesmen98851041241154359
Farmers and farm managers209174287873015451401,743
Farm workers593130363132
Hunters, fishermen, and loggers27181124264
Miners, welldrillers, and quarrymen378103361
Merchant marine officers and ratings195731439
Aircraft crews21227
Transport and communication workers177126104102471449
Spinners, cutters, tailors, etc.4417255632102
Furnacemen and moulders241272247
Instrument, tool makers, and machinists10999107163213376
Electricians3329433103121
Carpenters, painters, and bricklayers1851461321951267566
Compositors, bookbinders, etc.2514121557
Potters and clay workers41117
Millers, bakers, and food workers572831783134
Chemical and tobacco workers67331121
Production processors, packers, etc.20121121147
Lifting equipment and freight handlers11572656751271
Labourers, etc.27810266683463
Firemen, policemen, and guards14131712148
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, and cleaners583618711121
Hairdressers, launderers, and drycleaners13644128
Athletes, recreation, and service workers24131228261
Occupation not stated or not working34516417421563611807
All uniformed personnel (services)129724135
                                             Totals2,4211,6191,8583559159662698,403
Females
Occupation not stated or not working2,2361,2381,205245434341605,759
Doctors, dentists, and medical workers681234235
Teachers, clergy, and jurists8418310548
Bookkeepers, typists, and clerical workers1016914141
Housekeepers, cooks, etc.911112
Spinners, cutters, tailors, etc.415
Others136116911157
                                             Totals2,2861,2741,255259461361615,957
NOTE—In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group which has less than three in it have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible, no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

OTHER DUTIES—These cover a miscellany of items of taxation.

In the next table the receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads; receipts under agreement on sales of overseas lottery tickets in New Zealand have been added to the revenue items handled by the Duties Division of the Inland Revenue Department.

DutyYear Ended 31 March
19681969197019711972
 $(thousand)
Duty on instruments5,8076,8398,80810,70011,320
Duty on cheques1,8521,8601,9482,0782,229
Racing taxation11,32111,15512,05413,15715,656
Lottery duty722655719686625
Overseas lottery duty219245273267296
                                        Totals19,92120,75423,80226,88830,126

Payroll tax, first collected from 1 August 1970, amounted to $40,763,000 in the period ended 31 March 1972; it is a tax of 2 percent on payrolls of employers, except farmers, agricultural contractors, dairy companies and meat processing companies.

Some of the more important items included in the foregoing table are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover is at the rate of 9.32 percent of gross turnover subject to a rebate of 2 1/2 percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty 9.32 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles investments. In the case of special races, win and place investment commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy is waived; and (c) 1/2 percent levy as provided by the Gaming Amendment Act 1965. Where the 1/2 percent levy is deducted by a racing or hunt club it is paid to the New Zealand Racing Conference and where it is deducted by a trotting club it is paid to the New Zealand Trotting Conference. Each conference pays the money received by it into a separate account, which is applied solely for the purpose of assisting clubs to provide, maintain, and replace amenities for the public and course improvements on their racecourses. The proceeds of the levy and the amounts paid to clubs are not subject to taxation.

The Racing Act 1971 is to come into operation on 1 August 1972 replacing the Gaming Act 1908 and its amendments. Under this Act, the 1/2 percent on bets for racecourse improvements is retained and an additional 1/2 percent levy is to be paid to the newly constituted National Racing Authority for supplementing stakes paid by clubs on specified races. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Totalisator Agency Board established to conduct off-course betting receives 7 1/2 percent of the turnover made through the totalisator agencies. This is the same percentage as that retained by clubs for on-course turnover.

The Minister of Internal Affairs may grant totalisator licences for not more than 404 days in any racing year. Of these 404 days, 271 are allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 133 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19681969197019711972
* Retained by clubs and T.A.B.
 $(thousand)
Totalisator duty11,23611,58012,44014,10515,952
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.9,63711,22311,91813,36915,049
Unpaid fractions*496532603674761
Levy of 2 percent617635681771869

For the financial year ended 31 March 1972, Consolidated Revenue Account receipts from racing taxation amounted to $15.7 million, as compared with $13.2 million in 1970–71.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
Number of racing days..271271271133133133
Number of races..2,2812,3002,4381,1761,1791,185
Amount of stakes$(000)3,2813,5263,7631,5311,7151,784
    Average per race$1,4391,5331,5431,3021,4551,505
Totaliser turnover—$(million)
    On course..38.042.646.016.719.320.0
    Off course..60.767.879.521.725.129.4
                                    Totals98.7110.5125.538.344.549.3
    Doubles (included above)..35.838.744.212.614.015.1
    Amount paid in dividends..80.389.8102.131.236.240.1

Of the amount placed on the totalisator during the 1971–72 racing season, 81.3 percent was returned to bettors by way of dividends. Government taxes absorbed 9.1 percent and 9.1 percent was retained by clubs or T.A.B. A levy for racecourse improvements amounted to 0.5 percent.

FILM-HIRE TAX—Holders of renters' licences under Part V of the Cinematograph Films Act 1961 pay a film-hire tax.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net quarterly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British Commonwealth films the tax is 10 percent and on foreign films 25 percent of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of $302,544 in 1967–68, $270,908 in 1968–69, $291,077 in 1969–70, $369,541 in 1970–71, and $330,963 in 1971–72.

SALES TAX—Sales tax is collected under the authority of the Sales Tax Act 1932–33 and its amendments. The Sales Tax Exemption Order 1967 consolidates in one list all the existing exemptions from sales tax. The rate of tax is normally 20 percent; for motor vehicles it is 40 percent. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable only once and, as far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax during each of the latest five March years has been: 1967–68, $75,389,000; 1968–69, $82,801,000; 1969–70, $97,615,000; 1970–71, $125,343,000; and 1971–72, $139,538,000.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL—The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged of either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has now dropped to 16 percent. Over 40 percent of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries. Internal public debt at 31 March 1972 comprised $2,533 million of the total public debt of $3,187 million.

Most of the present public debt has been borrowed for national development. There was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, a National Development Loans Account into which moneys for national development are paid. The amounts raised by loans since the inception of this account to 31 March 1972 totalled $3,045 million, of which $262 million was raised in 1971–72. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—Movement of the overseas public debt can be gauged from the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchLondon and EuropeUnited States and World BankTotal Overseas Debt
New BorrowingsRepayments*Balance of DebtNew BorrowingsRepaymentsBalance of Debt
* Includes debt transferred to New Zealand register.
 NZ$(thousand)
196758,39419,876283,35622,9164,000107,262390,618
196866,23120,210329,37767,9894,546170,706500,083
196940,26133,409336,22922,63214,119179,219515,448
197010,3295,002341,55619,98214,953184,248525,804
197158,9632,703397,81613,97319,603178,618576,434
1972132,13935,820494,1356,29325,505159,406653,541

A summary of movements in the public debt 1971–72 is given in the following table.

ItemAmount
* Includes third Cook Strait ferry $4 million; Silver Star express $2.2 million; Diesel electric locomotives $4.1 million; New Plymouth power station $4 million.
External Debt—NZ
$(million)
    Loans Raised—
        World Bank0.4
        Defence credits3.3
        Capital equipment credit arrangements*14.3
        Swiss franc loan21.9
        Dutch guilder loan14.8
        Deutschemark loans50.3
        London loan21.4
        Increase in debt due to Swiss franc revaluation and international currencies re-alignment4.8
 131.2
    Loans Redeemed—
        London33.3
        New York6.9
        Multi-currency credit agreement1.9
        World Bank4.8
        Capital equipment credit arrangements0.7
        Defence credits6.4
        Transfer to New Zealand Register0.1
 54.1
    Net increase in External Debt77.1
Internal Debt—
    Loans raised539.6
    Loans converted643.8
    Transfers from London Register0.1
        Loans Redemption Account1,183.5
    Loans redeemed437.2
    Loans converted643.8
 1,081.0
        Net increase in Internal Debt102.5
        Total increase in Public Debt179.6
Outstanding—31 March 19713,007.0
Outstanding—31 March 19723,186.6

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1972 is now given.

Allocation of DebtLoan CapitalInterest on Loan CapitalEquity Capital*Total Allocation

* The following dividends have been received during 1971–72:

(a) Air New Zealand Ltd. $630,000.

(b) Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. $722,000.

c) Bank of New Zealand $1,898,438.

† Interest capitalised and payment deferred until such time as the industry has recovered its initial deficit and is operating profitably.

‡ Free of interest.

§ Interest on loan, capital remitted each year.

∥ Free of interest—position to be reviewed after 30 September 1973.

¶ Includes $5 million being excess development costs not represented by sale value and not bearing interest.

** Interest during construction to be capitalised.

(a) Loans and investments in trading undertakings—$(000)percent$(000)$(000)
          Air New Zealand Ltd.  23,00023,000
          Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,6006 1/44,000 
          Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.1,1064 1/42,00013,706
          New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation1,0006 1,000
          New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,000†5 1/28,990 
          New Zealand Steel Ltd.2,7506 1/2–7 17,740
          New Zealand Wool Topmaking Investigating Co. Ltd.  6262
          New Zealand National Airways Corporation  8,0008,000
          Bank of New Zealand shares  12,65612,656
          Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand2,9007 3/4 2,900
          Railways10,000‡ 180,170190,170
          Railways (IBRD Railway projects)31,666Var. 31,666
          Railways (Third Cook Strait ferry)5,2105 1/2 5,210
          Railways (North Island sleeper train)2,2206 2,220
          Railways (G.E.C. locomotives)3,682Var. 3,682
          State Advances Corporation597,5234 1/2 597,523
          State coal mines§29,606  29,606
          Tourist Hotel Corporation1,890∥ 4,0005,890
          Electric power762,4175  
          Electric power (IBRD Inter-island Transmission project)21,9345 1/2  
          Electric power (IBRD Marsden Point power project)10,2936 1/4  
          Electric power (New Plymouth power station)5,6295 1/2 800,273
          Post Office308,5815 308,581
          Housing under construction and land development¶24,0074 1/2 24,007
          Land settlement226,3044 1/2 226,304
          IBRD Harbour projects5,0895 1/2 5,089
          Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand**21,3106 21,310
       Earning interest but not at full rate—
          Housing Account (S.A.C.)309,0043 309,004
 2,639,599
(b) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets or development works—
          Airport development and calibration aircraft 20,850
          Education buildings 131,019
          Forests (State) 59,625
          General public works 95,092
          International finance organisations—
               Cash portion of subscriptions 21,019
 327,605
(c) Non-productive debt—
          Consolidated Revenue Account 42,512
          Realignment Exchange Adjustment Account 5,943
          Railway capital written off 85,075
          Swiss Franc Revaluation Adjustment Account 600
          New loan moneys on hand—
               National Development Loans Account 57,537
          Loans Redemption Account 27,710
 219,377
                                        Total 3,186,581

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

At 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$      
19621,808730.50
19631,934765.18
19642,022782.89
19652,140813.87
19662,256842.78
19672,412884.42
19682,617949.72
19692,770998.40
19702,8771,019.96
19713,0071,051.06
19723,1871,095.22

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
 NZ$(thousand)
196717,21488,744105,9582.266,32039,6384.0
196821,59294,214115,8062.775,99139,8153.9
196928,767103,592132,3593.084,12848,2314.6
197030,840113,355144,1952.789,94654,2494.6
197132,076120,943153,0192.897,71255,3073.8
197236,260130,548166,8082.7106,40260,4063.5

RECENT LOANS—Details of loans for preceding periods are given in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

External Loans—In 1968 a loan of 80 million deutschemark was raised with D.M. bearer bonds at 7 percent maturing 1978.

A further loan of 100 million deutschemark was raised in 1969 with 6 3/4 percent D.M. bearer bonds maturing on 1 February 1984.

A loan of 100 million deutschemark with D.M. bearer bonds at 7 1/2 percent maturing 1986 was raised in April 1971.

In February 1972 a loan of 100 million deutschemark was raised with D.M. bearer bonds at 7 percent maturing 1987.

In November 1970 a bond issue was floated on the Swiss capital market. This issue, which was fully subscribed, was for a term of 15 years and raised 50 million Swiss francs, equivalent to about NZ$10.37 million. The coupon was 6 3/4 percent with an issue price of 98.

A placement of 100 million Swiss francs was made on 1 July 1971 with bearer bonds at 7 1/4 percent maturing 1976.

A placement of 60 million Dutch guilders was raised in August 1971 with bearer bonds at 7 1/2 percent maturing 1978.

In May 1972 a loan of 75 million francs (NZ$12.3 million) with a consortium of international banks in Paris for 15 years at 7 1/4 percent was arranged.

In July 1970 the Government entered into a revolving multi-currency credit agreement with a consortium of international banks led by the Bankers Trust Company, London, for a loan of the equivalent of US$40 million. The loan was raised in two tranches, each of the equivalent of US$20 million (NZ$17.8 million). At 6-monthly intervals the Government has the option of renewing the two tranches of the loan at current interest rates in any one of three euro-currencies or repaying them.

A loan of £(stg)10 million was raised in London in December 1971 with 7 1/4 percent stock issued at £99 3/4 percent maturing 1977.

Internal Loans—In July 1970 a cash loan was opened and the following stocks were offered at par: 4.65 percent 15 July 1972, 5.15 percent 15 July 1976, 5.5 percent 15 July 1988. Approximately $48.6 million was subscribed.

The second 1970 cash loan was opened on 2 November 1970. The following stocks were offered at par: 4.9 percent 15 December 1973; 5.2 percent 15 December 1976; and 5.5 percent 15 December 1988. The amount subscribed was approximately $23.4 million.

In February 1971 a cash loan was opened and the following stocks were offered at par: 4.9 percent 15 March 1975, 5.2 percent 15 March 1978, and 5.50 percent 15 March 1990. The amount subscribed was $25 million.

A second cash loan was opened in June 1971 and the stocks offered at par were: 4.9 percent 15 August 1974, 5.2 percent 15 August 1977, and 5.5 percent 15 August 1989. Approximately $54.5 million was subscribed.

A further cash loan offering stock at 4.9 percent maturing 15 December 1974; 5.2 percent 15 December 1977 and 5.5 percent 15 December 1989 was opened in November 1971. The stocks were offered at par and the amount subscribed was approximately $48.1 million.

Conversion Loans—Conversion loans in 1971 resulted in the conversion of $2.34 million in February 1971, $8.45 million in June 1971, $10.24 million in September 1971, $3.60 million in October 1971, and $6.20 million in December 1971.

Conversion loans in 1972 resulted in the conversion of $10.90 million in February 1972.

Further details of subscriptions to Government loans and conversion loans are published in the annual report of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, parliamentary paper B. 16.

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1972 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand dollars or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Financial
Year Ending 31 March*
DueTotal Debt
(Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
* In respect of many of the loans, the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
 $(000)
197353,405136,75231,759221,916
197463,578134,93496,760295,272
197516,70062,14387,987166,830
197635,879114,719146,979297,577
197747,24092,627107,552247,419
197892,40644,63673,413210,455
197980,31426,34775,884182,545
198045,29542,02058,997146,312
198153,610..      70,000123,610
196215,77841,03346,832103,643
198316,93573,14365,848155,926
198438,06593,69671,493203,254
198519,442107,47939,606166,527
19868,41572,19755,094135,706
198730,35535,17423,64189,170
1988–      53,60072,933126,533
19895,08933,77979,212118,080
1990–      80,03760,170140,207
199331,0361,528–      32,564
Special development bonds–      715–      715
Registered Treasury Bills–      22,320–      22,320
                                        Totals653,5421,268,8791,264,1603,186,581

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a large proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest three years is as follows.

StockholderAt 31 March
197019711972
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account30,40830,40827,981
Earthquake and War Damage Commission103,154115,454129,554
Government Life Insurance46,69450,65758,057
Government Superannuation Board146,287169,187195,187
Maori Trustee6,4666,7166,758
National Provident Fund84,77673,77658,174
Post Office499,590597,890614,590
Post Office: National Savings78,338338338
Public Trustee4,7892,9013,601
Reserve Bank52,89452,87712,607
State Advances Corporation37,61239,61245,112
State Insurance Office8,4218,1217,292
Meat Industry Account82,35981,17974,179
Wool Commission Account13,93022,28030,730
                                        Totals1,195,7181,251,3961,264,160

Other holders of Government stock at 31 March 1972 included trustee savings banks ($285.4 million), private savings banks ($290.6 million), life insurance companies ($260.5 million), and trading banks ($146.8 million).

Chapter 27. Section 27
LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hutt Valley Drainage Board where the year ends on the last day of February, and Chatham Islands County, where the financial year now ends on 31 December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value.

For rating on either the capital value or the unimproved value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas voted to levy the tax at the maximum rate mostly from 1 February 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of ratepayers. In the first year $15 million was received from the levy.

With harbour boards, two types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows the amounts levied under the various systems of rating and by annual fees or charges by the territorial local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1971. Amounts levied on behalf of other authorities are included.

System of RatingCountiesCities and BoroughsTown DistrictsTotal
 $(thousand)
Unimproved value22,41656,58620179,203
Capital value8,6723,4044312,120
Flat rate1,2816,682337,996
Annual value1715,494715,518
Uniform fees and charges3441,537241,906
                                        Totals32,73183,704254116,744

The total of all rates collected by counties was equal to $6.31 per $1,000 of rateable capital value at the beginning of the year. The corresponding figure for cities and boroughs was $10.35; for independent town districts, $10.68; for dependent town districts, $6.28 (excluding rates levied by county councils).

RECEIPTS—The sources of revenue of all local authorities including electric power boards, and hospital boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates and LeviesInspection Charges and Licence FeesReceipts from Public Utilities, Rents, and InterestGovernment Grants and SubsidiesOther Receipts (Including Loan Money)Total Receipts
 $(thousand)
196154,9482,046106,71228,23659,898251,840
196257,9141,914116,97030,48848,288255,574
196362,4441,900123,59033,36862,828284,130
196468,3422,284150,90834,40085,596341,530
196577,1722,828161,12236,95485,718363,794
196680,4562,888173,48640,07678,916375,822
196785,8942,889188,34341,77177,632396,529
196892,4472,764197,45842,31695,031430,016
196999,8772,951220,71944,896104,206472,649
1970108,0854,002236,18849,231105,834503,341
1971117,9194,277258,42453,558101,902536,080

Rates, inspection charges, and licence fees were equivalent to $40.19 per head of mean population in 1970–71.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport. Government grants and subsidies to county councils are normally less than the amount collected in rates.

The next table shows the receipts for 1970–71 (classified as in the preceding table) for each type of local authority. From 1 September 1968 the New Zealand Milk Board assumed control of all milk districts and the 15 independent milk boards were abolished.

Local AuthorityReceipts
RatesPublic Utilities,
Licences,
Rents, Interest
GovernmentOther
(Including Loans)
Total

* Of this total $3,726,676 represented transport receipts, $43,781,988 sales of electric light and power, and $2,857,243 sales of gas.

† Includes $4,945,923 levy on constituent local bodies and $3,316,041 for bulk water sales.

 $(thousand)
Catchment boards2,3801994,7552,66610,000
City and borough councils77,20590,379*16,03537,163220,782
County councils28,68718,62026,15511,53784,999
Electric power boards–      108,102–      10,354118,456
Fire boards–      6,4836948788,055
Gas boards–      311121,2661,589
Harbour boards3,24627,3807814,37145,075
Harbour bridge authority–      2,0851,0001,3624,446
Land drainage boards33111188101630
Local railway board–      54–      –      54
Museum authority–      127–      196323
Nassella tussock boards–      11319026329
Pest destruction boards–      157–      4161
Pest destruction boards (county)1,5301791,9932633,965
Regional authority2458568182
River boards–      5,9481,40415,579†22,931
Road board16117221101500
Road tunnel authority–      4782002680
Town boards—
    Dependent5623183100
    Independent2459312166525
Underground water authorities–      1–      4445
Urban drainage boards3,5552721294,9218,877
Urban transport board4761,6641028003,042
Valley authority–      2178131311
Water supply board20–      –       21
                                        Totals117,917262,70153,558101,904536,080

Of the total rates of $117,917,455 collected during 1970–71 general rates levied brought in $78,097,606 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates) $39,819,867. Of the latter $32,550,394 was received by cities and boroughs, and $4,252,946 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by harbour boards, $3,246,493, were classed as general rates.

EXPENDITURE—The expenditure of all local authorities during each of the latest 11 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance and ConstructionAdministrationInterest on LoansOtherTotal Expenditure
$(thousand)
1961190,45013,24813,15028,162245,010
1962207,86014,32414,51430,846267,544
1963222,84015,42015,81632,400286,476
1964241,51618,11617,52052,470329,624
1965262,83819,97419,17859,116361,106
1966288,66822,86620,61655,392387,544
1967302,97624,54322,93151,108401,558
1968311,3.6727,15225,74756,482420,748
1969334,73029,12727,34165,420456,618
1970362,80831,78730,03667,452492,082
1971402,35536,53832,11568,178539,186

The main items of expenditure of the various classes of local authorities during 1970–71 are shown below.

Local AuthorityMaintenance and ConstructionAdministrationInterest on LoansLoans RepaidOther PaymentsTotal Expenditure
 $(thousand)
Catchment boards6,8531,6212523039529,981
City and borough councils164,67813,74013,25415,37114,803221,847
County councils69,2226,7452,3463,2156,35487,883
Electric power boards96,4028,7363,7656,3375,814121,053
Fire boards6,861294242256327,684
Gas boards924595046301,109
Harbour boards29,0323,2685,6565,28664343,885
Harbour bridge authority2,3211521,172744774,466
Land drainage boards433761019101639
Local railway board4012–    –    –    53
Museum authority147161–    –    13322
Nassella tussock boards30525–    –    9340
Pest destruction boards5322–    –    580
Pest destruction boards (county)3,5673661544544,045
Regional authority1682112–    191
River boards13,5692383,2134,8555021,925
Road board39348181717493
Road tunnel authority24041299156–    736
Town boards—
    Dependent691524393
    Independent37556382515510
Underground water authorities315–    –    3066
Urban drainage boards4,4294851,7212,1902239,047
Urban transport board1,925262586542,313
Valley authority302864213407
Water supply board163–    –    –    20
                                             Totals402,35536,53832,11538,93729,241539,186

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES—The assets and liabilities of local authorities at the end of the financial year 1970–71 were as shown in the table following.

Local AuthorityAssetsLiabilities
Cash and InvestmentsOther
(as Estimated
by Authority)
Net Debt
(Gross Public Debt,
Less Sinking Funds Held)
OtherTotal Net
Liabilities
* Includes works in progress.
 $(thousand)
Catchment boards2,07122,1214,8425345,396
City and borough councils85,528565,332242,72522,822265,547
County councils16,324106,69546,1036,53052,634
Electric power boards28,204270,67768,42619,23087,656
Fire boards7,95013,5514,4641934,657
Gas boards452,4151,3331161,450
Harbour boards33,437178,385105,2246,620111,845
Harbour bridge authority1,49631,50317,52229417,816
Land drainage boards36240623145276
Local railway board23356–      44
Museum authority4132,294–      4242
Nassella tussock boards–      150–      1717
Pest destruction boards8564,120271159429
Pest destruction boards (county)30145101222
Plantation board250334–      55
Regional authority10,55555,71157,5733,34460,917
Road board29967434211352
Road tunnel authority4146,0895,860335,893
Town boards—
    Dependent11748238138
    Independent1292,19773328761
Underground water authorities3633–      22
Urban drainage boards6,34442,96329,31724329,560
Urban transport board1,7184,0501,328851,413
Valley authority8192632386
Water supply boards1012–      -     -     
                                             Totals190,6201,310,887586,40660,411646,817

The figures shown in the column “Other Assets” are taken from the annual statistical returns submitted by the authorities to the Department of Statistics, but are far from complete, inasmuch as no estimates are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, are not valued at all in the assets. The greater part of the expenditure of counties and the road board is made in this direction: for cities and boroughs, the proportion is very much less.

Assets of local authorities (excluding hospital boards) are summarised in the following table.

As at 31 MarchCash AssetsOther Assets
(Estimated)
 $(000)
196190,518596,770
196290,014653,820
196399,278712,362
1964132,564768,420
1965133,974845,950
1966129,045895,500
1967130,580974,916
1968148,4961,083,971
1969165,9161,157,257
1970183,6911,254,035
1971190,6201,310,887

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to $43,407,320 at 31 March 1971 do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are composed mainly of fixed assets and of stocks of stores and materials.

Cities and boroughs are responsible for 41.4 percent of the total assets, electric power districts for 19.4 percent, and harbour boards for 13.9 percent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 8.1 but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure is made on roads, bridges, etc., for which assets no estimates are available.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow; under the Fire Services Act 1949 the boards of urban fire authorities must obtain the prior consent of the Fire Service Council, while the Fire Services Amendment Act 1963 brought the procedure for borrowing by fire authorities into line with the procedures of the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

Interest Rates—The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate. The following maximum rates have been approved.

 Percent
July 19604 7/8
July 196154 1/8
February 19625 3/8
September 19635 1/4
May 19665 1/2
April 19675 3/4
June 19706
May 19736 1/4

The current local authorities rates, for the different terms are: 1–2 years, 4.75 percent; 3 years 5.0 percent; 4–5 years, 5.5 percent; 6–9 years, 5.75 percent; 10 years and over, 6.25 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during the last 11 years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards are included in this instance.

YearValue of Total
Applications
Sanctioned
New WorksRedemption
Loans
 $(thousand)
1960–6175,37269,298950
1961–6260,68248,0863,602
1962–6362,71851,5067,158
1963–6488,98062,47424,364
1964–6590,36059,04220,316
1965–66111,13080,00615,216
1966–6793,83464,15413,390
1967–68115,74171,69213,729
1968–69109,90386,78218,805
1969–70115,67391,29616,050
1970–71109,66681,77615,564

The next table shows summaries of borrowing at 31 March by each class of local authority.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised*Amounts Raised at 31 March 1970 on Authorisations for
1968–691969–701970–711968–691969–701970–71
* Adjusted for amounts revoked or lapsed.
 $(million)
Catchment boards0.50.51.80.50.20.5
City and borough councils29.925.939.322.510.113.4
County councils7.66.410.75.32.82.3
Electric power and gas boards9.713.58.99.02.93.6
Fire boards1.00.60.80.60.40.1
Harbour boards17.918.811.013.74.24.2
Harbour bridge authority0.90.30.50.90.30.5
Hospital boards27.221.525.023.05.15.4
Pest destruction boards-  -  -  -  -  -  
Pest destruction boards (county)-  -  –  -  -  -  
Regional authority8.32.84.13.52.13.0
Town boards-  0.2-  -  0.1–  
Urban drainage boards3.05.53.42.62.11.2
                 Totals107.596.0105.581.530.334.2

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1971, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1971 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1971*Amounts Raised to 31 March 1971Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1971Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1971

* Adjusted for amounts lapsed or revoked.

† Original amount was $105,507,720.

 $(thousand)
Catchment boards1,7595131,247440
City and borough councils39,25013,38725,86312,901
County councils10,6832,2958,3882,011
Electric power and gas boards8,8503,5835,2683,583
Fire boards8005474643
Harbour boards10,9614,4036,5584,328
Harbour bridge authority505505505
Hospital boards25,0095,36519,6455,361
Pest destruction boards41311031
Pest destruction boards (county)
Regional authority4,1413,0191,1223,019
River boards
Town boards3939
Urban drainage boards3,4171,2192,1981,219
                                             Totals105,457†34,37371,08433,441

INDEBTEDNESS—The gross public debt of local authorities (excluding hospital boards) at 31 March 1971 amounted to NZ$629,814,000 and net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and other securities) to NZ$586,406,000, nearly all domiciled in New Zealand. When hospital boards are included, the gross public debt of local authorities at 31 March 1971 was NZ$746,856,289. Hospital board loans are shown in Section 5B. Since 1 April 1958 the Government has assumed complete financial responsibility for public hospital finance, apart from the raising by hospital boards of loans for major capital construction, and these must be approved by the Minister of Health.

The following table shows comparative debt figures.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardAmounts Authorised by Orders in CouncilGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness at End of Year
* As returned by local authorities.
 $(thousand)
196170,24658,134337,21853,79917,420373,598
196251,68860,726373,59842,12820,392395,338
196358,66468,828395,33859,26820,612433,994
196486,84091,818433,99482,91942,652474,263
196579,35889,126474,26382,55945,498511,324
196695,222104,394511,32471,55444,389538,488
196777,54478,852538,48864,95039,855563,584
196885,42177,969563,67678,65724,163618,170
1969105,587107,848618,17097,56251,752663,981
1970107,34696,074663,981*93,65351,607702,027x
197197,340105,520706,02790,87650,047746,856

About one-third of the gross local authority debt consists of investments by Government departments as shown in the following table.

DepartmentAs at 31 March
19661967196819691970

* Including hospital boards.

† Provisional.

 $(thousand)
Government Life Insurance Office22,44422,06222,34323,42724,486
National Provident Fund Board88,008101,465118,555131,124145,284
Public Trustee9,72610,13910,49111,30811,468
State Advances Corporation—
     Trading15,10414,36413,65912,90512,205
     Housing Account8,34212,01314,48616,92619,368
     Rural Housing Act 19395,7767,7789,82911,07311,855
Other13,71416,07717,75720,04121,735
               Totals163,114183,898207,120226,804246,401
 percentpercentpercentpercentpercent
Percentage of total gross public debt*30.332.633.634.234.6†

Registered stock issued under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 at 31 March totalled the following amounts: 1966, $336.5 million; 1967, $359.2 million; 1968, $393.9 million; 1969, $425.9 million; and 1970, $466.4 million.

The outstanding loans of local authorities (other than hospital boards) at the end of each of the latest 11 years are shown in the following table.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtNet Debt
(i.e., Less Accumulated
Sinking Funds)
 $(thousand)
1961318,727303,672
1962337,456320,660
1963370,090349,975
1964401,701381,368
1965436,101413,635
1966461,293435,515
1967484,944455,644
1968533,450500,020
1969564,296527,923
1970597,176558,057
1971629,814586,406

The net indebtedness of cities and boroughs represents 3.0 percent of their rateable capital value. For counties, the aggregate net indebtedness was 1.0 percent of rateable capital value.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the latest 11 years.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate
Per Head
AmountRate
Per Head
 $(000)    $      $(000)    $      
1961318,727131.9830,30512.55
1962337,456136.3732,40013.09
1963370,090146.4035,91914.21
1964401,701155.5546,32717.94
1965436,101165.8952,33919.91
1966461,293172.3252,04919.44
1967484,944177.9056,81020.84
1968533,450193.7956,09520.38
1969564,296203.1957,26320.38
1970597,176212.0759,70420.62
1971629,814220.0162,81721.94

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

At 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCounties and Road DistrictsElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
 $(thousand)
1961132,91819,80849,29045,95640,0527,14523,558318,727
1962141,92622,32651,36348,01943,3626,62223,838337,456
1963157,13723,97954,10156,07447,5696,34624,882370,090
1964173,03128,40153,71665,40949,3125,86225,971401,701
1965187,92731,84558,14272,07050,9105,28429,923436,101
1966203,13331,54759,98579,80523,21898762,619461,293
1967215,08835,51962,00182,80624,25086864,413484,944
1968228,46840,26664,46988,04726,41498784,799533,450
1969241,92843,08266,49995,21228,60186088,114564,296
1970252,56146,21870,641103,30831,33265992,459597,176
1971264,97748,14873,802111,14132,7441,39497,608629,814

The debt of “Other Districts” at 31 March 1971 was mainly that of river districts ($350,101), catchment districts ($5,075,287), land-drainage districts ($232,335), gas districts ($1,341,765), fire districts ($4,674,000), pest destruction districts, excluding county districts ($281,339), a harbour bridge authority ($17,521,889), a road tunnel authority ($5,860,060), and Auckland Regional Authority ($61,431,063).

The total debt for the drainage and for the transport division of the Auckland Regional Authority is now included in the Auckland Regional Authority figure.

Chapter 28. Section 28
INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

GENERAL—Comparisons between money incomes in different years should be subject to qualifications. With the changing value of money, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person. While not an ideal measure of the changes in purchasing power, in all these circumstances the Consumers' Price Index, which measures price changes in a wide range of goods and services purchased, may be used as the best available indicator insofar as income, if expended, would be spent on these kinds of goods and services.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

TREND OF INCOMES: Individuals—The data required for statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample. The tables in the first part of this Section are presented on this basis.

The next table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1969–70x1970–71x1971–72
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employment—$(m) $(m) $(m)
     Agriculture and livestock production—
          Sheep farming24,20094.424,00090.023,750102.1
          Dairy farming26,60081.126,60083.826,600117.0
          Other farming24,00067.224,00072.023,80085.1
               Totals, farming74,800242.774,600245.874,150304.2
     Manufacturing7,15021.57,20024.87,25026.5
     Construction14,49049.714,54057.014,54061.3
     Wholesale and retail trade14,00041.314,20046.914,20052.5
     Transport4,50014.74,52017.54,60018.4
     Services—
          Professional9,15078.39,35089.99,450102.1
          Other9,80028.49,90032.210,00037.0
          All other industries6,05015.76,10016.06,15016.5
               Totals, self-employment139,940492.3140,410530.1140,340618.5
Salary and wages1,166,0002,623.41,195,0003,143.51,220,0003,632.7
Investment incomes95,000195.496,500207.699,500222.1
                    Grand totals1,400,9403,311.11,431,9103,881.21,459,8404,473.3

Farmers constitute more than one-half of the numbers of all self-employed persons and are decidedly the most variable section as far as income levels are concerned. In 1969–70 dairy farmers' incomes increased by an estimated $5.4 million, sheep farmers' incomes increased by $3.1 million, and other farmers' incomes increased by $4.3 million.

The estimates for 1970–71 showed an increase of $3.1 million in the incomes of all farmers, with the incomes of sheep farmers showing a decrease of $4.4 million, while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $2.7 million and $4.8 million respectively. In 1971–72 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers increased by $12.1 million, while the incomes of dairy and other farmers increased by $33.2 million and $13.1 million respectively.

The estimate of the incomes of the non-farming section of self-employed individuals showed an increase of $23.2 million in 1969–70 followed by increases of $34.7 million and $30.0 million in 1970–71 and 1971–72 respectively.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the three major sources (self-employment, Salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1969–70x1970–71x1971–72
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
* An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who were not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $48 million for the years 1969–70 to 1971–72 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
          $ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)4,490–  3,860–  3,100–  
        1–    19986,9008.756,3005.640,2004.0
    200–    39972,65021.753,00015.935,90010.7
    400–    59946,85023.437,45018.730,85015.4
    600–    79948,50034.039,10027.331,25021.9
    800–    99955,60050.143,10038.834,35031.0
  1,000–1,19966,45073.154,10059.543,15047.5
  1,200–1,39975,40097.959,25077.053,00068.9
  1,400–1,59967,700101.559,55089.342,05063.1
  1,600–1,79965,800111.856,35095.841,75071.0
  1,800–1,99971,550135.968,250129.750,10095.1
  2,000–2,399157,150345.4158,900349.5152,300335.0
  2,400–2,799157,900410.5174,700454.2193,600503.3
  2,800–3,199129,950389.7157,750473.3182,600547.9
  3,200–3,59989,850305.6129,200439.3154,450525.2
  3,600–3,99956,050212.691,650348.3119,950454.6
  4,000–5,99998,800492.5125,300625.5160,000800.0
  6,000–7,99928,700200.136,950257.852,500367.4
  8,000–9,9999,61086.312,840115.418,650167.8
10,000 and over11,040162.314,310212.320,090295.5
Unknown* 48.0–  48.0–  48.0
               Totals1,400,9403,311.11,431,9103,881.21,459,8404,473.3

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by the amount of total income.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1969–70x1970–71x1971–72
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
          $ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)2,790–   2,460–   1,800–   
        1–    1993,7000.43,2000.32,2000.2
    200–    3994,1501.23,7001.12,7000.8
    400–    5993,0501.52,8501.42,2501.1
    600–    7993,5002.53,2002.22,4501.7
    800–    9993,3003.02,9002.62,2502.1
  1,000–1,1993,4503.83,3003.62,4502.7
  1,200–1,3994,8006.24,4505.82,8003.7
  1,400–1,5995,2007.85,0507.63,7505.6
  1,600–1,7996,20010.55,85010.04,4507.6
  1,800–1,9995,95011.35,25010.04,5008.5
  2,000–2,39911,95026.010,70023.57,00015.3
  2,400–2,79910,80028.19,30024.28,70022.6
  2,800–3,19910,15030.48,75026.37,90023.8
  3,200–3,5999,55032.79,40032.09,25031.6
  3,600–3,9998,15030.610,55040.111,65043.1
  4,000–5,99923,400116.025,600127.030,900154.5
  6,000–7,99910,60073.413,55094.018,800131.6
  8,000–9,9994,41039.65,34047.98,05072.5
10,000 and over4,54067.35,01070.56,49089.5
               Totals139,940492.3140,410530.1140,340618.5

These estimates provide a small decrease in numbers for 1971–72; the principal reasons are that in recent years the numbers of companies have risen substantially, with corresponding deductions from the numbers of individuals operating as sole traders or as partnerships.

The practice of changing to company ownership has reached dimensions which are large enough to have some effect on the income trends disclosed in these statistics of individuals. There is a greater tendency for the higher income units to adopt company ownership.

The incomes of salary and wage earners are given in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGE EARNERS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1969–70x1970–71x1971–72
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
* An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $26,000 who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $48 million for the years 1969–70 to 1971–72 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
          $ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)600500400
        1–    19979,0007.949,0004.934,0003.4
    200–    39962,00018.643,00012.927,0008.1
    400–    59939,00019.530,00015.024,00012.0
    600–    79939,00027.330,00021.023,00016.1
    800–    99944,00039.632,00028.824,00021.6
  1,000–1,19954,00059.442,00046.232,00035.2
  1,200–1,39962,00080.646,00059.841,00053.3
  1,400–1,59957,00085.549,00073.533,00049.5
  1,600–1,79955,00093.546,00078.233,00056.1
  1,800–1,99961,000115.958,000110.240,00076.0
  2,000–2,399139,000305.8142,000312.4139,000305.8
  2,400–2,799142,000369.2160,000416.0179,000465.4
  2,800–3,199115,000345.0144,000432.0169,000507.0
  3,200–3,59977,000261.7116,000394.4141,000479.4
  3,600–3,99946,000174.879,000300.2106,000402.8
  4,000–5,99969,000345.093,000465.0122,000610.0
  6,000–7,99916,000112.021,000147.031,000217.0
  8,000–9,9994,40039.66,50058.59,50085.5
10,000 and over5,00074.58,000119.512,100180.5
Unknown*48.048.048.0
               Totals1,166,0002,623.41,195,0003,143.51,220,0003,632.7

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from investment, i.e., from interest, rents and royalties, “estate” income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1969–70x1970–71x1971–72
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
          $ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1,100900900
        1–    1994,2000.44,1000.44,0000.4
    200–    3996,5001.96,3001.96,2001.8
    400–    5994,8002.44,6002.34,6002.3
    600–    7996,0004.25,9004.15,8004.1
    800–    9998,3007.58,2007.48,1007.3
  1,000–1,1999,0009.98,8009.78,7009.6
  1,200–1,3998,60011.18,80011.49,20011.9
  1,400–1,5995,5008.25,5008.25,3008.0
  1,600–1,7994,6007.84,5007.64,3007.3
  1,800–1,9994,6008.75,0009.55,60010.6
  2,000–2,3996,20013.66,20013.66,30013.9
  2,400–2,7995,10013.25,40014.05,90015.3
  2,800–3,1994,80014.35,00015.05,70017.1
  3,200–3,5993,30011.23,80012.94,20014.2
  3,600–3,9991,9007.22,1008.02,3008.7
  4,000–5,9996,40031.56,70033.57,10035.5
  6,000–7,9992,10014.72,40016.82,70018.8
  8,000–9,9998007.11,0009.01,1009.8
10,000 and over1,20020.51,30022.31,50025.5
               Totals95,000195.496,500207.699,500222.1

In the 3 years covered in the above table, persons with certain types of investment income were not required to complete income tax returns unless they were normally in receipt of income from self-employment or were applying for refunds. The conditions under which returns were not requires were as follows.

In 1969–70 if:

  1. all investment income was from dividends and the person's total income was under $1,070

  2. all investment income was from interest or rents and was under $260 (after the $100 interest exemption).

In 1970–71 and 1971–72 if:

  1. all investment income was from dividends and the person's total income was under $1,070

These changes affect the numbers of returns in the table.

Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basic The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from sell employment alone or salary and wages income alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include a element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own effort.

The following table gives estimates of average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Type of Self-employmentIncome YearIncome Year
1968–69x1969–70x1970–71x1971–721968–69x1969–70x1970–711971–72x
* Arithmetic mean.
 Averages*Medians
Agriculture and livestock production—
     Sheep farming3,7333,9003,7504,3003,2603,3503,4004,000
     Dairy farming2,8553,0503,1504,4002,6202,8002,8504,100
     Other farming2,6512,8003,0003,5502,2302,2502,3502,800
Manufacturing2,7483,0003,4503,6502,2902,4502,6502,900
Construction—
     Builders3,2363,5004,0504,3002,9903,2503,7504,000
     Building; ancillary trades3,1023,3503,8004,1502,9003,1003,6003,700
Wholesale and retail trade2,8142,9503,3003,7002,4502,5502,8003,000
Transport—
     Road passenger2,5942,9003,1003,2002,6103,0003,0003,300
     Road freight3,5713,8504,5505,2003,3203,6504,0004,700
Services, professional—
     Medical practitioners (includes surgeons, specialists, and physicians)9,65910,50012,40014,0008,4209,30011,00011,500
     Dental practitioners7,9228,3009,40010,5007,3807,7008,7009,800
     Legal practitioners9,73810,50011,70013,5008,8309,40010,25011,600
     Public accountants7,2817,9008,8009,7006,7907,4008,2008,450
Services, other2,4642,9003,2503,7001,8902,0002,2502,400

In the table shown above the averages for the 1968–69 year are based on the normal statistical collection while those for the later years are based on the smaller sample used for provisional estimates in the 1972 year.

Companies—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution. Actual figures for 1968–69 have been shown for purposes of comparison.

Industry Group1968–691969–70x1970–71
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture and livestock production5,10811.45,50013.05,90014.4
Manufacturing9,366221.79,750244.210,200267.2
Construction4,83616.45,15017.75,45019.6
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail trade17,654154.918,600182.519,550193.7
     Other15,534102.516,050120.716,550133.0
Transport, storage, and communication2,38512.82,50014.52,60013.6
Services5,07016.65,45019.25,90020.3
All other industries6753.88004.88505.0
               Totals60,628540.163,800616.667,000666.8

Assessable income increased by $61.1 million in 1968–69. It is estimated that company assessable incomes for 1969–70 will show an increase of $76.5 million, followed by a further increase of $50.2 million in 1970–71.

BASIS OF STATISTICS—The tables in the remainder of this Section are final figures for earlier years. In the case of individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 10 percent sample for all incomes of less than $8,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $8,000 and over.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Where the operations of a source of income which would normally produce assessable income have resulted in a loss for the year, the loss may be set off against assessable profits from other sources (if any), or in default thereof, may be set off against assessable profits in subsequent years.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

In these statistics the incomes given for individuals are the net incomes after deducting losses from the same source which have been carried forward from previous years. Losses for the current year which have been set off against income from some other source an recorded in the tables in this Section as the difference between the total of the component income items and the given total income.

For companies, incomes before deduction of losses carried forward from previous years are shown in a separate column and the assessable and returnable incomes given are those after the deduction of such losses. Losses during the current year from any source are deducted from the income from any other source.

CLASSES OF TAXPAYERS—“Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partner ships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but local and public authorities are generally not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Apart from the next two tables, statistics of the incomes of individuals and of companies are presented as two distinct parts of this Section. The latest statistics are generally for the income year 1967–68 for individuals, and for 1968–69 in the case of companies.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX—The following tables briefly summarise the main items of information for income years. Individuals and companies are given in separate successive tables respectively.

INDIVIDUALS
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable IncomeTotal IncomeExemptions†Taxable Income†Ordinary
Income Tax
Assessed*

* Includes social security income tax.

† There is no annual equivalent for exemptions and taxable income available where incomes and tax data have been derived from tax deduction certificates.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1962–631,156,8301,115,2102,048,3002,057,6801,141,930731,750285,630
1963–641,189,5301,111,7402,215,4202,219,5201,149,270826,830317,550
1964–651,227,8101,137,6302,410,2402,430,8101,148,550911,720353,810
1965–661,273,7301,203,0502,611,2302,611,3001,197,5701,030,480393,190
1966–671,308,9101,239,7002,772,1302,772,1301,265,4301,125,700421,550
1967–681,342,6401,270,6102,870,6202,870,6201,315,3901,200,050443,700
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeTaxable Income*Income Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
* Assessable income and taxable income are identical, as “exemptions” are normally nil. In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1962–6342,01130,453361,781389,770361,781134,09225,810
1963–6444,73233,492411,700450,534411,700154,86829,458
1964–6547,87835,754458,278501,698458,278172,82832,814
1965–6651,69839,436484,880522,401484,880181,37634,427
1966–6754,95841,531485,058527,690485,058182,38734,284
1967–6856,60141,552479,040520,517479,040178,58533,512
1968–6960,62843,623540,057591,358540,057204,52137,741

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The numbers of returns and the amounts of total income are shown in the following table.

Total income is used in the sense that it is the total of the various component items of income. It does not include income which is exempt from taxation, such as social security benefits (other than universal superannuation), the first $60 of income from interest, war pensions, workers compensation payments, and certain other types of income.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1966–671967–681968–691966–671967–681968–69
          $ $(000)$(000)$(000)
Losses4,7405,4505,230–    –     
         1–     19973,67084,90093,5407,5908,4309,090
     200–     39974,24076,39081,13021,65022,36023,530
     400–     59954,98051,67051,52027,34025,69025,690
     600–     79957,21052,89051,04040,02037,14035,680
     800–     99969,48065,31059,08062,60058,82053,520
  1,000–  1,19977,08077,49070,04084,60085,25077,100
  1,200–  1,39973,30075,05075,86095,03097,38098,460
  1,400–  1,59965,53069,20068,11098,130103,700102,040
  1,600–  1,79967,94069,49066,400115,470118,220112,810
  1,800–  1,99972,92073,90072,450138,470140,460137,720
  2,000–  2,399156,470160,270156,720344,050352,520344,720
  2,400–  2,799143,770143,380145,950372,430371,420378,520
  2,800–  3,199108,750109,640118,630324,790327,660354,510
  3,200–  3,59967,89073,19080,850229,680247,540273,710
  3,600–  3,99941,28044,19049,110156,060167,160185,890
  4,000–  5,99969,22077,36085,600327,920365,090405,020
  6,000–  7,99918,25019,80021,350124,260135,070145,530
  8,000–  9,9995,6466,1596,96050,23454,73461,746
10,000–11,9992,8602,9983,42031,10332,63337,222
12,000–13,9991,4201,4981,84818,27719,32323,800
14,000–15,99981285498512,11512,72814,667
16,000–17,9994535075417,6618,5629,127
18,000–19,9992732973615,1645,6146,827
20,000–39,99963464278616,07216,41920,266
40,000–59,9995976962,7773,6744,607
60,000 and over3338402,9333,5783,475
Unknown–    –    –    55,70049,44047,880
               Totals1,308,9101,342,6401,367,6402,772,1302,870,6202,993,160

There is an explanation on an earlier page concerning the methods adopted to estimate the figures given in the table. Data relating to “investment” incomes of less than $208 were not generally available from 1959–60 onwards on account of the introduction of a special exemption of $208 of income from social security income tax.

Where salary and wage income returns were not available (and there was between 1558–59 and 1963–64 no obligation to furnish returns if the income from salary and wages only was less than $2,080, raised to $2,600 in 1964–65), the statistical information was derived from the tax deduction certificates.

There were 873,920 males and 493,720 females included in the 1968–69 income year statistics. The respective numbers of these for each total income group appear in the next table, which also gives comparisons with data for 1966–67 and 1967–68.

Income1966–671967–681968–69
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
          $ 
Losses3,2101,5303,6401,8103,1302,100
         1–     19930,54043,13037,32047,58037,20056,340
     200–     39921,95052,29022,29054,10023,40057,720
     400–     59916,90038,08015,84035,82015,69035,840
     600–     79917,78039,43015,91036,98015,88035,140
     800–     99922,42047,06021,03044,27018,95040,120
  1,000–  1,19926,96050,11025,67051,82022,51047,520
  1,200–  1,39928,78044,52029,49045,56029,03046,820
  1,400–  1,59931,45034,08031,75037,45029,73038,390
  1,600–  1,79939,24028,71039,22030,27033,84032,560
  1,800–  1,99953,13019,80051,02022,88047,89024,560
  2,000–  2,399131,27025,200130,75029,520123,32033,410
  2,400–  2,799131,12012,650127,70015,680129,41016,550
  2,800–  3,199101,6007,150100,8608,780107,89010,750
  3,200–  3,59963,8604,03068,4404,75075,7305,120
  3,600–  3,99938,9202,36041,6702,52046,3002,810
  4,000–  5,99964,9504,27072,1305,24079,9305,680
  6,000–  7,99917,1401,11018,8001,01020,0401,300
  8,000–  9,9995,3582885,8083516,550410
10,000–11,9992,6981622,8051933,217203
12,000–13,9991,3151051,400981,717131
14,000–15,999756567896591768
16,000–17,999422314703750536
18,000–19,999252212781932833
20,000–39,999572625746870383
40,000 and over7616991511719
               Totals852,660456,250865,750476,890873,920493,720

The numbers in the higher income groups have been increasing, partly as a result of inflationary movements.

Broad trends in total income movements over the three latest available income years appear in the percentages which are given in the following table.

Amount of
Total Income
Number of ReturnsTotal Income
1966–671967–681968–691966–671967–681968–69
          $percent
       1–1,19931.1830.5629.838.988.437.63
1,200–1,99921.4521.5120.7616.4616.3015.31
2,000–3,99939.7339.6840.4652.5351.9752.20
4,000–9,9997.147.738.3618.4919.6720.79
10,000 and over0.500.520.593.543.634.07
               Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The main subdivision into incomes derived principally from self-employment, from investments, and from salary and wages by amount of total income forms the subject of the next table, which relates to the income year 1968–69.

Amount of
Total Income
Number of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employedInvestmentsSalary and
Wage Earners
Self-employedInvestmentsSalary and
Wage Earners
            $percent
         1–1,19917.5043.8530.163.0115.207.95
  1,200–1,99916.4824.6520.957.9119.2716.47
  2,000–3,99937.6421.2642.3632.7429.9557.78
  4,000–9,99925.459.186.2543.7726.3515.81
10,000 and over2.931.060.2812.579.231.99
               Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In 1968–69, 6.53 percent of salary and wage earners received $4,000 or over, compared with 28.38 percent of self-employed individuals and 10.24 percent for those with incomes principally derived from investments. The percentages in the above table relate to individuals who were so classified because they obtained the largest part of their income from that source. They do not refer to amounts of income actually derived from those sources.

The 1968–69 data relating to the major sources of income are given in the next table.

Source of IncomeNumber of ReturnsIncome
Salary and Wages
(Taxed at Source)
Not Taxed at SourceLossesTotal
From
Self-employment
Other*Assessable
Dividends
* Includes investment income other than dividends, universal superannuation, estate income, and shareholder employee emoluments not taxed at source under PAYE.
 $(thousand)
Self-employment139,13013,270419,94017,6805,550170456,260
Investments93,31012,4005,230123,68040,6301,540180,390
Salary and wages1,135,2002,203,06011,330113,82032,8704,5702,356,500
               Totals1,367,6402,228,730436,490255,17079,0506,2802,993,160

As the terms used in this table were adopted as a consequence of the introduction of PAYE taxation, the meanings attached to them are:

Income Taxed at Source—This is essentially salary and wages, including bonuses, taxable allowances, and the like. Also included are withholding payments, which are substantially salary and wage payments made in circumstances where no true employer-employee relationship exists (e.g., company directors' fees, fees for contributions to newspapers, jurors' fees) and some “estate” income.

Income Not Taxed at Source—The principal component is income derived from self-employment, which is given separately in the table. Subdivisions of “other” such income for which statistics are available were income from estates, $24,050,000, and from social security universal superannuation, $41,920,000. The balance is mainly income from interest and rents, but it includes salaries of shareholder-employees of companies. In certain circumstances, such salaries are not subject to tax deduction at source.

As has been previously mentioned, in the preceding table, as in the other statistical tables relating to individuals, the aggregate of the component income items may differ from the given totals because of rounding off.

These same 1968–69 data about sources of income are in the following table analysed by amount of total income.

Amount of
Total Income
Number
of
Returns
IncomeIncome Tax
Assessed
Salary and Wages
Taxed at Source
Not Taxed at SourceLossesTotal
From
Self-employment
OtherAssessable
Dividends
* See note to second table in this section.
          $$(thousand)
Losses5,23050010470601,040–      –      
         1–     19993,5408,600230500803209,090240
     200–     39981,13019,8801,1702,40028019023,530730
     400–     59951,52021,1001,7102,80033025025,6901,230
     600–     79951,04028,4202,5904,50045029035,6801,930
     800–     99959,08041,6303,5307,82075020053,5203,110
  1,000–  1,19970,04062,1503,96010,1701,10029077,1005,860
  1,200–  1,39975,86079,4806,87010,8301,42013098,4609,040
  1,400–  1,59968,11083,8507,2709,7901,430310102,04010,700
  1,600–  1,79966,40091,8409,9809,7101,580310112,81012,730
  1,800–  1,99972,450116,50010,6609,4501,430320137,72016,330
  2,000–  2,399156,720298,43025,10018,8002,760380344,72043,340
  2,400–  2,799145,950328,62028,63018,6103,080410378,52050,840
  2,800–  3,199118,630300,27031,19019,9803,370290354,51051,260
  3,200–  3,59980,850221,76032,66016,0203,480210273,71042,650
  3,600–  3,99949,110143,61028,14011,4302,970250185,89031,220
  4,000–  5,99985,600240,200102,55046,54016,180440405,02081,330
  6,000–  7,99921,35053,67058,15024,5209,300120145,53038,090
  8,000–  9,9996,96015,64529,40411,1285,69112261,74619,464
10,000–11,9993,4208,84017,4586,3184,71911337,22213,469
12,000–13,9991,8485,19610,9854,0323,6294223,8009,418
14,000–15,9999852,9456,7972,5262,4262814,6676,173
16,000–17,9995411,6044,2651,5721,702169,1274,000
18,000–19,9993611,3012,9121,0931,52546,8273,063
20,000–39,9997863,7988,0902,8735,61911320,2669,541
40,000–59,999966961,2507221,985464,6072,166
60,000 and over403239245611,706403,4751,676
Unknown*–     47,880–     –     –     –     47,8805,450
               Totals1,367,6402,228,730436,490255,17079,0506,2802,993,160475,050

An interesting feature is that assessable dividends are heavily concentrated in the hands of individuals who have incomes of $4,000 or more. They received 68.9 percent of this class of income.

Industrial Classification of Incomes—Incomes of individuals who were classified as mainly deriving income from self-employment in 1968–69 are in the next table analysed by industrial affiliation. For the sake of completeness, the table also includes the totals for salary and wage earners and for individuals deriving income from investments, but there is no information available concerning the industrial classification of these two cases of individuals.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsIncomeIncome Tax Assessed
Salary and Wages
(Taxed at Source)
Not Taxed at SourceLossesTotal
From
Self-employment
OtherAssessable
Dividends
* There are differences between the totals of component items and the given cross totals, as “rounding off” accounts from plus or minus $10,000.
Self-employed—$(thousand)
   Agriculture and livestock production—
      Sheep farming24,4501,69083,4104,6601,5001091,25020,860
      Dairy farming26,5201,95070,3903,0902902075,70013,190
      Other23,7202,54057,6502,2404601062,89011,510
        Total farming74,6906,190211,45010,0002,24030229,85045,560
   Forestry, hunting, and fishing3,7806904,86050205,6201,250
   Mining and quarrying210306506010750130
   Manufacturing—
     Food, drink, and tobacco740101,680120801,890380
     Apparel, textiles, and footwear1,280602,210140302,440420
     Metals and metal products3,0901609,420410402010,0101,840
     Other2,020604,740400505,2501,070
   Construction14,2501,00043,0201,2501402045,3807,830
   Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services2050106010
   Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade13,9301,31035,7601,71040039,1907,450
    Other2,0308207,600280190208,8702,420
   Transport, storage and communication4,46041012,380480501013,3102,240
   Services community—
    Professional8,9601,88064,1001,8902,0004069,82023,930
    Other9,66064022,0008802902023,8004,600
   Unknown20303010
     Totals, self-employed139,13013,270419,94017,6805,550170456,26099,140
Salary and Wages1,135,2002,203,06011,330113,82032,8704,5702,356,500346,690
Investment income93,31012,4005,230123,68040,6301,540180,39029,220
     Grand totals1,367,6402,228,730436,490255,17079,0506,2802,993,160475,050

As the table gives the amounts received from each major source of income, it will be appreciated that the classification is based on the source of the largest component item of total income. The United Nations “enterprise” concept has been adopted for classification purposes. Under this concept, if an individual receives income from two or more of the separately classifiable industries, the whole of the income is classed as if derived from the industry which provided the largest amount of income, and no attempt is made to allocate the component portions of the income to the different industries from which derived. These statistics are therefore not exactly comparable with most other types of statistics where the “establishment” concept is generally used. This provides for the subdivision of the “enterprise” where more than one separately classifiable industry is carried on and each subdivision is then appropriately classified.

Exemptions—In the case of individuals certain statutory deductions are made from the assessable income, and income tax is paid on the balance. Absentees are not usually entitled to the benefit of exemptions. These exemptions in 1968–69 were:

  1. A personal exemption of $936.

  2. An exemption of $312 in respect of a dependent wife (or husband), diminished by $1 for every $1 of the wife's income in excess of $312.

  3. An exemption not exceeding $312 in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widow, widower, or divorced person to have the care and control of any child or children of the taxpayer. This is included with the wife's exemption in the statistics.

  4. An exemption for contributions not exceeding $156 towards the support of a relative by blood, marriage, or adoption, who was dependent on the taxpayer. Children of the taxpayer were included in this definition, the exemption normally continuing until the child reaches the age of 18 years.

  5. Life assurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. An exemption up to a maximum of $500 was allowed for life insurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation and similar contributions, in the case of a contributor to the Government Superannuation Fund or a contributor to a subsidised staff superannuation scheme. In the case of other taxpayers, the maximum exemption allowed was $650.

  6. Donations and school fees. Exemptions for donations to charities (maximum $50), gifts of money and/or school fees to private schools (maximum $100) were allowed. Where exemptions were available under more than one of these headings the total maximum allowed was $100.

The scope of some of the above exemptions has been extended in later income years. Details of the later exemptions are given in Section 26B.

The next table shows the amounts of the insurance, gifts and school fees, total and excesses for the income year 1968–69, classified by size of total income. Potential exemptions have been recorded and the “excess” column gives the amounts by which the exemptions exceed the assessable income. The amounts of taxable income are also given in the table.

Amount of
Total Income
ExemptionsTaxable Income
InsuranceGifts and
School Fees
TotalExcess
              $$(thousand)
Losses470106,4906,490
        1–    1993901036,45032,30060
    200–    3994202045,82032,000110
    400–    5994202035,94017,710200
    600–    7995305034,07010,290340
    800–    9998308040,5804,400470
  1,000–1,1991,18013045,1601,9505,790
  1,200–1,3991,96019048,2201,37012,690
  1,400–1,5991,99019044,6801,13017,800
  1,600–1,7992,70019047,89076024,240
  1,800–1,9993,25021053,55049031,760
  2,000–2,3999,320570138,60049096,870
  2,400–2,79913,870730179,650140149,660
  2,800–3,19916,140830178,11010176,410
  3,200–3,59913,580700127,890-145,820
  3,600–3,99910,04053080,810105,080
  4,000–5,99923,6501,400144,770260,240
  6,000–7,9998,01055037,620107,900
  8,000–9,9992,98524512,77348,972
10,000 and over3,68333814,773105,215
               Totals115,4107,0001,353,840109,5201,289,620

The preceding figures include only the exemptions and taxable incomes for the 1,024,160 assessments of income which have been incorporated in these statistics. Where income and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates, there is no information available concerning the amounts of exemptions or taxable income.

COMPANY INCOMES—It is perhaps desirable to draw attention to the fact that the term “companies” as it is used in connection with these statistics has been given a wider meaning than that which is commonly assigned to it. A definition of the term will be found under the subsection on basis of statistics in this chapter.

The various statutory exemptions which are granted to individuals do not apply in the case of companies. The amounts of assessable income and taxable income are identical in the case of companies.

These statistics for companies have been compiled from returns for all companies, and are not estimates based on a sample survey.

The following table gives particulars of the number of companies and their aggregate assessable income for 1968–69 and the 2 preceding years.

Amount of
Assessable Income
Number of ReturnsAssessable Income
1966–671967–681968–691966–671967–681968–69
* Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.
                    $ $(000)$(000)$(000)
              1–          1997,6378,2388,591362386411
          200–          3992,8132,7262,996822797881
          400–          5992,3372,3372,4471,1571,1601,212
          600–          7991,9022,0422,1041,3301,4251,467
          800–          9991,7681,8421,9001,5861,6501,707
       1,000–       1,1991,5791,5891,6841,7241,7451,846
       1,200–       1,3991,3921,4701,5411,8041,9072,000
       1,400–       1,5991,2871,3291,3301,9251,9921,992
       1,600–       1,7991,1061,1101,1491,8761,8851,951
       1,800–       1,9991,0971,0651,1002,0832,0242,089
       2,000–       3,9997,0006,8287,05119,95219,40620,194
       4,000–       5,9993,4013,2263,50416,67315,76117,167
       6,000–       7,9991,9501,7971,92113,44512,37513,305
       8,000–       9,9991,1161,0781,1309,9619,59410,113
     10,000–     11,9997096877687,7547,5098,376
     12,000–     13,9995445315037,0396,8816,523
     14,000–     15,9994024133926,0186,1855,857
     16,000–     17,9993243073275,4955,2195,538
     18,000–     19,9992842512725,3964,7565,154
     20,000–     39,9991,3011,1541,33836,28232,15237,560
     40,000–     59,99945945948322,42422,13023,248
     60,000–     79,99929424224520,01116,64816,866
     80,000–     99,99914916115513,24214,41213,793
   100,000–   199,99934032432847,59645,14946,480
   200,000–   399,99917716118447,77144,12850,606
   400,000–   599,99961496229,71923,62929,770
   600,000–   799,99933222722,29815,03818,919
   800,000–   999,9991118169,99615,65514,062
1,000,000–1,999,99937424552,59960,24863,509
2,000,000–3,999,99915161941,15341,78749,996
4,000,000 and over681135,56545,40767,465
Current net loss9,64611,11511,865–     –     –     
Assessable income before losses*3,7813,9645,140–     –     –     
                     Totals54,95856,60160,628485,058479,040540,057

The item “assessable income before losses”, which appears in the preceding table and also in subsequent tables, requires a little further explanation. Companies, and also individuals, are permitted to offset losses for one particular source of assessable income against the profits from any other source of assessable income during the same income year. The remainder of the loss, if any, can be carried forward and offset against the assessable profits of the subsequent years. This item represents the number of companies whose assessable incomes for the current year have been reduced to “nil” by the offsetting of losses incurred in previous income years.

In 1968–69, including those with “current net loss” and “assessable income before losses”, about 69.0 percent of all companies had assessable incomes of under $2,000. Most of these companies are virtually owned and controlled by one person or are the equivalent of a small partnership. In such cases the managerial salaries paid to the proprietors are an important element in the total income drawn from the company by the proprietors.

After a decrease of $6,018,000 in assessable income in 1967–68 the 1968–69 income increased by $61,017,000,

In the following table the amount of assessable income of companies is classified for the 1968–69 income year.

Amount of
Assessable Income
Number of
Returns
Assessable Income
Before Losses*
Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
* Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.
                    $$(thousand)
              1–          1998,59190941110,8702825461
          200–          3992,9961,3268811,63112463
          400–          5992,4471,5011,2122,19517888
          600–          7992,1041,6561,4671,591215105
          800–          9991,9001,8971,7072,209261124
       1,000–       1,1991,6842,0311,8461,927287134
       1,200–       1,3991,5412,1352,0002,330323146
       1,400–       1,5991,3302,1671,9922,679342146
       1,600–       1,7991,1492,0161,9512,102335143
       1,800–       1,9991,1002,1892,0892,246377153
       2,000–       3,9997,05120,97920,19421,4164,0501,481
       4,000–       5,9993,50417,52417,16717,9904,1661,260
       6,000–       7,9991,92113,79613,30515,3073,817972
       8,000–       9,9991,13010,28710,11310,3453,140739
     10,000–     11,9997688,5568,3769,0532,804613
     12,000–     13,9995036,6196,5236,7572,256474
     14,000–     15,9993925,9825,8576,1052,070427
     16,000–     17,9993275,5895,5385,6342,023406
     18,000–     19,9992725,2475,1545,7982,002373
     20,000–     39,9991,33837,90237,56040,33414,5492,723
     40,000–     59,99948323,62823,24825,8229,3641,680
     60,000–     79,99924517,12616,86619,3606,9951,228
     80,000–     99,99915514,05113,79314,8165,567977
   100,000–   199,99932847,00246,48048,50519,4293,368
   200,000–   399,99918450,93350,60653,53321,0073,658
   400,000–   599,9996229,76529,77032,54912,7782,232
   600,000–   799,9992718,96118,91919,50677,8431,308
   800,000–   999,9991614,31814,06215,5296,0561,065
1,000,000–1,999,9994563,84363,50968,54627,1394,621
2,000,000–3,999,9991949,99649,99650,90819,1162,925
4,000,000 and over1167,46567,46569,86425,7634,047
Net loss11,8653,30048,904
Assessable income before losses5,1409,606601
              Totals—1968–6960,628557,000540,057591,35848,939204,52137,741
                            1967–6856,601491,479479,040520,51739,485178,58533,512
                            1966–6754,958496,705485,058527,69030,509182,38734,284

Companies are classified by industry, the classification being identical with that used for individuals, with the minor exception that community services—professional—do not form a separate group. Attention is drawn to the remarks on the industrial classification of incomes in this Section regarding the difference between the enterprise and the establishment concepts. The statistics are based on the enterprise concept, i.e., the whole of the company's activities are classified according to the predominant activity. The figures in the next table give the results of this classification for the income year 1968–69.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
* Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.
 $(thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production5,10813,33411,41911,5243,8303,182854
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3311,8461,6901,734378613127
Mining and quarrying3041,9681,7942,1773,413675134
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco93365,79664,52266,6602,65227,1664,834
     Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles and footwear99220,62020,10521,5298788,1631,505
     Metals and metal products4,05842,54840,91543,7823,66915,8203,066
     Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,38397,93696,132101,3205,12239,6947,192
Construction4,83617,55616,37216,5814,1125,4241,225
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services403093033049711523
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail17,654158,920154,906164,95510,83560,78911,609
     Other15,534104,905102,512130,3285,17432,4125,011
Transport, storage and communication2,38513,90112,79313,0004,0304,634935
Services, community and business, and recreation5,07017,36216,59317,4734,7485,8341,226
Unknown or not stated–     –     –     –     –     –     –     
               Totals—1968–6960,628557,001540,057591,35848,939204,52137,741
                           1967–6856,601491,479479,040520,51739,485178,58533,512
                           1966–6754,958496,705485,058527,69030,509182,38734,284

The principal sharers of the additions to the numbers of companies in 1968–69 were “wholesale and retail” (1087) and “commerce—other” (913).

A large proportion of the companies in the “commerce—other” group were at one time actively engaged in some type of business operations but on the death or retirement of the principal shareholders the companies have become property holders receiving income from interest or rents. The farming community has also contributed a share of the increase in “commerce—other”. Many companies have been formed for the purpose of owning farm land and buildings, with the farmers owning and controlling the farming operations either as individuals or partnerships. An additional factor contributing to the increase in the numbers of companies in the “Commerce—other” group is the formation of “own your own flat” companies.

Rates of Tax: Companies—For incomes received during the income year 1968–69 the rate of ordinary income tax payable by a company was 25c, increased by 1/240C for every $2 of taxable income up to $7,200. Above $7,200 the rate was 85c in every $2. Social security income tax was levied at the rate of 1c in every 13 1/3c of income and excess retention tax was levied at a flat rate of 70c in every $2, but not all companies were liable to pay these taxes. More information about taxation rates will be found in the section on taxation.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1968–69.

Industry GroupStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and Gross RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterestRentDepreciation
* Gross profit not normally available.
 $(thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production51,781147,2801,99136,53334,8867,3993,9218,78479,630
Forestry, hunting, and fishing60923,054598…     6,0654221,4281,7858,325
Mining and quarrying2,60836,719199…     11,6314205534,247*
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco146,7101,362,1455,015908,746141,7288,6825,33425,611227,290
     Textiles wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear73,053330,7481,244179,58272,7833,2204,6726,61371,339
     Metals and metal products126,214644,0512,886365,086131,2785,5507,48812,825152,497
     Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)181,1491,023,3248,222471,126202,46412,09512,42737,562285,209
Construction74,759481,2172,177248,217115,9173,1692,97510,86690,931
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,5607,213862,6142,065268155763,326
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail618,3634,116,57023,3713,181,726349,95225,41337,01340,977688,090
     Other17,502311,926269,66517,86785,61786,7358,18214,872*
Transport, storage, and communication2,449274,3101,83915,83376,7204,1073,12623,616*
Services, community and business, and recreation13,720297,1384,866110,53380,2653,8898,67212,01963,014
Unknown or not stated–     –     –     –     –     –     –     –     –     
               Totals—1968–691,310,4779,055,695322,1595,537,8621,311,371161,36995,806200,3561,669,650
                           1967–681,220,3488,265,925292,0585,052,6471,226,899146,42587,448194,5611,512,576
                           1966–671,187,5858,099,728266,9615,034,3231,201,411130,93078,236185,5151,471,039

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these two groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and quarrying”, “Commerce—other”, and “Transport, etc.”, there are a number of industries included in “Services, community” which do not show gross profit.

The assessable income, dividends, paid-up capital, and shareholders' funds for 1968–69 are given in the two following tables.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeDividends PaidShareholders' Funds
TotalPaid-up Capital
 $(000)
Agriculture and livestock production5,10811,4192,965177,32375,509
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3311,69029714,0725,811
Mining and quarrying3041,79466237,7908,755
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco93364,52213,691369,578168,659
     Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear99220,1056,130119,37951,376
     Metals and metal products4,05840,91511,124237,555110,065
     Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,38396,13232,040546,881270,843
Construction4,83616,3724,467104,73141,021
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services403031776,1193,135
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail17,654154,90647,2251,026,080451,355
     Other15,534102,51239,466980,146505,030
Transport, storage, and communication2,38512,7933,486125,41763,801
Services, community and business, and recreation5,07016,5936,646137,74347,528
Unknown or not stated–     –     –     –     –     
               Totals—1968–6960,628540,057168,3763,882,8141,802,886
                           1967–6856,601479,040153,0573,595,2751,689,997
                           1966–6754,958485,058156,2543,435,7351,649,384

In 1968–69 dividends paid were equal to 31.2 percent of the assessable income compared with 32.0 percent in 1967–68 and 32.2 percent in 1966–67.

For the purposes of these statistics, the shareholders' funds of a company are defined, briefly, as the amount which would be available to shareholders if the assets were realised and the liabilities discharged at the net values shown in the balance sheet. In the case of New Zealand branches of overseas companies, either the paid-up capital and the shareholders' funds are apportioned on some equitable basis, or the balance of the branch's head office account is taken. The capital loan liabilities of those Government departments which are included in these statistics have been omitted from both paid-up capital and shareholders' funds. Advances from shareholders have been added to shareholders' funds and advances to shareholders deducted.

An analysis of companies by amount of paid-up capital for 1968–69 discloses the position shown in the next table. Those with no paid-up capital are mostly industrial and provident societies, clubs, associations, and similar incorporated bodies.

Amount of
Paid-up Capital
Number of
Returns
Paid-up CapitalShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
                    $ $(000)
Nil4,405–     154,5151,423
              1–          9994,2801,47442,8841,814
       1,000–       1,9995,2646,06246,8981,970
       2,000–       3,99911,69727,576148,2565,416
       4,000–       5,9998,44636,868123,3554,881
       6,000–       7,9994,89030,87583,0133,501
       8,000–       9,9993,11025,95861,6572,692
     10,000–     11,9993,57136,308100,8873,767
     12,000–     13,9991,86022,86352,8872,176
     14,000–     15,9991,25218,22639,8741,445
     16,000–     17,9991,05717,23840,6731,467
     18,000–     19,99970112,93325,983879
     20,000–     39,9995,263132,057300,26411,174
     40,000–     59,9991,71478,507159,3436,032
     60,000–     79,99979252,068109,9686,843
     80,000–     99,99939734,30762,8332,801
   100,000–   119,99933234,53874,3383,783
   120,000–   139,99917121,46841,3591,470
   140,000–   159,99913920,50339,7221,675
   160,000–   179,99910717,81239,0791,254
   180,000–   199,9995410,07218,849790
   200,000–   399,999532138,154285,65913,352
   400,000–   599,99917983,618164,3977,483
   600,000–   799,9999663,786107,9175,009
   800,000–   999,9994237,24366,8563,063
1,000,000–1,199,9995255,13991,3463,678
1,200,000–1,399,9993240,48075,5923,872
1,400,000–1,599,9992537,17763,7362,775
1,600,000–1,799,9992744,67484,3792,583
1,800,000–1,999,9991120,50454,0141,855
2,000,000–3,999,99977201,485372,69017,533
4,000,000 and over53442,913749,58939,922
               Totals—1968–6960,6281,802,8863,882,814168,376
                           1967–6856,6011,689,9973,595,275153,057
                           1966–6754,9581,649,3843,435,735156,254

In 1968–69 there were 1,126 companies with paid-up capital of $200,000 and over. Corresponding figures for 1967–68 and 1966–67 were respectively 1,072 and 1,056. These companies had 64.6 percent of the total paid-up capital and 54.5 percent of the total shareholders' funds.

The number of companies increased by 7.1 percent in 1968–69 and paid-up capital rose by 6.7 percent. The percentages for 1967–68 were respectively 3.0 percent and 2.5 percent.

An analysis by the type of company—i.e., private, public, overseas, etc.—is given in the three following tables, which present some of the principal data for the year 1968–69.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAccessible IncomeOrdinary and
Social Security
Income Tax
Net Business LossShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
Paid-up CapitalTotal
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
New Zealand Private Companies
Agriculture and livestock production5,08811,1373,9013,77072,730174,0242,934
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3231,3555753774,68710,242242
Mining and quarrying2851,5486836005,50032,520459
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco73819,4909,4482,33146,887101,2803,134
     Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear93910,8645,07281922,79753,5433,022
     Metals and metal products3,98031,47714,1193,39977,247177,7367,984
     Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,16143,63820,5214,21082,348212,40214,407
Construction4,81415,3716,1413,54537,03497,7404,180
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services32511631802807
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail17,20999,51744,5289,997260,327587,61728,971
     Other13,97527,26910,1312,402261,829499,18219,467
Transport, storage, and communication2,2539,1893,8012,38341,62077,1252,559
Services (community and business, and recreation)4,07712,1425,0302,02937,88979,2116,058
Unknown or not stated–     –     –     –     –     –     –     
               Totals—1968–6956,874283,048123,96635,893950,9752,102,90293,422
                           1967–6852,804258,489111,49629,747891,4141,964,30590,300
                           1966–6751,123271,657117,86323,558866,5351,865,55888,916
New Zealand Public Companies
Agriculture and livestock production1312855521,4591,72429
Forestry, hunting, and fishing245822912,7602,9457,560258
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco18240,32620,061277113,656250,60310,433
     Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear508,8194,3865828,18665,0563,001
     Metals and metal products626,8333,42016529,68652,8912,993
     Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)17643,83321,852691179,330306,55716,314
Construction126973462353,7786,591283
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services8253122663,0555,839170
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail28940,09220,024548170,409339,39614,099
     Other36636,88017,2981,451205,310392,25317,393
Transport, storage, and communication1152,9231,4271,64721,51247,121848
Services (community and business, and recreation)452,6681,3171,9139,21628,464583
Unknown or not stated
               Totals—1968–691,342184,03290,5999,863768,5421,504,05666,403
                           1967–681,339148,34972,5746,471720,7561,380,75756,175
                           1966–671,376152,19775,6324,664706,9951,321,06958,194
Remainder of Companies (Overseas, Industrial, and Provident Societies, etc.)
Agriculture and livestock production71548181,3201,5762
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3541,4341,539
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco134,7062,490438,11717,695125
     Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles3422210392779107
     Metals and metal products162,6051,3471063,1326,928149
     Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)468,6614,5132219,16427,9211,319
Construction103041633332094004
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail15615,2977,84629120,61999,0644,156
     Other1,19338,3639,9941,32137,89188,7112,607
Transport, storage, and communication176804316691,17180
Services (community and business, and recreation)9481,78371380642330,0675
Unknown or not stated
               Totals—1968–692,41272,97727,6973,18383,369275,8538,554
                           1967–682,45872,20228,0263,26777,828250,2136,582
                           1966–672,45961,20423,1752,28775,854249,1089,142

Government departments which are liable for income tax have been classified as New Zealand public companies. In a percentage of cases, precise information concerning the type of company was not available and there consequently may be some instances of incorrect classifications.

The greatest part of the annual increase in the number of companies is concentrated in the New Zealand private companies. This does not mean that overseas companies are no longer venturing into the New Zealand field. Most of the overseas companies now doing this are establishing a subsidiary company, usually registered as a New Zealand private company, instead of setting up a New Zealand branch of the overseas company.

On average, private companies are much smaller than are public companies, but in the aggregate they employ a larger amount of paid-up capital. Their shareholders' funds are also a rather higher percentage of the paid-up capital (221.1 percent against 195.7 percent for public companies). However, as shareholders' funds include advances from shareholders ($382,171,000), the bulk of which relate to private companies, it is evident that the relation of retained income to paid-up capital is nearly identical for both types of companies. The earning power per unit of shareholders' funds employed is considerably higher in the case of private companies, since their assessable incomes are 13.5 percent of shareholders' funds against the 12.2 percent for public companies.

While on the subject of dividends paid, it should be pointed out that the disposable profits of the New Zealand branches of overseas companies are remitted to their overseas head offices and that these disposable profits are not included as dividends paid in New Zealand. Where the overseas company operates through a New Zealand subsidiary company, the New Zealand company is classified as either public or private and any dividends paid will be included in the statistics.

BALANCE DATE OF COMPANIES—A classification of companies by the month in which the balance date fell was made for the income year 1968–69. As the results could be of some general interest, the table below shows for each industry group the number of companies by month of balance date. More complete descriptions of the industry groups will be found in earlier tables.

Industry GroupJanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember
Agriculture29162,479373861,8318942261122140
Forestry822723611262748
Mining34236221973512111
Manufacturing—
     Food301452787887332924501340
     Textiles4030660141767301017361953
     Metals50603,362304613048273611641112
     Wood59632,578324319039445710123163
Construction54354,362102363211831983784
Electricity2813134
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail51271613,261177306869404251237438171311
     Other17220512,2841072141,164195129178348134405
Transport38261,8361530163352943683567
Services62963,8636073274114769312658175
Unknown
               Totals1,0571,25745,7484961,2244,8711,0186647521,5125571,472

CENSUS 1966: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the population census taken on 22 March 1966.

The table divides into income groups the persons actively engaged, and also the total population, including those not actively engaged in employment.

The questionnaire on the schedule asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1966 from all sources without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social security benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively EngagedTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
           $ 
Nil4,8544,4249,278532,777913,1101,445,887
       1–   1996,50610,18216,68824,55554,97079,525
   200–   59914,15829,59143,74930,19578,628108,823
   600–   99934,07965,61399,69244,30986,134130,443
1,000–1,39946,14777,015123,16252,83787,542140,379
1,400–1,79998,25547,985146,240103,59054,152157,742
1,800–2,199154,56822,880177,448158,75726,978185,735
2,200–2,599141,2389,351150,589143,92411,788155,712
2,600–2,99982,0504,17586,22583,6675,42489,091
3,000–3,99978,0763,14681,22280,1364,67184,807
4,000–4,99931,6611,07932,74032,7351,91634,651
5,000–5,99914,60144215,04315,08382615,909
6,000–6,99910,62027910,89910,96556811,533
7,000–7,9995,5351205,6555,7232555,978
8,000 and over15,53429915,83316,02568216,707
Not specified7,7133,86311,5768,4655,53213,997
                     Totals745,595280,4441,026,0391,343,7431,333,1762,676,919

There would also be, in the smaller income group, considerable numbers of people who began work towards the end of 1965, or early in 1966, i.e., school leavers.

The largest income group for males actively engaged was the $1,800 to $2,199 group, with 154,568, or 20.9 percent of those males actively engaged. This was followed closely by the $2,200 to $2,599 group with 141,238, or 19.1 percent. The actively engaged males with incomes of $8,000 and over numbered 15,534, or 2.1 percent.

The largest income group for actively engaged females was the $1,000 to $1,399 group with 77,015 persons constituting 27.8 percent of all actively engaged females. There were only 299, or 0.1 percent, of actively engaged females with incomes of $8,000 and over.

In the following table incomes of actively engaged persons from the population census on 22 March 1966 are related to highest levels of educational attainment or attendance.

Highest Educational Attainment or AttendanceIncome GroupsTotal
Under
$1,000
$1,000–$2,999$3,000–$5,999$6,000
and Over
Not
Specified
* Includes those with University Intermediate passes, some with University Entrance, etc.
University degree or diplomaM7256,33411,0714,9559023,175
F6352,58595564134,252
University attendance with no degree or diploma*M1,81714,9889,5132,2519128,658
F1,6924,77036229376,890
School Certificate or higher secondary school qualificationM6,68837,99111,3371,80614757,969
F12,28026,6685163325839,755
Secondary school attendance without qualificationM38,489293,18866,88814,9454,764418,274
F69,27897,2822,0783652,568171,571
Primary school attendance, nil, and not specifiedM11,878169,75725,5317,7322,621217,519
F25,92530,10175620798757,976
               Totals, actively engagedM59,597522,258124,33831,6897,713745,595
F109,810161,4064,6676983,863280,444

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made for the second time from the information collected at the census of population in 1966. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $200 or more a year, excluding social security benefits, universal superannuation, and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of OccupantsNumber of Households with—Total Households
No Income Earners1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or more Income Earners
  132,61056,774–    –    –    –    89,384
  226,22479,03772,269–    –    –    177,530
  35,24053,27342,64020,073–    –    121,226
  43,03966,25334,56917,5217,577–    128,959
  51,90750,04524,12211,2225,2101,78194,287
  696528,47413,6936,5683,1251,56454,389
  756212,6166,4883,4931,73693125,826
  83155,6372,9311,76894058912,180
  91732,7071,4849015093366,110
10981,2717244412712733,078
11635813612571471351,544
123425220212293102805
131110992714650379
1474753392737210
15 and over42647293061197
               Totals71,252357,102199,67562,50519,7115,859716,104

Of the 716,104 households at the 1966 Census of Population and Dwellings, there were 432,338 complete one-family-only households, that is a husband and a wife with or without unmarried children of any age. These were analysed by the incomes of the head of the household and the wife (or spouse) and the results are given in the following table to indicate where the income of the wife (or spouse) exceeded $600 a year.

Income GroupHeads of Households
in Income Group
Wives (or Spouses)
with Incomes over $600
Households with
Unmarried Children
of any Age
NumberPercentage
of Households
          $   percent
Under 60033,3001,8765.622.8
   600–1,39916,5623,76522.740.1
1,400–1,79939,3829,52924.262.3
1,800–2,19984,48819,67923.372.5
2,200–2,59990,38619,43621.578.4
2,600–2,99956,89411,37920.081.0
3,000–3,99955,98510,54318.881.1
4,000–4,99922,4864,03718.080.5
5,000–5,99910,1791,91818.880.6
6,000–6,9997,1681,34118.781.0
7,000–7,9993,75574319.880.6
8,000 and over9,8232,12721.781.7
Not specified1,93042221.971.6
                    Totals432,33886,79520.171.0

Households in which the highest percentages of wives had incomes above $600 (many of these would be in the labour force) were those in which the head's income was from $600 to $2,199. Households with heads in this income range also had the lowest percentage of children (except for the low-income groups of mainly retired persons). The relatively moderate incomes and relatively high percentages of households without children suggest that a substantial proportion of these households consisted of young married couples who had not yet started families, so that wives were able to remain in employment. As the income of the head rose, so also rose the percentage of wives with no incomes or very low incomes and the percentage of households with children. An exception was the highest income group. In this, despite a continued rise in the percentage of households with children, the percentage of wives with incomes of $600 or more also rose; income includes investment income as well as wages or salary.

Chapter 29. Section 29
BANKING AND CURRENCY

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and five commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has had a private savings bank since 1 October 1964. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. An expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) has been a feature in recent years in New Zealand as in many other countries. Report No. 10 of the Monetary and Economic Council, The New Zealand Financial System, published in March 1966, presents a comprehensive description of the financial and credit system, and Report No. 24, published in December 1972, reviews recent developments in the financial system.

RESERVE BANK—The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 provides the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provides the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action within, and to some extent outside, the conventional banking system as may be appropriate to the times.

Section 8 is the most important section in the Act. It restates the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and overseas exchange; and

    3. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

    Legislative changes proposed for 1973 will give the Reserve Bank wider powers.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production, trade, and employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank may, on behalf of the Government, regulate and control—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, credit, and currency;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.”

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. In December 1968 an amendment to the Act gave the Minister of Finance the right, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund.

In recognition of the fact that the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, its duty is described as “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves”. The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects, and of the level of overseas exchange reserves it regards as adequate. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive permissive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act. There are adequate powers for control of takeovers in New Zealand by overseas interests, and for control over overseas companies commencing business in New Zealand and control of capital issues.

Since the passing of the 1964 Act, regulations have been promulgated for the control of: (a) overseas remuneration received by New Zealand residents for services rendered to non-residents (subsequently included in the Exchange Control Regulations 1965); (b) company takeovers by overseas residents; (c) capital issues by overseas companies in New Zealand or issues overseas by New Zealand companies; and (d) finance companies by giving power to the Reserve Bank to require them to hold a percentage of their holdings in Government stock.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets, separating demand and time deposits by customers from other demand and time liabilities. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining of such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

There is complete flexibility, subject to the approval of the Minister, in the application of reserve ratios or assets ratios. The trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of a specified kind including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets. Under earlier legislation, the minimum requirements could not be reduced below 7 percent of demand plus 3 percent of time liabilities; there is now no minimum.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

To enable the Reserve Bank to obtain information on the activities of the “fringe-banking” institutions and exercise some degree of control over their activities, the bank is authorised to request any person or class of persons who, as a substantial part of their New Zealand business, accept deposits or carry on any banking business, or grant credit or make loans for the financing of industry, trade, or commerce, to supply information concerning such business. With the prior authority of the Minister of Finance, the bank may, by notice in the Gazette, require such information to be supplied. The bank may also make recommendations to them in respect of the policy to be followed in respect of such business. Statistics collected from finance companies, the short-term money market, life assurance companies, and stock and station agents now appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Bank Profits—The net profits of the bank are paid to the Consolidated Revenue Account, after certain provisions have been met. The net profit for the year ended 31 March 1972, was $15,466,212 which was paid to the Consolidated Revenue Account.

Prior to the Reserve Bank Amendment Act 1968, the Government indemnified the bank only in respect of changes in the basic exchange rate for sterling and, because in November 1967 the banks' non-sterling liabilities exceeded its non-sterling assets, the increase in the New Zealand currency value of the net non-sterling liabilities due to the sterling devaluation against these other currencies had to be met by the bank. In the 1968 Amendment to the Act the Government indemnified the bank against changes in the exchange rates for the currencies of all members of the International Monetary Fund and of certain other non-member countries specified by the Minister of Finance.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Initially the Reserve Bank, as established by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933, was a privately-owned institution with a share capital widely held throughout New Zealand. Of the seven full directors other than the Governor and Deputy Governor, three only were appointed by the Governor-General. The Secretary to the Treasury, although a member of the board, did not have the right to vote. The bank was therefore to a large extent independent of the Government, but the original Act required it, as its primary duty, to exercise control over monetary circulation and credit to the end that the economic welfare of the Dominion might be promoted and maintained.

Considerable care was taken to see that the bank was free from political interference. The first Governor of the bank made it clear, however, that the board of the bank accepted the view that the ultimate responsibility for the monetary policy of New Zealand must rest with the Government of the day. The board, nevertheless, held it was the duty of the bank to tender to the Government impartial advice on monetary and financial matters, and to exercise its own judgment in carrying out those functions entrusted to it.

The business of the bank was strictly defined, however, and the 1933 Act laid down limitations designed to ensure that the bank did not become an easy source of credit for the community, or a source of inflationary finance for the Government. The bank was given power to determine the exchange rates at which it bought and sold sterling, was required to be prepared at all times to sell sterling at the rates so fixed, and was also required to hold overseas exchange reserves equivalent to at least 25 percent of its notes and other demand liabilities. In addition, the trading banks were deprived of the right to issue notes and were required to hold minimum balances with the Reserve Bank.

Through this 1933 legislation, Parliament substantially increased its control over the monetary affairs of the country, and set up a national institution, with the sole right of note issue, to manage the currency. The legislation was the culmination of proposals, ranging back to 1886 that a central bank, or a State trading bank, should be set up in New Zealand.

In 1936 the bank became a State-owned institution, the whole of the board being appointed by the Government, and the Secretary to the Treasury was given the right to vote at board meetings. Its general function was changed to that of giving effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to it by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and the promotion of economic and social welfare, the bank was still required to regulate and control currency and credit, but was also empowered to control the transfer of money to and from New Zealand, and the disposal of export proceeds. Power was taken to suspend the bank's duty to sell sterling on demand.

In 1936 also, some of the restraints on Reserve Bank lending were relaxed, but the ability of the Reserve Bank to influence monetary conditions was greatly enhanced by empowering the Governor of the bank, with the authority of the Minister of Finance, to vary the minimum balances that the trading banks were required to hold at the Reserve Bank. In the same year, the Reserve Bank became Registrar of Government Stock.

In 1939 the Government's authority was reinforced by adding a requirement for the bank to have regard to any representations made by the Minister in respect of any functions or business of the bank, and to give effect to any decision of the Government in relation thereto conveyed to the Governor in writing. The Minister of Finance was given power to suspend indefinitely the duty of the bank to hold overseas reserves equal to not less than 25 percent of its demand liabilities, which could previously be suspended for short periods only.

In 1950 the 1939 amendment relating to representations by the Minister and decisions of the Government in respect of the functions and business of the bank was repealed, A new requirement—to give effect to any resolution of Parliament in respect of the bank's functions or business—was substituted, this change being designed to restore to the bank a degree of independence, while still requiring it ultimately to carry out Government policy. The duty of the bank to hold overseas reserves was changed to a duty to hold reserves which the board considered would provide a reasonable margin for contingencies. A further change in 1950 was to add to the criteria for monetary action the safeguarding of a stable internal price level and the promotion of the highest degree of production, trade, and employment that could be achieved by monetary action.

Towards the end of 1960, an amending Act removed the reference to a resolution of Parliament, reinserted the 1939 requirement regarding representations by the Minister and decisions of the Government, and recast, without significant change, the criteria for monetary policy. It declared the sovereign right of the Crown to control currency and credit, and introduced wide general powers for the bank, on behalf of the Government, to regulate and control “money, banking, credit, and currency” and interest rates, together with specific power to give directions to the trading banks. The existing right of the bank to determine overseas exchange rates was made subject to a prior right for the Minister of Finance, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the basic rate of exchange with sterling.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 consolidated and amended the earlier enactments and made better provision for the control of overseas exchange and other transactions.

Discount Rate and Reserve Ratios—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum balances which they are required to deposit with the bank, and the rate at which the bank lends to approved short-term money market dealers.

So far the Reserve Bank's discount rate has applied mainly to transactions with trading banks and the approved short-term money market dealers. When a trading bank is short of cash—that is, when its balance at the Reserve Bank is approaching or below statutory minimum—it may borrow from another bank either in New Zealand or London, or in some cases, it may sell sterling to the Reserve Bank. The most likely and normal procedure, however, is to borrow from the Reserve Bank. If the trading banks have a safe margin of free cash there would be no need for them to borrow from the Reserve Bank and the discount rate would then be a formality (though it may have some psychological impact); but when this margin is small the discount rate acquires a greater significance. The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations.

Following the announcement in the 1969 Budget that the banks were to be permitted to invest freely in Government securities, a major change in Reserve Bank credit control took place in October 1969 to coincide with the introduction of the public issue of Treasury bills. The previous practice of raising or lowering the reserve ratios to impose a desired level of penal borrowing on the banks whenever bottom-tier advances exceeded the official ceilings, or to vary the banks' free cash, was no longer compatible with a policy of full investment and was therefore discontinued. The reserve ratios were lowered to 8 percent of demand deposits and 3 percent of time deposits (at which level they will normally remain) and a new arrangement was entered into with the banks whereby penal borrowing was apportioned amongst the banks according to the actual level of their bottom-tier advances compared with the official ceilings for these advances. From July 1971, the banks were operating on a guideline growth rate for all advances with a ceiling for bottom-tier advances within the guideline and no penal borrowing was required. The banks were expected to exercise greater responsibility for managing their own liquidity positions throughout the year.

In June 1973 Government control of trading banks was simplified by resumption of a procedure involving the use of a reserve assets system to control the level of bank lending.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest six years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther
Liabilities
Total
Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1962167.833.25.2148.64.020.6380.0
1963169.636.23.0141.84.419.9374.9
1964166.636.82.6138.84.620.6370.0
1965166.035.62.698.212.221.6336.2
1966164.334.03.866.556.430.1355.1
1967163.834.73.039.1106.746.2393.5
1968162.151.15.035.4102.648.3404.5
1969173.974.24.536.360.240.8389.9
1970182.974.14.144.736.959.9402.6
1971201.880.13.432.315.976.4409.9
1972223.9195.83.638.018.8124.6604.7
At End of June
1967147.239.13.228.8117.648.6384.5
1968155.270.64.715.683.750.4380.2
1969167.8100.54.320.182.241.8416.7
1970176.177.13.548.448.265.7419.1
1971193.8115.73.329.214.770.0426.6
1972212.6267.93.235.325.8106.2651.0
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearOverseas AssetsInvestments in
New Zealand
Advances in New ZealandAll Other
Assets in
New Zealand
GoldShort-termInvestmentsSpecial
Drawing
Rights
StateMarketing
Organisations
Other Advances
and Discounts
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19670.471.116.170.784.0113.825.911.5
19680.7108.624.261.545.4139.17.617.5
19691.072.044.969.213.2150.824.014.8
19700.857.551.516.474.77.4148.329.716.3
19710.786.260.320.665.35.7135.919.116.1
19720.7193.4121.349.739.50.2156.011.532.4
At End of June
19670.683.54.078.370.3123.812.211.8
19681.2121.628.057.20.2148.96.716.5
19691.0103.142.955.70.4169.129.415.2
19700.869.958.123.565.90.4163.122.814.6
19710.794.473.819.462.20.5137.711.326.7
19720.7202.1159.851.629.80.4173.19.923.7

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders and their shares are traded on the stock exchanges. New Zealand has a branch banking system with more than 1,000 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the law relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on a “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The fundamental principle of bank lending is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements, and to avoid tying up available resources in fixed or long-term finance. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, grew rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 12 percent in December 1972.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, including ordinary accounts, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are five trading banks in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand, although the National Bank is domiciled in the United Kingdom. The other three banks—the Australia and New Zealand Bank, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia—which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, etc., than the two New Zealand banks, but the New Zealand banks' advances are about 58 percent of total advances. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1972 it had 192 branches and 217 agencies in New Zealand, and overseas branches in London, Australia, and Fiji. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. A finance company promoted by the bank commenced operations on 1 April 1966.

Gross profits of the Bank of New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1972 totalled $30.1 million giving a net profit of $4.14 million. Comparable figures for the previous year were $26.7 million and $3.17 million. The total assets amounted to $666.5 million. Among the main items were loans and advances to customers ($375.5 million); securities of, or guaranteed by, the New Zealand Government ($103.8 million); and cash in hand and deposits with bankers, $113.4 million. Bank properties and equipment were valued at $27.8 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits, at $547.8 million. The paid-up capital and reserves totalled $51.8 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest five calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities
Outside
New Zealand
Total
Liabilities
DepositsOther
Liabilities
DemandTime
Wool
Retention
Other
* Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.
$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
1967599.60.7132.339.110.3782.0
1968593.9151.727.411.6784.6
1969613.7198.244.46.9863.2
1970640.5270.043.06.3959.8
1971682.9340.430.710.71,064.7
1972808.9500.119.221.31,349.5
At End of June
1967591.20.7127.720.613.5753.7
1968590.9144.825.916.3777.9
1969613.7198.2AAA6.9863.2
1970653.7253.332.08.2947.2
1971686.3317.412.814.81,031.3
1972795.9485.216.020.81,317.9
SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoinReserve
Bank Notes
Balances
Held in
Reserve Bank
Overseas
Assets
Securities
Held
Advances
and
Discounts*
Other
Assets†
Total
Selected
Assets

* Excludes interbank borrowing, but includes term lending.

† Includes interbank borrowing, land and buildings.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19623.234.6154.744.946.4393.547.0724.3
19633.236.4147.453.946.2396.252.5735.8
19643.436.6148.162.946.2430.960.3788.4
19653.438.0103.547.653.3484.068.6798.6
19663.239.472.041.864.7503.073.7797.8
19674.845.346.539.772.3513.585.7807.8
19684.140.035.862.184.2515.480.6822.2
19694.142.738.278.1117.9572.466.1919.5
19704.139.545.483.6130.5665.450.91,019.4
19714.343.031.087.4167.9738.347.61,119.5
19724.247.170.391.3366.4773.656.21,409.1
At End of June
19672.836.728.837.972.5526.672.4777.7
19683.839.115.676.384.7521.179.2819.8
19693.741.720.186.989.6589.159.5890.6
19703.840.248.497.497.6673.348.51,009.2
19713.738.529.290.7113.9763.845.81,085.6
19723.840.833.884.5358.6787.549.91,358.9

Deposits and Advances—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the last 11 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances†
Not Bearing
Interest
Bearing
Interest
Total*Per Head
of Mean
Population
Total AmountRatio to
Deposits

* Including Government deposits.

† Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department.

  $(m) $$(m)percent
1962493.1143.1646.7260.00400.966.3
1963518.3147.6676.5266.00403.859.7
1964567.3146.8724.8279.00439.960.7
1965565.3152.6729.9276.00493.367.6
1966549.1170.4731.8272.30513.470.2
1967539.6181.9721.5264.30527.573.1
1968536.6203.3739.9268.40522.070.6
1969560.3249.0809.3290.70580.871.8
1970581.1325.9907.0321.10669.173.8
1971616.7400.81,017.4355.20738.572.6
1972797.0493.51,290.5443.01774.660.1

Since 1962 credit restraint policies have tended to limit advances. In 1966 the increase in advances was associated mainly with farm development and financing exports. This increase in advances continued in the first half of 1967, but the adoption of tighter credit and fiscal policies in February and May 1967 led to a decline in advances which became particularly noticeable towards the end of the year when trading bank lending actually fell to levels below those of 1966. The low level of advances continued to June 1968 when, following the upturn in the economy, advances overtook 1966 and later 1967 levels. In October 1968, following further increases, the reserve ratios were raised thus forcing the banks to borrow from the Reserve Bank. This policy was still operating at the end of 1969, although in October the mechanism of varying the reserve ratios to impose a desired level of penal borrowing, was replaced by a system whereby each bank was penalised according to the level of its non-priority sector advances in relation to the official ceilings for those advances. During 1970 advances grew by more than $100 million, mainly due to increased lending to the export sector. Non-priority sector advances continued to exceed their official ceilings and the banks were penalised continuously throughout the year. By March 1971 the banks were again within their ceilings and no penal borrowing was incurred for the remainder of the year. During 1971 the rate of growth of lending declined steadily. The rate of growth of lending continued to be very slow throughout 1972 until December when an upswing in bank lending commenced. By December 1972 advances were $55 million above the December 1971 level.

Interest rates on trading banks advances are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Advances at Each Rate
At 31 March 1969At 31 March 1970At 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972
Less than 5 1/24.34.13.74.2
5 1/2 and less than 639.740.143.642.7
6 and less than 5 1/212.211.49.99.9
6 1/2 and less than 720.819.517.016.4
7 and over23.025.025.826,9

The weighted average rate of interest for the six months ended 31 March fell from 6.14 percent in 1970 to 6.08 percent in 1971 but rose slightly to 6.10 percent in 1972.

An analysis of demand deposits in New Zealand trading banks as at 8 November 1972 gave the following percentages for the different sectors: farming, forestry, hunting and fishing, 11.8 percent; manufacturing, 6.7 percent; construction, 4.1 percent; electricity, transport, local authorities, etc., 3.1 percent; commerce, trade finance, 15.1 percent; services, 29.1 percent; personal, 30.1 percent.

An analysis of advances and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group12 March 196911 March 197010 March 19718 March 197214 March 1973
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—$(million)
     (a) Mainly dairy farming27.224.224.522.130.1
     (b) Mainly sheep farming34.534.038.237.127.6
     (c) Other farming15.620.426.327.727.6
     (d) Farm services2.83.85.05.97.0
     (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing2.85.06.27.06.8
          Sub-totals83.087.4100.399.899.0
2. Mining and quarrying1.11.21.21.13.5
3. Manufacturing—
     (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.11.19.010.87.16.5
     (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.88.989.9127.5123.1150.1
     (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco13.611.612.918.826.9
     (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing18.423.523.922.925.5
     (e) Pulp and paper and paper products5.32.74.56.114.8
     (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering28.730.438.037.550.9
     (g) Transport equipment8.16.45.310.013.6
     (h) Other manufacturing37.540.844.447.962.2
          Sub-totals211.5214.6267.2273.3350.4
4. Construction23.425.427.326.937.4
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1.31.21.92.62.0
6. Transport, storage, and communication12.911.011.810.318.4
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—
     (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers28.729.626.743.637.4
     (b) Wholesalers, other14.316.716.315.923.1
     (c) Retailers38.840.639.145.452.8
     (d) Woolbuyers36.536.437.145.067.2
     (e) Stock and station agents14.225.433.719.74.3
     (f) Finance companies (mainly hire-purchase)2.82.03.23.63.9
     (g) Other financial institutions9.812.815.414.827.4
          Sub-totals145.0163.6171.4187.9216.1
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.2.31.31.33.13.7
9. Services27.131.031.934.957.1
10. Personal—
     (a) For housing purposes19.418.218.921.231.6
     (b) Other36.345.339.248.0103.1
          Sub-totals55.863.658.169.2134.8
          Totals563.3600.2672.3709.2922.4

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the foregoing table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last three-years.

Advance Control PolicyQualitative—An instrument of credit control used by the Reserve Bank from 1942 to 1962 was a selective control of bank advances to restrict the availability of credit to certain kinds of borrowers for certain purposes. On the whole the application of the rules prescribed by the Reserve Bank was left to the trading banks themselves, with only marginal cases referred to the Reserve Bank for decision. The main emphasis throughout was on avoidance of the use of bank credit for long-term capital purposes, hire-purchase finance, speculation, and the financing of excessive imports. As from 1 January 1963, the operation and administration of qualitative control was handed back to the trading banks without, however, any relaxation. The Reserve Bank from time to time issues guidelines on priorities.

Quantitative—The advance control policy outlined above was supplemented in 1952 by the quantitative control of advances and reliance was placed mainly on the quantitative method of control through the reserve ratio procedure and discount rate policy. The minimum balances the trading banks were required to maintain at the Reserve Bank were adjusted from time to time through the reserve ratio procedure and the discount rate so as to reduce the margin of free cash (balances in excess of the minimum required) held by them. Since 1957 a flexible policy of control has been followed. The aim generally has been to allow for a small growth in advances. Quarterly targets for bank advances were used generally from 1962 on, but from 1966 targets were established on a two-month basis. Generally, some small growth was permitted in the targets for advances, particularly in the export field. Targets were set for farming and export advances and for “other advances” on a differential basis. If these targets were met, banks were allowed small margins of free cash, the reserve ratios being changed as often as necessary to achieve this. If the targets were exceeded the ratios were raised sufficiently to ensure that the banks were required to borrow from the Reserve Bank. As mentioned earlier, this method of penalising the banks was replaced in October 1969 by another whereby each bank was penalised according to the level of its non-priority sector advances in relation to the official ceilings for those advances. In July 1971 the banks were given a growth guideline for total bank lending for the 12 months to June 1972. This was an interim step in a move to abolish two-tier control of bank credit which had become very complex and arbitrary to administer. The bottom-tier ceilings remained in force meantime but no bank would be penalised for exceeding its ceiling if the all bank figure for total advances was within the guideline. The Reserve Bank is currently investigating more flexible means of influencing trading bank operations which will avoid the reliance on direct limitations.

Cheque Transactions—In the financial year 1971–72, the number of transactions debited to trading banks customers' accounts totalled 145 million, compared with 135 million in 1970–71, and 126 million in 1969–70. There are now over 927,000 cheque accounts in trading banks.

Unexercised Overdraft Authorities—The following are the average for calendar years and the amounts at the end of June of aggregate unexercised overdraft authorities of the trading banks.

YearAverage for
Calendar Year
At End of June
* From July 1972 unexercised term loan authorities are also included.
 $(million)
1962263.8263.0
1963295.8281.6
1964338.6315.8
1965339.8325.6
1966326.7317.4
1967305.9272.3
1968293.3284.3
1969281.0261.9
1970292.5286.1
1971307.9287.0
1972402.7*359.4

MONETARY POLICY—Up to 1962 the financial system functioned under the restraint of a capital issues control, an interest on deposits order, and tax laws unfavourable to the raising of capital by convertible note issues. Capital issues control curbed the supply and the issue price of financial assets available to the community, while the interest on deposits orders prescribed maximum rates of interest that might be paid on various types of deposits. Thus, over the years prior to 1962 the community's preferences for financial assets could be expressed only in a tightly controlled market and these preferences were distorted. The removal in 1962 of the capital issues control and the interest on deposits order, and a change in the tax laws affecting issues of convertible notes were quickly followed by an expansion in the supply of liquid assets and the demand for them. Interest rates on deposits outside the remaining controlled area rose sharply and keen competition developed among the various financial institutions. Finance companies, which were particularly affected by the operation of capital issues control, offered deposit facilities at attractive rates of interest and with limited transferrable rights attached to them. Trading companies developed forms of market instruments relatively new to New Zealand, such as short-dated debenture and mortgage stocks. In 1964 these expanding market influences were greatly strengthened by the commencement of the private savings banks and the extension of the trustee savings banks to the whole of New Zealand. This was a new powerful factor in the monetary scene. The supply of liquid assets again rose sharply. No doubt much of this movement after 1962 was the expression of the public's preferences which had been artificially curbed for many years, in association with the growth of new institutions and financial practices.

The main emphasis on credit restraint was directed to the limitation of bank credit but in August 1965 the Minister of Finance announced special measures to curb the level of spending in the community by further reducing the flow of credit to the private sector. Agreement was reached with the larger trustee savings banks, the private savings banks, and insurance companies, that they would increase the ratio of their purchases of Government securities to those of other assets. (In addition, certain groups of financial institutions which engage in financing hire-purchase transactions or make credit available for extended periods, agreed to take up, in quarterly instalments, Government securities equivalent to 7 1/2 percent of their new lending.)

In September 1966 finance companies agreed to take up additional amounts of Government securities. At the same time the credit restraint was extended to include most credit financing except normal retail store monthly accounts. The insurance companies agreed to take up additional amounts of Government securities and to increase their rate of lending to the farming sector.

On 11 February 1967 the voluntary credit restraints applicable to finance companies were superseded by regulations controlling the capital issues of finance companies. In October 1968 the Government reduced the percentage of deposits which the savings banks were required to invest in Government securities, with the object of assisting the building industry. For the trustee savings banks, of new investable funds in ordinary deposit accounts, 50 percent was to be invested in Government securities and 20 percent in new local authority securities or housing mortgages. For the private savings banks the percentages were 70 and 10 respectively. At the same time the insurance companies agreed to lend greater proportions of their new investable funds to local authorities, the export sector, and housing, while still investing certain minimum proportions in Government securities.

In June 1969 capital issues control on finance companies was abolished and replaced by a Government stock ratio requirement under which finance companies have to hold a percentage of their borrowings in the form of Government securities. The ratio was set at 10 percent initially but is varied if necessary from time to time. The ratio was increased to 12 1/2 percent in September 1970, to 15 percent in March 1971 and was returned to 10 percent in July 1972. Companies with outstanding borrowings of less than $50,000 are exempted.

The interest rate ceiling of 4 1/2 percent that trading banks were permitted to pay on deposits was removed in June 1969 for deposits of over $25,000. Treasury bills were introduced in October 1969 and the trading banks were permitted to invest freely in Treasury bills and Government stock, subject to their maintaining statutory minimum cash balances at the Reserve Bank. During 1969 the proportion of investible funds which the Trustee Savings Banks were required to invest in Government securities was changed from 50 percent of ordinary accounts and 100 percent of investment accounts, to 60 percent for both types of deposit. The ratio was reduced from 60 percent to 57 percent in October 1971, releasing about $14 million for investment in the private sector, and further reduced to 54 percent in March 1972. At the same time the ratio on private savings banks' ordinary accounts was reduced from 70 percent to 63 percent.

In June 1970 Government security ratios were extended to building societies (5 percent of the deposit liabilities), and private superannuation funds (30 percent of total assets). A five-year transitional period was allowed. Life insurance companies agreed to invest a further 5 percent of new investable funds in Government securities. In October the maximum interest rate of 4 1/2 percent payable on trading bank fixed deposits of $25,000 and under was increased to 4.8 percent for two-year deposits. Fixed deposits of any amount for periods in excess of two years were not subject to control. To provide the banks with an investment opportunity and an incentive to compete for fixed deposits at the new rates, the banks were permitted to increase their bottom-tier lending by 80 percent of new deposits fixed for over two years (later amended to three years and over). The incentive was very effective and fixed deposits grew strongly. In March 1972 the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations as part of stabilisation policy. These were applied to deposits taken by the trading banks which were not already subject to control.

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the five trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by eight new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972 2 of these banks merged and there are now 2 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the five trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank are being allowed to offer cheque facilities. As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee savings banks, National Savings accounts, and from 1 April 1964 School Savings Bank Accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds. From 1965 private savings banks are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.

† Excludes $612,000 transferred to Western Samoa.

‡ Excludes $918,000 Cook Islands Savings Bank balances from 1 April 1967.

$(million)
1962508.025.7500.533.3908.1†
1963559.927.2530.656.5964.6
1964672.429.6616.285.81,050.4
1965838.132.2745.9124.41,177.7
1966994.735.8906.9123.61,301.3
19671,103.439.41,045.797.21,398.5
19681,138.143.71,096.585.41,483.0‡
19691,245.548.21,203.090.71,573.7
19701,468.450.91,408.6110.81,684.5
19711,739.155.71,708.586.31,770.8
19721,923.154.71,917.959.91,830.7

In the following table the accounts in the three types of savings banks are classified by amount groups. It will be noted that over two-thirds of the accounts have balances of less than $200.

Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1972. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

SAVINGS BANK ACCOUNTS BY AMOUNT GROUPS
BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of
Accounts
Percentage
of Total
Number of
Accounts
Percentage
of Total
Number of
Accounts
Percentage
of Total
       $ 
       Under 2558,32920.2220,92815.4123,65415.3
       2–   1991,544,60255.8736,94051.5410,80651.0
   200–   999426,28915.4314,99322.0167,55020.8
1,000–1,999119,9624.388,7436.254,3516.7
2,000–3,99975,6412.751,7763.637,4544.6
4,000 and over44,3671.619,0561.312,6411.6
               All accounts2,769,190100.01,432,436100.0806,456100.0

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. There are now 1,229 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 181 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices.

The following table covering the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank includes ordinary Savings Bank, Special Purpose, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, National Savings Investment accounts, School Savings Bank accounts from 1 April 1964, and National Development Bonds and Bonus Bonds from 6 October 1969 and 5 March 1970 respectively.

Year Ended
31 March
Number of
Accounts at
End of March
Total Amount
of Deposits
InterestTotal Amount
of Withdrawals*
Excess of Deposits,
Plus Interest,
Over Withdrawals
Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of March

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

† $612,306 and 15,459 accounts transferred to the Western Samoa Administration.

‡ Excludes Cook Islands balances of $918,232 omitted from ordinary accounts from 1 April 1967.

 (000)$(thousand)
19622,144383,35821,013383,67820,693736,651†
19632,191409,12321,997397,18533,935770,586
19642,245471,59023,633442,95252,272822,858
19652,563506,66525,056501,71730,004855,838
19662,604207,79325,844521,85011,787867,625
19672,640525,63426,025542,0099,650877,275
19682,646488,12127,224512,4152,930879,287‡
19692,682487,66327,980507,8527,791887,078
19702,701568,54728,211561,81634,942922,020
19712,737620,87529,590626,41124,054946,074
19722,756663,54028,941676,16716,314962,388

The number of deposits made in the year ended 31 March 1972 was 16,182,784 and the number of withdrawals 9,571,313. Issues of bonus bonds totalled 538,946, and of national development bonds, 8,108.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings Bank on March 1972 included Government stock to the value of $612.9 million and State Advances Corporation stock to the value of $340.1 million.

Withdrawal Services—When application is made at the ledger office where the account is held, a depositor may make a withdrawal on demand to the full extent of his account balance. Demand withdrawals may also be made at any other of the 1,228 Savings Bank offices, but the amount which may be obtained is limited. If the depositor's specimen signature is on file at the office of application he may withdraw on demand up to $200 in any period of seven days. Alternatively, if a specimen signature is not on file he may withdraw on demand up to $40 in any period of seven days, provided he can establish his identity; for amounts above the limit the office of application can arrange for postal or telegraphic clearance with the office where the account is held. A depositor may have his specimen signature placed on file at any number of offices and because of this provision he may obtain funds without notice while travelling anywhere in New Zealand.

Ordinary Savings Bank Accounts—These form the bulk of Post Office Savings Bank accounts. An account may be opened individually, jointly with another person, or as a trustee or beneficiary in a trust account. Clubs, societies, sports bodies, and any other non-mercantile body may also have these accounts, and organisations of this type have been able to operate under a cheque system since 1 March 1959.

Special Purpose Accounts—Introduced 1 October 1962, these accounts are intended for any person who desires to accumulate separate funds towards specific objectives. A depositor may have five different Special Purpose accounts in addition to any other Post Office Savings Bank accounts. Each Special Purpose account is subject to an interest-bearing limit of $1,000. The rate of interest is 3 percent per year.

Thrift Club Accounts—These accounts are designed to meet the needs of salary and wage earners who wish to save something each payday to provide for annual recurring charges. Thrift Club accounts may be opened by any group of persons. In most cases, employees have a nominated amount deducted from their salary or wages each payday for crediting to a Thrift Club account in their own name. Where this system does not operate the persons may themselves appoint an agent to collect from members and make deposits. A passbook is issued to each depositor who may operate on the account in the same way as an ordinary account.

At 31 March 1972 there were 241,444 accounts open, the amount at credit being $27,644,863.

Home Lay-by Accounts—These accounts were introduced on 1 July 1957. Their main feature is a suspensory free deposit of $10 for every $200 saved, with a maximum of $200. These accounts may be operated on in the same way as ordinary accounts and they earn the same rates of interest, in addition to the suspensory free deposit. The free deposit does not become payable until evidence is furnished that the funds are being used for the purchase or building of a home for the depositor's own occupancy. The first free deposits under this system became payable on 1 July 1959.

At 31 March 1972 there were 1,412 accounts open, the amount at credit being $847,552.

School Savings Bank—The School Savings Bank scheme was introduced in 1934 with the object of encouraging thrift amongst young people. The lodgment of deposits is made to teachers at the school, the cash and deposits slips being handed in later at the Post Office.

On 31 December 1971 there were 2,188 schools operating accounts and the total amount at credit in savings accounts was $4,873,749.

Investment Accounts—One-year accounts were introduced on 1 October 1957. They are a type of fixed deposit and accounts may be opened by any person or any organisation, including business concerns. The minimum deposit is $200 and deposits above $200 must be in multiples of $20. Any number of deposits may be made, but they must not exceed $20,000 in the aggregate in any year commencing on 1 October. The minimum term of investment is one year and deposits not withdrawn are automatically reinvested.

Interest runs from the date of deposit at 4 1/2 percent a year on amounts that remain on deposit for the first and each subsequent 12-monthly period. If the deposit or any portion of it is withdrawn before the expiration of the first year or any subsequent 12-monthly period, special rates apply in respect of the amount withdrawn.

On 31 March 1972, 62,735 Investment accounts were open with a total credit balance of $169,573,414.

Two-year Investment Accounts—Introduced on 1 September 1970, 2-year investment accounts may be opened by any person, club, society, institution, or business.

Interest is payable at the rate of 5 percent a year on amounts invested for a term of two years. Interest is not paid on deposits in excess of $6,000. Interest earned on amounts invested for a complete year is added to and becomes part of the principal for the purpose of calculating interest in respect of the second year of the term of investment.

On 31 March 1972, 31,880 accounts were open with a total credit balance of $54,271,718.

National Savings Accounts—Deposits up to a maximum of $20,000 may be deposited during any investment year commencing 1 July and ending 30 June. Persons, businesses, and all classes of institutions and organisations may open National Savings accounts at the Post Office Savings Bank. Deposits made in any investment year mature on 30 June two years later. Interest is at the rate of 3 1/2 percent a year. If desired interest may be withdrawn annually between 30 June and 31 December. If not withdrawn it is added to the capital sum. Interest at 3 percent a year is payable on deposits withdrawn before the date of maturity.

At 31 March 1972 there were 80,199 accounts open, the amount at credit being $31,824,461.

National Development Bonds—Introduced on 6 October 1969 these bonds may be purchased for a minimum of $10 or for higher amounts in multiples of $10. There is no maximum limit to the amount that may be purchased. Bonds mature in eight years but may be surrendered at any time after the expiration of three months from the date of purchase.

Interest is not payable until redemption of the bond at maturity or its earlier surrender. The rate of interest is 2 1/2 percent a year in the first year rising by 1 percent a year to reach 9 1/2 percent a year in the eighth year. A taxation exemption of up to $500 in the income year the bond matures or is surrendered is allowed on the interest earned. The bonds may be purchased by individual persons only. They are not available to any company or body of persons whether incorporated or unincorporated or jointly in the names of two or more persons.

As at 31 March 1972 bondholders' funds totalled $13,183,082 and the number of bondholders was 38,054.

Bonus Bonds—Since March 1970 bonus bonds have been on sale as an incentive savings scheme under section 129A of the Post Office Act 1959. Bonds are issued in units of $1. There is no limit on the number or total value of bonds held by any person.

Persons may purchase bonds in their own names only. A child under 7 years of age cannot buy bonds but any person having the custody and control of the child may purchase bonds in the child's name. Bondholders' funds are invested in Government securities and the equivalent of 4 percent interest on the bonds is paid into a prize pool for distribution by ballot of cash prizes.

At 31 March 1972 bondholders' funds amounted to $33,066,968. The number of bonds held was 1,065,407.

Travellers' Cheques in Overseas Currency—As an extension of the overseas remittance services operated by the Post Office Savings Bank, the sale of travellers cheques in overseas currency was introduced on 2 February 1970. The travellers' cheques are available in sterling, Australian dollars, and United States dollars.

Estates—The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of $1,000 from any type of account to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. Where there is more than one type of account the aggregate balances must not exceed $1,000, except in the case of a National Savings account, for which a separate maximum of $1,000 is permitted. This provision, together with another whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit of an ordinary Savings Bank, Special Purpose, Thrift Club, or a Home Lay-by account after the depositor's death, enables the next of kin to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without delay or cost.

Solicitors Trust Accounts—Introduced on 1 November 1970, the service is designed to provide a convenient form of investment for funds held by solicitors or other agents (including accountants and trustee companies) acting on behalf of executors, administrators, and trustees.

Money Transfer Service—Integration of the Post Office Savings Bank and the trading banks money transfer services took effect from 1 October 1971. There are three services in the integrated system, namely:

Automatic Payments Service—provides for the settlement of fixed amounts at regular intervals and is suitable for recurring payments made more frequently than quarterly. Hire purchase could be paid this way.

Direct Credits Service—provides for a large number of payments to be made on any one day, such as when an employer pays his staff. The money is deposited direct to Post Office depositors' or trading bank customers' accounts.

Monthly Accounts Service—provides for a number of payments to be made over different days. The payer receives a statement at regular intervals recording the transaction made on his account.

Integrated money transfer statement accounts are non-interest bearing.

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the five trading banks all formed private savings banks. These savings banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

Year Ended
31 March
Number of
Accounts at
End of Year
Total Amount
of Deposits
During Year
Total Amount
of Withdrawals
During Year
Excess of
Deposits Over
Withdrawals
Interest
Credited
Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of Year
 $(thousand)
1967313,927205,502152,38453,1183,968183,312
1968460,366244,919196,82748,0925,818237,222
1969577,956268,349228,50139,8488,351285,420
1970662,706307,782276,33531,4479,932326,800
1971738,247391,333377,75413,57912,088352,467
1972789,982412,861424,254−11,39410,986352,059

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1972 included $52.5 million invested in mortgages and other loans, $291.5 million in New Zealand Government securities, out of the total assets figure of $370.7 million.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence, but four, namely, Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks—Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 13.

The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. Not less than 50 percent of investments must be held in the form of Government stock, and a proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2 1/2 percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by or Investment accounts. The maximum rates of interest payable on deposits are fixed by Order in Council. Maximum rates payable on these and other deposits are given later in this section.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended
31 March
Number of
Accounts at
End of Year
Total Amount
of Deposits
During Year
Total Amount
of Withdrawals
During Year
Excess of
Deposits Over
Withdrawals
Interest
Credited
Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of Year
 No.$(thousand)
1962501,747124,715116,8317,8844,732171,407
1963536,981150,827133,38317,4445,159194,010
1964588,124200,769173,24427,5245,966227,500
1965665,835262,133228,20333,9307,003268,433
1966775,339325,352294,69730,6558,386307,475
1967884,223372,297351,27221,0259,447337,947
1968996,271405,109387,22617,88310,690366,520
19691,116,583489,515466,65722,85811,863401,242
19701,238,042592,099570,45021,64912,794435,685
19711,302,818726,930704,38122,54913,996472,230
19721,431,898846,700817,51129,18914,817516,236
NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1972.

BankNumber of
Accounts at
End of Year
Total Amount
of Deposits
During Year
Total Amount
of Withdrawals
During Year
Excess of
Deposits Over
Withdrawals
Interest
Credited
Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of Year
 No.$(thousand)
Auckland593,212302,468290,05712,4116,445227,619
Waikato122,09759,85258,3431,5081,06635,920
Bay of Plenty66,18253,51351,5781,93557520,952
Taranaki71,63334,29433,46582993229,375
Hawke's Bay & Gisborne55,70836,69536,00469047916,453
Wanganui37,59524,78524,08470130310,800
Manawatu-Wairarapa39,29318,25418,03921536111,576
Wellington District48,85431,88130,5631,31837513,721
Westland12,7275,9645,4485171956,286
Canterbury170,428132,466127,3375,1301,54954,314
South Canterbury20,79311,95911,3236362358,037
Otago118,17449,53447,7431,7911,19741,216
Southland75,20285,03583,5271,5091,10539,968
               Totals1,431,898846,700817,51129,19014,817516,236

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1972. The total assets include an amount of $1,747,000 securing National Savings deposits all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets* (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits
* Total assets include $26.5 million in fixed deposits and money at call.
 $(thousand)
Auckland67,970126,78023,8661,790244,7511,046245,796
Waikato12,00419,9392,54314937,08437,084
Bay of Plenty6,79411,1351,25931821,49621,496
Taranaki11,93216,1039876531,37419331,567
Hawke's Bay and Gisborne5,1688,80375521617,10617,106
Wanganui3,7735,56652578811,11311,113
Manawatu Wairarapa3,3066,20355713611,75511,755
Wellington District5,7127,18452170014,97614,976
Westland2,3103,4041732056,6846,684
Canterbury18,68130,1823,3261,87556,50656,506
South Canterbury2,1674,5005131328,2888,288
Otago15,64722,5291,77471943,95944444,403
Southland8,54222,1306,4652,63642,9256442,989
               Totals164,005284,45942,37510,428548,0161,747549,763

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farm development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given of deposits, advances, etc., for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account.' Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
196719681969197019711972
 $(thousand)
Deposits held24,17026,22631,20435,51436,82637,768
Customers' credit balances on current account30,05132,15737,36339,97035,47838,517
Advances to customers—
     (a) On current account (unsecured)61,51556,58660,14666,97688,21377,843
     (b) Other advances (secured)45,69347,15248,24945,52149,79944,004
Investments—
     (a) Government securities5,5185,1735,3075,5524,5015,495
     (b) Fixed deposits1873591,0991,09349912,014
     (c) Other investments10,28011,32811,95117,6176,91516,459
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)1,8234,0907,1624,8632,9816,621
Bank overdrafts outstanding17,78011,59011,22918,69224,66416,773
Merchandise and commodity stocks34,97834,28836,57739,03642,94944,825
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
     Under 5 percent42.636.329.926.617.836.0
     5 percent and under 6 percent53.654.855.153.454.929.8
     6 percent and under 7 percent3.88.913.818.825.430.9
     7 percent and over0.21.21.21.93.3

The total of unsecured advances by agents of $88 million at 30 June 1971 was $10.0 million below that of trading bank advances to farmers of $98.0 million at 14 July 1971.

OVERDRAFT RATES—The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts, which had been 5.84 percent since June 1962, was raised to 6 percent on 31 August 1965.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES: Trading Banks—The following rates have been paid since 21 June 1966 by the associated banks on amounts lodged on fixed deposit: 30–180 days, 3 percent; six months and under 12 months, 3 1/2 percent; 12 months and under 24 months, 4 percent; 24 months and over, 4 1/2 percent. As previously, variations in these rates and terms may be negotiated on deposits in excess of $20,000.

Post Office Savings Bank—The Post Office Savings Bank pays interest on all deposits. The present rates on ordinary, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, and School Savings Bank deposits are 3 percent per year on deposits of up to $20,000. For Special Purpose accounts the rate is 3 percent per year on balances up to $1,000 in each of the five accounts permitted.

The rates of interest on Investment accounts that remain intact for the terms of investment are: 1-Year Investment accounts, 4 1/2 percent a year; 2-Year Investment accounts, 5 percent a year, but if withdrawals are made before maturity, the interest rate is adjusted for the broken period in respect of the amount withdrawn.

The rate of interest on National Savings accounts is 3 1/2 percent per year but if withdrawals are made before maturity date of the deposits, interest on the amount withdrawn is credited at Savings Bank rates.

Trustee Savings Banks—From 1 May 1956 the allowable maximum rate on all deposits was increased to 3 percent on amounts up to $1,500, this limit being raised to $2,000 from 26 October 1956. A rate of 2 1/2 percent was payable between $2,002 and $4,000 but this was raised to 3 percent as from 1 August 1962 on any amount from $1 to $4,000. On deposits in investment accounts the rate is 2 1/2 percent for periods less than 12 months, 4 1/2 percent for each complete period of 12 months with 3 percent payable on deposits withdrawn during the year after the first year.

Private Savings Banks—The rate of interest payable on deposits in private savings banks is 3 percent a year up to $4,000. This applies to the savings banks operated by trading banks from 1 October 1964. On deposits in investment accounts the rate is 2 1/2 percent for periods less than 12 months, 4 1/2 percent for each complete period of 12 months with 3 percent payable on deposits withdrawn during the year after the first year.

Company, etc., Deposits—Since 5 July 1962 there has been no control on interest rates payable on deposits held by stock and station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26c (State Indebtedness), interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance), and interest on the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office in Section 38.

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 26 finance companies designated “large” by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes, and their assets were 80 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums.

A much smaller proportion of the companies' lending is now channelled to individuals in the form of hire-purchase loans for consumer durables, either directly or through retailers, although hire-purchase advances for cars are still an important form of lending. Large short-term industrial loans have become more common than they were in the sixties, the finance company usually taking a floating second debenture charge against all the assets of the company. The bulk of industrial lending by finance companies, however, is still by way of hire purchase and is primarily used for commercial vehicles, machinery, and plant. In recent years several companies have begun to specialise in leasing. In addition they offer limited import and export services, and factor book debts. Another new development fostered by a few of the larger finance companies is the commercial bill market which has grown slowly but steadily since 1969.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
19671969197019711972
 $(m)
At call2.55.39.913.320.6
Under 3 months1.52.42.05.713.5
     3–5 months3.12.93.811.211.4
     6–11 months6.56.98.712.517.1
12–23 months6.88.013.520.027.6
2 years and over23.731.138.349.468.2
               Totals44.156.676.2112.0158.5

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies are shown in the following table.

Type of loanAt 31 March
196719681969197019711972
Motor vehicles—$(m)
     Commercial8.58.59.615.622.625.0
     Private13.613.318.622.830.239.3
Television sets2.22.61.30.80.80.6
Other consumer durables3.31.81.84.45.16.4
Machinery and equipment—
     Industrial18.115.816.616.520.929.1
     Agricultural2.32.73.34.74.36.1
Property loans5.87.68.58.911.019.8
Other10.814.013.818.127.333.8
               Total64.666.473.591.8122.3160.2

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates range from about 12 percent to a more common 17 to 20 percent for most instalment loans. Despite the high costs, businesses have grown to appreciate the fast and efficient services offered by finance companies, which process loan applications quickly and accept greater risks than other lenders.

MERCHANT BANKS—Recently established are six merchant banks in New Zealand, offering a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also managing investment portfolios and dealing in and accepting commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, to advise on and finance mergers and takeovers and to lend money for expansion to growing companies, perhaps by taking up equity capital in some cases. Some merchant banks have developed from finance company activities; all have a minority shareholding taken by overseas interests which is claimed to provide better access to overseas sources of finance and expertise than existed previously.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 March 1955At 31 March 1972
          (a) On an institutional basis$(m)percent$(m)percent
Trading banks535.739.01,054.031.1
Private savings banks352.210.4
          Sub-totals535.739.01,406.241.5
Post Office Savings Bank554.940.4962.628.4
Trustee savings banks101.17.4514.715.2
Stock and station agents39.42.974.92.2
Finance companies12.00.9187.15.5
Official money market42.71.2
Notes and coin130.09.4203.16.0
          Total selected liquid assets1,373.2100.03,391.3100.0
          (b) On a functional basis
Money supply570.841.6907.526.8
Other demand deposits552.240.21,364.440.2
          Sub-totals1,123.081.82,271.767.0
Time and fixed deposits250.218.21,119.633.0
          Total selected liquid assets1,373.2100.03,391.3100.0

Loans and investments by sector of selected financial institutions at the end of March 1972 are shown in the following table. Significant omissions are general insurance companies, trustee companies and the Development Finance Corporation.

InstitutionsNo.GovernmentLocal AuthoritiesHouseholdsAgricultureOther BusinessTotal
HousingOtherFarmersBusiness

* Estimates

† Includes lending to State Advances Corporation.

‡ Figures for building and friendly societies attend of calendar year.

(Source: Monetary and Economic Council.)

 $(m)
Reserve Bank113174187
Trading banks514552148100203344866
Private savings banks52911019*11*22*353
Trustee savings banks1328542134*13*17*491
Post Office Savings Bank1955955
Public Service Investment Society14112*8*8*33
Official money market5339345
Finance companies261810*63*7*128*226
Stock and station agents22512*126*143
Building societies‡631610*228*15*16*17*302*
Life offices21323115202701286531,491
Government Superannuation Fund1195195
National Provident Fund1581971256
Earthquake and War Damage Fund1130130
Friendly societies‡306*5*8*6*5*30
State Advances Corporation14512581334321,004
               Total1972,522*406*1,216*222*728*384*1,229*6,707*

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10s. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender up to any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1965 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965, Amendment No. 8, permits travellers to take out up to $50 of New Zealand money in notes of $5 or $2 or $1 or in coin up to $4. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent. (See also Exchange Control, paragraph (b), Export and Import of New Zealand notes.)

WORLD CURRENCY REALIGNMENT—In December 1971 there was a general realignment of the world's exchange rates. Subject to Congressional approval the official price for a troy ounce of fine gold was changed from US$35 to US$38. This represented a devaluation of the U.S. dollar by 7.89 percent. As part of the realignment the currencies of certain countries (notably Japan, Germany, and Netherlands) were revalued in terms of gold, while others, notably South Africa, decided to devalue their currencies.

New Zealand, like the United Kingdom, Australia, and a number of other countries, elected to leave its I.M.F. parity unchanged. As a result all these currencies appreciated 8.57 percent in terms of the U.S. dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 = 1 ounce). At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the U.S. dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as had previously been the case. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed exchange rates on U.S.A. and fluctuating rates on London. New Zealand decided to avail itself of the wider margins within which its exchange rates are permitted to move. This means that New Zealand's public exchange rates for the U.S. dollar may fluctuate 2 1/2 percent either side of its par value (i.e., US$1.2160 = NZ$1) while New Zealand's rates for other currencies are permitted to move up to 4 1/2 percent either side of the cross rates of the par values (or central rates, where these have been established pending approval by the U.S. Congress of the new gold price). (In July 1973 the N.Z. dollar was floated.)

The following table shows exchange rates for telegraphic transfers quoted by the New Zealand trading banks for various currencies as at 31 December 1972. All quotations are on the basis of foreign currency units to NZ$1 except in the case of United Kingdom for which the basis is New Zealand dollars to £Stg 1.

New Zealand onSellingBuying

* Fixed.

† Fluctuating.

U.S.A.*1.18871.2017
Australia*0.93550.9395
United Kingdom†1.97491.9624
Canada†1.17991.1929
France†6.0396.161
Japan†356.81364.01
Switzerland†4.4474.536
West Germany†3.7793.855

EXCHANGE RATES—The rates of exchange for overseas transactions are fixed by the Reserve Bank, subject to a right of the Minister of Finance, after consultation with the Governor of the Bank, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund.

The significance of the exchange rate in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon the country's position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of New Zealand has not reached a stage where the country is fully self-contained, and the external trade per head is greater than that of most countries of the world. In former years by far the bulk of New Zealand's external trade was with the United Kingdom and the London financial market played a predominant role in financing New Zealand's external trade and as a source for capital requirements. However, progressively, the base of New Zealand's external trade has been broadened which has resulted in New Zealand relying less on London to finance its trade and capital requirements. New Zealand is a member of the International Monetary Fund, and as such is required to maintain telegraphic transfer buying and selling rates for exchange transactions in its currency within certain limits either side of its established par value. The par value may be changed, i.e., the exchange rate altered, with the approval of the International Monetary Fund; this must be given if the proposed change does not exceed 10 percent, or if a “fundamental disequilibrium” exists in the country's balance of payments.

NEW ZEALAND AND STERLING EXCHANGE—Traditionally New Zealand currency was linked to sterling. Prior to December 1929 New Zealand currency was at virtual parity with U.K. currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931 a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January 1933, when as a result of Government intervening it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree. The relationship existing from 20 January 1933 until the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on 1 August 1934, was £125 (selling) and £124 10s. (buying) New Zealand = £100 sterling for telegraphic transfers.

From 1 August 1934 Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, £124, selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. While prepared to fulfil its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank did not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities were available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted as from 1 August 1934 a scale of rates representing a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from 20 January 1933 to 31 July 1934. The rates were slightly changed on 21 October 1938, and further changes were made in the selling rates as from 1 December 1943 and in the buying rate as from 6 November 1940. During the year 1945–46 the Reserve Bank agreed to certain alterations in the trading banks' on-demand and usance rates.

The position was materially altered as from 20 August 1948, following the announcement by the Government on the previous night of the appreciation of New Zealand currency to parity with sterling. The Reserve Bank quotations from 20 August 1948 for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, £100, selling rate, £101. Consequential adjustments to the scale of rates of trading banks in New Zealand were also made.

On 21 November 1967 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 19.45 percent in terms of the United States dollar following the United Kingdom devaluation of sterling by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967. The New Zealand dollar became equivalent to the Australian dollar and NZ$100 equivalent to £46.67 sterling. In terms of the United States dollar NZ$1 was equivalent to US$1.12.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on amount of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table. The figures for assets of the banking system and gold are as at the last Wednesday of the month; other figures are as at the end of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.)

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesGovernment-held Overseas SecuritiesGold†Reserve Position at I.M.F.‡Special Drawing Rights§Total

* Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item “Liabilities in Other Currencies” has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

† Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at NZ$31.25 a fine ounce.

‡ Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§ New Zealand's initial allocation made on 1 January 1970.

 NZ$(million)
End of June
1961124.169.316.80.6–    –    210.7
1962146.756.017.20.522.5–    242.8
1963191.448.917.50.522.5–    280.8
1964202.365.017.70.522.5–    307.9
1965160.867.918.10.522.5–    269.8
1966123.561.712.70.1–    –    198.1
1967111.757.113.10.6–    –    182.4
1968209.376.814.51.2–    –    301.9
1969229.478.915.31.0–    –    324.6
1970216.887.916.10.8–    23.5345.0
1971243.9132.817.40.745.119.4459.3
1972425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
End of December
196198.232.017.00.522.5–    170.1
1962123.257.017.30.522.5–    220.5
1963120.850.117.70.522.5–    211.5
1964127.866.517.70.522.5–    235.0
1965102.654.812.30.3–    –    170.0
196690.660.512.70.2–    –    163.9
1967145.175.013.90.5–    –    234.5
1968112.077.014.50.5–    –    204.0
1969155.186.415.30.8–    –    257.6
1970128.6117.516.10.745.10.3308.3
1971244.1146.517.40.745.124.8478.6
1972435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9

For 1970 there was a deficit of $25.8 million on current account compared with a surplus of $96.3 million in 1969. Government borrowing of $50.6 million during 1970 included $35.6 million drawn against a revolving multi-currency facility made available by a syndicate of major international banks. Official debt repaid included United States and World Bank (I.B.R.D.) loans ($14.9 million), Reserve Bank of Australia ($5.1 million), and the International Monetary Fund ($11.9 million). In the case of the latter organisation the total repurchased was $35.1 million, the balance of $23.2 million being made from Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). During the year gold valued at $10 million was purchased and transferred to the International Monetary Fund to cover the additional gold subscription required in connection with New Zealand's quota increase of $40.2 million.

With the repurchase on 16 September 1970 of the remaining International Monetary Fund obligation of $35 million and the payment of the additional gold subscription, New Zealand once again had a “reserve position” at the fund. Of the initial SDR allocation totalling $23.6 million made to New Zealand by the International Monetary Fund on 1 January 1970, a small holding of $0.3 million remained at the end of December 1970.

The International Monetary Fund made a second allocation of SDRs on 1 January 1971 totalling $19.3 million and these are included in New Zealand's official overseas reserves.

A surplus of $41.8 million was recorded in the current account for the year ended December 1971 compared with the previous year's deficit of $25.8 million. Export receipts reached a new peak of $1,272.5 million for the year, showing an increase of $117.2 million over 1970. Receipts for dairy products benefited from greatly increased world higher prices and most other exports increased their returns over the year.

Total import payments for the year of $1,051.8 million also constituted a new record but a slowing down in the rate of increase over much of 1971 allowed a considerable improvement in the trade surplus, which was $220.7 million compared with $177.2 million for 1970.

The capital account recorded a healthy surplus of $83.9 million for the year, mainly due to a net private capital inflow of $77.2 million. The main official borrowing included the Dutch Guilder loan ($14.5 million), the Deutschemark loans ($23.3 million), and the Swiss loans ($21.5 million) while the main debt repayment made were two London loans totalling $31.6 million. (The bulk of the proceeds of a London loan for $21.4 million floated late in 1971 were received in 1972.)

A surplus on current account of $208.4 million was recorded for the year ended December 1972 compared with a surplus of $41.8 million in the previous year. This improvement resulted from a rapid increase in export receipts accompanied by a slow rate of growth of import payments and a small increase in the deficit on invisible transactions.

Export receipts rose by 18.4 percent during the year to reach $1,507.2 million, the most significant gains being for wool, reflecting the marked price recovery of this commodity, meat, and milk powders.

Total import payments rose by 4.7 percent to $1,101.6 million, this limited growth contributing to the surplus on trade transactions which rose by $184.8 million to $405.5 million.

The deficit on invisible transactions during 1972 was $197.2 million compared with the relatively low deficit of $179 million recorded in the previous year. Both receipts and payments for invisibles rose strongly during 1972.

The capital account recorded a net inflow of $91.9 million for 1972 compared with $83.9 million for 1971. Private capital transactions were responsible for the large inflow. Official debt repayment exceeded new official borrowings by $18.3 million.

The surpluses on both capital and current accounts together with the third allocation of Special Drawing Rights from the International Monetary Fund in January 1972, combined to increase official overseas reserves by $290.4 million to total $768.9 million at the end of December 1972.

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves, the first portion showing the figures as at the end of December and the second portion those as at the end of June in each year quoted.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—Statistics of overseas exchange transactions include transactions both through the banking system and through the Government's overseas accounts. A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the two latest calendar years is now given.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS
Item19711972
U.K.Other CountriesTotalU.K.Other CountriesTotal
 NZ$(million)
Exports—Receipts
     Butter126.417.7144.196.418.8115.3
     Cheese46.414.461.058.216.374.5
     Meat178.4257.5435.9205.0277.3482.3
     Wool45.1167.8213.074.7233.4308.0
     Other61.9356.7418.646.3480.8527.1
                    Total, export receipts458.3814.21,272.5480.51,026.61,507.2
Other Current—
     Cook Islands exports0.1–    0.1–    –    –    
     Transport41.312.253.541.717.258.9
     Insurance3.04.67.73.83.16.9
     Travel (excluding fares)7.634.542.19.242.051.2
     International investment income—
          Interest and dividends20.93.224.127.96.034.0
          Other investment income1.04.45.41.04.15.1
     New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand4.311.015.25.512.017.6
     Miscellaneous—
          Commissions, royalties4.37.411.73.86.910.7
          Expenses of business firms1.57.79.21.76.88.5
          Personal receipts, legacies and immigrants' transfers28.433.862.246.544.991.4
          Other current transactions2.66.08.73.87.211.0
                    Totals, current573.1939.21,512.3625.41,176.81,802.5
     Capital Transfers—
          Government borrowing2.759.962.719.054.673.6
          Other official borrowing–    –    –    –    –    –    
          Private71.379.9151.3103.797.0200.7
                    Total Capital74.1139.8213.9122.6151.6274.3
     I.M.F.—
          Drawings–    –    –    –    –    –    
          Allocations of SDRs–    19.319.3–    19.119.1
                    Total Receipts647.21,098.31,745.5748.11,347.72,095.9
Imports—Payments
     Private434.4554.9989.3375.7659.91,035.6
     Government36.526.062.534.831.266.1
                    Totals, import payments470.9580.91,051.8410.5691.11,101.6
Other current—
     Cook Islands imports0.10.40.50.10.40.4
     Transport82.015.697.684.133.9118.0
     Insurance—
          Premiums3.90.44.33.30.94.1
          Claims0.10.60.70.40.81.2
          Other transfers3.72.96.66.26.112.3
     Travel (excluding fares)19.650.770.430.563.794.2
     International investment income—
          Private21.119.940.915.228.243.5
          Government interest25.610.235.824.69.233.8
          Local authority interest–    0.20.2–    0.20.2
     Government expenditure overseas13.028.241.216.229.245.5
     Miscellaneous—
          Commissions, royalties, and rebates4.912.517.34.916.421.3
          Expenses of business firms20.322.743.125.023.348.2
          Film hire and entertainment0.23.13.30.43.64.0
          Religious and charitable1.73.85.51.45.67.0
          Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants' transfers12.323.235.513.625.939.5
          Transfers by temporary residents1.44.35.71.85.06.9
          Other current transactions2.28.110.32.79.512.2
                    Totals, current683.0787.51,470.5640.9953.01,593.9
     Capital Transfers—
          Government debt repayments31.619.050.639.952.091.9
          Other official repayments–    5.45.4–    –    –    
          Private36.236.472.646.342.789.1
          Local authorities debt repayment–    1.41.4–    1.41.4
                    Totals, capital67.862.2130.086.396.1182.4
     I.M.F. Repurchases–    –    –    –    –    –    
                    Total Payments750.8849.71,600.6727.31,049.11,776.5
                    Surplus of receipts over payments−103.6+248.6+145.0+20.8+298.6+319.4
NOTE—Minus sign (−) denotes a deficit.

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years. Information for calendar years over a similar period is in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
196719681969197019711972
 NZ$(million)
Receipts
Exports—
     Butter118.7106.5109.4118.5124.5145.3
     Cheese54.245.841.350.951.871.7
     Meat208.0261.1315.8413.9414.8447.7
     Wool182.5168.2226.1228.5206.1252.5
     Other195.8251.7308.1352.6396.6469.9
     Total exports759.2833.31,000.81,164.51,193.81,387.1
Other current receipts92.8119.1144.2155.8209.6266.0
     Total current receipts851.9952.41,145.01,320.31,403.41,653.1
Capital receipts—
     Government borrowing79.281.048.86.269.4112.1
     Other official borrowing60.0–      –      –      –      –      
     Private28.454.646.363.0117.5175.7
     Total capital receipts167.7135.695.169.2186.9287.9
I.M.F.—
     Drawings21.045.8–      –      –      –      
     Allocation of SDRs–      –      –      23.619.319.1
     Total Receipts1,040.61,133.71,240.11,413.01,609.51,960.1
Payments
Imports—
     Government72.256.548.445.263.366.1
     Private637.7577.8723.1843.3962.21,006.5
     Total imports709.9634.3771.6888.51,025.51,072.6
Other current payments—
     Government53.961.564.370.970.477.5
     Private220.3219.2259.1299.3321.7372.8
     Total current payments984.1915.01,095.01,258.81,417.61,522.8
Capital payments—
     Government debt repayments37.67.446.218.721.749.9
     Other official repayments–      26.832.27.65.32.8
     Private29.528.240.455.955.794.5
     Total capital payments67.162.3118.782.282.7147.2
I.M.F. repurchases–      62.526.118.4–      –      
     Total payments1,051.21,039.91,239.91,359.41,500.31,670.1
Balance on trade transactions+49.2+199.0+229.2+276.0+168.3+314.5
Balance on current account “Invisible” transactions−181.4−161.7−179.3−214.4−182.5−184.2
Balance on current account−132.2+37.3+49.9+61.5−14.3+130.3
Balance on capital account+100.6+73.3−23.7−13.0+104.2+140.7
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+21.0−16.7−26.1+5.1+19.3+19.1
Change in official overseas reserves−15.6+119.4+22.7+20.4+114.3+298.4

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available for non-business purposes. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1965, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. The exemption in respect of dealings in sterling area currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents was continued by the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965.

Certain new measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Sterling Area Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market has since been re-opened (see (f) below).

    The legal position regarding non-sterling securities and currencies remains unchanged—they may not be dealt with in any way without the consent of the Reserve Bank, except for the transfer of currency to New Zealand through the banking system. The Bank will, however, give consent for dealings in non-sterling area currencies and securities in the same way as for sterling area currencies and securities.

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand have been able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 may be in coin and the denominations of the notes may not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there is now no restriction on bringing in notes of SI or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere. The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in recent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least six months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for six months.

    Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

  5. Capital Issues Control: Any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more owned by overseas residents and any branch of an overseas company requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank in terms of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 before it may borrow, or, in the case of New Zealand incorporated companies, issue shares in New Zealand. While bank advances are specifically exempt from these regulations, requests for higher overdraft limits are subject to Reserve Bank approval in terms of section 34 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964.

    Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

  6. Limited Market in Overseas Sterling Area Securities: In September 1966 the Minister of Finance announced a scheme to re-open a limited market in overseas sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. Trading was confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch and the Bank of New South Wales (in respect of its own shares only). Up to 28 February 1973 some 91,164 transactions involving approximately 35,300,000 shares had taken place under these arrangements.

The present position regarding dealings in non-sterling area currencies and securities is set out in the last paragraph of section (a) “Sterling Area Securities and Currencies”.

Administrative details on import and export control and exchange allocation are set out in Section 22A.

ROYAL COMMISSION ON MONETARY, BANKING, AND CREDIT SYSTEMS—The report of the Royal Commission, which was released in April 1956 (as parliamentary paper B. 3, 1956) gives a general background on the monetary, banking, and credit systems of New Zealand. The Royal Commission examined and reported on these systems and made recommendations within its order of reference which had the stated objectives of fostering a greater degree of stability in prices, maintaining full employment, ensuring the healthy development of natural resources, and promoting generally the economic, financial, and social welfare of the people.

Section 4 of the report outlines the history of monetary, banking, and credit systems from 1934 to 1955. As recommended by the Royal Commission, New Zealand has joined the International Monetary Fund, a Monetary and Economic Council has been established, and the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act has been amended to give the Government full and final responsibility for decisions on monetary policy. (A summary of the report was given as Appendix (d) of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. The organisations are specialised agencies of the United Nations, and their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A. 12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. By paying in some gold and the balance of its fund quota in its own currency a member is able to draw against its gold for a nominal cost. New Zealand's fund quota was increased in March 1966 and again in December 1970 with the result that drawing rights have risen to a maximum of $225.5 million. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory finance arrangements.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) is designed to promote the international flow of capital for productive purposes and to assist in financing the development of the resources of its member countries.

New Zealand paid $24.4 million in gold and $1 million in New Zealand currency to join the three agencies, and in addition $77.2 million of non-negotiable non-interest bearing bonds were lodged with the Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

The World Bank made a loan of $5.6 million to New Zealand in November 1963. The loan is for a term of 25 years and bears interest at 5 1/2 percent, including the 1 percent commission which is allocated to the Bank's special reserve. It has assisted in financing improvements at the ports of Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei, and applied to the overseas-currency content of capital works. A loan of $23.4 million was received for the Cook Strait electricity cable project. These loan agreements are set out in parliamentary papers A. 21 and A. 23, 1964.

In December 1965 the World Bank agreed to lend $30.2 million for railways modernisation and $14.7 million for power development. The railways loan is being used to buy additional diesel locomotives and rolling stock, while part was used to pay for the second rail-road ferry Aranui. The electricity development loan was used to meet the overseas costs in the building of the thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. The term of the loans is 15 years with interest at 6£ percent.

New Zealand's transactions with the International Monetary Fund are shown in the attached table. Special drawing rights are intended to supplement existing reserve assets and facilitate the expansion of world trade.

DateDrawingsRepurchasesDrawings
Outstanding
Special Drawing RightsTotal
Holdings
Acquisitions*Utilisation

* Includes both allocations to New Zealand from the IMF and SDRs received by way of transactions with other countries.

† After deduction of various charges from Special Drawing Rights Account.

 NZ$(million)
1965—Nov 1055.4–    55.4…  …  …  
1966—Mar 237.1–    62.5…  …  …  
1967—May 1026.1–    88.6…  …  …  
            Oct 3140.2–    128.8…  …  …  
            Dec 513.4–    142.1…  …  …  
1968—Mar 26–    31.3110.9…  …  …  
            May 8–    31.379.6…  …  …  
            Nov 12–    0.179.6…  …  …  
            Dec 13–    26.153.5…  …  …  
1969—Aug 20–    18.435.0…  …  …  
1970—Jan 1–    –    –    23.6–    23.5
            Sep 16–    35.0–    –    23.20.3
1971—Jan 1–    –    –    19.3–    19.4
            Oct 19–    –    –    5.4–    24.8
1972—Jan 1–    –    –    19.1–    43.9
            Jan 18–    –    –    3.6–    47.5
            Jun 16–    –    –    4.5–    51.6
            Sep 12–    –    –    0.4–    52.1

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank, whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ECAFE region. New Zealand's contribution to the capital stock of the Bank is US$22.56 million, half of which is payable in convertible currency and half in New Zealand currency. The local currency portion is restricted to payment for goods and services produced in New Zealand. At the present time only half of the capital stock of the Bank is being paid up so the cost to New Zealand's overseas reserves has been just over $5 million since contributions began in 1966.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—In 1961, in line with a recommendation of the Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, there was established a Monetary and Economic Council whose principal functions are to report from time to time on the extent to which stability in the prices of goods and services, economic growth, full employment, and higher standards of living are being achieved, and to make recommendations as to measures that should be taken to promote such developments. Among other matters, the council is required to consider the provision of finance for the expansion of primary and secondary industries and of services, and the ensuring of a balanced relationship between the creation and issue of money and the production and provision of goods and services. A series of reports have been made to the Government and have been published.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION—This corporation was established under the Development Finance Corporation Act 1964. In 1970, the Act was amended to broaden the scope of the corporation's activities and particularly to remove the provision limiting it as a lender of last resort. The general functions of the corporation are to provide finance for the establishment of new industries and for the development or extension of existing industries and to encourage and promote investment in the industrial development of New Zealand by providing suitable technical advice.

Chapter 30. Section 30
INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10A, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged; for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property reregistered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED—A table is given showing the number of urban and rural registrations, and amounts involved.

(A longer time series is produced in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.)

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsAreaAmount Secured
UrbanRuralTotalRuralUrbanRuralTotal
 No.hectares
(000)
$(m)$(m)$(m)
196251,10911,44262,5511,344211.6125.3337.0
196348,78410,52859,3121,300205.1103.9309.0
196452,61311,40864,0211,490222.9117.4340.3
196558,23213,29971,5311,739257.2162.8420.0
196662,80914,16976,9781,829308.0180.0488.0
196761,01714,28675,3032,196307.8185.6493.4
196860,15513,18073,3351,901315.3152.4467.8
196963,16912,37475,5431,641334.3148.1482.3
197069,49513,98383,4781,805388.3185.6573.9
197180,03917,90397,9422,448488.4214.6703.0
197285,44617,454102,9002,463544.5215.3759.8
NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.

The 85,446 urban mortgages in 1971–72 were in the following categories: first table, 33,929; first flat, 26,338; subsequent table, 12,160; subsequent flat, 10,446; increases in amount, 2,573. The 17,454 rural mortgages in 1971–72 were in the following categories: first table, 4,228; first flat, 4,884; subsequent table, 2,793; subsequent flat, 3,557; increases in amount, 1,992.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered, under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district is given in the next table.

District1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
 $(million)
North Auckland139.1152.5175.5221.3239.0
South Auckland78.970.682.6100.0110.5
Gisborne5.95.97.08.58.9
Hawke's Bay18.521.326.830.432.7
Taranaki16.414.317.323.524.2
Wellington93.595.0108.3129.5141.3
Marlborough4.85.96.28.48.3
Nelson8.89.211.115.217.9
Westland1.41.72.12.93.3
Canterbury54.358.978.195.7104.9
Otago28.128.331.939.339.4
Southland18.118.727.128.229.4
                    Totals467.8482.3573.9703.0759.8

The following table shows urban and rural mortgages by land registration district for 1971–72. Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration DistrictUrbanRuralTotal
NumberAmountNumberAmountAreaNumberAmount
 $(m) $(m)hectares
(000)
 $(m)
North Auckland29,475204.93,37334.123532,848239.0
South Auckland9,99361.24,00149.331513,994110.5
Gisborne8005.13203.8841,1208.9
Hawke's Bay3,52219.284713.51584,36932.7
Taranaki1,79110.81,08213.41342,87324.2
Wellington18,012115.11,75226.227319,764141.3
Marlborough7044.04944.31291,1988.3
Nelson2,04013.05684.9632,60817.9
Westland2881.31432.0234313.3
Canterbury11,56971.52,42633.454313,995104.9
Otago4,98824.41,35315.03386,34139.4
Southland2,26414.01,09515.41683,35929.4
                    Totals85,446544.517,454215.32,463102,900759.8

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows urban and rural mortgages by amount groups for 1971–72.

Amount GroupUrbanRuralAll Properties
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
            $ $(m) $(m) $(m)
  Under   1,0004,6823.38220.55,5043.8
  1,000–  1,99910,17313.51,2811.511,45415.0
  2,000–  3,99916,07742.91,7884.917,86547.7
  4,000–  5,99912,49459.01,7508.214,24467.2
  6,000–  7,99916,632114.31,52310.218,155124.4
  8,000–  9,9998,25970.31,1089.59,36779.7
10,000–14,9997,86489.72,25226.010,116115.6
15,000 and over4,580151.74,877154.79,457306.3
Unspecified4,6852,0536,738
                    Totals85,446544.517,454215.3102,900759.8

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for urban properties for 1971–72 was 7.61 percent, as compared with 6.82 percent for rural properties. The comparable rates for 1970–71 were 7.02 and 6.54 percent respectively.

In 1971–72 the number of 3-percent mortgages decreased from 1,997 to 944 and the amount advanced decreased from $16 million to $8 million.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 3 PercentOver 3 Percent to 5 PercentOver 5 Percent to 5 1/2 PercentOver 4 1/2 Percent to 6 PercentOver 6 Percent to 6 1/2 PercentOver 6 1/2 Percent to 7 PercentOver 7 Percent to 8 PercentExceeding 8 Percent
$(million)
196250.963.764.273.119.79.76.94.0
196339.160.431.772.533.017.48.85.9
196434.062.726.571.653.023.212.87.6
196532.986.427.292.463.933.213.011.7
196627.191.528.181.7107.050.224.322.3
196713.7102.126.146.193.482.439.324.4
19688.944.656.931.064.1109.857.534.2
19699.527.865.130.869.5108.274.737.7
197010.826.276.638.974.4145.0105.937.5
197117.320.5105.946.365.3149.7175.051.2
19729.518.6109.833.625.1101.7239.1140.9

A similar analysis by interest rate groups is shown (together with the annual average interest rate) in the following diagram.

Mortgages by Class—In this section, mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1966 Census, out of a total of 716,104 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 213,807 were owned with table mortgage compared with 80,885 owned with flat mortgage (197,085 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 177,429 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified).

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages on urban and rural property by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of MortgageTotal, Urban and Rural
UrbanRural
First FlatFirst TableTotal(Including Other)First FlatFirst TableTotal (Including Other)
Amount advanced $(m)
196793.9174.3307.861.475.9185.6493.4
196898.1172.5315.351.855.7152.4467.8
196988.5202.9334.344.961.1148.1482.3
197074.4258.6388.346.781.1185.6573.9
1971112.6304.2488.454.2x86.5214.6703.0
1972193.3263.7544.564.569.0215.3759.8
Average interest rate (percent)
19677.065.886.476.465.786.066.31
19687.336.196.776.646.176.396.64
19697.456.366.846.736.376.506.74
19707.366.546.876.866.446.556.77
19717.686.567.027.016.366.546.88
19728.226.817.617.436.476.827.40

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation has made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 6.27 percent in 1965–66, 6.41 percent in 1966–67, 6.71 percent in 1967–68, 6.81 percent in 1968–69, 6.84 percent in 1969–70, 6.98 percent in 1970–71, and 7.45 percent in 1971–72.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. For mortgages on urban properties, 17.0 percent of the aggregate advances in 1971–72 were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the State Advances Corporation) compared with 21.3 percent in 1970–71.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentLocal AuthoritiesTrading BanksTrustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance CompaniesPrivate IndividualsAll OtherTotal
$(million)
Urban Properties
196766.20.40.912.839.641.498.947.5307.8
196865.70.41.611.742.039.7100.653.7315.3
196968.30.52.718.144.745.8105.648.6334.3
197076.00.44.222.356.649.7114.464.9388.3
197195.71.14.734.966.049.6126.4110.2488.4
197292.50.64.337.561.351.6144.6152.1544.5
Rural Properties
196752.60.20.63.84.320.581.821.8185.6
196835.70.10.62.34.419.370.919.2152.4
196933.30.11.64.25.219.062.821.8148.0
197047.80.12.54.86.522.472.329.2185.6
197167.40.11.96.27.818.076.137.0214.6
197278.60.11.44.86.515.572.735.7215.3

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office are included among Government agencies, not with insurance companies.

Supplementary details on sources of mortgage finance with numbers and amounts of mortgages at various rates of interest are given in a supplement to the July 1972 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED—Details of urban and rural discharges for the latest 2 years are given in the following table.

Land Registration District1970–711971–72
UrbanRuralUrbanRural
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
North Auckland20,451101.72,40616.621,540108.52,20115.9
South Auckland6,76430.52,39123.66,81937.22,41124.8
Gisborne7292.72371.86654.32351.7
Hawke's Bay2,5009.95255.32,58712.25726.9
Taranaki1,4085.57115.71,3915.87126.1
Wellington13,27660.41,39211.813,74467.41,34712.0
Marlborough5822.33292.46072.42921.5
Nelson1,4625.44642.61,54614.74212.4
Westland3271.01080.63000.71020.4
Canterbury8,93334.91,51014.78,96740.41,30012.7
Otago4,54314.58537.34,54716.37646.1
Southland1,9398.17227.21,9809.26496.4
                    Totals62,914276.911,64899.664,693319.011,00696.8

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged, despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

30 B—STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION

GENERAL—The principal business of the State Advances Corporation is the making of loans for approved purposes and it has power to deal in and manage property. In the exercise of its functions and powers the corporation is required to give effect to the policies of Government as communicated to it by the Minister of Finance.

Since 1937 when Government embarked upon the scheme for the erection of State rental houses, the corporation has been responsible for the letting and subsequent administration of these properties. The operations of the corporation can be classified under two main headings, these being, firstly, the lending of money on mortgage (and certain allied functions) in accordance with the State Advances Corporation Act 1965, and secondly, the letting and administration of State rental houses in terms of the Housing Act 1955.

Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans to workers for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934–35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. The business of the State Advances Department and certain operations of the Lands and Survey Department and Public Trust Office were absorbed by the new corporation.

In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned shares of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. The State Advances Corporation Act 1965 transferred the management of the corporation from a board of management to a body corporate consisting of the managing director, deputy managing director (both full-time executive officers), one or more other directors not exceeding four, all appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and an ex officio director being an officer of Treasury. The body corporate may exercise all the powers and discharge all the functions of the corporation in accordance with the statutory provisions of the Act. The $2,000,000 capital, formerly an appropriation from the Consolidated Fund, was redeemed by a loan from the National Development Loans Account.

FARM LOANS—Loan finance is granted by the corporation for the purchase and/or development of farm properties. Present policy is directed towards stimulating increased production, the strengthening of marginal farms and assisting suitable young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the corporation, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and stock and plant, the erection of necessary buildings, and for essential development work. Loans are generally limited to two-thirds of the corporation's value of the land and improvements, although loans in excess of this margin may be approved where collateral security over stock and plant is available. It has been found that the aim of assisting suitable applicants to acquire properties with adequate stock and plant can be achieved with loans up to $30,000 in the case of dairy farms, and $50,000 for sheep farms, and these are the maximum loans normally available. However, loans in excess of these I amounts will be considered in special circumstances, such as high-country sheep stations. Limited, loan assistance is available to refinance existing commitments but priority is given to efficient farmers who have substantially increased production and have established a need for rearrangement of their finances. Where a farmer whose property is already mortgaged elsewhere requires finance for development and for increasing production, the corporation is able in appropriate cases to grant loans by way of second (or subsequent) mortgage. The current interest rate for new farm purchase loans is 7 percent on first mortgage security. Interest rate for refinancing loans is 7 percent first mortgage and 8 percent second and subsequent mortgage. Farm development and amalgamation loans bear an interest rate of 5 1/2 percent first mortgage and 6 percent second or subsequent mortgage up to $30,900 (including any previous loans) thereafter at 7 percent and 8 percent respectively. Repayments are normally on a table basis for 25 years but this is often varied to suit the particular case.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans by way of first security over stock and plant only can be granted by the corporation to farmers, including sharemilkers and lessees of farms, for the purchase of stock and plant or for other farming purposes. These loans are limited to 60 percent of the value of the stock and plant with a maximum of $10,000 for one man. The loans are repayable over a short term, usually 5 years with interest at 5 1/2 percent.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the corporation to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. The interest rate charged by the corporation to the associations is 4 1/2 percent and the associations relend to their members at 5 1/2 percent for the purchase of farm stock and plant or other farming purposes. The loans are secured over the stock and plant and are repayable by the farmer borrowers over a short term, usually 5 years. At 31 March 1972 there were five cooperative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the year 1971–72 amounted to $1,284,880, and loans current at the end of the year amounted to $1,817,691.

FARM MORTGAGE GUARANTEES—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the State Advances Corporation can make available by direct loans, the Corporation operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the corporation protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgages against loss of capital. For an additional fee and at the lender's option the corporation also offers a guarantee of payment of instalments due in terms of the mortgage if the farmer is temporarily unable to meet them. The optional instalment scheme operates only for the first 5 years and for a maximum of 2 years charges. These guarantees are backed by the existing reserves of the corporation.

An important feature of the State Advances Corporation Farm Mortgage Guarantee is that the loan can be classed as a trustee investment even though normal trustee limits are exceeded.

All lenders, including vendors, are eligible to have their mortgages guaranteed. The farm property concerned must be capable of servicing the total debt and the mortgagor is expected to have a minimum equity of 30 percent of the value of the proposition. Loans of up to 80 percent of the mortgage-able value of the security (as determined by a registered valuer) may be guaranteed.

Both table and flat mortgages on first, second, and subsequent securities are acceptable. One single fee is payable on the first uplifting of loan moneys. The fee varies between 25c and $2 per $100 of loan guaranteed, according to risk.

In the first year of operation mortgages to the value of approximately $6 million were guaranteed.

HOUSING LOANS—In view of the heavy calls on its funds the corporation continues to concentrate its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. In 1964 the provision of loans to assist home seekers to purchase previously occupied houses was reinstated and has since been operated to the extent of available funds. The loans are made on the security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make a reasonable contribution himself.

Loans on first mortgage for the purchase of houses which have been previously occupied are in general limited to two-thirds of the assessed value of the property.

In February 1958 a scheme was introduced whereby loans with interest rebated to 3 percent were made available for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. In May 1964 the scheme was extended to loans for the purchase of houses previously occupied. To qualify for a rebated interest loan the borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the breadwinner's income must not exceed $60 a week increased by $4 for each dependent child.

Loans now being granted at 3 percent interest provide for a 5-yearly review of the interest rate and if the borrower does not qualify for a continuance of an income rebate to 3 percent at the time of review, the interest rate is increased to the normal interest rate for the balance of the term of the loan. The normal interest rate is also subject to a 5-yearly review.

For the year ended 31 March 1972, 782 loans involving $5,511,720 were authorised with rebate to 3 percent compared with 2,230 loans for $14,965,620 in 1970–71.

Loans will also be granted for alterations or additions and where the housing of an elderly or dependent relative is involved. Loans may be up to 90 percent of the value and may be by way of first or second mortgage security.

Housing improvement loans were introduced from November 1972. The pilot scheme is confined to inner areas of the four main centres. The main purpose is the up-grading of the older housing stock. Loans will be entertained for owner-occupied or tenanted properties on first or subsequent mortgage.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—A further scheme of housing finance administered by the corporation is that involving capitalisation of family benefits, which came into operation on 1 April 1959, the moneys for which are provided by the Social Welfare Department and paid out by the corporation. Applications for advances under the Family Benefit (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Social Welfare Department For the year ended 31 March 1972, 4,489 advances totalling $5,750,450 were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 7,229 advances totalling $9,172,195 in 1970–71.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme For Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates schemes whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed either repayment of that portion of a housing loan granted by the institution in excess of its normal limits (usually two-thirds of the value) or the whole of the amount advanced. The guarantee operates up to 90 percent of value for a first table mortgage or 85 percent for a first flat mortgage, but second or subsequent mortgages are also guaranteed. Loans granted under this scheme are for the erection of a house, for the purchase of an existing house, for alterations and additions, or to refinance existing mortgages. Fees are assessed in accordance with the type of loan guaranteed. Guarantees since the inception of the scheme total 6,041 involving $35,292,168 advanced by lending institutions, of which $5,561,785 was guaranteed.

REHABILITATION—The corporation is the principal agent for the Rehabilitation Board regarding loans granted on rehabilitation terms to eligible ex-servicemen for the purchase and improvement of farms and the purchase or erection of dwellings. Loan moneys for these purposes are made available from the corporation's own funds. The securities taken by the corporation are similar to mortgages taken for the purpose of securing loans made under the corporation's ordinary lending activities, except that the Reserve Fund contribution on loans within the respective rehabilitation loan limits is paid to the corporation by the Consolidated Revenue Account which also meets the difference between the corporation's normal interest rate and the reduced interest rate charged to ex-servicemen. The classes of loans currently granted are set out in Section 6B (War Pensions).

LOANS TO INDUSTRY—The corporation is also authorised to make loans for the development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries where they are in the public interest. Apart from loans, guarantees may also be given to other lenders, in terms of Government schemes designed to promote the provision of tourist accommodation and the development of the fishing industry.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1970–711971–72
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Farm loans— $(000) $(000)
     Purchase3679,94742310,446
     Development1,83314,0851,91218,663
     Refinance9325,7201,60916,296
     Additional land1,03420,3771,16222,873
Stock loans—
     Direct4152,3114882,546
     RIC associations1547552301,285
Lands Department settlements510824553
                    Totals, rural4,74053,3035,84872,662
Housing loans—
     Erection7,04349,4806,34049,894
     Purchase4,68729,6164,99733,067
     Other purposes495701503852
                    Totals, urban12,22579,79711,84083,813
Loans to industry503,704528,736
                    Grand totals17,015136,80417,740165,211

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen in respect of farms and houses.

The aggregate loans approved from its own funds since the corporation commenced business in 1935 to 31 March 1972 are as follows.

Type of LoanNumberAmount
* Since 1958 the whole of the General Reserve Fund has been invested in Government securities.
  $(million)
Farm63,441622.8
Housing274,5221,203.8
Loans to industry33252.5
Loans to local authorities (from General Reserve Fund)*1,13138.3
                    Totals339,4261,917.4

Conditions of Loans—The large majority of the loans granted by the corporation are secured by table mortgages for terms varying from 10 to 30 years, but the corporation also has power to make advances on flat mortgages on certain conditions.

When loans are granted in excess of normal lending margins, mortgagors may be required to offer some form of collateral security (e.g., mortgage of life policy).

All mortgagors who receive from the corporation a loan secured by a mortgage of land are required to pay, as a contribution to the corporation's General Reserve Fund, an amount equal to 2 percent of the amount of the loan and this amount may be borrowed as an addition to the principal sum if so desired. This contribution may be waived, or reduced, in respect of a loan granted within 5 years of repaying an earlier loan from the corporation. These amounts, together with the transfer from profits referred to later, form the General Reserve Fund.

Interest Rates—The rates of interest on housing loans is generally 5 1/2 percent, but may range up to 8 percent if the corporation is second or subsequent encumbrancer and on loans to industry 6 to 7 percent (farm loans are covered earlier).

Mortgages granted after 1 April 1968 provide for a review of the rate of interest at 5-yearly intervals.

Annual Repayment Costs—The following summary shows the annual cost—i.e., interest and principal payments—per $100 borrowed on table mortgage at 3 percent, 5 1/2 percent, and 6 percent for the various periods.

TermAnnual Amount Payable Per $100 Borrowed
3 Percent5 1/2 Percent6 Percent
 $    $    $    
10 years11.6413.1413.44
15 years8.329.9010.20
20 years6.688.308.66
25 years5.727.407.78
30 years5.086.847.22

FINANCIAL—Balance-sheet figures show that at 31 March 1972 stock and debentures outstanding were $346,107,780. National Development Loans capital was $597,523,230, compared with $522,523,230 at 31 March 1971.

The General Reserve Fund at 31 March 1972 amounted to $48,680,027 and in addition there were specific reserves amounting to $8,838,264, making total reserves of $57,518,291 as compared with $52,940,950 at 31 March 1971.

Funds available to the corporation from National Development Loans Accounts have been subject to an interest rate of 4 1/2 percent from 1 April 1963, and a total of $75,000,000 was advanced during the year.

As from the same date the corporation was reimbursed for interest concessions on civilian rebated housing loans (that is, for the difference between its normal lending rate and the rebated rate). This reimbursement is effected by deduction from interest payments due by the corporation to the Public Account in respect of National Development Loans capital and the interest concessions so reimbursed amounted to $3,626,140 for the year ended 31 March 1972.

Mortgages and accrued interest at 31 March 1972 totalled $939,482,504, an increase of $77,137,443 over the amount at 31 March 1971, while Government and local authority securities and accrued interest, at $56,601,339, were greater by $3,817,970.

After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets, and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the corporation, the surplus for each financial year after payment of income tax is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorises it to be credited in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the corporation.

The details of profits in respect of operations during each of the latest 3 financial years are given in the following table.

Disposition and Appropriation of Profits1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Gross income41,94845,30049,334
     Less interest on Reserve Fund investments2,4202,5042,694
     Less interest on loan capital31,87634,49337,245
                    Gross Profit7,6528,3039,395
     Less management expenses2,5373,2203,745
                    Net Profit5,1155,0835,650
     Less reserve for taxes2,5622,5502,562
     Less transfer to General Reserve404040
     Less transfer to Premises Capital Reserve8008001,000
                    Surplus payable to Public Account1,7131,6932,048

The gross income of $49,334,298 in 1971–72 included $41,958,113 interest on mortgages and current accounts, $2,783,656 interest on Government and local authority securities, $939,678 recovery from the Rehabilitation Division on account of interest concessions to ex-servicemen on rehabilitation advances, and $3,626,140 for interest concessions on civilian rebated advances. Corresponding figures for 1970–71 were $45,300,402, $37, 722,324, $2,594,416, and $991,119 respectively for the first four items.

HOUSING ACT 1955: In addition to its lending activities the State Advances Corporation has the important function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of State rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of State rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

State Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken from by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1972 totalled 661. State houses under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1971 were 52,441. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sales and repurchases, there was a net total of 52,377 at 31 March 1972, a decrease of 64 from the previous year.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1972 were 7.13 percent compared with 6.97 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $19,756,150. In addition the sum of $553,977 was recouped by deduction of interest payable on National Development Loans capital to offset rental concessions granted to pensioners, etc., thus bringing the total receipts to $20,310,127 compared with $18,835,774 for 1970–71. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of State houses. For the year ended 31 March 1972 this amounted to $5,336,286 against $4,035,634 for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1972 being $3,508,312 compared with the previous year's figure of $3,331,138.

As in the preceding year, the interest rate payable on National Development Loans capital in 1970–71 was 3 percent. The year's revenue transactions in the Housing Account produced a total surplus of $1,542,194 which, together with a surplus of $12,036,062 brought forward from 1970–71, resulted in a revenue surplus of $13,578,256 being carried forward at the close of 1972.

References to State housing construction are contained in Section 19 (Building Construction and Housing).

Sale of State Houses—Should they desire to own their own homes, State house tenants of single units are given the opportunity of buying the houses they occupy.

The current purchase terms available to tenants include:

  1. A minimum deposit of $400 or 5 percent of the gross purchase price if this is higher but where, however, the financial position of the purchaser warrants, the corporation may require a greater deposit.

  2. The balance of the purchase money, together with interest, payable over a period of up to 40 years on an instalment-table basis.

  3. Interest at 5 1/2 percent reducible to 3 percent while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for a 3 percent housing loan.

  4. Agreements for sale completed after 1 April 1968 provide for a review of the rate of interest at 5-yearly intervals.

From the inception of the sale of State rental houses up to 31 March 1972 the number sold was 24,254 for a total sale price of $128,493,181. Of the houses sold, 1,304 have been repurchased by the corporation for $6,545,560. The repurchases comprise properties which have been bought back in terms of the sale agreement—generally from purchasers who have transferred to other towns in the course of their employment.

Loans to Local Authorities for Housing—The corporation has authority to advance moneys received under the Housing Act 1955 to local authorities for housing purposes; loans are made for housing of the elderly and community housing including urban renewal and, in some cases, the development of land for housing. Under the Rural Housing Act 1939 the corporation has authority also to grant finance to local authorities for farm housing. A summary of loans authorised under these provisions, during the latest 2 financial years, is given in the following table.

Type of Loan to Local Authorities1970–711971–72
NumberValueNumberValue
 $(000) $(000)
Housing of the elderly43742461,014
Community housing2,5882,380
Rural housing312,446311,844
                    Totals745,776775,238

Interest rates on loans granted to local authorities are: housing of the elderly and urban renewal schemes, 3 1/2 percent; other community housing, 5 percent; and rural housing 4 3/4 percent.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES: Classification of Accounts and Balance Sheet Assets at 31 March 1972—As already indicated, the corporation, in addition to its normal lending functions, administers a number of other State activities, and a general summary of the business under administration as at 31 March 1972 is as follows.

ItemNumber of AccountsAmount
State Advances Corporation—$(000)
     Loans on mortgage—
          Rural20,731327,288
          Urban133,110580,532
          Industrial19631,662
               Totals154,037939,482
Advances to rural intermediate credit associations61,818
Advances on current account3683
Mortgage securities in course of realisation19129
Government and local authority securities40856,601
Fixed and current assets…      8,718
Farm guarantees1530
Sheep farmers supplementary finance scheme1,9445,218
               Totals2,42872,597
Agencies—
     Advances under Rehabilitation Act 1941—  
     Furniture, business, and miscellaneous666139
     Interest-free supplementary loans(3,159)529
     Department of Health723,878
     Licensing Control Commission291,838
     Gas companies13359
     Suspensory loans (rural and urban)153343
     Mines Department suspensory loans6163
     Miscellaneous rentals, etc.685…      
     Agriculture suspensory10,058…      
               Totals11,7377,149
Housing Account—
     Properties sold—amounts owing13,70457,688
     Loans to local authorities—
          Urban housing57122,299
          Rural housing35814,540
     Properties let—
          Dwellings52,377273,579
          Shops, halls, and communal garages173
     Current assets…      1,001
     Timber workers' rentals2…      
               Totals67,185369,107
               Grand totals235,3871,388,335

Farm loans and residential loans to ex-servicemen under the Rehabilitation Act 1941 are included in the table with mortgage investments. Particulars of all rehabilitation loan authorisations will be found in Section 6B (War Pensions).

30 C—BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have over 425,000 members. There are 63 building societies with total assets of $327.5 million. They provide finance for home ownership to the extent of over $61 million a year. Building societies have assisted the national economy by developing the field of contractual saving. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

In 1970 a measure was introduced requiring building societies to hold 5 percent of their assets in the form of public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—Although some of these societies issue preference shares and accept deposits, most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit by direct canvassing new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of $400, with a contractual payment of 10 cents weekly per share. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot-winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot-winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. Over 90 percent of the loans grafted are on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who have not received a loan and withdraw their shares after 10 or more years of membership receive their subscriptions back in full plus such an amount as the directors may determine. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years when those remaining financial members who have not won a ballot nor received an interest-bearing loan receive a share of profits in addition to a return of their subscriptions. In 1971 there were 12 terminating societies with 388,777 shareholders.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary and partly co-operative, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital somewhat similar to finance companies. In 1971 there were 51 permanent societies with 36,917 shareholders.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Financial activities are shown in the next table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197019711970197119701971
 $(million)
Paid-up capital43.447.8168.4186.7211.8234.6
Advances on mortgage82.890.1159.5179.1242.2269.1
Advances on security of shares0.30.36.48.36.78.8
Investments8.18.325.428.533.536.8

An analysis of shares held at the end of 1971 is shown in the following table.

Type of SharePermanent SocietiesTerminating Societies
Paid-up Value of Shares on IssueNumber of ShareholdersPaid-up Value of Shares on IssueNumber of Shareholders
* This item comprises mostly shares which are payable in full on application, and which may be withdrawn by members on certain conditions.
 ($000) ($000) 
Capital shares8,7506,247211
Terminating group shares–    –    184,977387,586
Investing shares8,89121,7661,7711,157
Other*30,21311,4252025

A summary of receipts and payments is given in the following table for the financial year of societies ended during 1971.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
* Ten societies are authorised to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Receipts
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)13,37534,19647,571
Deposits received—
     Savings bank*3,4921193,611
     Other37,39715,38252,779
Interest and principal repaid—
     Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)20,53439,86760,401
     Advances on shares2304,6134,843
Investments realised8,13718,02926,166
Payments
Share moneys withdrawn9,70414,77624,480
Deposits and interest withdrawn—
     Savings bank*3,5541173,671
     Other36,14012,70248,842
Advanced on mortgage21,89748,80470,701
Advanced on shares2906,0006,290
Investments made8,39521,09929,494

A summary of income and expenditure for financial years ended in 1971 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Mainly levies on members as provisions against losses on mortgages.

† Mainly agency commissions.

Income
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Interest earned on—
     Advances5,77511,34717,122
     Investments3661,6392,005
Fees, commissions and fines82554636
Incomes from properties54304358
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount3837840
Other*50574624
               Total Income6,33015,25521,585
Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings2,2461,2703,516
Directors' emoluments10878186
Auditors' fees244367
Salaries3511,6191,970
Other administrative expenses2111,1541,365
Selling and establishment expenses—written off111,4261,437
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off–    3,8453,845
Expenses on properties, including depreciation45214259
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off–    6262
Other118676†794
               Total expenditure3,11410,38713,501
               Excess of income over expenditure3,2164,8688,084

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the three latest calendar years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
196919701971196919701971196919701971
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Dwellings—
     Erections2.53.03.54.34.96.56.87.99.9
     Purchases9.312.313.917.925.924.427.338.338.4
     Other purposes1.41.81.810.811.211.712.213.013.5
Business and other properties2.63.42.74.25.76.16.89.28.9
               Totals15.920.521.937.247.848.853.168.370.7

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1971.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

† In previous years included in either “Advances on security of mortgage” or “Other”.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Assets
Land and buildings9658,1089,073
Other fixed assets56702758
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*90,064179,068269,132
Advances on security of shares3878,3738,760
Investments8,33828,48736,825
Cash and bank277122399
Appropriations in trust debit balances†–    2,3992,399
Other35140175
               Total assets100,122227,399327,521
Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)47,854186,770234,624
Reserves5,0719,03314,104
Retained profits74419,81720,561
 53,669215,620269,289
     Less fictitious assets375,09115,128
 53,632200,529254,161
Deposits—
     Savings bank2,4551042,559
     Other42,10422,21564,319
Appropriations in trust credit balances–    2,4532,453
Provisions1,1926421,834
Bank overdraft5579941,551
Other182462644
               Total liabilities100,122227,399327,521

The book values of investments at the end of the three latest financial years are shown in the next table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
196919701971196919701971196919701971
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Government securities3.63.94.112.911.711.416.515.615.5
Local body securities0.81.11.27.68.69.28.39.710.4
Short-term money market1.10.80.80.60.31.71.10.8
Advances to employees1.61.82.11.71.92.1
Deposits with other societies0.50.60.50.50.60.5
Deposits with banks1.02.02.10.40.62.21.42.64.3
Other0.61.92.90.72.03.0
               Totals6.68.18.324.325.428.430.933.536.8

30 D—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than seven members may, under certain conditions, be re-registered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED—The following table shows for the last 11 years the number and aggregate nominal capital of new private companies registered.

In comparing one year with another it should not be overlooked that reregistrations, on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included. Such reregistrations of large companies may have a considerable effect on the year's total, so far as capital is concerned.

The nominal capital shown for overseas companies is the total nominal capital of these companies and, of course, bears no relationship to their capital resources employed in New Zealand. It is shown merely as some indication of the relative size of overseas companies commencing business in this country.

YearPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital
* Two companies are limited (as to capital) by guarantee
 $(000) $(000) $(000)
19613,53130,2042524,1661117,339
19623,30122,9202510,5882511,581
19634,10730,358266,3153237,460
19645,00943,8322614,3071931,814
19655,50436,7793725,3792223,602
19665,55637,570166,88737142,882
19674,77132,0762713,1453157,497
19684,95530,033206,03235154,036
19696,33860,0603015,00435217,552
19706,34645,1543438,43451199,318
1971*5,42538,5233142,17534278,291

The following table gives a classification of new companies registered in 1971 according to the amount of nominal capital.

Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital
          $ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under         2,0002,1401,3524111
    2,000–    3,9991,1902,817
    4,000–    5,9997973,64714
    6,000–    7,9993382,16316
    8,000–    9,9991941,625
  10,000–  11,9993533,566110660
  12,000–  13,99974907
  14,000–  15,99946685115
  16,000–  17,99917277118
  18,000–  19,99910180
  20,000–  29,9991262,692360
  30,000–  39,999361,114
  40,000–  99,999613,20652314278
100,000–199,999232,77845582200
200,000and over1811,5151341,36514277,659
Limited by guarantee, etc.222
                    Totals5,42538,5233142,17534278,291

The number of private company registrations in 1971 was 5,425, a decrease of 921 from the 6,346 registered in 1970. The nominal capital of companies decreased by $6.6 million over the previous year.

The extent of changes in the number and nominal capital of new registrations of private companies between 1961 and 1971, expressed as percentages of the totals is shown in the following table.

Amount of Nominal CapitalNumberAmount of Capital
1961197119611971
            $percent
Under      2,00021.739.50.73.5
  2,000–  9,99957.746.411.526.6
10,000–19,99911.29.26.714.6
20,000 and over9.44.981.155.3
               Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Compiled from published sources, the following summary gives the stated objects of all new companies registered during the latest 3 years. Because of possible inaccuracies in the source data, and the difficulty of precise classification by industrial group from the information available, the figures should be regarded as approximate only.

Industry Group196919701971
Agriculture and livestock production748670405
Forestry, hunting, and fishing868458
Mining and quarrying417650
Manufacturing—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco516171
     Textile, footwear, and apparel587684
     Woodwork and furniture606956
     Machinery114145154
     Transport equipment213250183
     Other256301315
Construction641606526
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail1,9391,9231,678
     Banks and other financial institutions370393257
     Real estate599589426
     Other302620
Transport, storage, and communication228216181
Services—
     Community and business206181267
     Personal553579562
Other475991
Miscellaneous or not known163122106
                    Totals6,4036,4315,490

Changes of Nominal Capital by Registered Companies—In the calendar year 1971, 1,849 public and private companies which previously had a total nominal capital of $187.2 million increased their nominal capital by $160.7 million to $347.9 million. There were 30 cases with increases of $1 million or more and these accounted for $98.2 million of the total increase.

Overseas companies registered in New Zealand, but not included in the preceding figures, increased their nominal capital by $25.4 million, from $33.9 million to $59.3 million.

In 31 cases local companies reduced their nominal capital by a total of $15.8 million from $28.9 million to $13.1 million.

Companies on Register—At 31 December 1972 there were 88,071 companies on the register compared with 83,970 at the same date last year. Included in these figures are overseas companies which amount to 513 and 521 respectively. These figures were supplied by the Registrar of Companies.

Companies Gazetted as Deleted From the Company Register—During 1971 there were 1,142 companies deleted from the Company Register, their total nominal capital being $20.8 million. In the previous year 1,757 companies with total capital of $20.2 million were deleted.

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Results of these analyses are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

The basis of coverage includes only companies of New Zealand domicile whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources. This definition excludes, among others, companies carrying on insurance, some stock and station agents, and shipping companies. The number of companies covered has been: 1967–68, 288; 1968–69, 279; 1969–70, 260; 1970–71, 248; and 1971–72, 248. The surveys cover analysed accounts received during the 12 months ended 30 June.

Changes in sources of funds over the latest four years are shown in the following table.

Source of Funds1968–691969–701970–711971–72
 percent
Retained profits and depreciation58.444.742.437.1
Other long-term sources26.525.324.430.5
All long-term sources84.970.066.867.6
Short-term sources15.130.033.232.4
                    Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

The next table sets out proportionately the use of funds.

Use of Funds1968–691969–701970–711971–72
 percent
Property and plant52.246.841.449.1
Long-term investment11.09.711.48.4
 63.256.552.857.5
Stocks11.818.322.320.5
Debtors14.024.223.621.3
Other short-term11.01.01.30.7
                    Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Appropriation of income of 248 New Zealand public companies in the latest two years is shown in the following table.

Item1969–701970–71
 $(000)
Income for year—
     Trading271,996293,908
     Investment income8,6329,657
     Other non-trading income1,6472,075
               Total income282,275305,640
Deductions—
     Depreciation64,16671,439
     Interest on fixed liabilities22,08125,700
     Directors' fees1,7311,813
     Tax on current year's income90,03094,232
     Minority interests2,3622,381
               Total deductions180,370195,565
Net profit after tax101,905110,075
Previous year's adjustments—
     Tax661156
     Other9,3286,162
            Available for appropriation111,894116,393
Appropriations—
     Goodwill, etc., written off4,1597,929
     Ordinary dividends52,55958,672
     Preference dividends2,0232,023
     Retained in reserves53,15347,769
               Total appropriations111,894116,393

Chapter 31. Section 31
INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE INSURANCE

DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ASSURANCE—Life assurance is no longer restricted to its original function, but has been encouraged for its avenue of contractual savings accumulating to considerable capital investment. Its additional role as the basis of many private superannuation schemes gives to a large segment of the labour force a protection not available to it a generation ago. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Growth in life-assurance assets has exceeded $100 million a year in recent years and in 1971–72 they totalled $1,531 million of which 35.2 percent is invested in mortgages on property, 28 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 16.4 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures. Premiums paid each year for life assurance are the equivalent of some 3.6 percent of national income, and life assurance and the insurance organisations as a group have financed about 10 percent of the country's internal public debt.

In the year 1971–72 there were 227,050 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $1,560.5 million, or approximately $538 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2,336,602 for a total life assurance of $7,996 million. (These figures exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Canada, the United States, and Sweden, as shown in the following table. This survey covered 43 countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1970.) Selected countries are listed in the following table.

Country19631968
 percent
Canada183197
United States151164
Sweden130154
New Zealand117151
Netherlands123123
Australia82101
United Kingdom78104
Japan69112

In Sweden the introduction in 1936 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) Group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers in other countries and typically provide for a death benefit equal to one or two times annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 25 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, eight are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., and the Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd.; whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd., and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between June and May of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand. Further information is available in the Report on Insurance Statistics prepared by the Department of Statistics and available in Government bookshops.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

A summary of annual life-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of
Policies
Issued
Value of
Policies
Discontinued
Value of
Policies Existing at
End of Year
Annual Premiums on
Existing Policies
Number of
Policies
in Force
* Includes policies (value $12.1 million) transferred.
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)(000)
1961–62396.6127.42,547.864.41,723
1962–63435.2140.22,842.869.41,751
1963–64508.6156.03,195.575.51,793
1964–65595.6183.33,609.182.81,846
1965–66674.0213.34,069.891.11,911
1966–67744.0227.04,586.7100.91,973
1967–68768.9260.65,094.9113.62,028
1968–69793.2309.25,579.0121.42,087
1969–70928.8346.16,155.0131.72,149
1970–711,173.9*434.56,894.5146.62,230
1971–721,560.5462.07,996.4168.62,338

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 11 years the face value of new business underwritten annually and the amount of cover in force has more than trebled.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business—A table showing the progress of business over a period of 11 years is given below. Annuities are excluded from these figures.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* Includes 4,222 policies with sum assured of $12.1 million and annual premiums $274,978 of the New Zealand Victoria Life Ltd. at 1 June 1970 included in New Zealand (Life General) Insurance Co. Ltd.
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
1961–62114,874387.57.965,011119.83.21,288,6882,460.760.4
1962–63119,238424.58.468,757132.03.31,339,1712,753.265.4
1963–64131,279497.49.871,403148.03.71,399,0473,102.671.5
1964–65140,865583.511.472,074175.34.21,468,0513,512.178.7
1965–66149,768660.913.169,720204.64.81,548,0993,968.486.9
1966–67152,584730.014.673,718217.54.91,626,9654,480.996.6
1967–68151,835754.315.689,575251.22.91,689,2244,984.0109.3
1968–69150,856779.414.784,635298.97.01,755,4455,464.4117.0
1969–70165,343913.617.689,550335.17.21,827,5286,036.2127.2
1970–71190,0731,156.8*23.3*97,354423.08.51,920,2476,770.0142.0
1971–72214,3521,537.831.399,090449.49.52,035,6597,861.9163.8

In addition to the figure of $31.3 million representing annual premiums payable for policies issued during 1971–72, an amount of $6.6 million was paid during that year in the form of single premiums.

The average annual premium for each $100 of new business effected during 1971–72 was $2.03, compared with $2 in 1970–71. There has been evident for some years past a growing preference for whole-life policies or longer-term endowment assurance. Group assurance as a substitute for, or supplementation of, private or national superannuation schemes, has also assumed relative popularity, but owing to lack of data it is unfortunately not possible to give an analysis of policies by types.

Annuity policies issued during 1971–72 (excluded from these tables) numbered 192, as against 164 in 1970–71. The corresponding annual amounts were $8.3 million and $4.4 million. There were 1,834 annuities in force at the end of the year assuring an annual amount of $24.1 million.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount
 $    
1960–613,074
1961–623,374
1962–633,560
1963–643,788
1964–654,142
1965–664,412
1966–674,784
1967–684,968
1968–695,166
1969–705,525
1970–716,159
1971–727,174

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover).

The average face value of discontinued policies during 1971–72 was $4,535, while the average face value of policies in force at the end of the year was $3,862.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued—The causes of discontinuances during each of the latest 5 years are contained in the next table.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1967–687,17719,65129,46918,20715,07189,575
1968–698,05920,05232,31917,9376,26884,635
1969–707,88520,09034,80318,2268,54689,550
1970–718,77820,82739,65519,9828,11297,354
1971–728,57122,26238,70921,9807,56899,090
Sum Assured $(m)
1967–6813.215.5100.072.350.1251.2
1968–6916.217.2122.377.465.8298.9
1969–7015.817.4147.284.270.5335.1
1970–7119.520.7176.796.6109.4423.0
1971–7219.623.5189.3120.696.3449.4

Revenue and Expenditure—A statement of revenue and expenditure under the various heads illustrates the course of ordinary life-assurance business in New Zealand during the past 5 years. Transfers between head offices and branches are included. The ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue are also given.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
          Revenue$(000)
New and renewal premiums109,909118,999128,938144,827162,618
Consideration for annuities1,7221,5271,6522,1443,462
Interest, rents, etc.55,00161,60469,01176,75685,331
Transfers5841,5505939021,059
Other revenue4438721,0681,2702,185
                    Totals, revenue167,659184,551201,262225,898254,654
          Expenditure
Claims by death and maturity36,20241,44943,17551,13055,584
Annuities6957899581,0601,439
Surrenders12,55115,09717,15620,33223,340
Cash bonuses230236258281276
Commissions9,0009,35510,59913,31117,097
Other management11,69612,50313,63615,70818,851
Rates and taxes5,2415,4126,0777,7638,958
Transfers7617701,0799781,124
Other expenditure1,4401,4011,8431,3522,061
                 Totals, expenditure77,81787,01294,781111,916128,732
            Ratiospercent
Management expenses to premium income18.818.418.820.022.1
Management expenses to total revenue12.311.812.012.814.1

Of the excess of revenue as shown in the above statements a large proportion is transferred annually to reserves to meet future payments under policies.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business—In principle there is no difference between ordinary and industrial assurance. With the latter class of insurance the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than 3 months and are usually collected personally by agents. Collection of premiums from family homes at 4-weekly intervals has led to the informal description of this branch as home service insurance. During the last decade particularly, the promotion of this type of life assurance has declined, the number of policies issued in 1971–72 being only 61.7 percent of the 1961–62 total. Of the 25 life offices, only 5 engage in industrial business.

A summary of the course of industrial-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
 $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
1961–6220,5779.137643,2507.6391433,98587.23,952
1962–6319,28410.641541,0268.2408412,24389.63,959
1963–6418,14411.342336,8278.0380393,56092.94,001
1964–6517,24212.144432,6758.0374378,12797.04,072
1965–6616,19013.146331,7748.7388362,543101.44,147
1966–6717,05314.050333,4309.6420346,166105.84,230
1967–6815,93314.550722,9879.4400339,112111.04,336
1968–6913,68613.847921,22310.2419331,575114.64,396x
1969–7014,15715.252624,58211.0442321,150118.84,481
1970–7112,96517.256023,92611.5451310,189124.54,590
1971–7212,69822.668221,94412.7463300,943134.44,809

The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1971–72 amounted to $1,782 with an average annual premium of $54. Corresponding averages for 1960–61 were $444 and $18.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued—A summary of the number of industrial policies and the corresponding assurances discontinued according to the several causes is now given.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1966–671,62519,7615,9805,12194333,430
1967–681,57510,5516,4493,69371922,987
1968–691,4385,9456,5635,5451,73221,223
1969–701,44711,8096,2644,82024224,582
1970–711,46711,3006,2644,76912623,926
1971–721,53210,4265,5664,28113921,944
Sum Assured $(000)
1966–672812,6802,2984,1351669,560
1967–683041,4993,0974,3661439,408
1968–692799293,1995,43737710,222
1969–702811,9323,3535,2949310,952
1970–713171,8833,6565,6123911,507
1971–723481,7473,5886,9285312,664

Of the assurance in force at the end of the previous year, 6.6 percent of the ordinary policies were discontinued in 1971–72 as compared with 10.2 percent of the industrial policies.

In the following table the sums assured for the various classes of discontinuances are expressed as percentages of the total discontinuances.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
 percent
1966–672.928.024.143.31.7100.0
1967–683.215.932.946.41.6100.0
1968–692.79.131.353.23.7100.0
1969–702.517.630.648.40.9100.0
1970–712.716.431.848.80.3100.0
1971–722.813.828.354.70.4100.0

Industrial policies are often taken out by parents for children shortly after they are born for the policies to mature when the children are approaching 20 years. This partly explains the greater proportion discontinued by maturity compared with ordinary policies.

Revenue and Expenditure—The several items of revenue and expenditure in industrial business are shown in the following 5-year table, together with the ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total income.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
          Revenue$(000)
Premiums4,2394,2984,3834,4724,648
Interest, rents, etc.2,3972,5602,7782,9403,081
Other revenue3940655765
                    Totals, revenue6,6756,8987,2267,4697,794
          Expenditure
Claims by death and maturity2,1971,6472,6022,6212,554
Surrenders598648661691673
Commissions558530549553678
Other management9188398919881,119
Rates and taxes187183222250283
Other expenditure9018612295111
                Totals, expenditure4,5484,0335,0475,1995,419
            Ratiopercent
Management expenses to premium income34.831.932.934.533.7
Management expenses to total revenue22.119.919.920.623.1

The higher ratio of management expenses to premium income in the industrial branch is largely accounted for by the cost or renewal commissions on collection of premiums and the greater amount of office work involved in relation to the amount assured. In the ordinary branch, commission (new and renewal) in 1971–72 was equivalent to 10.5 percent of the premium income, and in the industrial branch to 14.6 percent. Excluding commission, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 24.1 percent in the industrial branch, as against 11.6 percent in the ordinary.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. Both classes of assurance are represented in the figures which, as in the previous tables, relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Paid-up share capital2,7373,6914,550
Life-assurance and annuity funds1,218,7081,335,2101,464,303
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds26,94727,22929,003
Claims admitted but not paid7,3869,27111,031
Other liabilities25,51321,86222,065
                    Totals1,281,2901,397,2631,530,952

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Totals
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(m)percent
Mortgages on houses, etc.493.3510.4539.238.536.535.2
Loans on policies55.364.877.44.34.75.1
Central Government securities264.5288.3315.320.620.620.6
Local authority securities93.5101.3113.47.37.37.4
Real estate122.2155.6184.99.611.112.1
Company shares and debentures208.1230.7251.416.216.516.4
Outstanding premiums13.712.414.11.10.90.9
Interest accrued, etc.13.014.316.31.01.01.0
Cash5.87.15.40.50.50.4
Other assets11.912.313.60.90.90.9
                    Totals1,281.31,397.31,531.0100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with the life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By 1970 the life-insurance companies were investing 30 percent of their new investable funds in public sector securities, of which not less than 22.5 percent would be in Government stock and 7.5 percent in local authority stock. As a further measure to help restrain expenditure by the private sector, the life-insurance companies were asked by the Government to invest an additional 5 percent of their new funds in public sector securities from 1 October 1970.

For 1971–72 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of both departments was $6.69 percent, compared with $6.55 percent during 1970–71. This rate was calculated by taking the arithmetic means of funds at the beginning and end of the year less half the amount of interest, etc., earned.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies and the manner of their investment. In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL—There are three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These are: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance, providing both comprehensive coverage and compulsory third-party risks cover. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

Legislative proposals envisage continuous cover against accidents of all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' fund financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees; the levy would replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers' Compensation Act. A second scheme, also originating from the Woodhouse Report, would establish a motor vehicle fund to be financed by levies similar to the compulsory third-party premiums.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1971–72 is 67. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 23; Australia, 13; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 27.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
* Excluding reserve provisions.
 $(million)
1961–627939.11.840.924.53.14.44.236.1
1962–638042.22.044.326.83.24.84.639.6
1963–648146.82.349.030.23.55.24.843.7
1964–658051.52.754.233.93.95.65.348.7
1965–668060.03.062.939.54.26.05.955.6
1966–678266.03.369.343.84.16.77.061.6
1967–687769.23.873.047.74.37.47.867.2
1968–697771.64.275.849.04.47.69.070.0
1969–707576.94.681.554.24.88.49.777.1
1970–717588.04.892.865.85.69.48.689.4
1971–7267106.25.7111.977.27.011.38.6104.1

Premium receipts in 1971–72 were 20.7 percent above the 1970–71 figure, while claims rose by 17.3 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 5 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to
Premiums
Commission
to Premiums
Salaries to
Premiums
Other Expenses
to Premiums
Total Expenses
(other than Claims)
to Premiums
Total Expenditure
to Premiums
Total Expenditure
to Total Revenue
 percent
1967–6869.06.210.711.328.297.292.1
1968–6968.56.110.612.529.397.792.3
1969–7070.46.310.912.629.8100.294.6
1970–7174.86.310.79.826.8101.596.3
1971–7272.76.610.68.125.398.093.0

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $19,811,000 in 1969–70, $22,081,000 in 1970–71, and $26,605,000 in 1971–72 The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 25.7, 25.1, and 25.1 percent.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS—In the next table particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last 5 years. Reinsurances effected outside New Zealand are not taken into account in the figures presented below.

YearEmployers' LiabilityPersonal Accident and SicknessMotor Vehicle ComprehensiveMotor Vehicle Third-party RisksOtherTotal
$(thousand)
Premiums Received
1967–6815,3506,67029,8728,6949,71570,302
1968–6915,2457,08231,0918,13311,09172,642
1969–7016,6017,90533,5038,36612,13378,507
1970–7119,0389,19338,9138,80414,48190,429
1971–7223,26710,75448,52911,68216,353110,586
Claims Paid
1967–6810,4642,54522,6055,8234,68246,119
1968–6910,9082,97622,3796,9615,26148,486
1969–7011,7523,32725,8656,9465,72853,619
1970–7113,4973,81931,6297,4027,59763,944
1971–7215,6804,39037,30210,0137,73475,120

Premiums and claims for motor vehicle third-party risks insurance relate to the years ended 30 June.

Claims under motor vehicle comprehensive policies decreased from 81.3 percent of the premiums in 1970–71 to 76.9 percent in 1971–72, while claims under third-party risks policies rose from 84.1 percent in 1970–71 to 85.7 percent of premiums in 1971–72. From 1 July 1965 insurance for motor vehicle third-party risks was extended to cover non-paying passengers and premiums were increased (however, from 1 July 1967 premiums on some classes of vehicles were reduced and these changes are reflected in the fall and rise in the rates of claims to premiums).

Reducing the figures of each class for the years 1969–70 to 1971–72 to a percentage basis, the following results are obtained.

Class of InsuranceClaims to PremiumsPremiums to Total PremiumsClaims to Total Claims
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 percent
Employers' liability70.87.0967.421.121.121.021.921.120.9
Personal accident and sickness42.141.540.810.110.29.76.26.05.8
Motor vehicle comprehensive77.281.376.942.743.043.948.249.449.7
Motor vehicle third-party risks83.084.185.710.79.710.613.011.613.3
Other47.252.547.315.416.014.810.711.910.3
               All classes68.370.767.9100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

MOTOR VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS)—The Transport Act 1962 requires owners of motor vehicles to insure against their liability, through their negligence, to pay damages on account of the death or of bodily injury to another person. The actual process of insuring the vehicle is an integral part of the annual vehicle licensing transaction. The owner nominates an insurance company on the licence application and, upon payment of the combined licence fee and third-party premium, the contract of insurance automatically takes effect.

Premium receipts and claims actually paid have been shown in the earlier tables, but the claims figures given later also show amounts on account of the estimated liability for claims still outstanding at 30 June 1972, which are necessarily subject to revision.

The following table gives the premium rates for the various classes of motor vehicles over the last 4 years. The rates for omnibuses, service cars, and contract motor vehicles are subject to increases according to seating capacity.

Class of Motor Vehicle1969–701970–711971–72*1972–73
* Includes motorcars manufactured before 1 January 1919.
 $    $    $    $    
Motor cycles5.50*5.50*6.90*7.90*
Power cycles0.800.801.001.10
E-plate vehicles1.101.101.401.60
Private cars, business cars and private taxicabs7.907.909.9011.35
Trucks and vans8.058.0510.0511.55
Taxis, public32.0032.0040.0046.00
Buses, over 30 seats (maximum)48.0048.0060.0069.00
Service coaches, over 20 seats (maximum)43.0043.0053.7561.80
Contract motor vehicles (maximum)8.008.0010.0011.50
Trailers0.400.400.500.55
Rental cars35.0035.0043.7550.30
Fire brigade vehicles, ambulances, and miscellaneous12.0012.0015.0017.20

A sum of 25 cents for every contract of insurance is deducted for administration expenses, and the balance paid to the insurance company concerned.

Two important changes brought about by the Transport Amendment Act 1961 and effective from 1 July 1965, were that third-party risks insurance was extended to cover claims by passengers carried gratuitously in the insured vehicle (previously only fare-paying passengers in vehicles plying for hire were covered), and that the limit of $150,000 for any one accident was removed in respect of all claims by passengers in a vehicle used in the passenger-carrying business, i.e., bus, service coach, taxi.

Claims by passengers are subject to a limit of $15,000 for any one fare-paying passenger in a vehicle plying for hire, and $10,000 for passengers carried gratuitously.

A further change made by the Transport Amendment Act 1963 was the provision to enable claims for personal injury against unidentified or uninsured motorists to be made against a nominal defendant (the General Manager, State Insurance Office); these claims are dealt with on similar lines to insured claims.

Statistics of third-party risks insurance during the latest 5 years, with a summary covering the latest 10 years, are given in the following table. It should be noted that the liability for outstanding claims is usually over-estimated, and that the total claims for any particular year, when finally settled, may be expected to be somewhat smaller than the amounts now given.

It follows that the ratios given below are also likely to be reduced in course of time, particularly those for the most recent years.

ItemRegistration Year Ended 30 JuneTotal for
10 Years to
30 June 1972
19681969197019711972
 $(000)
Premiums received8,694.48,133.48,365.68,803.611,682.477,198.1
Claims actually paid to 30 June 19726,934.96,327.05,073.51,969.0271.147,766.9
Estimated liability for claims outstanding at 30 June 19721,556.34,128.19,071.711,639.610,870.638,874.3
Ratio percent of claims, paid and outstanding, to premiums97.7128.5169.1154.695.4112.2

A summary showing the experience over the last 3 registration years for each of the principal classes of motor vehicle is given in the table following.

Class of Motor VehicleNet Premiums
Received
Claims PaidEstimated Claims Outstanding
Arising During
Year
Arising During
Previous Years
Arising During
Year
Arising During
Previous Years
* Includes private taxis.
 $(000)
 1969–70
Motor cycles136783160343
Private and business cars*6,4621745,2916,84215,516
Goods-service vehicles1,266159951,0842,635
Public taxicabs9835792238
Public omnibuses127497131382
Other classes2765216321885
                    Totals8,3662076,7398,63020,000
 1970–71
Motor cycles1494137182458
Private and business cars*6,8062015,6736,91818,089
Goods-service vehicles1,346279789953,397
Public taxicabs9228074327
Public omnibuses125667145352
Other classes28552212281,328
                    Totals8,8042457,1578,54323,950
 1971–72
Motor cycles2328216219589
Private and business cars*9,0202277,2098,74621,541
Goods-service vehicles1,762231,5501,1893,965
Public taxicabs118216575330
Public omnibuses152697357378
Other classes39855052861,231
                    Totals11,6822719,74210,87128,034

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL—Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including, water, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1971 there were 53 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these the head offices of 21 were in New Zealand, 21 were in Great Britain, 8 in Australia, 2 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary of business relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account. While the bulk of the claims represent fire losses the figures also include the numerous, frequently minor, claims made under comprehensive policies for damage from other causes.

YearPolicies at
31 December
Gross Cover at
31 December
Premium IncomeClaimsPercentage
of Claims to
Premium Income
 $(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1961–621,565,9107,281.417,5265,79033.0
1962–631,584,0988,044.318,9957,53139.6
1963–641,664,0458,969.320,2697,01034.6
1964–651,722,6129,555.922,5747,30532.4
1965–661,739,03110,399.924,0338,38734.9
1966–671,776,85611,076.125,9958,46632.6
1967–681,853,43912,115.228,38711,87741.8
1968–691,895,71913,598.130,01613,81446.0
1969–701,913,29913,805.132,69513,01039.8
1970–712,032,10516,069.437,45614,80639.5
1971–722,068,97018,309.443,33917,34940.0

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 53 fire offices, 11 also engage in life-assurance business, but only 2 of these conduct such business in New Zealand.

Item1969–70 (Total)1970–71 (Total)1971–72
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
 $(million)
Paid-up capital508.9497.9446.134.8480.9
Reserves3,952.44,208.24,748.098.24,846.2
Other liabilities5,048.05,504.96,142.4156.26,298.6
                         Totals9,509.310,211.011,336.4289.211,625.7
Life funds10,168.510,695.311,364.40.111,364.5
               Total liabilities19,677.920,906.422,700.8289.422,990.2

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments—accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
 $(million)
Real estate21.4021.6424.8929.9236.09
Central Government securities32.5334.2332.6631.6729.93
Local authority securities20.6222.7625.1223.9125.47
Company shares and debentures35.2832.1141.9247.3158.75
Mortgages, etc.28.2931.0631.5731.9235.21
Outstanding premiums14.3916.4318.1322.3227.76
Cash and other assets in New Zealand33.8537.0434.0736.4740.97
                    Total New Zealand assets186.36195.26208.35223.52254.17

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It is insurance practice at the closing date of the accounts of a fire-insurance company to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year, to allow for policies whose currency extends into the following accounting year. Thus, if the amount transferred to reserve at the end of the current year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year, the net effect is equivalent to an increase in this year's expenditure and the difference is therefore shown as expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred this year is less than last year, then the difference will be shown as revenue.

The entry of change in reserve provision in the gross figures, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

Item1970–711971–72
GrossNetGrossNet
          Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions42203134
Amount of fire premiums received during year43,80528,91451,24733,573
Interest and dividends2,3312,3312,5952,595
Rents602602494494
Other revenue774949
                    Totals46,74931,85754,58836,846
          Expenditure
Change in reserve provisions2,5871,5653,5772,226
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage17,39610,50721,29013,230
Fire authority levies3,2802,5303,9442,834
Central Government taxes1,3435102,2351,580
Rents489489522517
Depreciation318318368368
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others5,4712,8845,7782,529
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses5,2375,2356,1106,110
Other expenses of management3,2173,2123,5703,559
                    Totals39,33927,25147,39532,944

The principal items of net revenue and expenditure for 1971–72 of the overseas and local companies operating in New Zealand are contained in the next table.

Class of OfficeNet RevenueNet Expenditure
PremiumsTotal*
(Including Other)
ClaimsSalaries and
Commissions
Total*
(Including Other)
* Excluding change in reserve provisions.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Overseas companies14,94216,0236,0613,65213,862
Local companies18,63120,6897,1694,97616,856
                    Totals33,57336,71213,2308,62830,718

Excluding the change in reserve provisions, the excess of net revenue over net expenditure (after tax) for 1971–72 of $5.99 million compares with surpluses of $6.17 million and $4.30 million for 1970–71 and 1969–70 respectively.

The following table shows the percentage ratio of working expenses to premium income for the years 1967–68 to 1971–72. Under the Fire Services Act 1949 fire-insurance companies are required to make a return of premium income to the Fire Service Council which makes a levy, normally just over 10 percent of the returnable figures, for the administration of fire services. This levy meets almost half the cost of the services. It is sometimes contended that contributions to the fire-prevention authority are not a working expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and this table shows the ratio both inclusive and exclusive of such levies.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
 percent
Net working expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income46.245.945.150.647.4
Net working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to net premium income40.039.938.742.038.9
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)37.237.037.141.139.4
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)32.031.831.433.631.7

FIRES AND LOSSES—Annual fire losses in New Zealand have been estimated to average over $8.7 million over the last 10 years. This is allowing 15 percent above the known figures of insured losses as the estimated cost of fire damage not covered by insurance. The Government, for example, usually bears its own risk.

A summary of fire losses over the latest 11 calendar years follows. The figures are subject to considerable annual fluctuations as a result of the severe losses that can be caused by individual major fires. During 1971 there were 24 payments of $40,000 or more, the aggregate amount of loss being $1.9 million, as compared with 24 payments involving a loss of $2.1 million in 1970.

YearNumber of
Fire-loss
Payment
Gross LossAverage
Fire-loss
Payments
 ($000)$  
196132,0304,726148
196232,2275,834182
196336,7855,675154
196437,5466,192164
196538,6905,863152
196640,6476,158151
196742,5608,307195
196843,9727,151163
196950,0207,912158
197051,9818,685167
197153,3138,975168

The average insurance claim paid for material fire damage per head of total population was $2.20 in 1965, $2.27 in 1966, $3.03 in 1967, $2.58 in 1968, $2.82 in 1969, $3.05 in 1970, and $3.10 in 1971.

At 31 December 1971 there were 17 united urban, 120 urban, and 139 secondary urban fire districts constituted. The following table analyses fire losses by fire districts for 1971.

Type of Fire DistrictNumber of
Fire-loss
Payments
Gross Amount of
Loss Paid on
Risks Affected
Proportion
of Loss to
Total Loss
 $(000)percent
United urban fire districts27,3374,06145.3
Urban fire districts20,3223,70041.2
Secondary urban fire districts2,6246196.9
Remainder of New Zealand (including floating risks)3,0305956.6
                    Totals53,3138,975100.0

The relationship between the number of payments and loss incurred is fairly closely sustained for the main types of district; 89.4 percent of payments related to fires which occurred in urban (including united urban) fire districts, the loss amounting to 86.5 percent of the total.

Causes of Fires—Particulars regarding causes of fires are contained in the following table. A more detailed table of causes of fires is given in the annual Report on Insurance Statistics.

Cause of Fire196919701971
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount of LossNumber of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount of LossNumber of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount of Loss
 $(000) $(000) $(000)
Electricity17,4331,76218,3521,53019,2871,535
Gas445585353950698
Chimneys and flues70414257913162899
Fireplaces and stoves12,60459911,93965410,955658
Inflammable spirits and materials940270839423874313
Outside cause1,5492691,5933631,654295
Smoking and matches11,47654513,19778914,043974
Arson and incendiarism245302283363206247
Other specified causes1,7202991,5343191,910437
Unknown causes2,9043,6663,1304,0743,2504,319
                    Totals50,0207,91251,9818,68553,3138,975

The actual cause of many fires is not easily ascertainable, especially in cases of total, or near-total loss, where evidence as to origin is obliterated. This accounts for the high proportion of loss due to unknown causes and for the fact that the average loss payment is much greater in these instances. During 1971 the average payment for specified causes was $93, while the average for the unspecified group amounted to $1,329. As most major fires result from unknown causes this accounts for the large difference between the averages.

Extent of Loss—The next table gives particulars of fire losses during the latest 3 years, classified according to the amount of loss. The majority of fires cause only minor damage. During 1971 payments of less than $20 accounted for 56.4 percent of the total number but only 3.3 percent of the total loss sustained. On the other hand, payments of $20,000 or over, numbering only 44, represented 27.7 percent of the insured loss.

Loss Category196919701971
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount
of Loss
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount
of Loss
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount
of Loss
           $ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under 2029,78527530,37328730,085296
       20–4911,45134412,14436312,985389
       50–1995,9265196,4835747,117637
     200–1,9992,1171,3182,2311,3612,3361,423
  2,000–3,9993841,0683689983751,049
  4,000–9,9992621,5372771,6133051,787
10,000–39,999761,263811,405861,452
40,000 and over191,588242,085241,942
                  Totals50,0207,91251,9818,68553,3138,975

Class Groups—Losses classified in broad groups according to the nature of the risk are presented in the next table. Fires in private dwellings accounted for 88.2 percent of the total number of payments during 1971, but the proportion of loss sustained was only 38.4 percent. It should be noted that the “contents”, where insured, are included in the various class groups. Consequently the total for the houses and flats group is swollen by the numerous small claims on account of damage to personal effects, etc., the actual building not being affected by the fire in many instances. The miscellaneous risks group also include those cases where a fire has affected two or more buildings, which individually are classifiable into more than one of the other groups shown in the table, or, in some instances, single buildings housing occupiers of different groupings.

Class Group196919701971
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount
of Loss
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount
of Loss
Number of
Fire-loss
Payments
Amount
of Loss
 $(000) $(000) $(000)
Private houses and flats, boardinghouses, etc.44,7173,58946,0983,44847,0393,443
Hotels and restaurants9483951,0913041,021393
Offices and public buildings619315737231747266
Theatres and entertainment places15227243102224155
Bulk stores and warehouses240576256593215366
Shops8211,036767935860717
Factories and industrial risks1,1391,5741,4322,7181,4363,175
Farm risks (other than dwellings)564281561273639324
Miscellaneous (including unclassified)419843575449090
Floating and travelling risks401364392864246
                    Totals50,0207,91251,9818,68553,3138,975

FIRE BRIGADES—At 31 March 1972 there were 273 fire brigades under the administrative authority of the Fire Service Council.

MUTUAL INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS—Mutual associations are governed by the Mutual Insurance Act 1955, which allows 200 or more owners or occupiers of isolated or farm properties to subscribe to a declaration, and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss to an amount in the aggregate of not less than $400,000. The Act permits these associations to conduct accident business in addition to fire insurance. Such associations effect insurance on the premium note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability. Mutual insurance associations carrying on employer's liability insurance business are now required to deposit approved securities to a specified value with the Public Trustee.

The Mutual Insurance Regulations, gazetted in 1956, permit these associations to carry on additional types of insurance (other than life assurance).

Summarised figures for the two associations formed under the Act appear below.

Year Ended
31 March
Net Premium IncomeTotal
Net Income
Net ClaimsReserves
and Funds
Assets*
FireAccidentFireAccident
* Including premium notes.
$(000)
1967260317624891415071,566
1968277335656771545451,626
1969284334665801745581,686
1970297365710901685941,794
1971332384779792066341,872
19723804438761102216841,836

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869–70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1971, policies numbered 422,594 and the total sum assured reached $1,183 million. Among life insurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest 5 years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement ExpensesTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
 $(thousand)percent
196718,30428,5212,51512,1488.8213.74
196819,51931,0002,56013,5898.2613.11
196920,87733,5922,80514,4818.3513.43
197022,71737,0533,23416,2608.7314.24
197124,94141,0083,95618,5739.6515.86

During the year 1971 payments were made under the following heads: matured policies (including bonus addition), $5,555,206; claims by death (including bonuses), $2,995,176; annuities, $428,249; surrendered policies and bonuses cashed, $4,231,306; commission $1,983,444; other management expenses, $1,972,538; taxes, $1,042,362; and other expenditure, including transfers to reserves, $364,387.

Figures showing the progress of the office are contained in the next table. Annuities are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* Excludes single premiums.
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
196726,062101.72.015,27736.20.8382,577859.617.4
196825,733104.61.816,60941.30.9391,701922.918.3
196926,651119.12.118,11149.61.0400,241992.419.3
197027,974134.72.617,85951.41.1410,356x1,075.720.9
197129,708160.23.417,47053.31.2422,5941,182.623.1

The average sum assured per policy was $3,900 in 1967, $4,064 in 1968, $4,470 in 1969, $4,814 in 1970, and $5,392 in 1971. In the total sum assured at the end of the year, accrued reversionary bonuses amounting to $90,387,334 have been added. Values of immediate and deferred annuities in force at the end of latest 5 years were as follows: $8,994,000, $9,516,000, $10,299,000, $11,413,000, and $12,678,000. New business in annuities in 1971 totalled $2,270,000 and discontinuances $1,005,000.

The office's total assets at 31 December and their class of investment are shown in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
196919701971196919701971
* Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
 $(thousand)percent
Mortgages on freehold property90,24697,022105,68639.8839.5039.31
Loans on policies13,07414,87517,0125.786.056.33
Government securities46,41251,11257,02620.5120.8121.21
Local authority securities24,10125,29126,55410.6510.309.88
Real estate14,84017,87621,4776.567.287.99
Company shares and debentures30,82634,35335,19613.6213.9913.09
Miscellaneous assets*6,7945,0875,8913.002.072.19
                    Totals226,292245,616268,842100.00100.00100.00

At 31 December 1971 assurances, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of $4.1 million, amounted to $261.9 million.

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
192335713793
1933502195141
19431,123438185
19533,1181,652916
19638,6325,2171,801
196714,6539,8732,743
196815,3789,9752,713
196916,36011,2872,829
197019,77715,5373,692
197125,75820,2194,193

The main classes of accident insurance transacted are motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass.

Fire insurance is perhaps more accurately described as property insurance, since the houseowners' and householders' policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, provide coverage not only against fire but also against a wide range of other possible causes of damage. Commercial property owners, too, are increasingly extending their fire policies to cover other dangers.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1971 amounted to $41.1 million which included $26.9 million in the form of investments ($8.3 million in Government securities, $10.5 million in local body securities), and $8.8 million is fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $18.2 million, unexpired risks to $10.3 million, and unadjusted claims to $5.7 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a commission. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2 1/2 percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund-Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the last 6 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act, together with a statement showing the position from the inception of the fund to 31 March 1972.

Item1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–7219 Dec 1941
to
31 Mar 1972

* At end of each period.

† From commencement in November 1949.

Income—$(thousand)
     Premiums—
          Earthquake and war damage5,2745,6866,1726,4117,3117,90199,200
     Storm and flood5846296847068108829,572
     Interest3,7934,5145,0295,8076,7257,67258,297
                              Totals9,65110,82911,88512,92314,84616,456167,070
Outgo—
     Claims—
          Earthquake and war damage193202,573120352113,963
          Storm and flood3583392,1661728905638,058
     Salaries and expenses of management4551795970531,422
     Discount to insurance offices1441551681742042152,492
                              Totals7405654,9865261,1991,04115,934
Surplus8,91110,2646,89912,39513,64515,415151,134
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*90,334101,138109,450121,211134,929150,306150,306
Disaster Fund†2,1842,5451,1321,6631,5901,9501,950

During the year ended 31 March 1972, 1,848 earthquake claims were lodged compared with 240 for the previous year.

A total of 2,680 claims under the storm and disaster damage provisions were made during the year ended 31 March 1972 compared with 2,553 in the previous year.

Chapter 32. Section 32
EMPLOYMENT

LABOUR FORCE—The size of the labour force as a percentage of population has been affected by various factors, notably by changes in the birth rate causing variations in the percentage of the population in working-age groups, by changes in the school-leaving age, and by the changing proportion of married women seeking work. In the decade prior to the last few years, the age structure of the population, due to the high birth rate after the war, was reflected in the reduced proportion of those available for work, and the increasing percentage receiving secondary education for longer periods had a similar effect. Thus, in 1936, when fewer young people stayed so long at secondary school or proceeded to a university, 15.2 percent of employed persons were in the 16–20 years age group, but from that year the percentage declined until 1956, when it was 14 percent. By 1966 it had risen to 17.3 percent, mainly because the children born immediately after the war were then entering the labour force.

On the other hand, the increasing numbers of married women in the work force helped to offset labour shortages. The percentage of the male population in active employment was 57 percent in 1956, 55.3 percent in 1961, and 55.5 percent in 1966. Females actively engaged rose from 18 percent in 1956 to 18.7 percent in 1961 and to 21 percent in 1966. Married women working rose from 12.9 percent in 1956 to 16 percent in 1961, and to 20 percent in 1966. Increasing numbers of married women have entered the labour force after their family responsibilities have lightened.

The growth of the labour force is shown in the following table.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a
Percentage of
Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
* Decrease.
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1962680.91.6230.72.6911.61.836.8
1963693.71.9236.22.4929.92.036.8
1964709.82.3248.15.0957.93.037.1
1965728.92.7262.55.8991.43.537.7
1966745.62.3280.46.81,026.03.538.3
1967759.41.9293.14.51,052.52.638.6
1968756.2−0.4*287.2−2.0*1,043.4−0.9*37.9
1969764.71.1296.53.21,061.21.738.2
1970779.21.9311.55.11,090.72.838.7
1971789.81.4322.23.41,112.01.938.9
1972796.90.9326.01.21,122.91.038.9

The average annual increase percentage for males was 1.6 percent as compared with 3.5 percent for females and 2.1 percent for the total labour force over those 11 years.

The broad consequence of the distorted age pattern resulting from low birth rates from 1928 to 1935, coupled with a post-war expansion in the economy, was that over a major portion of the postwar period there were not sufficient young people available to meet the demand for labour force recruits. The “baby boom” which followed the Second World War meant, furthermore, a sudden rise in the economically dependent population at the younger ages. As a consequence the relatively depleted labour force had to provide for the needs of a relatively large dependent population in building maternity hospitals, schools, dwellings, providing teaching services, etc. The shortage of numbers in the labour force ages was offset to some extent by large scale immigration, both private and Government assisted. This migration inflow had a significant partial effect in overcoming the distortion in the working-age groups.

Though year-to-year fluctuations were considerable during the 10 years to 1967 the average migration gain to the population was about 10,000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration loss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Group1936 Census1961 Census1966 Census
Number EmployedPercentage of
Labour Force
Number EmployedPercentage of
Labour Force
Number EmployedPercentage of
Labour Force
Primary production175,11327.1136,09815.2140,93613.7
Secondary industry156,85824.2321,24135.8381,58937.2
Services314,91248.7438,02449.0503,51449.1

From April 1971, estimates of the industrial distribution of the total labour force have been made-according to the newly revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

As a result, comparisons with the earlier estimates for the industrial groups shown in previous-issues of the Yearbook are not possible. Only the figures for “Total in industry” and “Total labour-force” are comparable with previous estimates.

The estimates for April 1971 and April 1972 are as follows:

Industrial Group N.Z.S.I.C.April 1971April 1972
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
 (000)(000)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing120.516.4136.9120.616.5137.1
Mining and quarrying4.60.14.74.30.14.4
Manufacturing industry—
     Food, beverages, and tobacco55.111.466.555.611.867.4
     Textiles, wearing apparel and leather17.832.149.917.330.447.7
     Wood and wood products20.21.822.019.71.721.4
     Paper and paper products, printing and publishing20.27.127.320.47.127.5
     Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics14.45.820.214.75.520.2
     Non-metallic mineral products10.31.211.510.21.211.4
     Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries65.712.177.866.411.978.3
          Totals, manufacturing industries203.771.5275.2204.369.6273.9
Electricity, gas, and water12.71.213.913.01.314.3
Construction84.62.587.183.92.586.4
Wholesale and retail trade111.476.3187.7110.877.4188.2
Transport, storage, and communication85.317.8103.186.117.3103.4
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.38.228.366.538.528.967.4
Community, social and personal services—
     Public administration, etc.30.911.442.331.911.943.8
     Sanitary and similar services5.21.97.14.92.06.9
     Social and related community services42.577.7120.245.280.6125.8
     Recreational services6.23.59.76.53.510.0
     Personal and household services32.512.645.132.812.645.4
Totals, community and personal services117.3107.1224.4121.3110.6231.9
                    Total in industry778.3321.21,099.5782.8324.21,107.0
Armed forces in New Zealand10.50.611.110.60.611.2
Registered unemployed1.00.41.43.51.24.7
                  Total labour force789.8322.21,112.0796.9326.01,122.9

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—Labour force projections have been made by the Department of Statistics for the period up to 2000.

A new set of projections, based on more recent experience, will be published when relevant data on the labour force from the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings become available.

As at 31 DecemberProjected Total New Zealand Labour Force (*) Assuming (†) Net Annual Immigration (‡) of:
5,00010,000
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* These projections have as a base the estimated labour force as at 31 December 1971 and incorporate the following assumptions:

  1. That 1967 age-of-mother and marital-status specific birth rates, adjusted to allow for changes in birth rates during 1968–71, apply throughout the projection period;

  2. That New Zealand life table mortality rates (total population) 1960–62, adjusted to allow for changes in mortality rates between 1960–62 and 1971, apply throughout the projection period.

† These projections are based on 1966 Census of Population age and marital status (females only) specific labour force participation rates adjusted to allow for changes in labour force participation rates up to mid-October 1971.

‡ The assumed net migration is taken to commence from the projection base.

 (000)
1971 (base)7933251,1177933251,117
19728083301,1388103311,140
19738243361,1608273371,164
19748403421,1828453441,189
19758573491,2068633511,214
19768743561,2298823591,241
19778913631,2549013661,268
19789093691,2799213741,295
19799273751,3029403801,320
19809433791,3229583851,344
19819593831,3429763891,366
19829753861,3619943941,388
19839913901,3811,0123981,410
19841,0073941,4021,0304031,433
19851,0243991,4231,0494091,457
19861,0414051,4451,0684151,483
19871,0594111,4701,0874221,510
19881,0774191,4961,1084311,539
19891,0964271,5241,1294401,569
19901,1164371,5531,1514501,601
19911,1374461,5831,1744601,635
19921,1594571,6151,1984711,669
19931,1824671,6491,2234831,706
19941,2054781,6831,2494951,743
19951,2304891,7191,2755071,782
19961,2555011,7561,3025191,821
19971,2815121,7941,3315311,862
19981,3085241,8321,3605431,903
19991,3355351,8711,3895561,945
20001,3635471,9101,4195681,987

EMPLOYMENT SITUATION—In the post-war years up to 1967 the labour situation was characterised by overfull employment and a high number of vacancies in industry. In 1967, following deflationary measures, there was a sharp rise in the number of unemployed persons. By the middle of the year when seasonal workers found difficulty in obtaining off-season jobs the number of unemployed rose to over 6,000, or about 0.6 percent of the labour force. Unemployment became stabilised at about this level until the autumn of 1968, when it rose further to 8,500 and remained about this figure during the following winter. From a peak of 8,560 in July 1968 the number of unemployed fell steadily, except for occasional monthly increases, to under 1,200 in March 1971. Since then the number of unemployed has risen again to average 5,684 for 1972. Vacancies, which moved from a general level of about 8,000 to a level between 2,000 and 4,000 during 1967 and 1968, increased to approximately 6,000 in late 1969, and averaged 3,158 for 1971, and 2,648 for 1972.

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT: National Employment Service—As from 1 April 1946 a National Employment Service was established under the Employment Act 1945 with the principal function of promoting and maintaining full employment in New Zealand. In fact, provision for Government Employment Bureaux had been made as early as 1891. From 1930 to 1936, the period of the operations of the Unemployment Board, the bureaux functioned rather as unemployment registration offices than as placement services. In 1936 the activities of the Unemployment Board were transferred to the Employment Division of the Department of Labour and the bureaux replaced by a State Placement Service, which operated a widely used system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this became merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department, and, with an augmented staff, carried out the wider and more complex functions of manpower direction and control. In this work the Industrial Manpower Division placed a much greater emphasis on the collection and use of employment and other economic data, on the research and planning aspects of employment, and on the co-ordination of industrial activities with manpower resources. The National Employment Service was built upon these foundations. After 12 months' activity as a separate department, the National Employment Service was, however, on 1 April 1947, amalgamated with the Department of Labour.

The functions and duties of the department are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general the promotion and maintenance of full employment. In particular the department may operate hostels for workers, provide a home-aid service, and arrange for the selection, transport, and accommodation of immigrants.

Accordingly the department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level, operates 21 district employment offices, provides (through a home-aid service) domestic help for families in urgent circumstances, and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

The nine hostels operated by or for the department at 31 March 1972—comprising an industrial workers' hostel, immigration hostels, Public Service hostels, miners' hostels, and Maori youth hostels—provided accommodation for 1,269 workers.

MANPOWER PLANNING—An active manpower policy is being developed, partly as a result of the focus on manpower requirements at the National Development Conference 1969. Changes in the structure of industry and in technology are occurring at an ever-increasing rate. This fact has led to a growing emphasis on forecasting manpower supply on the one hand and likely manpower requirements on the other, with a view to equating the two, where necessary, by means of relevant manpower plans. The forecasts are based on certain assumptions concerning the growth of population, net migration and labour force participation rates on the one hand, and production plans and productivity on the other. As the bases of the forecasts are volatile, the latter need to be revised at frequent intervals. The forecasting process is therefore never completed, but is an on-going task which must take account of the dynamic forces operating in the labour market.

Manpower forecasts are necessary steps which precede the formulation of manpower plans. Such plans may take the form of some of the following measures: changes in educational policy, particularly as it applies to vocational education; implementation of training and retraining programmes; programmes to upgrade levels of skill; and the promotion of occupational and geographical mobility of the labour force. All these and other measures are elements of an active manpower policy.

One of the major tasks being undertaken by the Manpower Planning Unit of the Department of Labour is a sample survey of industry. It is hoped that the results of the survey will enable occupation industry matrices to be compiled relating to the present, and projected into the future. Information relating to the latter will be obtained initially from the returns, but may be refined in the light of additional intelligence concerning future technological innovations, etc. This exercise, together with in-depth studies of specific occupations, will provide the information upon which manpower planning may be based. Ideally, the end result of realistic manpower plans will be a more efficient training and use of labour, so that manpower in the required numbers and with the required skills may be available to meet the needs of continuing development.

The fields of training (particularly apprenticeship training), employment, and migration are important in manpower studies. Consequently, they are being researched in some depth. Geographical mobility is another important area, and the Department of Labour is building up an information bank on a regional basis.

Vocational Training—Most vocational training schemes in existence today have been developed since the Second World War, except apprenticeships. It is now recognised in most countries that vocational training should be closely integrated with economic and manpower planning.

The Tyndall Commission of Inquiry into Vocational Training in 1965 recommended the establishment of a Vocational Training Council. Although general satisfaction was expressed with the then existing situation there was support for better co-ordination in forecasting needs and recommending programmes to meet these needs.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations. Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and the development and implementation of techniques relating to occupational identification, description, and classification and to job analysis and specification.

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; two members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation; two members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; one member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; one member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; one member nominated by the Technicians Certification Authority of New Zealand; and not more than five other members—(two appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has three associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Co-ordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Services Organisations; and the Chairman of the University Grants Committee.

The first meeting of the council was held in August 1969 and the council then set about: (a) identifying short and long-term training needs in the major industries and industry sectors and in other areas such as the social sciences; (b) assessing existing training schemes and promoting the formulation of new or revised schemes where necessary; (c) examining a number of National Development Conference recommendations relating to vocational training and education; and (d) undertaking investigations and research relating to: particular industries; regions of the country; and the needs of various occupations and sectors to see where vocational education and training can assist in the solution of their problems.

The Council decided that these objectives could best be achieved by thinking in terms of “industries” in commonly recognised groupings such as building, farm production and processing, or tourism. In general, it rejected the idea of dealing with occupations such as carpentry or individual firms. An advantage of this approach is that most industry groups have national employer and employee groups with whom meaningful discussions can be held.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards had been established for 17 industries by the end of 1972. A further nine were in the final stages of formation. Each includes members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. This grant is 90 percent of the cost of employing an executive training officer with a maximum grant of $12,000 per officer each year. These boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been formed or are being formed in some 25 industries. Each includes members from employer, employee, educational and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the introduction of a $ for $ Government grant to encourage the appointment of national executive training officers. These boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

In addition, the council has concerned itself with matters common to a number of industries, for example, apprenticeship and trade training, women and employment, technician training, management and supervisory training, and regional differences in educational and vocational opportunity.

The council in its activities is working closely with the various social and economic sector organisations and Government departments, particularly the Departments of Labour and Education.

References—Further background information on vocational training in New Zealand may be found in:

Report of Commission of Inquiry into Vocational Training in New Zealand, 1965. The Development of Technical Institutes in New Zealand, B. C. Lee, New Zealand Journal of Public Administration, Volume 32, No. 2, March 1970. Annual Reports of the Vocational Training Council.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—The Department of Labour carries out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys. (A survey of farm employment is included in Section 14, Farming.)

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate
of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
* The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.
April—percentpercent
     1962478,036185,630663,66616,44326,19342,6362034
     1963491,568190,830682,39816,90827,90644,8141832
     1964507,174200,596707,77018,48130,80049,2812032
     1965526,455211,599738,05420,38634,66955,0552133
     1966542,943223,955766,89823,81339,81463,6272336
     1967554,64.0233,899788,54324,37244,45368,8252134
     1968547,000227,045774,04523,44943,51266,9611628
     1969558,695235,077793,77225,07448,22173,2952030
     1970572,052247,353819,40527,64357,45585,0982335
     1971584,793255,687840,48029,11066,00095,1102436
     1972589,740257,792847,53228,54568,32296,8672133
October
     1972581,577256,914838,49129,74072,379102,1191930

Public Service Employment—Distribution of permanent staff in the Public Service by sex and by occupational classes as at 31 March 1972 is shown in the following table. (Railways, Post Office, Police, Education Boards and Universities staffs are not included.)

Occupational ClassMalesFemales
Accountants2052
Actuarial2
Administrative86
Agriculture extension—
     Farm advisory3457
     Home science instruction5
     Poultry instruction41
     Sheep and wool instruction23
Agriculture (grading and testing)—
     Dairy instruction664
     Seed analysis171
     Seed certification and dressing7
Agriculture instruction—
     Apiary instruction12
     Farm dairy instruction95
     Farm livestock instruction265
Aircraft surveying21
Air traffic control29245
Architectural1928
Art and display4716
Aviation calibration21
Aviation operations38
Bailiffs82
Clerical8,4105,987
Coal mining—
     Coal mining38
     Mine surveying10
Communications2792
Computer programmers7422
Customs—
     Customs (boarding and prevention)69
     Customs (bond)17
Dental nursing—
     Dental attendants10
     School dental nursing1,728
Dental officers453
Dietitians4
Dockyard trades367
Draughting1,583329
Editorial and journalists8929
Education18510
Education (teaching service)1414
Electricity (linemen)434
Electricity (operating)856
Engineering1,107
Engineering officers9452
Engineering technicians70731
Executive1,84140
Farming92
Fire protection and services214
Fisheries and marine inspection41 
Forest management913
Forestry150
General servicing2326
Health education126
Health inspection101
Horticultural inspection47
Hostel and domestic services174431
Industrial inspection—
     Explosives9
     Factory1024
     Factory (bush)9
     Port safety6
     Safety inspection40
     Weights and measures40
Institutional welfare,—
     Institutional instruction6543
     Institutional welfare13890
Investigating17923
Land management342
Land surveying169
Landscape and gardening1222
Legal1287
Library61320
Lighthouse keeping53
Machining1389
Manual (non-trades)1,102
Meat inspection1,040
Medical11123
Mental health—
     Mental health (assistant nurses)160134
     Mental health (community nurses)946
     Mental health (general nurses)324
     Mental health (hospital aids)83232
     Mental health (nurses)901720
Meteorological615
Meteorological observing19921
Mine management, inspection, and engineering35 
Mine underviewers and deputies105 
Motion picture production7314
Motor vehicle inspection211
National parks and reserves67
Nautical services39
Nursing3276
Occupational therapy115
Office and general assistants5161,203
Patent examining166
Pharmacy175
Photographic4819
Physiotherapy6
Port agriculture service875
Printing (non-trades)8284
Printing trades351
Prisons—
     Prison instruction1607
     Prison officers63345
Property supervision128
Psychology2616
Quantity surveying1302
Road traffic—
     Parking meter enforcement58
     Road safety instruction7
     Road traffic enforcement645
     Road traffic instruction72
Rural valuing116
Sawmilling82
Science1,08671
Science technicians1,036372
Ships officers23
Social workers373277
Storekeeping7003
Survey assistants106
Survey engineering72
Technicians29643
Timber inspection39
Town planning263
Trades—
     Trades1,195
     Carpenters and related trades2881
     Electricians and related trades508
     Fitters and related trades654
     Motor mechanics and related trades181 
     Painters and related trades144
     Plumbers and related trades57
     Other trades17
Traffic engineering13
Typing—
     Shorthand reporters4
     Shorthand typists1,383
     Shorthand typists (special duties)58
     Teletypists118
     Typists1,229
     Varitypists16
Urban valuing273
Veterinary1202
Vocational guidance2624
Welders (non-trades)21
Wildlife management65
                    Totals36,93416,288

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 31 March of each of the latest five years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local AuthorityEmployees at 31 March
19671968196919701971

* As at 30 September.

† County pest destruction districts included.

‡ Milk boards abolished as at 1 September 1968.

§ Now redesignated as a county.

Catchment boards731739753788762
City and borough councils15,84216,15616,36316,52816,666
County councils5,9425,9265,9696,0586,045
Electric power boards5,1045,2095,2725,4755,646
Fire boards9671,0081,0461,2521,387
Gas boards2931374148
Harbour boards*3,7393,8183,7463,7103,814
Harbour bridge authority150174139156150
Land drainage boards94100879791
Local railway board1515151515
Milk boards3536
Museum authority5555110112118
Nassella tussock boards13478484234
Plantation board89998
Pest destruction boards1,400†1,313†1,267†1,2261,207
Regional authority1,2781,5791,5361,5141,582
River boards3737373432
Road board27272628§
Road tunnel authority4141424242
Town boards—
     Dependent3327272626
     Independent6054525267
Underground water authorities76654
Urban drainage boards393417428430453
Urban transport boards422430410416423
Valley authority2124242627
Water supply boards55555
                    Totals36,56937,31437,45438,08738,652

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1966 Census were 5,125 males and 3,982 females.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males
Unemployed
Proportion per 1,000
Male Wage and
Salary Earners
12 April 189614,759100
31 March 19018,46748
12 April 19068,18939
2 April 19117,15230
15 October 19165,92026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 19455,82316
17 April 19517,90218
17 April 19565,55812
18 April 19614,6749
22 March 19665,1258

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15,000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1972 was 2,935.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Welfare Department and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the half-yearly survey of the employment position, the Department of Labour maintains a weekly record of registered unemployed persons and a half-monthly record of vacancies and placements. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the department's operations as an employment service.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
19624,2852,5586,8438603451,2059341061,040
19633,7461,9855,7318033701,173726123849
19644,8471,7666,6137883921,180511139650
19656,0001,9367,9367223791,101385128513
19665,5502,2037,7536743371,011332131463
19672,6821,4454,1271,3764071,7833,2675853,852
19681,8528282,6801,8215422,3635,2721,6096,881
19692,9771,1904,1671,1623781,5402,1917352,926
19703,7941,4515,2457962901,0861,2253751,600
19712,2079503,1579463371,2832,5555603,115
19721,7908572,6471,5293961,9254,3681,3165,684

Since 1 April 1968, registered unemployed, vacancies, and placements have been classified by occupation. The following table presents details.

Occupation GroupRegistered Unemployed (Monthly Average)Vacancies (Monthly Average)Placements (Monthly Average)
197119721971197219711972
Professional, technical, and clerical115x352557x44244x60
Sales1172741251203052
Farming, fishing, logging2303914235324237
Transport and communications1432577815082834
Manufacturing and trades1,049x1,7941,199x986275x390
Service27453513212098122
Labouring9681,622100116426972
All other occupations219x45922132058x58
All occupations3,1155,6843,1572,6471,2831,925

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—Since 1938 vocational guidance of pupils at secondary schools has been undertaken by the Department of Education which has Vocational Guidance Centres in Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Activities are described in Section 7A, Education.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Court of Arbitration, which consists of a Judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of four representatives of employers, four representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy making committees. There are 34 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried on by local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 241. They consist of three representatives of employers, three representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

The apprentice learns by doing tasks under supervision. Provision is made in a number of apprenticeship orders for a specific list of operations and skills to be taught apprentices by their employers. Both employers and apprentices are thus helped to define the scope of training, and apprenticeship committees, when called on to do so, are enabled to judge whether or not training is adequate.

As no employer may engage an apprentice without the prior consent of the appropriate local committee, the facilities for training are known to the committee in each case. When an employer who has not previously had an apprentice applies for permission to engage one, arrangements may be made for an inspection of his workshop by two members of the local committee. On their report the full committee makes the appropriate decision. Every apprentice has a contract of apprenticeship, which is registered by the District Commissioner.

Local committees deal with complaints from apprentices and employers, with applications to transfer apprentices to other employers, and applications to discharge apprentices for misconduct. Their decisions, which are of a semi-judicial nature, are subject to review by way of appeal to the Court of Arbitration.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In the 40-hour week four hours are spent at day classes, with usually equivalent amount of lime at evening classes. In some industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of three or four weeks' duration. The classes are operated by Technical Institutes and Secondary Schools.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing, no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeships being a member of the board.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered during the year, completed during the year, and in force at the end of the year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197119721971197219711972
Aircraft84727152331338
Baking1031074538211240
Boilermaking86573747261238
Bricklaying72693331220219
Carpentry1,4041,3611,3059264,5834,634
Clothing87803736248249
Coachbuilding6565413843051,8701,904
Dentistry34562421
Electrical6195914253571,8931,996
Engineering8067514654872,5902,670
Footwear repair and making6644118
Footwear manufacturing48513028137124
Furniture307284189119828883
Hairdressing6475941021461,4221,484
Heating and ventilation2941161288104
Horticulture64642743206206
Jewellery51403126183182
Masonry151123
Motor trades1,6601,4771,0619875,2815,386
Moulding1825465268
Painting293321160153882917
Photo-engraving63573238171181
Piano repairing and tuning411110
Plastering57665242188177
Plumbing3213221931561,0101,057
Printing3673392392281,2031,198
Radio93866762345337
Refrigeration engineering38531740162162
Retail meat industry282341190184863897
Saddlery, leather and canvas goods12271485366
Sheet-metal working1081235448329372
Shipbuilding44473025126131
Timber industry363616259591
Others53442033147140
                    Totals8,5228,0835,3564,69926,02626,693

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND POLYNESIANS FROM THE PACIFIC—Trade training is one approach that is being adopted to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Polynesian youths.

The trade-training schemes have the approval of the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on a course is credited towards the normal apprenticeship, which is completed with employers in the usual way. The schemes are run in conjunction with the technical institutes at Auckland, Hamilton, Petone, and Christchurch. Special tuition is also given in other subjects to help the boys adapt themselves to urban living.

Entry into the schemes is generally restricted to boys from country areas where apprenticeships are not normally available. Boys taken into the schemes, and their parents, enter into a training agreement with the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, whereby the boys are required to live at approved hostels, regularly attend evening technical classes, and to sit the appropriate trade examinations. The trainees are paid a weekly training allowance.

Training is provided in 12 trades—carpentry (all four centres), motor mechanics (Auckland, Hamilton, and Christchurch), plumbing, electrical wiring (Auckland and Hamilton), diesel mechanics and sheetmetal work (Auckland), fitting and turning (Hamilton), plastering and auto-electricity (Petone), and painting, panelbeating, and bricklaying (Christchurch), with a total intake of 304 boys each year. The training courses last for one year, except that carpentry is a two-year course and includes one year on practical house building works for the department. From the time of the pilot scheme in 1959 up to 31 March 1972, 2,143 Maori youths had been taken into the schemes, and 655 of them had completed their apprenticeships with private employers and were qualified tradesmen.

The increase in the number of Maori apprentices in recent years is illustrated by the following table.

At 31 MarchRegistered Maori
Apprentices
Percentage of Total
Registered Apprentices
19625662.8
19636042.9
19647703.3
19658523.6
19669813.9
19671,0724.2
19681,0314.3
19691,1914.8
19701,3025.1
19711,3755.3
19721,4895.6

Farm Training—Special arrangements have been made for 4 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute each year. This is a comprehensive one-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the Institute.

City Pre-employment Courses—Special pre-employment courses to help Maori boys and girls from country areas coming to cities for work are conducted early each year by the Department of Maori and Island Affairs in conjunction with the Wellington Polytechnic and the Auckland, Christchurch, and Waikato Technical Institutes. The Education, Health, and Police Departments and local civic authorities also co-operate in the schemes. The courses, which last about four weeks, are specially designed to help with initial adjustments to city life and with the selection of suitable employment. At the end of the course the students take up suitable employment in the city. Accommodation is provided at hostels. The present annual intake of students into the course is: Wellington, 60 boys—75 girls; Auckland, 40 boys—20 girls; Hamilton, 15 girls; and Christchurch, 15 girls.

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION—Statistics on industrial distribution, occupations, and occupational status compiled from the population census taken on 22 March 1966 are given in the following tables.

Excluded from the tables are members of the Armed Services overseas at census dates, numbering 2,559 in 1961 and 1,936 in 1966.

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at four censuses.

Age Group (Years)1936195619611966
Under 16(m)10,2665,1735,0344,679
(f)5,1964,9465,3334,790
    16–20(m)64,01761,38474,70893,198
(f)37,76453,08965,42983,936
    21–44(m)275,997348,146361,155395,556
(f)74,86789,70495,249118,373
    45–64(m)155,726184,497209,456229,693
(f)21,41042,34654,93868,608
    65 and over(m)20,63922,93520,15322,469
(f)2,5393,7933,9084,737
    Not specified(m)816623....
(f)186216....
Totals(m)527,461622,758670,506745,595
(f)141,962194,094224,857280,444

Occupational Status—The following table shows the occupational status of persons in the work force, and also the persons not actively engaged including children.

Occupational Status1961 Census1966 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer62,2314,69166,92266,1707,25473,424
Self employed61,8626,04567,90761,9757,85669,831
Wage or salary earner540,316210,566750,882610,732260,081870,813
Unemployed4,6742,2246,8985,1253,9829,107
Relative assisting, unpaid7661,1221,888312488800
Not specified6572098661,2817832,064
Totals, actively engaged670,506224,857895,363745,595280,4441,026,039
Not actively engaged542,870976,7511,519,621598,1481,052,7321,650,880
                    Grand totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919

The number actively engaged increased by 130,676, or 14.6 percent, between 1961 and 1966. In the wage or salary earner group the increase was 119,931 or 16 percent.

Female wage or salary earners increased by 49,515 or 23.5 percent.

The following table classifies households at the 1966 Census according to the occupational status of the head and the number of persons in the household with an income exceeding $200.

Occupational Status of HeadHouseholds by Number of Persons with Incomes of $200 or moreTotal Households
1 Person2 Persons3 Persons4 Persons5 or more PersonsNil
* Including relative assisting heads and not specified but who are in the labour force.
Actively engaged head—
     Employer25,95723,0068,8092,7831,01937461,948
     Self employed32,46716,8644,5221,31933151656,019
     Wages or salary238,378134,39242,66413,9143,9873,207436,542
     Unemployed99653518949134792,261
               Totals*298,025174,89056,21718,0705,3524,799557,353
Not actively engaged head—
     Retired29,06513,2622,89062916329,86875,877
     Dependent on public or private support30,01211,5233,3981,01234436,58582,874
               Totals59,07724,7856,2881,64150766,453158,751
               Totals, all heads357,102199,67562,50519,7115,85971,252716,104

Industrial Distribution 1966: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the population by the principal divisions of industry is now given.

Industry Division19611966Percentages of Totals
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19611966
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing118,9529,982128,934119,71214,868134,58014.413.1
Mining and quarrying7,0411237,1646,2501066,3560.80.6
Manufacturing170,27552,752223,027208,96564,121273,08624.926.6
Construction84,4821,78486,26692,9722,23095,2029.69.3
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services11,11583311,94812,35694513,3011.31.3
Commerce107,32055,717163,037114,20966,896181,10518.217.6
Transport, storage, and communication77,83411,44289,27682,62915,58198,21010.09.6
Services90,93691,193182,129104,467112,946217,41320.421.2
Activities not adequately described2,5511,0313,5824,0352,7516,7860.40.7
     Totals, actively engaged670,506224,857895,363745,595280,4441,026,039100.0100.0
     Not actively engaged542,870976,7511,519,621598,1481,052,7321,650,880
                    Grand totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919

Industrial participation by major industrial groups is now given for the 1966 Census.

Industrial Division and Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing—
     Agriculture and livestock production110,65514,493125,148
     Forestry and logging5,8453216,166
     Hunting, trapping, and game propagation1,326141,340
     Fishing1,886401,926
Mining and quarrying—
     Coal mining3,422553,477
     Metal mining983101
     Crude petroleum and natural gas86591
     Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits2,540402,580
     Non-metallic mining and quarrying, n.e.c.1043107
Manufacturing—
     Food industries, except beverage industries40,1518,04748,198
     Beverage industries2,9005693,469
     Tobacco5876251,212
     Textiles7,5236,55214,075
     Footwear, wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods8,07022,99231,062
     Wood and cork, except furniture14,78855215,340
     Furniture and fixtures5,5628266,388
     Paper and paper products6,6551,6548,309
     Printing, publishing, and allied industries12,0254,38916,414
     Leather and leather products, except footwear1,3147712,085
     Rubber products3,6988494,547
     Chemicals and chemical products7,1682,7449,912
     Products of petroleum and coal85963922
     Non-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coal10,0551,01811,073
     Basic metal industries2,6971542,851
     Metal products, except machinery and transport equipment11,5631,63113,194
     Machinery, except electrical machinery21,4832,04823,531
     Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies8,9763,30812,284
     Transport equipment36,7502,25039,000
     Miscellaneous products6,1413,0799,220
Construction—
     Construction92,9722,23095,202
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services—
     Electricity, gas, and steam10,23091511,145
     Water and sanitary services2,126302,156
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail trade95,43755,323150,760
     Banks, and other financial institutions9,4226,78916,211
     Insurance6,9653,99810,963
     Real estate2,3857863,171
Transport, storage, and communication—
     Transport64,0005,57569,575
     Storage and warehousing1,568931,661
     Communication17,0619,91326,974
Services—
     Government services29,4749,48338,957
     Community and business services51,21572,838124,053
     Recreation services6,5052,3108,815
     Personal services17,27328,31545,588
Activities not adequately described4,0352,7516,786
                    Totals, actively engaged745,595280,4441,026,039

Occupations—The occupational classification in major groups is given for 1966 in the following table.

Occupational Division and Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Professional, technical, and related workers—
     Architects, engineers, surveyors5,898175,915
     Chemists, physicists, geologists, and other physical scientists1,192651,257
     Biologists, veterinarians, agronomists, and related scientists1,2511561,407
     Physicians, surgeons, dentists3,4552473,702
     Nurses and midwives1,18617,88919,075
     Professional medical workers, n.e.c., and medical technicians2,7731,7244,497
     Teachers15,42119,23734,658
     Clergy, and related members of religious orders3,0128243,836
     Jurists2,402312,433
     Artists, writers, and related workers3,6681,7875,455
     Draughtsmen, and science and engineering technicians, n.e.c.6,8472,6149,451
     Other professional, technical, and related workers10,8411,62112,462
Administrative, executive, and managerial workers—
     Administrative and executive officials: Government1,529301,559
     Directors, managers, and working proprietors (not including proprietors on own account in wholesale and retail trade)51,3357,14358,478
Clerical workers—
     Bookkeepers and cashiers2,3364,5716,907
     Stenographers and typists5726,10626,163
     Other clerical workers57,05050,926107,976
Sales workers—
     Working proprietors, wholesale and retail trade4,9002,3377,237
     Insurance and real estate salesmen, salesmen of securities and services, and auctioneers5,2802025,482
     Commercial travellers and manufacturers agents14,61873415,352
     Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers26,46029,99056,450
Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers, and related workers—
     Farmers and farm managers70,9825,19576,177
     Farm workers, n.e.c.41,4978,49449,991
     Hunters and related workers1,16121,163
     Fishermen and related workers1,832181,850
     Loggers, and other forestry workers5,213235,236
Miners, quarrymen, and related workers—
     Miners and quarrymen2,92212,923
     Well drillers and related workers304304
     Mineral treaters199199
     Miners, quarrymen, and related workers, n.e.c.8081809
Workers in transport and communications occupations—
     Deck officers, engineer officers, and pilots (ship)1,7011,701
     Deck and engineroom ratings, ship and barge crews, and boatmen3,14623,148
Aircraft pilots, navigators, and flight engineers (not Air Force)9401941
     Drivers and firemen (railway engines)2,0862,086
     Drivers, road transport34,37453234,906
     Guards and brakemen—railways624624
     Inspectors, supervisors, traffic controllers, and dispatchers—transport5,136835,219
     Telephone, telegraph, and related communications operators2,4595,4887,947
     Postmen and messengers2,0521,0243,076
     Workers in transport and communication occupations, n.e.c.1,294121,306
Craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, n.e.c.—
     Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, and related workers5,6045,33210,936
     Tailors, cutters, furriers, and related workers3,96219,79923,761
     Leather cutters, lasters and sewers (except gloves and garments), and related workers2,7202,8035,523
     Furnacemen, rollers, drawers, moulders, and related metal-making and treating workers2,988593,047
     Precision-instrument makers, watchmakers, jewellers, and related workers1,8332682,101
     Toolmakers, machinists, plumbers, welders, platers, and related workers70,9411,80472,745
     Electricians, and related electrical and electronic workers25,6261,94427,570
     Carpenters, joiners, cabinetmakers, coopers, and related workers47,28429147,575
     Painters and paperhangers12,2387912,317
     Bricklayers, plasterers, and construction workers, n.e.c.12,674112,675
     Compositors, pressmen, engravers, bookbinders, and related workers7,4141,8809,294
     Potters, kilnmen, glass and clay formers, and related workers2,1493612,510
     Millers, bakers, brewmasters, and other food and beverage workers26,7353,66630,401
     Chemical and related process workers4,7304825,212
     Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers211425636
     Craftsmen and production process workers, n.e.c.10,1573,46013,617
     Packers, labellers, and related workers1,7744,4916,265
     Stationary engine, excavating, and lifting equipment operators, and related workers12,395112,396
     Waterside workers and related freight handlers28,70248929,191
     Labourers, n.e.c.26,93980227,741
Service, sport, and recreation workers—
     Fire fighters, policemen, guards, and related workers5,380895,469
     Housekeepers, cooks, maids, and related workers3,26616,71519,981
     Waiters, bartenders, and related workers3,9886,79610,784
     Building caretakers, cleaners, and related workers5,1403,0293,169
     Barbers, hairdressers, beauticians, and related workers1,5894,4816,070
     Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers1,1162,7033,819
     Athletes, sportsmen, and related workers9921251,117
     Photographers and related camera operators8362901,126
     Embalmers and undertakers33410344
     Service, sport, and recreation workers, n.e.c.2,2305,9488,178
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
     Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described2,9712,0305,001
Armed forces10,43666411,100
                    Totals, actively engaged745,595280,4441,026,039

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS—A table giving statistics for farm workers at the 1966 Census is given in Section 14A of this Yearbook.

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force increased from 20.9 percent in 1926 to 27.3 percent in 1966. Some of the relevant issues are discussed in the report of a commission of inquiry Equal Pay in New Zealand (Parliamentary Paper H.54, 1971).

Female labour force participation rates for women aged 15 to 64 years have been: 1926, 25.6; 1936, 26.5; 1945, 29.0; 1951, 28.4; 1956, 29.7; 1961, 31.9; 1966, 35.4.

Between 1926 and 1970 the male work force increased by approximately 90 percent while the female labour force trebled.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that of some overseas countries.

Female labour force participation rates for women aged 15 to 64 years in certain countries are given in the following table.

                                                                                                               Source: ILO Year Book 1970.

CountryYearParticipation Rate of
Women Aged
15–64 years
* Estimated.
United Kingdom196650.1
Denmark196547.6
Sweden196544.3
France196843.5
United States1969*42.4
Australia196640.1
Canada196134.9
New Zealand196635.4

Compared with Australia and New Zealand, the United States and Sweden report considerably lower participation rates by 15 to 19 year old girls, reflecting the longer time spent in formal education. This trend is also appearing in New Zealand and may be expected to continue. There is a rather lower New Zealand participation rate in the 25 to 29 years age group and this may be due to the higher incidence of marriage, the higher New Zealand birth rates, and the social attitudes in New Zealand which expect a mother to care for her own children. It seems apparent that the likely continued rise in the female labour force will be due mainly to the re-entry of married women after their children have reached school age.

Married women in paid employment have increased until in 1966 41.5 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

Item193619451951195619611966
Married women in labour force11,29131,95841,93262,03384,556116,314
Percent  8.517.724.432.037.6  41.5

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women progressed from 3.5 in 1926 to 19.9 in 1966, with every indication that this momentum of increase is being sustained.

Married women in labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the following table.

Age (Years)1926193619451951195619611966
 percent
16–193.45.718.214.518.520.023.5
20–243.54.317.416.019.420.726.7
25–293.23.710.39.711.611.915.8
30–343.33.68.08.911.313.316.4
35–393.63.68.410.513.918.021.8
40–443.93.98.712.216.621.326.9
45–494.24.47.813.117.523.127.7
50–544.04.26.110.715.520.725.2
55–593.84.24.66.910.814.918.5
60–642.72.82.53.75.27.59.5
      65+7.71.61.01.41.61.72.1
All ages—
      16+3.53.77.79.712.916.019,9

Occupation and age groups of married women working in 1966 are shown in the following table.

OccupationAge Group in YearsTotal
Under 2020–2930–3940–4950–5960–6970 and Over
Teachers, nurses, etc.924,1802,6282,8561,4972351211,500
Directors, managers, etc.84831,3832,0271,262254225,439
Clerks, typists, etc.7689,4905,50:57,5674,1326833228,177
Shopkeepers and saleswomen, etc.2912,4293,6606,1804,0685962717,251
Farmers and farm workers791,7692,9132,4171,210274238,685
Telephone operators, post-women, drivers, etc.75901731617198322,554
Clothing and other production process workers5794,0855,9069,0925,6679642926,322
Housekeepers, waitresses, and other service workers2502,3583,5235,1594,0127744416,120
Armed forces134121957
Other726555456101209
                    Totals2,15025,75526,31635,97822,1033,822190116,314

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35–54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and readier acceptance of family planning and improved methods of contraception.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1966 included a question on the highest educational qualification obtained. An analysis by occupational divisions of the labour force is given in the following table. Additional information is given in the census reports, Volume 4, Industries and Occupations, and Volume 6, Education and Birthplaces.

Occupational DivisionUniversitySecondaryProfessional and Trade
DegreesDiplomasOtherSchool Cert.,
U.E., H.L.C.*
OtherTeacher's CertificateOther
* U.E.—University Entrance; H.L.C.—Higher Leaving Certificate.
Professional, technical, and related workersM16,0011,2172,1009,4221,3565,9448,921
F2,9595005512,8837978,3877,823
Administrative, executive, and managerial workersM1,3303605305,7312,2411773,080
F3812536520192231
Clerical workersM1,06418756916,5794,0852692,407
F415651515,6814,0565798,257
Sales workersM244344885,4401,9601611,671
F271411,508909167621
Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers, and related workersM525989649,6952,5511901,580
F522911,006458274389
Miners, quarrymen, and related workersM22644347
Transport and communications workersM6020101,9871,256621,613
F10440924549216
Craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, n.e.c.M3942333312,6517,58322013,004
F13161946800125439
Service, sport, and recreation workersM4223121,55076286403
F494321,5501,019246933
All labour force (incl. armed forces and those not classifiable by occupation)M19,7873,3883,41964,67622,3437,16433,321
F3,5696838134,5348,5329,92519,016

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution. A detailed explanation of the contents of a table of working life and its methods of derivation are given in the 1966 Table of Male Working Life published as a Supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Abridged tables are now presented of working life for males based on the year 1966 and of working life for females based on the year 1951 (this being the latest table available for females).

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100,000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force† (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force‡ (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

* Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for reasons connected with marriage.

† The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to marriage.

‡ Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§ These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males 1966
15–  –      86,17441347.08.3
2089.185,7607,82172242.38.3
2597.292,8601,51567437.68.4
3098.893,70124681732.88.5
3599.193,131461,14828.18.5
4099.092,029–      1,98823.48.6
4598.590,043–      3,36318.98.7
5097.686,680–      5,95314.58.8
5595.580,725–      15,30510.48.9
6084.065,420–      26,6407.18.7
6556.738,781–      23,0695.27.4
7028.115,712–      10,2964.45.4
7513.35,417–      3,7873.93.5
806.51,629–      1,628§3.12.5
Females 1951
15–  –      81,8058,47316.242.7
2076.573,3321,12942,40712.441.8
2533.632,0541,13614,06416.732.7
3020.219,1264,0315,03020.324.4
3519.218,1274,2283,06219.920.1
4020.719,2933,0141,80317.517.9
4522.320,5041,2972,65113.617.2
5021.319,1507754,6769.916.6
5517.615,2493515,4497.215.2
6012.310,151–      6,4144.613.8
654.93,737–      2,5923.811.0
701.71,145–      1,0142.58.9
750.2131–      1311.17.4

Chapter 33. Section 33
WAGES

GENERAL—For many years the basis for determination of wages and salaries for the majority of employees has been a system of conciliation and arbitration supplemented by general wage orders. About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners have been subject to awards and industrial agreements made under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. Minimum wage rates were determined, industry by industry, by agreement between organisations of employer and workers concerned, or, failing such agreement, by awards made by the Court of Arbitration after hearing the parties. In about 90 percent of cases the parties reached full agreement in the conciliation proceedings. For a period up to 1970 there was an increasing gap between award rates and ruling rates and this resulted in more wage bargaining outside the conciliation and arbitration system than ever before. However, an amendment in October 1970 to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 gave the Court of Arbitration temporary power to advance the expiry date of an award. This enabled the parties to re-negotiate and reach agreement on new minimum rates which more closely reflected ruling rates of pay—an arrangement which was taken advantage of extensively and which resulted in very substantial increases in award minimum rates in 1970–71.

A significant feature in 1970 was the exceptionally high level of wage and salary increases. Compared with average annual increases of approximately 5 percent in the 10 years prior to 1970, the increase of wage and salary rate was on average about 15 percent in 1970. Consideration of deflationary measures began with discussions between Government and representatives of the Employers Federation and the Federation of Labour, in an effort to establish agreed relativities between certain occupations, with a view to slowing down the accelerated trade-by-trade leap-frogging which was occurring. These discussions showed that the relativities issue was but one aspect of a total problem contributing to the inflationary spiral. Attention then turned to positive wage and salary stabilisation at part of an overall stabilisation programme. The Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed on 25 March 1971. In addition to establishing an independent Remuneration Authority which operated until December 1972, the legislation stipulated that new awards and agreements had to remain in force for at least 12 months. (Wage inflation in recent years is comprehensively dealt with in Report No. 22 Inflation and the Labour Market by the New Zealand Monetary and Economic Council published in December 1971.)

The system under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, primarily concerned as it was with maintaining industrial harmony and setting minimum requirements for pay and conditions, left considerable scope for bargains to be made outside the formal awards and industrial agreements that were made through the Court of Arbitration. The divergences which emerged between award and ruling rates were a primary reason for the system's declining influence, for a reduction in self-restraint, and for the fragmentation of wage bargaining which arose. By contrast, the temporary stabilisation measure was designed to affect movements in actual rates of pay, but was quite independent of the settlement process.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, which took effect from 22 October 1969, provides for determinations covering salaries and conditions of service for State employees to be made by employing authorities. A State Services Co-ordinating Committee has been established as the principal co-ordinating body for Government and as the main official negotiating body on issues having significant inter-service or “across the board” application. Hospital and Education Services Committees have been appointed to conduct negotiations on matters affecting respectively the hospital service alone and the education service (teachers) alone. There is a State Services Tribunal to hear appeals by employee organisations, and also a Government Service Tribunal, a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, a Post Office Staff Tribunal, and a Hospital Service Tribunal, all with a common chairman.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed by the Secretary of Defence in accordance with provisions of the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. A Police Staff Tribunal established under the Police Act 1958 makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 provides for the wages and salaries of all State servants to be adjusted half-yearly on the basis of an index of general movement from the half-yearly survey of wages and salaries conducted by the Department of Labour.

Minimum rates for agricultural workers are prescribed by various orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962. Rates of remuneration for waterside work are fixed by the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, constituted under the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—Prior to 1970 general wage orders were made by the Court of Arbitration under the authority of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953. From 1970 the authority was the General Wage Orders Act 1969. This Act was suspended with the enactment of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971. Under the General Wage Orders Act 1969 the Court of Arbitration was vested with the power to make general wage orders. The general purposes of the Act was to provide for the making of a just and equitable review of rates of remuneration in awards and industrial agreements. Every such review had to consider whether an adjustment should be made in the rates of remuneration, in order to: (a) maintain and promote living standards, so far as it was within the capacity of the economy to sustain such an adjustment; (b) to promote industrial harmony; and (c) maintain and promote exports by New Zealand industry.

General orders could be made by the Court of its own initiative or on the application of any industrial union or industrial association of employers or workers.

General wage orders in recent years have been as follows:

Date of OrderDate of ApplicationIncrease in Minimum Wage Rates
* Application limited to first $40 a week for male workers, $30 for female workers and $25 for junior workers. Earlier, in June 1968, after a general wage order hearing, the Court had decided not to issue a general wage order.
 percent
19 August 196410 September 19646
10 November 1966  1 December 19662 1/2
  5 August 195819 August 19685*
  3 November 197023 November 19703

STABILISATION OF REMUNERATION—On 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed which, among other things, limited the renegotiation of new agreements affecting remuneration for a minimum period of 12 months (subject to certain exceptions), and generally aimed to restrict the annual increase in such agreements to a maximum of 7 percent. In addition, a Remuneration Authority was established to administer certain arrangements under the Act.

Under the Act the Remuneration Authority was required to make cost of living orders as soon as possible after the Consumers' Price Index had been prepared by the Government Statistician for the quarters ended 30 June 1971 and 31 December 1971. Two orders were made by the Remuneration Authority—the first of 4.8 percent applying from 21 July 1971, and the second of 9.1 percent (including the order of 4.8 percent) applying from 31 January 1972. The orders applied automatically to all awards and agreements which, based on the rate of 1 January 1971, had not changed. The General Wage Orders Act 1969 was suspended while the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was in force (until 31 March 1972).

As from 1 April 1972, increases in pay were subject to the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 1972, which were made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until 17 December 1972 when it was discontinued with the change in Government.

The main features of the regulations were:

The rates of remuneration under existing agreements and other instruments were to continue in force for the period of their currency and all new instruments were for a period of not less than 12 months.

Apart from certain increases for individuals (as under the Stabilisation Act), no increases in the rate of remuneration payable on 31 March 1972, could take effect without the authority's consent.

New criteria were established to guide the authority in making its decisions.

There was no longer a guideline or “specified percentage” for pay increases. The authority had to place “paramount importance on the need to achieve and maintain stability in the levels of remuneration and prices”.

The regulations provided that the authority could not consent to any increase in any rate of remuneration unless it was satisfied that it was warranted in the special circumstances of the particular case. The grounds on which the authority could consent to an increase were limited.

It could make adjustments to the minimum extent required to remove or relieve serious anomalies. It could also consent to increases in remuneration on the grounds of increased productivity, provided that the cost would not result in an increase in prices.

There would, however, be some increases in prices due to unavoidable costs including the increased costs of imports. The Government therefore decided to make provision for a cost of living order related to movement in the Consumers' Price Index over the 9 months ended in September 1972.

An order of 4.2 percent was made by the Remuneration Authority following publication of the index for the September 1972 quarter. The order applied automatically from 26 October 1972 to minimum rates in awards and industrial agreements as at 1 February 1972 and, by agreement between the parties, could be applied to other rates of pay.

As with the orders made under the 1971 Act, negotiated increases effective from February 1972, were offset against the order. But increases approved by the authority explicitly on the grounds of productivity not involving price increases were not to be offset.

A wage increase guideline of 5 percent was set in the 1973 Budget.

Under the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973 a wage adjustment order increased wages by 8.5 percent, with a limit of $5.80 a week, from 11 August 1973.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962, Orders in Council may prescribe minimum rates of wages and other conditions of employment for the various categories of agricultural workers. The administration of the Act is carried out by the Department of Labour.

Minimum Rates of Pay—The minimum rates prescribed by Orders in Council for specified classes of agricultural workers are as follows.

Dairy Farms—The minimum rate is $20.55 a week, increased by $4.25 a week if the worker is not provided with board and lodging by the employer. The rate is taken to include allowance for work done at weekends and on holidays as part of the normal week's work.

Orchardists—The minimum rate for permanent adult male workers is $45.28 a week and for permanent adult female workers $33.83 a week. The minimum rates for casual workers are 109.1c an hour for adult males and 81.9c an hour for adult females. Lesser minimum rates are prescribed for junior permanent and casual workers, according to specific ages. The minimum rate for managers is $52.15.

Market Gardens—The minimum rates for adult males are $39.60 a week and 99c an hour, and for adult females $29.70 a week and 74.25c an hour. Lesser minimum rates for juniors (male and female) are prescribed.

Tobacco Growers—The minimum rate for adult male workers is $1.09 an hour, and for adult female workers 82c an hour. Lesser minimum rates are prescribed for junior workers (male and female) according to specified ages.

Tobacco Companies—The minimum rate for permanent male workers is $29.66 a week and for permanent female workers $22. The minimum hourly rates for casual workers are 71c for adult males, 52c for adult females, and from 33c to 63c for all workers under 20 years of age.

SHAREMILKING AGREEMENTS ACT—Another important measure dealing with farm workers is the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, which defines the respective responsibilities of employers and sharemilkers in farm management and control of stock, and prescribes the minimum percentages of returns to sharemilkers. The Act contains provisions for terms and conditions to be altered by Order in Council, the current order being the Sharemilking Agreements Order 1966 as amended in 1971 and 1973.

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of age 20 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

Since 4 May 1973 the minima have been males $45 a week; females, $34 a week.

EQUAL PAY—The Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Equal Pay (Parliamentary paper H.54 1971) was tabled in Parliament in September 1971. An Equal Pay Act giving effect, in the main, to the Commission's recommendations was passed in October 1972. It provides for the phasing in of equal pay in five annual steps, ending in 1978. After this time there will be equal pay in the private and public sectors. The Government Service Equal Pay Act was passed in 1960.

INSTITUTIONAL SECTORS—A classification of salary and wage payments by institutional sectors for the year ended 31 March 1970 is given in the following table.

Institutional SectorPayments
Producer enterprises—$(m)    
     Private—
          Corporate1,375.6
          Non-corporate242.6
     Producer boards3.9
     Government producer enterprises144.7
     Local government producer enterprises42.4
                    Total1,809.1
Financial intermediaries—
     Central bank29.7
     Trading banks - Central Government and private
     Insurance and pension funds—
Central Government41.9
Local Government
Private
     Other financial intermediaries—
          Central Government14.1
          Local Government
          Private
                    Total85.7
General Government—
     Central Government504.5
     Local Government68.5
                    Total573.0
Private non-profit organisations serving households36.4
Rest of world0.3
               Grand total2,504.6

PROTECTION OF WAGES—Workers' wages are safeguarded by the Wages Protection Act 1964 The entire amount of wages due to a worker must be paid in money unless he consents in writing to the employer making deductions for any lawful purposes or to the employer paying such wages by postal order, money order, cheque, or by lodgment to the worker's bank account.

Wages are further safeguarded by certain sections of the Insolvency Act 1968 which give priority of payments for wages or salaries of workers in preference to certain other debts. Similarly, under the Companies Act 1955, wages are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up.

Various individual labour laws contain provisions with the special intent of protecting the payment of wages of the workers to whom such legislation applies.

INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION OF SALARY AND WAGE PAYMENTS—The data in the following table represents the results of an industrial classification of the salary and wage payments to employees during the latest three years ended 31 March. This information is extracted from returns required in connection with “pay as you earn” income tax.

Actual gross payments made during a year are not the exact equivalent of the earnings of the employees during that year. Accrued wages at the beginning of the year are taken into account but those accrued at the end of the year are not. The effect of this is normally insignificant.

The “enterprise” concept has been used in this classification. Under this concept where an individual or a company is concerned in two or more industries for which separate classifications are provided, the whole of the wage payments have been classified according to the predominant activity. In most statistical analyses the enterprise is subdivided into separate units where two or more industries are involved, and each unit is then appropriately classified. A minor exception to the general rule has been made in the case of the road passenger transport and the electricity supply services of local authorities. These activities have been included in the appropriate industries.

Industry GroupSalary and Wage Payments
1967–681968–691969–70
 $(million)
Agriculture and livestock production101.2102.8108.5
Forestry, hunting, and fishing7.58.49.8
Mining and quarrying11.812.913.2
Manufacturing, food, beverages, and tobacco148.6159.0177.3
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles72.874.789.0
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, etc., products (including miscellaneous manufacturing)216.6233.2266.9
Manufacturing, metals and metal products143.0152.2179.0
Construction184.4187.1205.7
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services (not construction)33.735.738.1
Commerce—wholesale and retail trade339.8355.4392.4
Commerce—other110.0116.4130.2
Transport, storage, and communication256.8263.9293.1
Services, community, business, recreation, and personal511.7548.7601.0
Activities not adequately described0.40.50.4
               Totals2,138.32,250.92,504.6

Percentage rates of increase during the last 3 years were: 1966–67 to 1967–68, 4.1 percent; 1967–68 to 1968–69, 5.3 percent: 1968–69 to 1969–70, 11.3 percent. It should be noted that the labour force has grown over the period.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—The Department of Labour carries out surveys at half-yearly intervals; returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged; Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, domestic service in private households, and armed forces.

The following table shows the average weekly wage payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from this survey during the last 11 years. Comparison is made, for those years for which figures are available, with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult males as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per PersonNominal Minimum
Weekly Wage for
Adult Males* as at End of
Preceding Month
Aggregate Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.) for One Week Divided by—Aggregate Ordinary-time
Earnings Divided by
Full-time and Half
Part-time Employees
Full-time and
Part-time Employees
Full-time and Half
Part-time Employees
* Nominal minimum weekly wage, which relates to adult males only, is the weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.
 $      $      $      $      
1962—April31.81932.88129.854..
           October32.20833.32830.568..
1963—April33.06834.19530.994..
           October33.37534.60431.428..
1964—April34.08535.31231.720..
           October35.74537.12533.562..
1965—April36.88138.30134.381..
           October37.25638.82934.804..
1966—April38.05239.67635.34636.369
1966—October38.94740.71436.50337.337
1967—April40.20042.00137.55138.435
           October39.97141.77138.46338.959
1968—April41.41843.26039.50839.232
           October42.38544.39440.82441.524
1969—April44.28646.38241.89841.942
           October45.04647.36942.77842.886
1970—April47.85250.37844.87444.887
           October51.15754.07748.57949.902
1971—April56.49359.72553.61356.891
           October59.29962.84457.05560.631
1972—April63.93267.62260.97063.219
           October65.01669.00662.63263.544

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time
and Overtime
Combined
Ordinary Time
(Estimated) Worked
by Full-time
Employees
Overtime
(Estimated) Worked
by Full-time
Employees
Ordinary Time
and Overtime
Worked by
Full-time and
Part-time
Employees Combined
 $      $      $      hourshourshours
1962—April0.7901.1770.81437.82.739.1
           October0.8081.1990.83137.82.438.8
1963—April0.8181.2420.84537.92.739.1
           October0.8311.2300.85637.82.739.0
1964—April0.8391.2520.86837.73.039.2
           October0.8801.3060.91737.82.839.0
1965—April0.9081.3370.93937.63.139.0
           October0.9271.3670.95637.73.139.0
1966—April0.9391.4180.97537.73.239.0
           October0.9671.4321.00037.83.138.9
1967—April0.9961.5181.03337.73.138.9
           October1.0191.5051.04637.72.338.2
1968—April1.0451.5431.07637.82.538.5
           October1.0811.5811.10937.82.438.2
1969—April1.1081.6341.14437.82.938.7
           October1.1371.6791.17437.62.938.4
1970—April1.1931.7911.23837.63.238.6
           October1.3031.9341.34837.33.038.0
1971—April1.4402.1781.49137.23.037.9
           October1.5362.2631.58237.22.737.5
1972 April1 6402.4421.69437.22.937.7
           October1.6902.4561.74037.12.837.4

The preceding table combines all industries. A dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table according to the major headings of the newly adopted New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, relating to October 1972, is now provided.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $      $      $      hourshourshours
Forestry and logging1.6402.5151.67938.01.839.6
Mining and quarrying1.8372.4321.91136.75.341.7
Manufacturing—
     Seasonal food processing1.8032.7231.92235.25.340.1
     Other food, beverages, and tobacco1.4302.2471.52337.15.238.8
     Textiles, clothing, and leather1.3192.0231.35735.92.236.3
     Wood and wood products1.5722.3381.64537.54.040.6
     Paper and paper products, printing and publishing1.6932.5981.77037.53.639.4
     Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics1.7212.3261.77937.64.140.7
     Non-metallic mineral products1.5952.3701.70537.76.343.1
     Metal products and engineering1.6392.4551.73737.85.342.2
     Machinery1.6242.5241.71438.24.341.8
     Electrical equipment1.4842.2221.54137.23.239.3
     Transport equipment1.7092.5191.79137.04.240.9
     Other manufacturing1.3672.0691.40337.22.137.1
               Group1.5872.4311.66936.94.139.8
Electricity, gas, and water1.8962.7271.96137.33.240.2
Construction1.6822.5771.78038.54.743.2
Wholesale, retail, etc.—
     Wholesale trade1.6822.2691.70438.21.538.5
     Retail trade1.2952.0561.31837.21.333.6
     Restaurants, hotels, etc.1.3932.0641.43334.13.127.8
               Group1.4602.1421.48637.11.634.3
Transport and communication—
     Transport and storage1.8172.7741.92637.44.941.4
     Communication1.7852.8861.84638.22.339.4
               Group1.8052.7991.89737.73.940.6
Finance, insurance, etc.—
     Finance1.8172.1031.81936.70.436.2
     Insurance1.8352.4581.84037.10.336.7
     Real estate and business services1.7552.3041.76536.20.834.4
     Group1.7932.2781.79936.60.535.5
Community and personal services—
     Government services, n.e.i.2.3092.2642.30835.31.236.1
     Local authorities, n.e.i.1.8682.4561.89438.41.939.2
     Sanitary services, etc.1.3572.0721.38632.82.722.9
     Education services2.3272.9122.32835.90.132.9
     Research and scientific institutes2.5393.0472.55136.00.936.2
     Health services1.6171.9561.63238.52.036.5
     Other community services1.6532.1721.65735.70.330.2
     Recreational services1.8422.5651.87332.82.027.2
     Personal and household services1.4042.2451.43937.81.737.4
     Group1.8952.1991.90436.61.234.4
          All surveyed industries1.6902.4561.74037.12.837.4

NOMINAL WAGE RATES—The present index dates from 1966 and is designed to represent the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration or any special industrial tribunal, or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. Within this wider index a major sub-index is provided of minimum rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration. The residue then provides a second major sub-index of mainly mandatory rates fixed within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals or determined by some other statutory authority. Within the “All Jurisdiction” index and both the “Court” and “Other Jurisdictions” major sub-indexes, further sub-indexes give analyses firstly by industry groups and secondly by occupation groups.

Complete details of the new revised index are contained in the Report of New Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index for Adult Males published as a special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics in August 1968.

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal weekly wage rates of adult males for industry and occupation groups. For revisions of recent quarters see Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Base: For each group the average rates for that group at 31 December 1965 (= 1000)*.
Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
19701971197231 Dec 197131 Mar 197230 Jun 197230 Sep 197231 Dec 1972
Part 1Rates Within the Jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration
               Industry Groups
Primary industries11261193144914021417141814941513
Manufacturing11681312x16691610x1619162317291749
     Food, beverages, and tobacco11331273x15671522x1527153116121625
          Meat processing and dairy factories11251265x15821514x1517151815961596
          Other food, beverages, and tobacco11721313x16371564x1575158916881761
     Textiles and apparel11721314x16621624x1624162417021729
     Wood, pulp, paper and their products11801342x16831626x1627162917571765
     Printing and allied industries12211298x17541654x1710171018281845
     Metals, machinery and transport equipment11801333x17561697x1702170718201850
     Other manufacturing11801324x16431555x1578159117211746
Construction1176133717181621x1660168317991811
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services11851310x16361554x1554164516761684
Commerce11831293x15811488x1495156516371637
Wholesale and retail trade11741283x15811482x1491157316361667
Finance, insurance and real estate12351352158515211521152116441667
Transport, storage and communications11791330x15851488x1533153616191650
Services industries11611295x15561489x1504152215981664
               Occupation Groups
Professional, technical, managerial11761254x15601458x1484156116171621
Clerical11891316x15661498x1501151015921680
Sales11761270x15641439x1439158116251648
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining11421227x14791426x1441144715231548
Transport11761332157614731557157116561665
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers11701318x16801615x162616391746158
Service occupations11601307x15621507x1516152516031657
             All (industry or occupation) groups combined11721310x16351562x1579160116961717
Industry GroupAverage for Calendar Yearas at
19701971197231 Dec 197131 Mar 197230 Jun 197230 Sep 197231 Dec 1972
Part 2Rates Prescribed by Wage and Salary Determining Authorities Other Than the Court of Arbitration
               Industry Groups
Primary industries11131223x13291301x1320132813371337
     Agriculture and livestock10831158x12111200x1202121412141214
     Other primary11821374x16011534x1591159116191619
Manufacturing12171394157114821572157215781578
Construction11971372156214801564156415661566
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services12031408159015111591159115961596
Commerce11801374160115061605160516051605
Transport, storage and communication11811344152114521517151715321532
Service industries12021406x16471531x1658165816591659
Education and health services11821388x16441498x1650165016501650
Government, community, business, persona and recreational services12211422x16501563x1666166716671667
               Occupation Groups
Professional, technical, managerial12051411x16451509x1660166016601660
Clerical11751362158414921588158815881583
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining11121222x13261298x1317132613341334
Transport11791344x153414601537153715381538
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers11921355x15241457x1519151915371537
Service occupations12511465x17381636x1736173617361736
            All (industry or occupation) groups combined11831358x15511467x1553155415611561
Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
19701971197231 Dec 197131 Mar 197230 Jun 197230 Sep 197231 Dec 1972
* Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate the relative movements it the average rates for the different groupings, not the relative levels of the average rates of wages and salaries in the different groupings.
Part 3Rates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
               Industry Groups
Primary industries11161215x13611327x1346135213781383
Manufacturing11701316x16641604x1617162117221742
Construction1182134616781585x1636165317401749
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services11921348x16181537x1568162416451648
Commerce11831296x15821488x1500156716361664
Transport, storage and communication11801339x15341465x1523152415631567
Service industries11921378x16241521x1619162416431657
               Occupation Groups
Professional, technical, managerial11981375x16261507x1620163816511651
Clerical11831337x15741495x1540154515901638
Sales11761270x15641439x1439158116251648
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining11221224x13781341x1359136713971406
Transport117713361562146.01550155916161622
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers11741325x16491580x1605161517051714
Service occupations11941366x16271555x1598160416531687
         All (industry or occupation) groups combined11761326x16061529x1570158516491663

Allowances for housing, board and lodging, or rations are included in cases where these are normally provided in addition to the cash pay.

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male workers. The base of the index numbers is in each case 31 December 1965 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices
(All Groups)
Nominal Weekly
Wage Rates
Adult Males
Effective Weekly
Wage Rates
Adult Males
* Provisional.
1956777748963
1957794783986
1958829791954
1959860806937
1960866846977
1961882866975
1962905881973
1963923905980
1964956933976
19659889891001
1966101610171001
196710771070994
196811241111988
196911791176997
1970125613271057
197113861628x1175x
1972*148217661192

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers' Price Index and converting the whole to the base: quarter ended 31 December 1965 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. Nor do the consumer prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, air and overseas travel, domestic help, etc., are omitted.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY WAGES—A table showing minimum wages in various occupations is given in the annual statistical report Prices, Wages, and Labour available in Government bookshops.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—Average hourly earnings of adults (both sexes) in non-agricultural sectors in 1970 were as follows: United States, US$3.22; Canada, Can$3.15; New Zealand NZ$1.29. For adult males in non-agricultural sectors in 1970 average weekly earnings in Australia were Aus$79.60 and average hourly earnings in the United Kingdom £0.62. (Source: International Labour Office—Bulletin of Labour Statistics). Exchange rates are given in Section 29.

Chapter 34. Section 34
INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

GENERAL—A system of industrial conciliation and arbitration peculiar to New Zealand was evolved from the first legislation on industrial relations passed in 1894. The system was based on: (a) the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations; (b) the regulation of conditions of employment by industrial agreements made between industrial unions or industrial associations of workers on the one hand and industrial unions or industrial associations of employers or individual employers on the other hand; (c) the reference of disputes to a Council of Conciliation convened by a Conciliation Commissioner; (d) in the event of failure of the parties to reach agreement in the conciliation proceedings the dispute was referred to the Court of Arbitration and after hearing the parties the Court made an award. Action for breach of an award or industrial agreement could be taken by any of the parties thereto or an inspector of awards in a Magistrate's Court, or by an inspector in the Court of Arbitration. The system owed much of its strength to the success of Judges of the Court of Arbitration in maintaining the dignity of the office with a minimum of formality and in demonstrating a wide and practical grasp of economic and technical problems and human relationships. In recent years it had become apparent that the system was increasingly unable to deal, flexibly with developments in the industrial relations field. This was evidenced by an increase in the growth of direct bargaining outside the system.

In 1971 a comprehensive review of industrial legislation and wage-fixing procedures was undertaken, culminating in the introduction of draft industrial relations legislation on a new basis into the House of Representatives in 1972.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS LEGISLATION—The revised legislation is the first major restructuring of New Zealand's industrial legislation and institutions since 1894. It provides a new charter for the conduct of industrial relations. It replaces the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, and the Industrial Relations Act 1949. Changes in legislation over the years from 1894 left untouched the basic precepts on which the 1894 Act was founded. For this reason, where modern needs were not accommodated, the legislation was often disregarded. This happened in the following areas now set out.

Machinery for Conciliation and Arbitration—The Court of Arbitration's role with regard to new instruments or their renewal was largely limited in recent times to the ratification of conciliated settlements. In addition, with increasing emphasis on direct bargaining outside the legislative provisions, settlement of conflict rested more and more on the parties themselves. The Minister and the Department of Labour assisted the parties when their own attempts at negotiation broke down, while conciliation commissioners as chairmen of conciliation councils, disputes committees, or convenors of conferences also became involved in mediation, e.g., investigating facts, suggesting avenues for agreement, and using their skill to get the parties to agree. The need for this type of service was not given legal recognition until 1970 when a provision was made for the setting up of a permanent Industrial Mediation Service.

Strikes and Lockouts—It has become generally accepted that under some conditions the right to strike and lockout should be recognised although the definition of these conditions is the matter of argument.

Duration of Negotiated Settlement—In an effort to ensure that wage increases would not be outstripped by price increases in times of economic expansion, terms of instruments which were commonly of 18 months or 2 years duration prior to 1970, were in some instances down to 6 months and less prior to the introduction of the “12-month rule” in 1971.

In the framing of the new legislation the following factors not taken into account (or only partially so) by the previous legislation, were recognised.

  1. Industrial relations cannot be divorced from the general social and economic environment. It must be accepted that particularly in times of labour shortage, industrial growth and heavy capital investment, employer and union self-interest is not sufficient to protect the public interest.

  2. The majority of differences between employers and workers on industrial relations matters are handled by the parties in private negotiations requiring a sound system of communication between employers and workers. Moreover, a set of clearly understood procedures needs to exist to enable complaints and grievances to be dealt with promptly and constructively.

  3. Bargaining generally calls for negotiation to be carried out by people skilled and experienced in the art, and operating within the framework of well structured organisations.

Institutions—The Act provides for the setting up of an Industrial Relations Council which will serve a somewhat similar function to that of the Industrial Advisory Council. There are, however, to be a number of administrative and procedural improvements. The council is to be a tri-partite advisory body to Government under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. It will study and report on industrial and manpower matters with the view to improving industrial relations and industrial welfare generally.

It was suggested by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour that there should be a split in the functions of the Court of Arbitration in the belief that the more strictly legal functions of interpretation and enforcement should not be carried out by a body which has an arbitral role. The Act makes provision for the splitting of the previous functions of the Court of Arbitration along these lines. Provision is made for the setting up of an Industrial Commission which takes over the arbitral functions of the Court of Arbitration. The commission will hear disputes of interest (essentially disputes arising out of the negotiation of a collective agreement). It will register all collective agreements. This registration is an important new provision. In the joint proposals it was left in doubt whether registration was required in all cases. This means in effect that all collective agreements (including house and ruling rates agreements) will be enforceable at law.

An Industrial Court will be established as the ultimate court of appeal on disputes of right (i.e., disputes occurring over the interpretation of an instrument, personal grievances, and other disputes arising while an instrument is in force). The Court will also hear and determine enforcement and recovery actions.

Procedures for the Settlement of Disputes of Interest—The Act (in line with the joint proposals) recognises the right of parties to a dispute to negotiate a voluntary settlement or a conciliated settlement, resulting in a collective agreement. If the parties are unable to reach a settlement in conciliation the dispute, with any partial settlement, will be referred to the Industrial Commission for arbitration. The commission on hearing the case will issue an “Award”.

Procedure for Settlement of Disputes of Right—To facilitate the settlement of disputes of right each instrument will contain or be deemed to contain “disputes committee” and “personal grievance” procedures. Where a demarcation question arises, any union or employer who is a party to the award or collective agreement may apply to the Industrial Court to determine the question.

The Right to Strike—A major departure from the previous legislation is that the Bill recognises a right to strike at the time of negotiation or renegotiation of a collective instrument. (The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act made all strikes and lockouts illegal where the parties were subject to awards or industrial agreements.)

The Act retains for the Minister of Labour the previous power which he held to deregister a union. Provision is made for notice to be given in the case of a stoppage proposed in certain essential industries. Where any party fails to follow the disputes or personal grievance procedures in a negotiated instrument the provisions relating to breach of award will apply. Implicit in this provision is the belief that employers and unions must be prepared to abide by the terms of the collective agreements which they negotiate.

Industrial Relations Council—The Industrial Relations Act makes provision for the setting up of an Industrial Relations Council as an advisory body at national level comprising representatives of employer organisations, worker organisations, and Government. In this way the Act recognises the need for permanent machinery for central consultation on industrial affairs. The chairman of the council will be the Minister of Labour or his deputy.

The council will give advice to Government on ways of improving current industrial legislation in order to accommodate changes in the industrial environment. Some specific matters to which the council will give consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisation, and industrial welfare.

The council will be serviced by a secretariat, and it is contemplated it will meet regularly. Meetings may be called at any time by the chairman, either on his own motion or on the request of either of the central organisations. The views of the council need not be unanimous.

The potential of this council is considerable. Regular consultation between Government and the central organisations is essential to the development of a broad basis of understanding and cooperation. Apart from this, the research required to ensure the functioning of the council will build a body of expertise and knowledge from which informed judgment can be made.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations under the Industrial Relations Act 1973 which simplifies and consolidates procedures developed over the years under the superseded Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. To be eligible for registration a society of employers must have not less than 3 members and a society of workers either not less than 30 members or not less than 25 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned. An incorporated company may register itself as an industrial union. The purpose of an industrial union must be the protecting or furthering of the interest of employers or workers in a particular industry or related industries.

The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act. The Act does not apply to State Services employees but wages and other conditions of employment in the State Services and on the waterfront are determined under closely parallel systems providing for conciliation proceedings and final determination by an arbitration tribunal. The majority of agricultural workers are outside the scope of the Industrial Relations Act and their wages and conditions are determined by wage orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962. The history and development of industrial unions is covered comprehensively in Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration in New Zealand by N. S. Woods.

A substantial revision of the previously existing provisions for the registration and conduct of industrial unions is contained in the Industrial Relations Act. The Act makes one uniform provision for the registration of industrial unions to replace the variety of previous provisions. A sliding scale will operate to determine the minimum number required to form a union. Further provisions operate to deter multiple unionism and the provisions for amalgamation have been simplified. It is hoped that this move will give some impetus to amalgamation of unions. Unnecessary restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed. In the future, unions will be able, subject only to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscriptions to welfare activities.

A union may apply funds to furtherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

Awards and industrial agreements may, by agreement of the parties or by wish of the majority of the workers concerned, contain a clause making membership of a union a condition of employment, but not so as to restrict an employer's right to engage a worker who at the time of engagement is not a member of the union. Where no such “unqualified” preference clause is inserted, the award or agreement will contain a “qualified” preference clause requiring the employer to give preference to a unionist over a non-unionist if a union member is ready and willing to be engaged and is equally qualified to do the particular work required. In fact, every award and industrial agreement currently in force at 31 December 1972 included the “unqualified” preference clause.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of larger unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 346 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it*. In size, the registered unions range from about 36,000 members† down to 7, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding very slowly, and significant consolidation has occurred recently only in the meat freezing, labourers', and carpenters' unions.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions‡ .

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

This situation of fragmentation and limited functions is due partly to the legal and traditional demarcation and the various forms of compulsory unionism which have inhibited mergers or vigorous competition for membership, and partly to the poverty imposed by legal limits on members' subscriptions. Welfare activities were permitted and subscription limits raised by amending statutes in 1964 and 1970 respectively.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and six members elected directly by the conference. The National Council, which meets about once a quarter, consists of members of the National Executive and one representative of each local trades council, and is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and one trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Although the employers are more highly organised in respect of negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest, there has nevertheless been an absence of agreed overall policy and guidelines. The New Zealand Employers Federation, the chief co-ordinating organisation for activities of employers in connection with negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, has also witnessed a move on the part of some groups away from established central procedures.

* Mainly the State services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers and fertiliser workers.

† The Engineers Union.

‡ More than a dozen, for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hutt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

Recognising the need for a central employer organisation capable of speaking and acting on behalf of all employers in industrial matters, the New Zealand Employers Federation announced in mid 1971 a major expansion of its activities and services. The objective of the re-organisation was to achieve greater unity amongst employer associations and the other employer organisations affiliated to the Federation.

A new constitution and rules for the federation took effect in November 1971. Under these new rules 11 district employer associations were merged into 4 regional divisions, thus extending field services available to members.

While the regional divisions retain internal autonomy the restructuring will bring more cohesion and employer unity than has previously been possible. Provision is also made for more comprehensive employer representation on the central policy-making bodies.

In addition two new internal divisions have been created: the Negotiations and Advocacy Division, which will co-ordinate and strengthen conciliation and negotiating facilities available to employers, and Research and Information Services, which has broad responsibilities in the fields of research, information, and public relations.

STATISTICS: Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of each of the latest 5 years are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some employers belong to two or more unions.

Industrial Group19671968196919701971
UnionMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Provision of—
     Food and drink623,484613,309603,402603,169543,133
     Clothing, footwear, and textiles92,86594,30294,09293,96293,362
     Building and construction554,265554,035564,073554,090544,020
     Power, heat, and light88947921795971,00571,028
     Transport by water and air1616016160161541614516189
     Transport by land1056910508105711049151,710
     Accommodation, meals, and personal service313,868313,838313,870314,053304,401
     Working in or on—
     Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.93829375937493419371
     Metal121,004111,115111,118101,150101,178
     Stone, clay, glass and chemicals101,359101,373111,407111,415101,399
     Paper, printing, etc.1642115422154301542115412
     Skins, leather, etc.528528528528529
     The land (farming pursuits)92,79892,65492,72992,65892,733
Miscellaneous54445297530353296492
               Totals25722,54125323,33725423,51025223,25723924,457

Unions of Workers—The following table shows membership only of industrial unions of workers as at the end of each year. The outstanding feature is the large increase consequent upon the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed; growth trends were affected by both world wars, the economic depression of the 1930s, and by deregistrations associated with the waterfront strike of 1951.

YearNumber of Members
* 1950 figure includes the membership of five subsequently deregistered unions totalling 8,554 members.
190017,989
190123,768
190223,816
190327,640
190430,271
190529,869
190634,978
190745,614
190849,347
190954,519
191057,091
191155,629
191260,622
191371,544
191473,991
191567,661
191671,587
191772,873
191871,447
191982,553
192096,350
192197,719
192296,838
192394,438
192496,822
1925100,540
192699,567
1927101,071
1928103,980
1929102,646
1930101,526
193190,526
193279,283
193371,888
193474,391
193580,929
1936185,527
1937232,986
1938249,231
1939254,690
1940248,081
1941231,049
1942218,398
1943214,628
1944223,027
1945229,103
1946247,498
1947260,379
1948271,100
1949275,977
1950275,779*
1951272,957
1952283,496
1953290,149
1954299,254
1955304,520
1956308,031
1957317,137
1958324,438
1959327,495
1960332,362
1961324,747
1962332,801
1963334,128
1964346,338
1965353,093
1966362,760
1967366,884
1968364,872
1969366,523
1970378,465
1971386,275

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership. Unions in process of cancellation at the end of each year and for which no membership figures are available are excluded.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100–199200–299300–499500–9991,000–1,9992,000–2,9993,000–4,9995,000–9,99910,000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
190114230195411202
19111825326231481307
19212397036282811321418
1931239583130291431405
19411847038383227131052419
19511656944383928111173415
196114758393946251511114395
196613356204641291314125369
196713349314136301311145363
196813347274339291213145362
196912946314137311213145359
197012743264138321410184353
197112739293739291313146346
Membership
19015,7774,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,90023,768
19117,5217,6866,3608,8799,6859,4146,08455,629
192111,2229,7089,18211,06618,52714,5807,4336,5069,49597,719
19319,9697,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
19417,9099,7689,20715,06022,84135,41731,10241,19128,98729,657231,049
19517,87510,22510,39414,67127,27439,65827,36443,21840,27852,000272,957
19616,3747,9229,37414,64332,61935,30034,72046,06172,39365,341324,747
19665,7937,5974,68017,33828,57039,41631,50756,30185,04486,514362,760
19675,6136,7197,58616,52625,76042,87832,01844,58095,07390,131366,884
19685,8066,5186,44316,79427,21940,04928,49451,69894,85886,993364,872
19695,7666,2927,67916,03025,56942,99929,13852,25596,09584,700366,523
19705,6085,8376,39115,40425,50644,67833,69138,662125,25477,434378,465
19715,0645,2987,26614,74826,84442,34631,16649,78898,144105,611386,275
Percentage of Total Membership
190124.317.020.38.710.66.912.2100.0
191113.513.811.416.017.416.911.0100.0
192111.59.99.411.319.014.97.66.79.7100.0
193111.18.88.412.422.820.57.48.6100.0
19413.54.24.06.59.915.313.417.812.612.8100.0
19512.93.73.85.410.014.510.015.814.819.1100.0
19612.02.42.94.510.010.910.714.222.320.1100.0
19661.62.11.34.87.910.98.715.523.423.8100.0
19671.51.82.14.57.011.78.712.225.924.6100.0
19681.61.81.74.67.511.07.814.226.023.8100.0
19691.61.72.14.47.011.77.914.326.223.1100.0
19701.51.51.74.16.711.88.910.233.120.5100.0
19711.31.41.93.87.011.08.112.825.427.3100.0

There has been a steady growth in the average size of workers' unions, the trend being to a certain extent obscured at times by the cancellation of registration of some large unions. An average membership of 118 in 1901 increased by 1921 to 234, by 1941 to 551, and by 1961 to 822. The average membership of the 353 workers' unions registered in 1970 was 1,072. In 1971 the average membership of the 346 workers' unions registered was 1,116.

The next table shows both numbers of workers' unions and their membership as at the end of each of the latest 5 years according to occupational groups.

Occupation Group—19671968196919701971
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Professional and technical143,556153,434163,707164,115164,720
Administrative, executive and managerial211521172114252268
Clerical4470,0674573,0994573,1174575,9344478,024
Sales2023,1632023,3071821,6351822,1611723,204
Farming, fishing, hunting, and logging412,580411,843 10,43149,45559,381
Mining, quarrying111,0261199710821106779507
Transport and Communications—
     Sea transport32,66332,65932,52832,1802544
     Air transport36653626366536263656
     Rail transport12,08112,01611,90911,85711,854
     Road transport1820,1121820,2161820,2981622,3531621,090
               Sub-totals2525,5212525,5172525,4002327,0162224,144
Manufacturing, labouring, etc.—
     Textiles and leather2424,8802425,4502425,3462427,4652427,749
     Metal2242,7572242,2182242,6252145,1822046,998
     Building and construction3641,5193739,0563640,4813541,3603341,967
     Printing, etc.26,92026,93427,19927,24727,223
     Food, beverages, and tobacco4843,0624643,1554544,1874544,5294344,066
     Waterside and related freight handling4217,8934116,5204217,1724217,4384419,169
     Other groups3720,4853619,7703620,3893521,5543422,631
               Sub-totals211197,516208193,103207197,399204204,775200209,803
Service, sport, and recreation—
     Hotels and restaurants1126,3611226,4921226,3971226,0151226,156
     Caretaking, cleaning, etc.62,79262,78663,32963,76455,522
     Laundry and drycleaning52,43452,57652,57152,66352,731
     Other groups101,75391,60191,60281,83892,015
               Sub-totals3233,3403233,4553233,8993134,2803136,424
           Grand totals363366,884362364,872359366,523353378,465346386,275

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of two or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as an industrial association. At 31 December 1971 there were 15 industrial associations of employers and 36 of workers, the former having 132 affiliated unions and the latter 191. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case. In most cases the associations cover the entire country.

Industrial GroupEmployersWorkers
AssociationsAffiliated UnionsAssociationsAffiliated Unions
19701971197019711970197119701971
Provision of—
     Food, drink, etc.543737432014
     Clothing, footwear, and textiles331211
     Building and construction334444221513
     Power, heat and light1122
     Transport by water and air111111333434
     Transport by land14111212
     Accommodation, meals, and        
     personal service222020331717
Working in or on—
     Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.11442288
     Metal33119
     Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.1133441311
     Paper, printing, etc.221211
     Skin, leather, etc.11221122
     Mines and quarries114
     The land (farming pursuits)1144
Miscellaneous885354
               Totals17151371323736207191

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table, showing the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country, is of interest as manifesting the movement in and the extent of unionism during the period under review. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations and include professional, business, and other classes in which unionism prior to the passing of the amending Act of 1936 did not exist, and agricultural and pastoral occupations where it was practically non-existent. In addition, females are included in both sets of figures, although the proportion of women unionised prior to 1936 was negligible.

Census YearTotal Wage
Earners
Unemployed†
Males
End of Year
Nearest to
Census Date
Numbers of Workers
on Rolls of
Registered Unions‡
Percentage of Wage
Earners on Rolls of
Registered Unions‡

* 1950 figure now includes the membership of 5 subsequently deregistered unions, totalling 8,554 members.

† Nearly all of the relatively small numbers of unemployed from 1951 onwards would have been wage earners.

‡ There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agricultural workers, etc.

1901 (Mar)224,3468,467190017,9898
1906 (Apr)269,0398,189190529,86911
1911 (Apr)304,2727,152191057,09119
1916 (Oct)302,1615,920191671,58724
1921 (Apr)370,69211,061192096,35026
1926 (Apr)414,67310,6941925100,54024
1936 (Mar)496,56335,774193580,92916
1945 (Sep)473,6845,8231945229,10348
1951 (Apr)577,6947,9021950275,779*48
1956 (Apr)653,3585,5581955304,52047
1961 (Apr)750,8824,6741960332,36244
1966 (Mar)870,8135,1251965353,09341

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES—The Industrial Relations Act 1973 has replaced the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, and the Industrial Relations Act 1949, which were set out in previous Yearbooks as the bases for the settlement of industrial disputes.

The Industrial Relations Act defines a dispute of interest as a dispute created with intent to procure a collective agreement or award settling terms or conditions of employment of workers in an industry.

The Act recognises the right of parties to a dispute to negotiate a voluntary settlement, or a conciliated settlement resulting in a collective agreement. The procedures available for the settlement of disputes of interest include: (a) The Industrial Mediation Service; (b) the Industrial Conciliation Service; (c) the Industrial Commission.

Industrial Mediation Service—The Industrial Mediation Service will continue to provide assistance to employers, workers, and their respective organisations to prevent or settle disputes (including disputes of interest) at an early stage. The mediator, however, will have no jurisdiction over an industrial dispute which is the subject of conciliation or arbitration proceedings. The service will consist of mediators, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations.

In carrying out his duties and responsibilities a mediator will have the following functions and powers:

  1. To use his best endeavours to prevent industrial disputes.

  2. Where he, or any employer or union considers that an industrial dispute is likely to arise, to offer his services to the parties to assist in preventing the dispute.

  3. When an industrial dispute arises, to offer his services to the parties to assist them in bringing about a settlement of the dispute.

  4. In giving such assistance, to inquire fully into the dispute and all matters affecting its merits and to make such suggestions and recommendations and do all such things as he thinks right and proper for inducing the parties to come to a fair and amicable settlement.

  5. Where the parties to an individual dispute agree, to decide such matters as they may refer to him for decision.

  6. To maintain a close and continuous liason with the parties in industry, and to carry out such studies and surveys as will enable him to exercise his functions.

  7. To exercise such other functions as conferred on him by the Act.

The service will operate independently of any Government department, and any mediator may exercise his function within any part of New Zealand.

One of the major causes of industrial disputes is a breakdown in communications. This might occur either between union officials and their members, or between management and those same workers, or any combination of both. The Industrial Mediation Service will continue to perform an invaluable role in ensuring a constant dialogue between parties where normal channels have broken down, and in facilitating prompt settlement of an industrial dispute before an unnecessary stoppage or severe deterioration in industrial relations occurs. However, in order to fulfil his functions satisfactorily, the co-operation and assistance of employers, workers, and their organisations with the mediator is essential, particularly in advising him of problems and seeking and accepting his assistance when the need arises.

Industrial Conciliation Service—The Industrial Conciliation Service (now attached to the Industrial Commission) will continue to be available to assist the parties to reach a conciliated settlement over a dispute of interest. Conciliators will be appointed for a term of 3 years by the Governor-General on recommendation of the Minister. Their general functions will be to convene conciliation councils, and ensure that the parties enter properly into the process of reconciling their differences.

In performing his duties the conciliator will have the following functions and powers: to fix dates for the hearing of disputes; to appoint assessors and constitute councils of conciliation; to join or strike out parties to a dispute; to call a compulsory conference of the parties; to record the proceedings of every council; to summon witnesses and take evidence; to report to the Industrial Commission the terms of any settlement of the dispute; to refer unsettled disputes to the Industrial Commission for determination; to arbitrate on an issue in dispute if the parties so agree; such other functions as are conferred by the Act, e.g., chairman of dispute committees.

Either party to a dispute of interest may make application to the Industrial Commission for the dispute to be heard by a conciliation council. Where an award or agreement is in force, application must be made not more than 6 months before the expiry of the agreement (3 months for disputes affecting a single district). The applicant must cite the respondent parties to the dispute, and prepare a detailed statement of the claims against the respondents. The Industrial Commission, when it receives the application, will appoint a conciliator to hear the dispute.

Copies of the application, incorporating the claims, must be forwarded to the Registrar of the Industrial Commission, the conciliator, the central organisations, and the respondent parties, not less than 6 weeks before the commencement of the hearing. The respondents are to prepare their counter claims, and forward the requisite copies not less than 2 weeks before the commencement of the hearing. Each party is then entitled to nominate up to seven assessors, or up to four in a dispute affecting a single industrial district, to act on their behalf in the conciliation council. Where it is claimed by the applicants or respondents that more than 7 or 4 assessors are needed to represent them adequately, the conciliator will have the power to increase the numbers of assessors up to 10 (6 in the case of a dispute affecting a single district) as he thinks fit. Before appointing the assessors nominated by the parties, the conciliator must be satisfied that they are fully representative of the parties to the dispute and have the authority to make a settlement. The assessors and the conciliator form the conciliation council.

The primary function of the conciliation council is to reconcile conflicting viewpoints and reach a settlement in the dispute. Where settlement cannot be reached on any issue and if the parties so agree, the conciliator may arbitrate. This is an added power given to conciliators. In deciding matters of procedure before the council a decision of a majority of assessors will suffice, or where the assessors are equally divided, the conciliator will have the casting vote.

Where complete agreement is reached in conciliation, the terms of the conciliated settlement are referred to the Industrial Commission for registration. A copy is retained at the office of the commission and copies are also sent to the central organisations, to the representatives of the parties, and to the Secretary of Labour. The commission will be responsible for printing and publishing collective instruments.

Unless otherwise specified, the registered collective agreement is binding only on the signatory parties. However, either party may apply to the Industrial Commission for an order declaring the agreement generally binding on all other persons who, as employers or workers, are engaged in the particular industry (and locality) to which the agreement relates, or who become engaged in it during the currency of the agreement, i.e., the agreement has a blanket application. It is noted, however, that the commission will not make an order giving an instrument blanket coverage if the parties are already covered by a collective agreement or award in which the blanket provision is included.

Any party to the agreement may, within 1 month of the agreement coming into force, apply to the Industrial Commission for a total or partial exemption. The commission may grant such an exemption, either in whole or in part, and subject to such conditions as it thinks necessary.

In New Zealand, conciliation has always played an important and integral role in the formal industrial relations system. Indeed, in by far the majority of disputes, complete agreement has been reached in conciliation. It has been considered essential, therefore that the characteristics of the conciliation service should be retained in the new industrial relations legislation.

The emphasis in conciliation is on negotiation and compromise. However, where the parties have reached a deadlock in negotiations, the conciliator, by ascertaining the parties' true position, can assist in reconciling their differences. In so doing, he can substantially reduce the area of conflict.

Industrial Commission—If the parties are unable to reach a settlement in conciliation, the dispute, with any partial settlement, is referred to the Industrial Commission for arbitration. The commission will comprise five members, two of whom are appointed on recommendation of the central organisations, the remaining three not representing any sectional interest. Of the three, one will be appointed president of the commission and another deputy president. The appointment of the president and deputy president is to be made after consultation with the central organisations (and after taking into account the views of non-affiliated organisations). They must have suitable training and experience in industry.

The office of employers' representative or workers' representative on the commission may not be held in conjunction with membership of the Industrial Court.

The jurisdiction of the commission is exercised only if the parties fail to reach complete agreement in conciliation. Before arbitrating, the commission will first hear representations from the parties to the dispute. However, the exercise of the commission's arbitral powers is by no means automatic. Indeed, if the commission is not satisfied that the parties have made a genuine attempt to settle, it may refer the matter back to the conciliation council. This provision is in line with current legislation. The commission might also, with the consent of both parties, refer the dispute to a mediator if it is satisfied that this might assist the parties to reach agreement.

When the commission arbitrates, an award is made which is binding only on the signatory parties. However, as in cases where a complete settlement is reached in conciliation, either party may apply to the commission for an order giving the award blanket application, subject to the proviso mentioned earlier.

The Industrial Commission will play a vital role in the industrial relations field. With the services of persons with the necessary experience and expertise in industrial affairs, the confidence of the parties should be assured and its status upheld. As a final arbitrator on interest disputes, its decisions will resolve some of the most difficult of industrial disputes. In addition, the precedents and policies of the commission in fixing rates of pay will have an important impact on the wage structure and will influence both the outcome of conciliation proceedings, and the policies of other wage-fixing authorities.

Voluntary Settlements—Apart from the formal machinery available to the parties for the conciliated settlement of interest disputes, the parties may jointly agree to negotiate a collective agreement of the voluntary settlement of the dispute. In these cases, a negotiating committee will be formed, comprising an equal number of properly appointed representatives of employers and the union of workers. The voluntary settlement is recorded in writing by the parties and forwarded to the Industrial Commission for registration as a collective agreement. The registered agreement will bind only the signatory parties. Any union or association or employer within the locality of the agreement may, with the consent of the original parties, become a party to the agreement by filing with the Registrar of the Industrial Commission a notice of concurrence.

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

In the table shown later, recording methods of settlement, all such interruptions of labour, including periods of deliberate absence from work by way of protest against an alleged injustice, are classified under the heading “voluntary return to work”. In 1965, these cases comprised 27 out of 105 stoppages; in 1966, 59 out of 145; in 1967, 26 out of 89; in 1968, 26 out of 153; in 1969, 27 out of 169; in 1970, 72 out of 323; in 1971, 95 out of 313; and in 1972, 119 out of 284.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages for the last 20 years. (A 50-year time series is tabulated in the Statistical Summary towards the end of this Yearbook.)

YearNumber of Wage
and Salary Earners*
Workers Involved as
Percentage of Wage
and Salary Earners
Working Days Lost
per 1.000 of Wage
and Salary Earners
* October estimates.
 (000)  
1951583.26.321,984.55
1952592.22.7547.49
1953609.43.6439.66
1954623.62.5932.83
1955639.63.1681.37
1956652.92.0836.56
1957670.22.3242.06
1958693.01.9827.11
1959699.42.6842.39
1960725.91.9749.16
1961752.72.2150.73
1962763.95.23121.95
1963788.01.8969.15
1964814.64.2782.05
1965846.71.8025.76
1966875.03.79113.25
1967871.83.27160.00
1968876.04.28148.71
1969899.74.90154.13
1970928.811.85298.60
1971935.89.19173.77
1972948.57.18148.31

Nature and Duration—The next table shows the number and nature of the stoppages and the number of workers involved during the last 11 years.

YearNature of StoppageNumber of Workers Involved
Direct StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*Penalty†TotalDirect StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*Penalty†Total

* i.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a ‘go slow’ or other policy of protest adopted.

† Waterfront stoppages sometimes result in the imposition of penalties under Port Bureau Rules. Details of stoppages where penalties were imposed are:—1964–4, (two of two days, one of three days, one of five days), some 6,520 working days were lost and $67,924 in wages. 1966–4, (one of one day, two of two days, one of three days), some 684 working days lost and $7,330 in wages. 1971–2, (two of two days), 2,322 working days lost, and approximately $33,080 in wages. 1972–3, (three of two days), 1,833 working days lost and approximately $32,240 in wages These figures are included in the statistics.

‡ Two lockouts involving 572 workers are included.

§ Including 3 lockouts involving 549 workers.

¶ One lockout involving 60 workers included.

196290429634,2482,6063,06739,921
196358116011,8273,0503414,911
19648949330,1964,58334,779
19659724105$13,31272665715,267‡
196613731414531,906725949233,132
196779738924,1024,03435428,490
19681483215336,16883145937,458
19691601816943,0553695044,041
1970307310323§106,5202332,794110,096
19712835222313¶81,5434362,8781,15286,009
19722371331328458,8842,5575,3121,35768,110

The table following illustrates the duration of stoppages during 1972.

DurationNumber of
Stoppages
Number of
Firms Affected
Number of
Workers Involved
Number of
Working Days Lost
Estimated
Loss in Wages
 $      
1 day and less14725236,48827,456405,430
Over 1 day but not over 2 days39506,0518,333118,780
Over 2 days but not over 3 days22328,34516,733249,980
Over 3 days but less than 1 week29378,73830,545449,200
1 week but less than 2 weeks26325,81122,232251,390
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks15252,15023,433381,960
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks553319,440123,630
8 weeks and over111962,50065,400
               Totals28443468,110140,6722,045,770

Industrial Distribution—In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during 1972.

IndustryNumber of
Stoppages
Number of
Firms Affected
Average Duration
(Days)
Number of
Workers Involved
Working
days Lost
Approximate Loss
in Wages($)
Whaling, trawling and fishing1521.002803,64030,620
Coal mining222.002836389,390
Stone quarrying221.002822310
Abattoirs662.332502,35330,380
Meat freezing, preserving62804.1135,19978,8651,181,990
Bacon curing332.334216676,630
Fish curing, preserving111.001010140
Bread baking220.755145035,920
Aerated waters11134.732405977,530
Brewing, malting, bottling111.001651651,690
Knitted goods112.001051971,240
Woollen mills222.501104064,560
Rope and twine111.003624160
Carpets, rugs, mats442.756941,21511,630
Paper products693.833151,26336,320
Printing and publication12170.883,3296885,770
Tanning and currying111.005550
Pneumatic tyres and inner tubes111.00135126810
Rubber manufacture332.1790781430,290
Paints and colours manufacture112.003681950
Soap and candles111,005560
Chemical fertilisers9306.163312,19534,270
Compressed gases221.3362723,440
Non-metallic minerals11146.541,1312,60527,760
Iron and steel making4410.3713685710,950
Non-ferrous metal552.109982,59542,470
Metal products12124.043544575,030
General engineering14146.464705,85456,370
Ship and boat building111.502335
Motor vehicle assembly8824.621,5126,24997,050
Electric installation221.2529172420
Building construction26515.676,05714,071220,430
Bridge construction120.50161370
Tunnel construction139.50131242,070
Wholesale and retail trades6111.333763693,900
Railway services112.002040600
Motor car, motor bus services220.753414160
Carriers4120.5026146880
Waterfront411161.3313,96612,032194,580
Services101030.551,254588900
               Totals2844344.4868,110140,6722,045,770

CAUSES AND RESULTS—In the next table the causes and results of stoppages occurring during 1972 are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Stoppages concerning the employment or dismissal of persons are included under the heading “Employment”. Stoppages on the subject of employment usually concern the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds.

“Other working conditions” are of diverse nature, and include such causes as the following: distribution of work in coal mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, and the method of handling cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all stoppages caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

In compiling this table no stoppage has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or when a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

ResultCause
WagesHoursEmploymentOther Working ConditionsSympathyOtherTotal
Number of Stoppages
In favour of workers51416237
In favour of employers11114
Compromise54636205121
Indeterminate46118141330122
               Totals106769511338284
Number of Firms Affected
In favour of workers51516238
In favour of employers1I114
Compromise80654229171
Indeterminate77121143474221
               Totals163791533486434
Number of Workers Involved
In favour of workers5041,8011,893204,218
In favour of employers82027794849
Compromise11,76238410,1363,03972126,042
Indeterminate9,6451569,3784,8702,55710,39537,001
               Totals21,91954021,3359,8292,55711,93068,110
Number of Working Days Lost
In favour of workers8744,2892,945168,124
In favour of employers1216113414555
Compromise37,2481,18542,26710,08870991,496
Indeterminate8,40820014,3264,1875,8707,50540,497
               Totals46,5421,38560,89817,3335,8708,644140,672
Estimated Loss in Wages
 $      $      $      $      $      $      $      
In favour of workers13,25062,92038,700170115,040
In favour of employers1102301,3009,13010,770
Compromise518,7409,120657,720128,46012,5501,326,590
Indeterminate122,0502,160191,38061,97092,520123,290593,370
               Totals654,15011,280912,250230,43092,520145,1402,045,770

Methods of Settlement—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages. Negotiations supposedly under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act were treated as “Intervention of third party”. “Voluntary return to work” includes such cases as “Protest” absence and stopwork meetings.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
 $      
Private negotiations between parties10312118,77845,967680,710
Intervention of third party609312,35254,220771,830
Substitution
Voluntary return to work11921836,81539,965585,900
Other221655207,330
               Totals28443468,110140,6722,045,770

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provision of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1962, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons employment Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreement Act 1937, and the Shearers Act 1962. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Government Railways Act 1964, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35 D—Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 2 weeks' duration on ordinary pay for all workers who are not otherwise provided for in this respect. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to payment equal to one twenty-fifth of his ordinary pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Every award provides for workers to have at least 10 whole holidays on pay, in addition to annual holidays. The holidays so provided include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu).

The Public Holidays Act 1955 gives rules which are applicable to the provisions of any Act, award, or industrial agreement when Christmas Day and New Year's Day fall on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday. The effect of the Act is broadly to provide that provisions regarding the granting of a holiday or observance of certain hours of labour or payment of certain specified rates of wages are carried over from Saturday and Sunday to Monday (or Tuesday). In a similar way, where the anniversary day of any province fails on a Friday Saturday, or Sunday, the provisions governing holiday, pay, etc., on anniversary day apply on the text succeeding Monday; if it falls on a Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, the provisions apply to the immediately preceding Monday as if it were the anniversary day. Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the New Zealand Day Act 1973.

ANZAC DAY ACT—Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Where Anzac Day falls on a Sunday it is not transferred to a working day.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to “any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged or in which one or more persons are employed … directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale …”.

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Boys under 18 or females may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act provides that persons under 18 cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Sunday Trading—Sunday trading is prohibited except: (a) if provision is made in an award, the prior consent of the Minister being required to such inclusion; (b) for sale of exempted goods listed later; (c) if individual shops are granted exemption by the Shops and Offices Exemptions Tribunal or the Minister to permit them to open on Sunday. This is designed to offer a relaxation to enable shops to cater for the essential needs of the public after work and on weekends.

Exempted Goods—The Shops and Offices Exempted Goods Order 1968 permits the sale of various commodities including bakers' and pastrycooks' lines, building supplies and handyman's requisites, condiments, cooked foods, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and vegetables, gardening supplies, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and small goods, medicinal and household goods, photographic goods, and some miscellaneous items.

Non-exempted goods must be properly locked away from the view of the public after normal closing hours.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Act also makes provision for the welfare, health, and safety of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where five or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation has been passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this will become law after its attendant regulations are gazetted.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33, Wages, the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulations of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 furnishes the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal functions of which are to prescribe conditions in regard to hours of work, etc.; and terms and conditions in respect of leave of absence, railway concessions, etc.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to make recommendations to the Minister on such matters as may be referred to it by the Minister, the Director-General, or the New Zealand Post Office Association (Incorporated).

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The three armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the reaching profession.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 and the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969.

Waterfront Industry—The legislation at present governing waterside work is contained in the Waterfront Industry Act 1953, which defines waterside work as “the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels; and, in relation to any port where the harbour board acts as wharfinger, includes the work of receiving and delivering cargo customarily performed by waterside workers at that port”. Under the Act functions of Government are shared between two types of bodies—one legislative and judicial, the other administrative only.

The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal which consists of a chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The tribunal is appointed for a term of 3 years and is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for waterside work, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the setting up by the Minister of Labour of a National Conciliation Committee to be appointed for a term not exceeding 2 years and consisting of eight employer and eight worker representatives, with an independent chairman, to conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns two or more ports. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to waterside work, and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general Appeal Court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations), the National Amenities Committee, and orders of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges.

The Waterfront Industry Commission which is the administrative body, consists of one commissioner appointed for a term of 5 years by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with the engagement of, and payment of wages to waterside workers, including administrative work in connection with guaranteed minimum payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payment by results for waterside workers. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers (subject to the direction of the National Amenities Committee) and for the equipping, operation, and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first-aid rooms. The National Amenities Committee, which is associated with the commission in the function of provision of amenities, consists of six nominated representatives of employers, workers, and harbour boards, and the Waterfront Industry Commissioner as chairman, and is appointed by the Minister of Labour. This committee acts in an advisory capacity to the commission, authorising amenities costing not more than $10,000 each at any port, and approving schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $10,000 each at any port.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

Chapter 35. Section 35
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

35 A—ACCIDENT COMPENSATION

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION ACT—The Accident Compensation Act 1972 gives effect to the Report of the Select Committee on Compensation for Personal Injury by Accident. This report was made after the committee had considered the 1967 Report of the Royal Commission on Compensation for Personal Injury in New Zealand (of which Mr Justice Woodhouse was chairman) and the 1969 commentary on the report (H. 50).

The purposes of this Act are to make provision for general safety and the prevention of accidents; for the rehabilitation and compensation of earners who suffer personal injury by accident in respect of which they have cover under the Act, and of persons who in New Zealand suffer personal injury by a motor vehicle accident in respect of which cover is afforded under the Act; and for the compensation of certain dependants of those earners and persons where death results from the injury.

This Act makes fundamental changes in the law governing the compensation of earners who suffer personal injury by accident, and all persons who suffer personal injury in motor vehicle accidents. These new provisions will come into operation on 1 April 1974. They will replace the Workers' Compensation Act 1956 and the third-party provisions contained in Part VI of the Transport Act 1962.

Under the “Earners Scheme”, all injured earners, self-employed persons as well as employees, will, if they qualify for “continuous cover” be entitled, as of right and without proof of fault, to earnings-related compensation in respect of loss of earnings from incapacity through injury by accident, no matter where or how the accident occurs. Earners who do not have continuous cover, will have work accident cover which will entitle them to compensation for incapacity resulting from any accident arising out of and in the course of their employment. In addition lump sum payments are provided for permanent loss of bodily function or enjoyment of life.

In addition, under the “Motor Vehicle Scheme”, all persons injured in motor vehicle accidents will have cover and will be entitled to compensation assessed on the same basis as under the “Earners Scheme”.

Where a person has “cover” under this Act in respect of an accident, his right to bring a common law action in respect of that accident is abrogated.

An Accident Compensation Commission has been appointed. Part II of the Act sets out the commission's role in the areas of safety and prevention of accidents, personal injuries, and occupational diseases; and provides for the establishment of a Safety Division. One of the commission's primary responsibilities is the prevention of accidents and it is expected to take an active and coordinating role in the promotion of safety.

The commission is expected to promote medical and vocational rehabilitation and provision has been made for the establishment of a Rehabilitation and Medical Division.

Part III of the Act establishes the “Earners Scheme”. Under it, an earner will have “continuous cover” if before the date of the accident he has been ordinarily resident in New Zealand lawfully for a period or periods amounting to 12 months, and

  1. if a self-employed person, is, otherwise than as employee and whether alone or with another person or persons, carrying on a business in New Zealand;

  2. if an employee, has worked in paid employment for at least 160 hours during the previous 8 weeks, or is required to work or customarily works for 10 hours or more a week, or is entitled to a retainer or retainers or is a “deemed employee”, and either at the time of the accident is earning at a rate of at least $500 a year or during the preceding 12 months or the preceding financial year earned at least $500.

Earners who do not qualify for this continuous cover will have work accident cover.

This part of the Act also contains special provisions for extension of continuous cover, for New Zealand residents overseas, seamen and airmen, members of the armed forces of New Zealand, and occupational diseases.

For the function of the “Earners Scheme” it is provided that levies (at rates between 25c and $5 per $100 of income) be paid by employers and self-employed persons.

Part IV of the Act establishes the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme and provides that all persons (whether earners or not) will be entitled to compensation calculated in accordance with the provisions of the Act for all motor vehicle accidents.

Part V contains detailed rules for the calculation of earnings for the purposes of collection of levies on earnings and the payment of earnings-related compensation.

Part VI specifies the compensation payable, and this applies equally to both the Earners and the Motor Vehicle Accident Schemes. Broadly speaking, the compensation to which injured persons (who have cover in respect of the accident) will be entitled is of three types: Medical and related benefits; lump sum payments of up to $12,500 in the aggregate for loss or impairment of bodily functions, loss of enjoyment of life, pain and mental suffering, and other non-economic loss but excluding property loss; earnings-related compensation of 80 percent of the loss of earning capacity with a ceiling of $160 per week. (Provision is also made in this part of the Act for the dependant:; of persons who die as a result of such accidents.)

Part VII of the Act with procedure for reporting accidents and making claims, and specifies appeal rights and procedures.

Part VIII deals with certain miscellaneous matters including offences, the making of regulations and consequential amendments and repeals.

35 B—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—Statistics of industrial accidents have become increasingly important with the widening mechanisation of industry and the growing labour force. They are basic material for programmes of industrial safety. The national bill for compensation payments is in the region of $9 million annually. This is, however, only the direct cost, and the indirect costs probably put the total bill beyond $20 million. Productivity and the standard of living are affected by industrial accidents. Calendar days lost through industrial accidents can be well over 20 times the working days lost through industrial stoppages. Add to this the loss of some 80 lives each year and the permanent disabling of some 900 other workers, then the magnitude of the problem of occupational safety can be more clearly realised.

As the statistics are derived from claims made under the Workers' Compensation Act, they exclude accidents to working proprietors and similar persons not insurable under the Act. This limits the scope of the statistics in the farming industry especially. Coverage does, however, extend to organisations exempt from insurance under the Act.

Claims resulting from the more serious accidents are frequently not settled for some considerable time after the occurrence of the accident, and a period is therefore allowed so that the bulk of such claims may be included in the statistics for the year in which the accidents occurred. From 1963 the closing date has been standardised at mid August of the following year. Even allowing this period of 7 1/2 months, it is inevitable that any year's statistics will include a small proportion of long-delayed claims from previous years, but these late claims should be compensatory from year to year.

PRINCIPAL STATISTICS—The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics for compensable accidents. After 1966 the collection and classification system was revised, but the statistics are broadly comparable. (See the report Industrial Injuries 1968 and 1969.)

Item196619681969

* Adjustment according to age of worker, i.e. number of total days (9,263) of working-life expectancy remaining.

† For definition of rates see Industrial Accidents 1966 (Department of Statistics).

‡ Including fatalities with claims not finalised, total for 1968 was 82, and for 1969 78.

Number of accidents resulting in—
     Fatality8567‡66‡
     Permanent total disability3133
     Permanent partial disability9301,004971
     Temporary disability55,48059,40061,912
Totals56,49860,48462,952
Compensation paid (incl. damages)—
     Total$(m)7.179.28.8
          Average per accident$127151139
Calendar days lost—
     Temporary disability only (000)862.7885.3984.4
          Average days per accident161515
     Total on constant basis* (000)2,942.93,952.13,707.7
          Average days per accident526559
     Total on actual basis (000)3,028.03,749.03,704.0
          Average days per accident546259
Frequency and severity rates†—
     Frequency rate3.343.643.70
     Injury severity rate1,0661,4181,307
     Economic severity rate1,1081,3491,314

CLASSIFICATION BY INDUSTRY—In the following table industrial accidents during the year 1968 are classified by industrial groups.

IndustryAccidentsCalendar Days Lost (Constant Age Basis)Man-hours Worked During Year (Hundred Thousand)Frequency Rates (Accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked)Injury Severity Rate*Economic Severity Rate*

* Man-hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked, ignoring age in the case of permanent disability and fatality. This rate gives a comparison between industries of the physical severity of injuries suffered in industrial accidents.

† Man-hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked, allowing for age and sex in the case of permanent disability and fatality. This rate gives a comparison between industries of the economic severity of industrial accidents.

NOTE—Within any industry the two severity rates are not comparable.

Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing—
     Agriculture and livestock production5,345356,7841,483.203.601,7181,771
     Forestry8239,34794.338.72559614
     Logging871100,71353.9716.1411,5969,542
     Hunting, trapping, and game propagation968,20427.523.491,7892,221
     Fishing16729,85138.524.345,5354,218
               Totals7,302504,8991,697.544.302,0562,017
Mining and quarrying—
     Coal mining1,46745,24150.9228.814,3794,179
     Metal mining479,8916.866.859,06314,487
     Crude petroleum and natural gas7134........
     Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits30927,15839.417.844,5285,027
     Non-metallic181,098........
               Totals1,84883,52297.1919.014,7705,250
Manufacturing—
     Meat freezing and preserving6,738253,634492.7113.682,9782,652
     Other food3,148200,674436.457.212,7262,686
     Beverages4116,43974.095.55521775
     Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes3024221.511.396773
     Textiles73664,082248.852.961,4531,437
     Footwear, other wearing apparel and made-up textile goods49610–439457.451.08126102
     Sawmilling1,24883,102227.215.492,1422,012
     Other wood and cork (excluding furniture)81584,678113.367.194,3753,670
     Furniture and fixtures37351,93291.584.073,2404,233
     Paper and paper products68140,203157.354.331,5331,707
     Printing, publishing, and allied industries43334,525305.511,42630608
     Leather and leather products12210,48155.782.191,1141,411
     Rubber products25430,83985.612.972,1101,581
     Chemicals and chemical products58455,185158.733.682,0111,763
     Products of petroleum and coal5352029.481.80107118
     Non-metallic mineral products1,082109,224202.475.343,2753,596
     Basic metal industries27713,18866.134.191,1821,530
     Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,569124,020233.966.713,1433,463
     Machinery (except electrical machinery)2,788157,307414.246.732,2512,430
     Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies57045,589165.023.451,5791,461
     Transport equipment2,309113,722798.972.89803762
     Miscellaneous manufactures50834,166155.663.261,239789
               Totals25,2251,524,1914,992.125.051,7831,757
Building and construction8,820765,5881,371.016.433,4303,239
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services—
     Electricity, gas, and steam1,20695,716254.484.742,2302,624
     Water and sanitary services47221,39451.199.222,4782,755
               Totals1,678117,110305.675.492,2712,646
Commerce—
     Wholesale and retail trade4,413234,5622,233.411.98555515
     Banks and other financial institutions31394303.750.1078
     Insurance2520,243209.750.12510207
     Real estate929335.560.254347
               Totals4,478255,4922,782.471.61485430
Transport, storage, and communications—
     Loading and discharging vessels1,266217,898139,819.069,7968,004
     Other transport4,150205,6301,115.273.721,119883
     Storage and warehousing38934,91664.266.053,1832,469
     Communication87727,636542.821.62287297
               Totals6,682486,0801,862.163.591,6001,301
Services—
     Government75116,262674.821.11129113
     Community and business1,86993,7402,161.350.86220182
     Recreational27123,256112.892.40780766
     Personal1,51574,759553.542.74593485
               Totals4,406208,0173,502.601.26280235
Industry not specified457,181........
All industries60,4843,952,08016,610.763.641,4181,349

NATURE OF INJURIES—Industry groups by nature of injury are shown in the following table for 968 and 1969.

Nature of InjuryAgriculture, forestry, hunting and fishingMining and quarryingManufacturingBuilding and ConstructionElectricity, gas, water and sanitary servicesCommerceTransport, storage, and communicationServicesActivities not adequately describedTotals
Traumatic amputation or enucleation196813161222181010137
1969193691831255134
Fracture1968649651,2556189027947533743,772
1969635501,2506579029948231163,780
Dislocation without fracture196871179417242632281
196967877434172725268
Sprain, strain19681,8118196,4692,8356311,3452,6731,360717,950
19691,7066087,1353,0626501,3852,6931,3802618,645
Laceration, puncture, or open wound19682,4332908,6482,3264031,4641,1831,015817,770
19692,4102669,5702,5584021,4381,1569261818,744
Superficial injury (scratch, abras'n, etc.)1968257691,1623385317622313622,416
19692441301,296365731762589532,640
Bruise, contusion19687574573,0361,1782615531,17455867,980
19697793563,5801,2962795321,28149888,609
Foreign body in eye or ear1968120491,13640749612395312,115
1969103391,26448857512243212,259
Burn, scald1968242211,3983276512415237422,705
1969219191,6643496611012434262,899
Injury to nerve or spinal cord19688177162142
196931106111124
Internal injury not eye or ear19683014619362110136
19698157245445
Multiple196876201878716528363584
1969377644415323420253
Other1968850571,773668104381428472154,748
1969820641,920737100358455430114,895
               Totals19687,3171,85025,2678,8731,6854,4896,6894,4214560,636
19697,0501,55127,9149,6301,7424,4156,7454,0697963,195

AGE GROUPS—Accidents by age groups are shown in the following table for 1968 and 1969.

Age Group (Years)Accidents*Percentage of Accidents for each SexPercentage of
Total Wage or
Salary Earners
1966 Census
1968196919681969
* Excludes 3,348 and 3,480 accidents in 1968 and 1969 respectively where age not stated.
Males
Under 2110,00910,81119.0719.9015.66
  21–247,5238,05314.3314.8310.89
  25–3412,55312,55523.9123.1121.64
  35–449,94310,07818.9418.5520.60
  45–547,4737,68114.2414.1416.87
  55–644,3674,4968.328.2811.72
  65 and over6276491.191.192.62
               Totals52,49554,323100.00100.00100.00
Females
Under 211,3591,50128.3527.8433.05
  21–2457763712.0411.8112.85
  25–3463278813.1914.6112.94
  35–4485799917.8818.5316.11
  45–5492295019.2417.6215.85
  55–643934658.208.627.69
  65 and over53521.100.971.51
               Totals4,7935,392100.00100.00100.00

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—In the preceding section on industrial injuries the statistics include farm employees but not self-employed farmers. At the Census of Population and Dwellings in 1966 there were 76,000 farmers apart from nearly 50,000 general farm workers.

The high degree of mechanisation on the 70,000 farm holdings of 4 hectares or more is responsible in large part for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production; but it has been responsible too for an increase in the hazards associated with rural work. Nearly 6,000 threshing machines, 19,000 wool presses, 30,000 internal combustion engines, 120,000 electric motors, 97,000 agricultural tractors, 25,000 milking plants, 73,000 shearing stands, as well as farm trucks, cultivating and harvesting implements, and other farm equipment and installations have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths, especially in recent years when there has been rapid growth in the use of heavy machinery, both for normal farm activities and for bringing new land into production.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Department of Agriculture undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on farm accidents and deaths sustained by farmers and their employees. The statistics relate to actual farm work, that is, they exclude domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying in, public hospitals in 1970 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents).

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (in Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Farm machinery324058407177
Falls9441534617251
Animals14693895215395
Accidental poisoning866222
Firearms5221129
Fires or explosions253313
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam1386229
Blow from falling or projected objects513211150
Cutting or piercing instruments295475303191
Other and unspecified farm mishaps2182613261
               Totals, 1970336300338200441,218

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Causes of deaths from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table. (Motor vehicle accidents on a farm are included.)

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (in Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197019711970197119701971197019711970197119701971
Tractors436756512152133
Electric current122142
Falls12214
Firearms21214121104
Blow from falling or projected object12122
Drowning or submersion84211115
Other and unspecified1423111168
               Totals16149121781017375558

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

GENERAL—The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them):

The Factories Act 1946, sections 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1926; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1957; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A).

Government departments and other organisations concerned with the administration of the Acts, or who have responsibilities for occupational accident prevention, have the scope of their work summarised in the following pages, and legislative requirements are also covered.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, of which a large section is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which completely covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on works of building and engineering construction; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare—the Bush Workers Act 1945 and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition, the department supervises more than 750 awards and industrial agreements, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. Special attention is given to dangerous machinery. The department employs some 130 inspectors of factories (including 8 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 41 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive.

The Department of Labour also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education. It collaborates with the Department of Education and with teachers training colleges and technical institutes in the instruction of technical teachers in occupational safety and in the safety training of apprentices and senior school pupils. It also participates in the substantial number of safety courses for all levels of industry conducted by the National Safety Association. Further, every 2 months it issues occupational safety posters to industry and publishes a range of safety booklets, pamphlets, warning notices, and other printed publicity. Its library of occupational safety films, which is widely used by industry, Government departments, trade unions, industrial organisations, etc., is believed to be the largest specialised film library of its kind in the world. The department produces industrial safety displays and exhibits (it has its own specially fitted exhibition van by means of which the displays are taken on tour regularly through selected areas of the country) used in the education and instruction of apprentices, school children, workers, employers, and the general public. The department also publishes the Labour and Employment Gazette, a quarterly industrial periodical which includes a substantial amount of material relating to occupational safety.

In Wellington the department has a Safety Centre consisting of a lecture room and a large display and demonstration area. The centre is used for courses for field staff and departmental officers and is also available to teachers, trade and industry groups, other Government departments and so on.

The department co-operates with all other bodies working in this and related fields and seeks specialist advice from time to time from such other departments as Health, Transport, Internal Affairs, Forestry, Mines, Railways, Works, Electricity, Agriculture and Fisheries, and Scientific and Industrial Research, and collaborates with them in matters of mutual concern.

A joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety Education of the Departments of Labour and Health ensures that the educational work of these departments in this field is co-ordinated and wherever responsibility is shared that it is undertaken jointly.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The exceptions include ships' machinery, aircraft, boilers, lifts, and cranes. The Act provides for inspection of machinery and the investigation of accidents by inspectors who are officers of the Department of Labour. Penalties are prescribed for failure to comply with the requirements of the Act including failure to use any machine guard that has been provided for securing safety.

The Act has been extended to include amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. Another amendment to the Act requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural pursuits. Regulations which came into force on 1 June 1967 provide that all safety frames which are fitted to tractors after that date shall have been tested and bear a certificate number. Provision was made for the compulsory fitting of safety frames on all new wheeled tractors within the weight range of 15 cwt to 4 ton used for agricultural purposes, sold or let on hire after 1 September 1970. Exemption may be granted where the operation makes it impracticable to fit a frame.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959 is an Act to promote the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work. Construction work covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Under the Act construction safety may be enforced on, in, or about coal mines, other mines, and petroleum drilling operations; certain works which normally would be under the Quarries Act for safety may be classed as construction works under the Construction Act.

An advisory committee, with the chief safety engineer as chairman and comprising representatives of workers and employers from all sectors of the construction industry, meets as required to advise on all facets of safety in the industry.

The Construction Regulations made under the Act include notifiable work, requirements for health and welfare, general safety standards, scaffolding, excavation, powder-powered tools, safety supervisors, safe blasting, certificates of competency, ladders, gas supply safety, underwater work, and work with compressed air. Certificates of competency are currently being issued after examination for scaffolders, safety supervisors, and construction blasters. Courses of instruction are also given to scaffolders, safety supervisors, and construction blasters. The regulations are amplified by various guides and codes of safe practices.

Bush Workers Act—The Bush Workers Act 1945, as amended by the Bush Workers Amendment Act 1967, makes provision for the safety and protection of workers engaged in any tree felling or logging undertaking or felling trees for land clearance, including persons working on their own account or under a contract of service. It is an offence under the Act to carry out any unsafe work method which is likely to endanger any person working in the bush. Inspectors appointed under the Act have the authority to insist on the wearing of protective equipment such as safety helmets, gloves, goggles, etc. The Act binds the Crown.

Safety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

With the exception of certain fishing boats, pleasure yachts not exceeding 50 tons register, missionary ships, and certain small vessels engaged in carrying agricultural or pastoral produce, the hull, machinery, and equipment of every New Zealand ship are required to be surveyed once in every 12 months by a Surveyor of Ships of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport. A certificate of survey sets out the limits in which the vessel may ply, the number of passengers and/or crew she may carry, and the lifesaving appliances to be carried.

Port Safety—All cargo gear used in working cargo must comply with the requirements of the General Harbour (Safe Working Loads) Regulations. Cargo gear is tested and inspected by officers of the Ministry of Transport.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation. The Ministry lays down standards of aircraft construction and maintenance by means of Civil Airworthiness Requirements and by regulation controls the standards of crew competence and physical fitness.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950 is designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the operation of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air receivers; hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; all types of power-driven cranes.

All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. In the calendar year 1971 there were 19,719 inspections of boilers, 5,462 inspections of lifts, and 3,496 inspections of cranes.

Mines Department—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

New Zealand Electricity Department—In addition to its major role of supplying bulk power, the New Zealand Electricity Department, amongst other things, administers the Electricity Act 1945, the Electricity Supply Regulations, the Electrical Wiring Regulations, the Electricians Act 1952, the Electric Linemen Act 1959, and the Gas Industry Act 1958.

The Electrical Wiring Regulations set out minimum requirements for electrical installations, apparatus, and appliances used on consumers' premises. It is the responsibility of Electrical Supply Authorities to inspect such installations to see that they comply with the Wiring Regulations, which are designed to promote safety to life and property. The Handbook to the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1961 incorporates explanatory notes and diagrams.

Department of Internal Affairs—The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosives Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, manufacture, and use of explosives and dangerous goods.

Explosives—The empowering legislation is the Explosives Act 1957. The regulations in force are the Explosives Regulations 1959, and the Explosives Authorisation Order 1959 lists the explosives which may be imported into or manufactured in New Zealand. The explosives legislation is concerned solely with explosives proper, such as blasting powder, gelignite, and detonators which are used in blasting operations, explosive compositions used in ammunition or fireworks, and also ammunition and fireworks in their final manufactured form.

Dangerous Goods—The relevant legislation is the Dangerous Goods Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Regulations 1958. Substances controlled under the heading of dangerous goods embrace a wide range of inflammable materials, such as petrol, kerosene, fuel oil, calcium carbide, white phosphorus, ammonium nitrate, the chlorates of sodium, potassium, and calcium, compressed gases, and liquefied petroleum gas.

State Services Commission—The Commission watches statistics and trends and directs special attention to causes and localities with a high incidence of accidents. It encourages departments to campaign for safety, and offers active assistance where needed. Also, on behalf of its associated departments, the commission is a member of the National Safety Association of New Zealand.

Ministry of Works—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer. He is invariably an officer with considerable practical knowledge and experience of departmental construction works. It is his duty to see that every section of the work is safeguarded to the maximum extent.

Safety requirements prescribed in various Government Acts and regulations play a major part in safety promotion on construction works. The safety officer is required to have a sound working knowledge of these requirements. In addition, he is sent on training courses conducted periodically by the National Safety Association of New Zealand.

In the main it is the department's foremen and overseers who can play the most important part in accident prevention on the job. These supervisors are in direct control of the day-to-day work, and by instructing their workers in the use of correct, efficient, and safe working methods, can prevent accidents.

National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.)—This organisation comprises member firms interested in promoting occupational safety, and is controlled by an elected executive functioning through specialist committees, five branch committees, and a small headquarters staff, together with a number of field officers. It seeks to stimulate firms and organisations in taking all possible measures to reduce accidents in their own establishments, and especially in establishing their own internal safety organisations, full-time or part-time safety officers, and where possible joint management-worker safety committees. The association also issue safety education material, undertakes general safety instruction and supervisor training within firms through its field staff, and organises periodical courses for farm safety officers and industrial safety officers. Its field of interest is substantially limited to occupational safety.

Industrial Health Centres—The Department of Health provides industrial health centres at strategic points. The following table shows attendances at industrial health centres and waterfront clinics in 1971.

CentreAttendances in 1971Total
FirstReattendance
* Operated chiefly in connection with the Hearing Conservation Programme.
New Lynn1,5513,2294,780
Mount Wellington2,0601,9414,001
Penrose6,3136,30312,616
Queen's Wharf5,2104,91010,120
Rosebank Road1,1159792,094
Wairakei*32388420
Mount Maunganui1,1231,0652,188
Petone9899061,895
Glasgow Wharf3,3931,2814,674
Woolston8463181,164
Lyttelton1,3826041,986
Dunedin Foreshore8235741,397
               Totals24,83722,49847,335

Chapter 36. Section 36
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES AND THE COOK ISLANDS

GENERAL—New Zealand is responsible for Niue, the Tokelau Islands, and the Ross Dependency, also for the defence and international relations of the Cook Islands.

Self-governing Territory—The 15 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand in 1965. The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895.

Territory Which is Mainly Self-governing—Niue, which was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, is at a stage of achieving internal self-government. Constitutional changes are being negotiated between the Niue Legislative Assembly and the New Zealand Government.

Non-self-governing Territory—The Tokelau Islands became a legal part of New Zealand in 1949. The group had formerly been part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, although New Zealand had administered it on behalf of Britain since 1925.

Reports on progress in both Niue and the Tokelau Islands are forwarded annually to the United Nations.

Administered Territory—New Zealand administers the Ross Dependency. The Ross Dependency has been inhabited for some years by parties of persons maintaining the permanent scientific bases.

The Minister of Island Affairs is charged with the administration of Niue and the Tokelau Islands and in terms of the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 he has also been designated as the Minister charged with handling Cook Islands affairs in so far as they affect New Zealand.

The South Pacific Commission is an advisory and consultative body comprising the governments of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, the United States, Western Samoa, Nauru, and Fiji. The functions of the commission are to recommend to the member Governments means for promoting the social, economic, and medical welfare of the peoples in the region, and to this end several programmes are in effect. The South Pacific Health Service advises member Governments on health matters, collects and distributes epidemiological information, assists in the maintenance of professional staffs, and encourages medical research and the training of indigenous people as assistant medical practitioners and nurses.

The Department of Maori and Island Affairs administers a training scheme under which selected students from the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands receive education and vocational training in New Zealand, Fiji, Western Samoa, and elsewhere. The Department of Education's Officer for Maori and Islands Education advises the department of educational policy matters, and assists with the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of school journals and textbooks in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment.

By arrangement between the Governments of Fiji and New Zealand, young Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelau Islanders receive training at the Fiji School of Medicine and the Central Nursing School in Suva to equip them for duty in their own territories as medical officers, assistant dental officers, pharmacy and laboratory assistants, and assistant health inspectors. Students receive diploma level instruction in tropical agriculture in Western Samoa and Fiji.

People migrate from the Pacific islands to New Zealand to seek employment opportunities.

At the 1966 Census of Population there were 8,663 Cook Island Maoris in New Zealand compared with 4,499 in 1961. Likewise in 1966 there were 2,846 Niueans in New Zealand compared with 1,728 in 1961.

An indication of the immigration from the Pacific islands during the first flush of migration is reflected in the statistics of birthplace. At the 1966 Census 67.39 percent of the Cook Island Maoris resident in New Zealand were born in the Cook Islands. In recent years the migration rates have decreased slightly and relatively more persons, particularly children, will have been born in New Zealand.

The high fertility rates result in the total population in the islands being maintained despite emigration, but proportions in the working age groups are affected.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 850,000 square miles of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 93 square miles.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. With one exception, Penrhyn, none of the islands possesses a good harbour.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 23.6°C, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 213.4 cm.

Administration: Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown in the right of New Zealand. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand

Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and six other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of members in the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The principal administrative officer of the Government of the Cook Islands is the Secretary of the Premier's Department, who is appointed by the High Commissioner acting on the advice of Cabinet. The Cook Islands Public Service is controlled by the Public Service Commission and is organised in the following departments: Agriculture, Co-operation, Education, Health, Inland Revenue, Internal Affairs, Justice, Police, Premier's, Survey, Treasury, and Works and Communications. In the outer islands, Resident Agents, subject to the control of the Secretary of the Premier's Department, are responsible for all aspects of administration.

The House of Ariki—The House of Ariki of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 Ariki, representing all islands in the group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Island Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands and have done so for many years. All island councils were reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1966, the major effect of which was to provide that the chairman was to be elected from among the councils' members. Previously the Resident Agent (except on Rarotonga) was Chairman ex officio. The Resident Agents are still members ex officio, but without vote, and their primary function is of advisers.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except customs duties); to regulate, control, or prohibit many activities; and to carry out various works and services on each island.

The Local Government Act is administered by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 consists of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: three members from Aitutaki and Manuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at four-yearly intervals, the latest being held in April 1972. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the Assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

By virtue of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, Cook Islanders remain British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands taken on 1 December 1971, recorded a total population of 21,227, an increase of 1,980 or 10.34 percent as compared with the Census of 1 September 1966. Details of population of the islands of the group as at 1 December 1971 are set out in the following table.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga5,8415,54711,388
Aitutaki1,4431,4112,854
Mangaia1,0301,0412,071
Atiu7646911,455
Mauke368395763
Mitiaro172159331
Manuae22
Palmerston333972
Pukapuka362366728
Nassau9168159
Manihiki239213452
Rakahanga165174339
Penrhyn329283612
Suwarrow11
               Totals10,84010,38721,227

During the year ended 31 December 1971 births numbered 775 and deaths 148. The number of deaths of children under one year of age was 35, which represents a mortality rate of 45.16 per 1,000 live births. Marriages totalled 126 in 1971 compared with 95 in 1970.

Cook Islanders go to New Zealand to seek employment or learn trade skills.

Migration movement is shown in the following table for 1971.

NationalityArrivalsDepartures
American10888
Australian4844
British (United Kingdom and Ireland)9672
Cook Islands, Maori9891,224
French, including Tahitians7681
Dutch710
New Zealand, including New Zealand Maori759681
Other6051
               Totals2,1432,251

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. School and pre-school children also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this provides the main health problem of the group.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-rays, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, and Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission. The Government also provides secondary education.

Education is free, compulsory and secular from the time of a child's sixth birthday to his fifteenth birthday. At 31 March 1971 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 7,215, comprising 6,839 pupils at Government schools and 376 at denominational schools. At the same date 88 students and trainees were receiving education or vocational training under the New Zealand Training Scheme.

Labour and Employment—On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and apart from making copra, there is little opportunity for them to engage in other economic pursuits. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, many of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage and salary earners in Government departments, in plantation work, in the handling of fruit for export, and in commerce.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of two clothing factories' a fruit cannery, and factories manufacturing local artifacts. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market.

Agriculture—The principal export crops of the Cook Islands are citrus fruit, copra, pineapples, and bananas. The following are the estimated areas planted in the principal crops: coconuts, 28,250 acres; citrus fruits, 1,200 acres; taro, 420 acres; bananas, 200 acres; tomatoes, 200 acres; pineapples, 250 acres; maniota, 360 acres; kumera, 215 acres; yams, 10 acres; coffee, 140 acres; pepper, 15 acres.

Transport and Communications—The Cook Islands Shipping Company operates a monthly service between the Cook Islands and New Zealand ports.

Under an agreement signed in February 1969, the New Zealand Government is constructing an international airport at Rarotonga. It is expected the airport will be operational by the end of 1973. In the interim a weekly air service operates between Fiji and Rarotonga.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and smaller services operate on Aitutaki and Mangaia.

Trade—A summary of exports by country of destination and imports by country of origin over a period of five years is contained in the next table.

Country19651966196719681969
Imports $(000)
New Zealand2,1222,3082,0322,7462,187
Australia189150191120209
United Kingdom133194229141245
Canada5020151917
United States9762472726
Japan and Hong Kong318306233226297
Other158156244100420
               Totals3,0673,1962,9913,3793,401
Exports $(000)
New Zealand1,8371,7261,7581,9042,267
Australia9110
United States32
United Kingdom6
Other19121917112
               Totals1,8681,7401,7771,9222,395

The value of imports during 1971 was $5,766,482, while the value of exports during the same year was $2,691,635.

There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

Details of the quantities and values of the principal commodities exported are shown below.

CommodityUnitQuantityValue $(000)
196919701971196919701971
* Includes 10,780 gallons of other canned fruit.
Bananascases39,54575,293125,60782277433
Copracwt20,09822,79820,890155206158
Fruit juice—
     Pineapplegals157,387261,328106,996197258105
     Citrusgals586,133557,606383,608742699501
     Othergals66,38055,19419,106926723
Canned pineapplegals78,984160,56955,770*12724690
Fruit pulpgals44,03872,70084,8814677107
Pearl shellcwt3,03583198184527
Orangescases47,85845,76821,73612813363
Mandarinscases42,78135,32919,0401147847

Foodstuffs continue to be the largest class of import; the values of major imports are set out in the following table.

Commodity196819691970
 $      $      $      
Foodstuffs927,352816,5021,360,000
Drapery and piece goods617,439335,336512,236
Oils and petrol, etc.67,364335,758275,067
Tobacco and cigarettes75,26191,152..
Vehicles and parts177,141144,126500,000
Timber and cement158,756127,383137,438

Public Finance—New Zealand currency is in use in the Group. For the calendar year 1970 revenue items were: import duties, $340,829; income tax, $452,470; export produce tax, $15,413; welfare income tax, $50,876; sales tax., $83,666; and stamp sales (overseas), $197,393.

The New Zealand Government has continued to give financial aid to the Cook Islands Government through grants for social services and ordinary administrative expenditure plus grants and loans for capital works and economic development. The level of aid is reviewed triennially. The amount of aid approved for the triennium 1971–74 is $7,450,000.

A comparative statement of receipts and expenditure is now given.

YearAid from New ZealandReceipts from Cook IslandsExpenditure

* 9 months to December 1970.

† Year to March 1971.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1965–661,7441,5823,072
1966–671,8691,6843,460
1967–681,8691,8173,686
1968–692,0621,5593,619
1969–702,375779*3,006*
19702,375†1,9174,618

The principal items of expenditure are education, health services, and capital works.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. The island is situated in latitude 19° 02′ south and longitude 169° 52′ west, approximately 300 miles east of Tonga, 350 miles south east of Samoa, and 580 miles west of Rarotonga. The island, which has an area of 64,028 acres, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 220 ft, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 90 ft above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 24.7°C, and the average rainfall is 217.7 cm.

Administration—The Niue Island Assembly meets regularly and consists of 14 members elected by universal suffrage and representing all villages on the island. The Executive Committee has four members, one of whom acts as Leader of Government Business.

Laws are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament, or regulations issued thereunder, or by ordinances passed by the Assembly.

Discussions are proceeding on the basis that Niue should achieve the status of self-government in free association with New Zealand in 1974.

Population and Vital Statistics—Niueans are Polynesians with close ethnic ties with the Tongans and Samoans. The language is a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga and Samoa, with some elements from eastern Polynesia.

The population census at 28 September 1971 was 4,990 comprising 2,507 males and 2,483 females.

The inhabitants are distributed amongst 12 villages, of which Alofi is the largest. Niueans are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. A number of Niueans migrate to New Zealand each year.

For the calendar year 1970, births totalled 195 and deaths 36. There were 5 deaths of children under one year of age, the infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births being 25.64.

Age groups are shown in the following table from the 1971 census.

Age Group in YearsPersons
  0–4M463
F420
  5–9M458
F436
10–14M400
F354
15–19M291
F220
20–24M156
F152
25–29M110
F139
30–34M131
F137
35–39M98
F129
40–44M85
F85
45–49M81
F82
50–54M54
F69
55–59M49
F52
60 and overM151
F204
Not specifiedM
F4
TotalsM2,507
F2,483

Health—Niue, although situated in the tropics, is largely free from diseases prevalent in tropical countries. The Niuean standard of general hygiene is very good by Pacific standards.

All medical and dental treatment, including hospital services, is provided free of charge, the money for this expenditure being provided out of grants from the New Zealand Government. There is a Government hospital. Attached to the hospital is an outpatients department, X-ray unit, laboratory, and dispensary. The staff at April 1971 numbered 53.

The amounts expended on public health during the past five years were as follows.

Item1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
Amount expended$124,318$156,062$163,215$174,806$161,322
Population5,1995,2585,3235,3035,128
Amount per head of population$23.91$29.68$30.67$32.96$31.46

Education—The eight primary schools and the high school are all under the control of the Government.

The total number of children attending school in Niue at December 1970 was 1,666 while students and trainees attending school or receiving training in New Zealand numbered 39. Education is free and compulsory for those aged from six to 14 years, but most children remain at school until they reach 16 years.

Labour and Employment—The only substantial employer of labour is the Government, which employs Niueans in the Education, Police, Public Works, Health, Agriculture, and other Departments, and in the loading or discharge of vessels. A large number of unskilled labourers are employed on public works. There is no unemployment problem as most Niueans work in their family plantations.

Agriculture—The principal agricultural exports are passion fruit, honey, copra, limes, and kumaras.

The extremely rocky nature of the ground makes all agriculture difficult, as practically the whole of the arable land is confined to small pockets of soil among the coral rocks. Of the total area of some 64,900 acres, approximately 50,900 acres are more or less continuously cultivated, while some 13,600 acres are in forest. The remaining 400 acres are in mixed vegetation. The Agriculture Department has a programme for soil study and plant improvement, rehabilitation of coconut areas, and rearing of cattle for local consumption.

As the Niuean depends for his livelihood upon his family lands, alienation is prohibited, so that there are no landowners apart from the Niueans and the Government.

Transport and Communication—Apart from taxis there are no internal transport services. The transport of goods and produce to and from the ports of Alofi is carried out by Government and privately-owned motor vehicles. There are some 77 miles of all-weather roads on the island.

At Alofi there is an open roadstead only, and cargo is handled by lighters.

Full postal services are provided at Alofi, where there is a Post Office Savings Bank. A single-line telephone system connects all villages on the island, and a radio station is maintained by the Government for overseas communication.

An airport with a sealed runway of 5,400 ft was completed in October 1970 and became fully operational for commercial air services in 1971.

Trade—During 1970 total cargo handled was 6,519 tons. As usual the bulk of the trade was with New Zealand.

The values of exports and imports for the latest five years available are given below.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1966109516625
1967103598701
196856693749
196970771841
1970194748942

Exports of principal commodities over the latest five years were as follows.

Item19661967196819691970
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
  $       $       $       $       $      
Copra (tons)29238,30222022,594455,135264,05512326,706
Bananas (cases)2,1155,3482,7006,750147362352994130320
Kumaras (bags)2,94211,2844,80718,3546,48910,0299634,4089084,240
Plaited ware12,89211,5628,3602,6042,261
Honey (lb)32,2423,74899,8588,63359,8006,324163,62416,362
Passion fruit (lb)27,2289,003107,40834,601

The New Zealand Customs Tariff as modified by the Cook Islands Customs Duty Order 1962 is in force, and there is free trade between the islands and New Zealand.

Public Finance—Revenue on the island is raised principally from import and export duties, the sale of stamps, and High Court fines. Local income tax is levied in accordance with the Income Tax Ordinance 1961 and an “aid to revenue” tax of 5c in $1 is imposed on wage earners if their income is not otherwise subject to income tax.

Deficits are met by grants and loans from New Zealand. A comparative statement of receipts and expenditure during the latest five financial years is given in the following table.

YearReceiptsExpenditureGrants and Loans
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1966–675771,387765
1967–687531,560751
1968–698091,767900
1969–708351,877941
1970–711,0372,103972

TOKELAU ISLANDS: Descriptive—Situated some 300 miles to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, are the three atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olosega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 100 miles to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 yards in length, while none is wider than 400 yards nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 10 ft above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 650 acres; Atafu, 500 acres; Nukunonu, 1,350 acres. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 40 miles of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu, and 57 miles between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the Tokelau Islanders their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—The Tokelau Islands were included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants of the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

The Secretary of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs in New Zealand is Administrator of the Tokelaus and in this capacity is responsible to the Minister of Island Affairs.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the islanders agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. To date nearly 357 migrants have entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. Many others have settled in New Zealand of their own accord.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders, or “fono”, comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the “aumaga” or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenu'u.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans.

On 25 September 1971 a census showed a total population of 1,655.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu297335632
Fakaofo285340625
Nukunonu189209398
               Totals7718841,655

Health—The health authorities in the Tokelau Islands receive advice and guidance from Apia. The incidence of disease in the islands is comparatively slight.

A Fiji-trained Tokelauan medical practitioner is stationed on each atoll. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—There are now 28 trained Tokelau teachers in the islands. On each island there are qualified New Zealand teachers. They are endeavouring to raise educational standards by training Tokelauan teachers in improved teaching techniques and by modernising the curriculum. They also help to prepare intending migrants for life in New Zealand. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip and movie projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised.

Tokelau pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa and Fiji.

Communications—Trading voyages between Western Samoa and the Tokelau Islands are made at regular intervals by an Administration-chartered vessel.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in ah villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance—The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1971 amounted to 162 tons. Apart from copra, the only exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra, Customs duty of 12 1/2 percent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, and the sale of postage stamps. Total revenue for 1970–71 was $54,068. Expenditure for the year 1970–71 was $215,447.

Under the Tokelau Islands Copra Regulations 1952 a Copra Stabilisation Fund was established by a levy on purchases of copra for export, and is used to supplement the prices received by the producers, or by the purchasers on resale after export, as may be necessary from time to time. At 31 March 1971 there was $25,402 in the fund.

ROSS DEPENDENCY: Descriptive—The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 160,000–175,000 square miles of land and 130,000 square miles of permanent ice shelf. The land is virtually entirely covered by ice, but has bases inhabited by scientific personnel.

Administration—By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand, and administrative officers (commonly referred to as Administrators) have been appointed from time to time since 1923. Since 1956, the Leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The Leader has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

The New Zealand Government decided that the New Zealand bases in the Ross Dependency would continue to be operated after the conclusion of the International Geophysical Year. In March 1958 the Government appointed the Ross Dependency Research Committee to co-ordinate and supervise all New Zealand activity in the Ross Dependency, with particular reference to the scientific and technical programme, and to co-operate with other countries operating in Antarctica.

The implementation of the approved programme is the responsibility of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, which has an Antarctic Division.

Responsibility for co-ordinating the scientific details of the approved programme, the procurement, of scientific equipment and spares, and the working up of scientific data has been delegated as follows: Meteorology, Director, New Zealand Meteorological Service; Survey and Maps, Surveyor-General, Department of Lands and Survey; Geology and Glaciology, Director, Geological Survey; Special Upper Atmosphere Investigations and Aurora, Director, Physics and Engineering Laboratory; Seismology, Geomagnetism, Ionosphere, Director, Geophysics Division; Oceanography, Director,; Oceanographic Institute; and Biology, Director, National Museum.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channel is the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which is also New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research.

In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information and scientific personnel, but does not require New Zealand to renounce her territorial claim to the Ross Dependency. Delegates from the 12 signatory nations met in Wellington for the Seventh Antarctic Treaty consultative meeting from 30 October to 10 November 1972. The Treaty has been completely successful in all its aims and has allowed freedom of scientific research in Antarctica.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic Continent and surrounding waters.

Exploration and Field Activities—Various expeditions have operated within the area of the Dependency since the coastline was explored by Sir James Clark Ross in 1841. These include the two expeditions of Scott 1901–04 and 1910–13 and that of Shackleton 1907–09.

In January 1957 the first New Zealand expedition under the leadership of Sir Edmund Hillary established Scott Base near Cape Armitage on Ross Island. The purpose of the expedition was twofold: to take part in the crossing of the Continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition and to participate in the Antarctic programme of the International Geophysical Year. In the summer of 1957–58 the expedition established depots for the use of the crossing party and Sir Edmund Hillary and four companions pushed on to the South Pole, which was reached on 4 January 1958. Sir Vivian Fuchs's successful crossing party reached Scott Base on 2 March 1958.

Field Work—Each summer remote field parties using dog teams and sledges, but more recently mechanical transport, have since 1958 almost completely mapped the Ross Dependency. Geological survey parties have completed a reconnaissance of the Dependency and resulting from various interesting finds, work is now directed to specialised research in these particular areas. The Lands and Survey Department has issued a series of 48 maps based on survey work carried out by New Zealand field teams during the past few years.

Scientific Programme—During the International Geophysical Year 1957 New Zealand maintained at Scott Base and jointly with the United States at Hallett Station a scientific programme in close accord with the aims and objects of the I.G.Y. (References to these activities are contained in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.)

Since its establishment Scott Base has been continuously occupied each year by teams of scientists and supporting base personnel. The summer population may rise to 70 or 80 people but only about 12 winter-over to continue the scientific programme of continuous observations in the fields of seismology, geomagnetism, ionosphere physics, micropulsation, aurora and airglow, whistlers and VLF radio propagation, satellite tracking, meteorology, glaciology, and oceanography.

In 1968 a new scientific station was built near Lake Vanda in the Wright Valley of Victoria Land, some 80 miles west of Scott Base. It is the first New Zealand base actually on the Antarctic Continent.

For the first two seasons after its opening Vanda Station was manned on a year-round basis to enable scientists to carry out environmental investigations in this ice-free area and also to undertake studies in upper air physics and earth sciences in co-ordination with the programme at Scott Base. Blowing dust collection in the vicinity of the station is continuing as part of the study of weathering in the Dry Valleys.

The station was used only as a summer base during 1970–71 and 1971–72, but it is proposed to open it again during the full year of 1974 to implement further scientific work.

During the summer of 1972–73 New Zealand scientists have been involved with scientists from Japan and the United States in a Dry Valley drilling project, with the object of studying the subsurface of the McMurdo Sound region by means of deep drill holes in various areas. This work will extend over several seasons.

The New Zealand Oceanographic Institute has also inaugurated a study of trace element chemistry of Ross Sea sediments.

Biological Programme—Biological studies have been conducted each summer season at various localities within the Dependency.

In the McMurdo Sound and Cape Hallett areas, scientists continue the census and tagging of the seal population. Marine plankton samples are taken from under the sea ice near Scott Base, and further marine research is concentrated in the Cape Bird and Cape Hallett areas. Studies continue of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without a licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, the purpose of which is to enforce conservation of whale stocks.

Review of Development—Since 1959 New Zealand has achieved many of its earlier aims and ambitions. A topographic survey has been made of the Ross Dependency bringing to an end the era of long and arduous traverses. The numerous maps produced have provided detailed geographic information, particularly important for subsequent field research programmes.

A geological reconnaissance has been conducted of the same area. During recent years New Zealand has been involved in specialised work which has provided evidence indicating that the southern land masses were once linked together to form one super continent—Gondwanaland. Recent fossil discoveries in Antarctica, including land animals similar to those found in South Africa and Australia, seem to confirm this theory. Oceanographic and paleomagnetic researchers also add credence to it. Their studies show that continental drift has been, and still is, taking place at a quite rapid rate of about 3 cm to 5 cm a year. These findings have impelled scientists to revise completely their earlier ideas on the earth's history, the forming of the continents, the causes of earthquakes, and the future physical changes to the surface of the earth that can now be predicted with reasonable certainty.

Detailed hydrographic charts of the Ross Sea area have given considerable information about the ocean floor lying between New Zealand and Antarctica. Oceanographers and marine biologists have carried out intensive studies of the marine life of the Southern Ocean. Results show that the waters surrounding the Antarctic continent contain the richest marine life found anywhere—a great potential food source for the increasing human population.

Extensive studies have been made by biologists of the fauna and flora of Antarctica, enabling accurate assessments of the likelihood of survival of various species. This has given a better understanding of how the many primitive life forms adapt and survive in the narrow life-support zone of Antarctica.

There has been a substantial contribution to man's knowledge of the ice budget of Antarctica—not only important to the study of Antarctica itself but also necessary to a better understanding of the global climate changes that have occurred and the present position of the earth in the cycle of the ice ages. Antarctica contains about 95 percent of the world's ice and small changes in this amount would have a significant if not catastrophic effect on the rest of the world. This southern continent about 80,000,000 to 100,000,000 years ago enjoyed a tropical climate and more recently there have been warm periods.

Continuing studies and monitoring of the upper atmosphere from Scott Base and other Antarctic Stations have provided significant information, when correlated with satellite and space vehicle data, towards new concepts of the sun-earth relationship. Practical application of some of this new knowledge has led to vastly improved methods of radio communication.

Years of intensive studies of meteorology in Antarctica have improved the understanding of the significant part Antarctica plays in the world's weather pattern, the balance of the world's heat budget and the relationship between the atmosphere and oceans.

There have been major changes in the methods of supporting work in Antarctica. Transportation by ship between New Zealand and Antarctica used to take 7 to 10 days. Now, flights take 5 to 8 hours. Small fixed-wing aircraft and most of the earlier types of heavy surface transport have been replaced by helicopters.

In 1971–72 the United States Navy flew 340 helicopter-hours in support of the New Zealand Antarctic research programme. Dog teams have been almost entirely replaced by motor toboggans to support small mobile field parties. With the formation of metal-and-snow compacted roads around McMurdo and Scott Base, tracked vehicles have been replaced by wheeled vehicles.

The emphasis in Antarctica is swinging away from basic scientific studies to meet the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge and so yield rewards of value to society. Despite the many changes and developments Antarctica has largely retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory for man to study the earth as a whole. It should continue to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

Many of the developments and changes mentioned require specialised people, equipment, and support, as well as additional finance beyond the resources of any one country. This calls for increased international co-operation, support and co-ordination of the scientific programmes.

Chapter 37. Section 37
TRAVEL AND TOURISM

BOOM IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has boomed in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to international tourists of all countries. The tourist industry is a fast-growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention. World spending on travel abroad increased almost three times as fast as total national incomes in 9 years to 1966, and since that year the annual increases have been 4 percent, 6 percent, and 9 percent.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all the services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in world tourism. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

A tourist development conference was held in 1969 and the report of the Tourism Committee to the National Development Conference sets out forward planning for the development of the tourist potential in the next decade. A Tourist Development Council has been appointed to co-operate with the National Development Council and to keep under review the measures and resources necessary to attain the target growth rate of 349,000 overseas visitors by 1975–76 and 457,100 by 1978–79.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—The travel surge has resulted in a doubling of visitors every 6 years as shown in the following table; a similar scale of increase has applied to New Zealanders going overseas, particularly to Australia and Britain.

Year Ended
31 March
VisitorsThrough
Passengers*
Total
Travel
Arrivals
New Zealand
Residents
Departing
Temporarily
TouristsPersons on
Business
Persons on
Working Holiday
and for
Education
OthersTotal
* Tourists on cruise ships and passengers in transit arriving and leaving in the same vessel or aircraft.
196235,1695,3974,0337,08951,68838,58790,27547,781
196339,4996,2703,8569,26058,88538,73297,61753,625
196447,9787,9074,0299,79069,70439,714109,41862,164
196557,4988,2136,3439,98182,03540,253122,28874,536
196665,0399,96912,73410,27498,01655,265153,28188,145
196774,27510,00620,0708,520112,87172,561185,43299,890
196889,95312,8589,81410,563123,18884,839208,027104,094
1969100,34113,7367,52610,299131,90288,783220,685100,819
1970118,70617,38910,3618,535154,99186,119241,110112,082
1971141,50625,91411,55211,897190,86980,546271,415117,747
1972176,56224,20814,89611,914227,58082,444310,024133,878

Most New Zealand residents departing temporarily are tourists. In the year ended 31 March 1972, of the 133,878 such departures, 102,914 persons were in the tourist category and 8,213 in the related category of working holiday. Of the remainder 18,715 went on business and 3,095 as theatrical performers, sportsmen, etc.

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 70 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air while through passengers are mostly passengers on cruise liners. Of the 14,328 persons at the 1966 census who were usually resident overseas, Auckland had 2,101, Wellington (including Lower Hutt and Petone) 1,985, Hamilton 182, Waitomo 112, Rotorua 425, Taupo 115, Napier 151. Hastings 112, New Plymouth 106, Wanganui 142, Palmerston North 122, Nelson 133, Christchurch 943, Dunedin 270, Queenstown 185, Invercargill 173, Te Anau 165.

Travel Receipts—Travel receipts as shown in the balance of payments account have been as follows in recent years: 1965–66, $13.5 million; 1966–67, $14.5 million; 1967–68, $17.4 million; 1968–69, $20.1 million; 1969–70, $26.0 million; 1970–71, 333.5 million. The National Development Conference targets have been raised to $74 million in Reserve Bank travel receipts by 1975–76, $119 million by 1978–79, and $178 million by 1981–82. Tourist promotion also helps to build up the overseas exchange earnings of Air New Zealand. (Travel debits in recent years have been about double travel credits in the balance of payments account and totalled $61.9 million in 1970–71.)

From a survey commissioned by the Tourist and Publicity Department it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand in the year ended 31 March 1970 was $31.5 million (including cruise ship passengers $0.8 million). Statistics from the survey are given in the following table.

ItemTourists fromOther Visitors
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited Kingdom and EuropeOther Countries
Total expenditure ($m)14.847.552.391.664.24
Expenditure per tourist ($)—
     Accommodation and meals1131317954
     Transport49453624
     Excursions and souvenirs38333315
     Social, personal, etc.35376435
               Total per tourist235246212128

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country or Area1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Australia66,04569,88279,62691,982109,788
Canada3,2983,9844,9636,4578,392
United States22,40124,78630,83645,22052,934
United Kingdom10,68111,77812,13313,34314,096
Other countries20,76321,47227,43333,86442,370
          All countries123,188131,902154,991190,866227,580

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

More females than males are tourists. In the year ended March 1972 there were 73 males to every 100 females in New Zealanders travelling overseas and 86 males to every 100 females entering New Zealand as overseas visitors.

The age structure of the New Zealanders travelling overseas differs from that of the tourist coming to New Zealand.

Relatively more New Zealanders under 20 years, of age travel overseas (18 percent were in this age group in 1971–72 compared with 14 percent of overseas tourists coming to New Zealand) and fewer elderly New Zealanders (over 60 years of age) go overseas as tourists (19 percent were in this age group compared with 23 percent of visitors to New Zealand). New Zealanders aged 40–59 years comprised 34 percent of all departures, followed in number by those in the 20–39 year age group who comprised 29 percent of all departures in 1971–72.

The most popular destination for New Zealanders touring overseas is Australia, which received 55 percent of the total in 1971–72. Fiji is the next most popular country receiving 15 percent of all New Zealand tourists in 1971–72. United Kingdom follows with 9 percent of all New Zealand tourists. The United States received 3.5 percent and the balance of New Zealand tourists are spread over a large number of countries which in total absorb 18 percent of the outward flow.

The “balance of tourist flow” remains very much in New Zealand's favour with regard to the United States (43,900 United States tourists to 3,600 New Zealand tourists in 1971–72), Canada (7,100 Canadians to 800 New Zealanders), and Australia (87,500 Australians to 56,400 New Zealanders). There was almost a balance in regard to the United Kingdom (10,000 British came to New Zealand, 9,200 New Zealanders went to the United Kingdom) but the balance was not in our favour for Fiji (15,500 New Zealanders went to Fiji and 3,600 Fijians came to New Zealand).

New Zealanders stay overseas longer than overseas tourists stay in New Zealand, but some tourists have an itinerary covering other countries as well as New Zealand, just as New Zealanders going to the United Kingdom for the northern summer usually visit a number of other countries.

Nearly four-fifths of visitors to New Zealand stay less than 1 month, but only two-thirds of New Zealanders have an overseas trip of the same short duration. Twenty-two percent of New Zealanders are away for 1 and under 3 months compared with 15 percent of overseas visitors staying for this period in New Zealand and nearly twice the proportion of New Zealanders have an overseas trip of over 6 months' duration.

There has been a significant change in the length of stay of tourists. In 1961–62 over half the tourists stayed 1 month or more; in 1971–72 the proportion was less than one-quarter. Those staying 3 months or more declined from 18 percent to 6 percent in the same period. The trend towards shorter stays is continuing.

Accommodation in New Zealand—Leading hotels in the main centres, and Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels and others in the main resort areas, all provide first-class accommodation. Most hotels and motor hotels have a private bathroom or shower and toilet with every bedroom. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis, with meals an optional extra. Single occupancy room charges range between $11 and $15 a night; double occupancy, $15 to $30.

There are 11 Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels. Mostly these are built in areas where, for reasons of isolation, private enterprise finds it uneconomical to operate. In many cases, the Tourist Hotel Corporation hotel has formed the nucleus on which private enterprise has developed.

Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels are situated at the following places:

North IslandSouth Island
Waitangi, Bay of IslandsMount Cook, Southern Alps
Waitomo (glow-worm caves), King CountryLake Wanaka, Southern Lakes
International, RotoruaFranz Josef Glacier, West Coast
Wairakei, near Lake TaupoLake Te Anau, Fiordland
Tokaanu, Lake TaupoMilford Sound, Fiordland
Mount Ruapehu, central North Island ski-ing fields 

There are large numbers of good-quality motels throughout New Zealand, and twin-occupancy nightly charges range between $8 and $12.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Provisional figures extracted from the 1971 census show that of the 24,600 guests in licensed hotels, motels (licensed and ordinary), and in private hotels or guest houses on 23 March 1971, 6,300 (26 percent) were overseas visitors and 18,300 (74 percent) were New Zealand residents.

The resident guest ratio was therefore approximately one overseas visitor to three New Zealanders. However, this ratio varied between different types of accommodation from one overseas visitor to five New Zealanders in private hotels, to one overseas visitor to one New Zealander in licensed motels, as the following analysis shows.

AccommodationOverseas VisitorsNew Zealand ResidentsTotal GuestsOverseas Visitors as
Percentage of Total
Licensed hotels2,7005,8008,50032
Licensed motels/motor hotels1,2001,3002,50048
Other motels1,7007,7009,40018
Private hotels and guest houses7003,5004,20017
               Totals6,30018,30024,60026

As the census date in March 1971 (prior to the Easter holidays) was selected to minimise the extent to which New Zealanders would be away from their usual place of residence, it is likely that the proportion of New Zealanders shown in the figures above would be lower than at most other periods of the popular summer/autumn months for travelling within New Zealand. The figure of 26 percent for visitor occupancy rate would not therefore be inconsistent with the figure of 18 percent suggested in other papers for an average proportion. Of the 6,300 overseas visitors in hotels, motels, etc., on census night, 3,800 (59 percent) were usually resident in Australia, 1,300 (20 percent) in the United States, 600 (9 percent) in the United Kingdom, 100 in Canada, and the remaining 600 were distributed amongst all other countries.

Employment in hotel/motel industry at the 1966 Census of Population and Dwellings is shown in the following table.

OccupationLicensed HotelsMotelsLicensed Hotels and Motels
MalesTotalMalesTotalMalesTotal
Hotel proprietor/manager1,1501,6972453921,3952,089
Administrators, personal sources, etc.111151226366337517
Clerk4817142152192
Stenographer/typist39241
Receptionist58337620
Cook/chef3881,19211193991,211
Kitchenhand/dishwasher9543421497448
Pantryman1431144
Cellarman50505050
Storeman59595959
Waitress1,484161,500
Barman/barman - waiter/barmaid3,2253,42711123,2363,439
Housekeeper65570
Housemaid/domestic1,6551791,834
Laundress44347
Hotel porter30436612305368
Others30246095176397636
               Totals5,73212,0205951,2456,32713,265

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Private hotels and guest houses (and also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1972.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland376342251599
Auckland1,203373203768
Western Waikato153172161319
Coromandel-Thames25109118
Coastal Bay of Plenty76164137353
Rotorua50914551474
Upper Waikato - Inland Bay of Plenty422912271
Taupo15213334412
Gisborne - Northern Hawke's Bay64147166207
Central Hawke's Bay16165115347
Southern Hawke's Bay - Wairarapa6716273
King Country163539786
Taranaki12050188192
Wanganui-Manawatu162222184295
Foxton - Paremata Coast3127123
Wellington703227220259
Marlborough19259256
Nelson72147225
West Coast163175183244
North and Mid-Canterbury832493
Christchurch61124263501
Inland South Canterbury2557953
Coastal South Canterbury - North Otago3243170183
Central Otago8140165
Dunedin1976597159
Southland2512937
Queenstown2163521217
Milford - Te Anau285186
Invercargill - Bluff - Stewart Island11013391122
               Totals5,9452,8083,7307,137
NOTE—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—The New Zealand Government has made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels, to provide accommodation of a high standard to meet the demand from overseas tourists on the main tourist routes and at the four main centres of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Under this scheme, the Government has made available NZ$17 million for approved accommodation, much of which has already been taken up, resulting in the availability of an additional 2,939 first-class beds.

A similar scheme of financial assistance in respect of tourist facilities other than accommodation was introduced in 1969, to encourage private-enterprise operators to develop recreational and entertainment amenities, where necessary, in focal tourist areas.

There are generous depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved visitor accommodation.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—New Zealand has often been described as “the world's most exciting travel package”. With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled hunting, fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori race offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Resort Development—A major development in New Zealand was the opening of the Haast Pass road in November 1965. It links the southern lakes region on the eastern side of the Alps with the West Coast and opens up one of the greatest scenic round-trip drives in the world.

In Rotorua a Maori Arts and Crafts Institute was established to preserve and foster traditional Maori culture. The institute has assumed control of the Whakarewarewa Reserve and displays Maori arts and crafts in traditional settings as well as presenting traditional songs and dances. One of the highlights is the Maori Carving School.

At Queenstown the Government and private enterprise have co-operated in the development of winter sports facilities. At Coronet Peak the access road has been improved, a new restaurant completed, and a chairlift has been in operation since 1964.

At Wairakei the Government is co-operating with local authorities in the area to plan and develop a tourist park in close proximity to the geothermal borefield, the Tourist Hotel Corporation's hotel, and the Wairakei golf course.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

  • Summer: December, January, February

  • Autumn: March, April, May

  • Winter: June, July, August

  • Spring: September, October, November

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off steamer services. These steamer services operate between Wellington and Picton and Wellington and Lyttelton.

Several international and national car rental companies, in addition to locally based companies, supply self-drive cars. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS: Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island—rainbow 2–2 1/2 lb and brown 5 lb in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 4 1/2 lb and brown 5 lb in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 2 lb in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown 2–3 lb in lake systems, sea-run brown 5 lb in West Coast rivers, sea-run “Quinnat” salmon 12 lb in the east coast rivers, landlocked salmon 2–2 1/2 lb.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. The top trophies are chamois and thar but good hunting also includes red deer, fallow deer, wild pigs, goats, and wallaby; other species present in lesser numbers and somewhat scarce are wapiti (elk), sambur deer, rusa deer, sika deer, and whitetail deer. A guide is essential for results.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes from the airstrip at Mount Cook very good spring ski-ing is also available for experienced skiers on the South Island glaciers.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include three chairlifts, a T-bar, three Poma lifts, and two rope tows. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area, with fields at Dawson Falls, Stratford, and North Egmont.

In the South Island the principal areas are Mount Cook (for ski touring), Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Lake Ohau, Porter's Pass, and Arthur's Pass. Coronet Peak, 7 miles from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients; equipment and professional instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include chairlifts and a series of ski tows.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Scenery and Recreation—The 1960 and 1962 issues of the Yearbook contained pictorial supplements entitled “Scenic New Zealand” and “New Zealand's National Parks”. In the 1965 issue of the Yearbook the photographs were devoted to the wide opportunities of outdoor recreation, those in the 1967 issue covered “Attractive New Zealand”, those in the 1969 Yearbook were devoted to the forests, those in the 1970 issue were entitled “Natural New Zealand” and those in the 1972 issue highlighted “New Zealand Environment”. The attractions of the national parks are described in Section 13.

Thermal Areas and Spas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes, all usually quiet, in the centre of the North Island. Most notable in the Rotorua locality are a variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blow-holes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo, Wairakei, and Matamata hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, and pottery depicting Maori emblems.

Tourist and Publicity Department—Under the Tourist and Publicity Act 1963 the principal functions of the department are to encourage and develop the New Zealand tourist industry and tourist traffic, to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to operate publicity, information, and public relations services; and to maintain a travel service.

The department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and New York, and the department is represented in South Africa. Representatives are soon to be appointed in Bonn and Tokyo. The department is also charged with the supply of general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas, to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a member of the International Union of Official Travel Organisations, an association whose principal aims are to ease travel difficulties and obstacles and promote travel research, and also is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

Chapter 38. Section 38
MISCELLANEOUS

METRICATION—New Zealand is to convert substantially to the metric system of weights and measures by the end of 1976. The conversion will apply to the whole imperial system of weights and measures that has evolved over the centuries, and will affect every facet of society.

Since 1955 there has been a world-wide change to the exclusive use of the metric system and over 126 countries are now classified by the United Nations as “metric”. Countries currently in the process of change include the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, and Singapore.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system is based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners, and it is for this reason that planning is for metric conversion in New Zealand to be substantially completed by the end of 1976–1 year after the United Kingdom.

Government policy is that the costs of conversion generally should be borne by those incurring them.

Metric Advisory Board—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by Government in 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive voluntary adoption of the metric system of weights and measures. Administrative support to the board is provided by the Department of Trade and Industry.

The board has established a number of sector committees to plan for the conversion. These sector committees cover all the main groups in the economy, viz:

Agriculture, building and construction industry, Central and local Government, education, engineering and engineering servicing industries, food and consumer goods and services, fuel and power, manufacturing and processing industries, public relations, recreation, health and sport, science and technology, standardisation, transport and communication, and weighing machines.

The role of the sector committees is to identify problems, prepare timetables, and co-ordinate the metric conversion in their respective sectors of the economy. Where appropriate, divisional committees are established to operate in relation to specific areas with sectors. Wherever possible, sector and divisional committees negotiate with national associations or organisations rather than with local interests or individuals.

Implementation of Conversion—The metric system was being used in New Zealand to some extent before the establishment of the Metric Advisory Board—in the pharmaceutical industry, in hospitals, in scientific establishments, and in some other industries.

The first major steps of the current metric changeover were taken on 1 July 1971 when meteorological reporting of temperature and rainfall changed from degrees Fahrenheit and inches to degrees Celsius and millimetres respectively, and when the wool industry started conducting all trading transactions for unprocessed wool in metric weights.

This was the start of a series of planned and co-ordinated conversions—each designed to be introduced with a minimum of inconvenience to the community. Some of these conversions will affect only specialised sections of the community and will be promulgated through the respective national associations or organisations. Other conversions will affect everybody and these will be publicised on a national basis.

Education—The change in the education system has been instituted smoothly in all levels, and while minor difficulties exist in the acquisition of metric materials for some practical classes, the change has created no major difficulties; in particular, all teaching in primary schools is now in metric units, with imperial measurement no longer being taught.

The planning for the change in national examinations has been implemented, and the 1974 examinations will be completely metric, with no alternative papers or questions.

Retraining in Industry—During 1973 a start was made in retraining those persons whose livelihoods depend on a proper appreciation and use of the new units of measurement. This is being undertaken by the technical institutes, together with the Industrial Training Service of the Department of Labour. Many government departments and large firms are instituting their own training programmes, and have prepared useful training and reference material.

Timescale of Conversion—The changeover from imperial to metric units for weights and measures is a far more extensive change than that made to decimal currency. Consequently, instead of an M-Day, the conversion will be spread over a period of years with substantial conversion planned for the end of 1976. However, there will be some areas in which the conversion will extend well beyond this date—depending on normal replacement cycles for major items of industrial plant or machinery.

Implementation of Timetables—In most sectors of the economy, the timetables have been approved and their implementation is proceeding. In addition to meteorological reporting and wool trading, which went metric in 1971, tidal predictions and land surveying are now metric; flour is retailed In kilograms; metric-sized bottles of milk and cream are being phased in; a 250 gram pack of butter has been introduced prior to changing the 1 lb pack to one of 500 grams; road distance signs are in the process of being converted to kilometres; coastal charts are being progressively adapted. In 1973 the building and construction industry commenced to design in metric, also the mechanical engineering industry; the retail sale of petrol in litres is being phased in, and metric units have been adopted by trans-Tasman shipping interests.

A general guide to changeover dates is as follows:

CategoryDate of Changeover
AgricultureMid 1973 - mid 1974
Building and construction
     DesignOct 1972 onwards
     ConstructionApr 1974 onwards
     Building materials1974–76 (main change 1975)
Forestry1974–75
HorticultureJuly-Dec 1974
Land surveyingJan 1973
Manufacturing
     Butter1973 onwards
     Chemical toiletries1973 onwards
     Clothing and textiles1972–74
     Food1973 onwards
     Electrical and electronic1974–76
     Engineering1973–76
     Footwear and leather goods1972–74
     Meat processingOct 1973
     Motor vehicles1972–78
     Packaging1972 onwards
     Printing and paper1973
Retailing
     Meat and fish1974
     Groceries, greengroceries1975–76
     Textiles and apparelAug-Dec 1974
     Coal1974
     Gas1975–76
     Petrol and lubricantsMid 1973–74
Commercial Transport
     Metric documentation1972 onwards
     Metric freight tariffsApr 1974
Road Transport
     Road signs1972 onwards
     Regulatory speedsApr 1975

METRIC SYSTEM—The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definition and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the “International System” (also called SI—“Systeme International d' Unites”) has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system is also being adopted by all those other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system.

The Metric Advisory Board has recommended the following units for use in New Zealand:

CategoryUnitSymbolRelationship
temperaturedegree Celsius°C 
lengthmillimetremm
centimetrecm1 cm = 10 mm
metrem1 m = 100 cm
kilometrekm1 km = 1000 m
areasquare centimetrecm2 
square metrem21 m2 = 10,000 cm2
decaredaa1 daa 1000 m2
hectareha1 ha = 10 daa
volumecubic centimetrecm3 
cubic metrem31 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3
capacitymillilitreml 
litre11 l = 1000 ml
weightgramg 
kilogramkg1 kg = 1000 g
tonnet1 t = 1000 kg

In addition to the above 16 units, the decimetre (dm) will be taught to children as a convenient unit of length (1 dm—10 cm).

Commonplace Units of Measurement

ItemMetricImperial Measure
Man's height1.72 m (metres)5 ft 8 in.
Man's weight74.8 kg (kilograms)11 st 11 lb
Woman's weight57.0 kg (kilograms)9 st 0 lb
Body temp, (normal)37.0°c (degrees centigrade)98.4°F
Door height2.00 m (metres)6 ft 6 in.
Car length4.70 m (metres)15 ft 6 in.
Oil drum capacity2001 (litres)44 gal
Building section's area1,000 m2 (square metres)1/4 acre
Dunedin to Christchurch370 km (kilometres)230 miles
Altitude of Mt. Cook3,764 m (metres)12,349 ft
METRIC EQUIVALENTS
1 yard= 0.914 metre1 cubic foot= 0.028 cubic metre
1 mile= 1.609 kilometres1 cubic yard= 0.765 cubic metre
1 inch= 2.54 centimetres1 gallon= 4.546 litres
1 square foot= 929.03 square centimetres1 bushel= 36.37 litres
1 square yard= 0.836 square metre1 long ton= 1.016 metric tons
1 acre= 0.405 hectare1 short ton= 0.907 metric ton
1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometres1 mile/gal= 0.354 km/litre
1 ounce= 28.35 grams1 cwt/acre= 125.35 kg/hectare
1 pound= 0.454 kilograms1 m.p.h.= 1.609 km/h
1 hundredweight (cwt)= 112 lb = 50.8 kilograms1 hp= 0.746 kW
 1 kWh= 3.6 MJ

Full details of individual conversions will be publicised in ample time for public assimilation. The Metric Advisory Board has not produced any detailed conversion aids as these, together with a New Zealand Standard which is an authoritative document on the International System, are available from: Sales Section, Standards Association of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington.

Metric Symbol—The metric symbol was introduced in March 1971. A paper defining the conditions of use of the metric symbol may be obtained from the offices of the Metric Advisory Board, P.O. Box 10–243, Wellington.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1971–72 was 7,558 which was 285 less than the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1961–622,8482,229357
1962–632,8202,304308
1963–643,1922,571366
1964–653,4472,690435
1965–663,4502,591340
1966–673,6652,947361
1967–683,6982,901423
1968–693,9533,195405
1969–703,7013,320301
1970–713,5733,385315
1971–723,4973,593468

Patents—The applications received during 1971–72 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1,227; mechanical engineering, 935; electrical engineering, 384; building construction, 319; primary industries, 162; home science and miscellaneous, 470.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 992, the United States 821, Great Britain 600, Australia 214, with the remaining 870 distributed among 32 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1971–72 applications for trade marks covered the whole of the 34 classes prescribed, the most favoured being: Class 5, pharmaceutical and sanitary substances, etc., 527; Class 3, soaps, detergents, perfumery, cosmetics, etc., 274; Class 25, clothing, boots, shoes, etc., 221.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand, 1,292; United States, 730; Great Britain, 427; Australia, 261; with the remaining 883 distributed among 30 other countries.

Renewal of registration of 2,480 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs—A total of 257 industrial designs was registered during the year 1971–72.

INVENTIONS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY—In March 1968 the New Zealand Inventions Development Authority was appointed under the Inventions Development Act 1966. The general function of the authority is to promote the development or exploitation of inventions with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, or range of goods or services available for use in New Zealand or for export. The definition of “invention” includes any new or improved process or technique. A main function of the Authority is to secure the development or exploitation of inventions resulting from public research.

There are three main categories of inventions: those from government sources; those from research institutes and universities; and those from private inventors. In general, inventions from government sources are regarded as the property of the Crown. These may be assigned to the Authority for management and exploitation in the national interest at the initiative of the department concerned. A number of such inventions are currently held by the Authority and are either under evaluation, under development, or are licensed for manufacture.

The Authority also assists in the promotion and exploitation of inventions from research institutes and universities if in the public interest and, if desired, becomes the assignee of the patent rights. Revenue sharing with the Authority is by agreement.

The private inventor is, of course, free to make direct contact with industrial firms operating in the field in which his invention lies. If the invention is technically and commercially attractive, a firm may well be willing to develop it to production stage at its own expense. But if industrial interest is not forthcoming, perhaps because the invention is not sufficiently developed for a judgment to be made, the Authority may be able to help.

From 1968 to August 1972, 60 inventions have been submitted from public research sources and 278 from private inventors; there were 126 other inquiries involving requests for assistance on patenting, development, and exploitation of inventions.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most of the important countries of the world (except at present Russia and China, but all English-speaking countries) have acceded to the one or the other or to both conventions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—This council has been established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works in closely with the Inventions Development Authority. It has established a design index whereby approved products can qualify to display the Designmark label. A magazine Designscape is published and liaison functions are provided for a designer service.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—By the Standards Act 1965 the Standards Council was established as an independent body of 43 members from 1 April 1966. The functions of the council are to promote standardisation in industry and commerce and to promulgate standards with the object of improving the quality of goods produced, promoting industrial efficiency and development, and promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The council largely continues the functions previously performed under earlier legislation in 1941. It functions through the Standards Association which has taken the place of the former Standards Institute. The Standards Association is paying increasing attention to international standardisation and to consumer goods.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been very considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients (other than Maoris); manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys payable in respect of the death of a worker. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $7,500. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $10,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1972, 4,936 estates and funds valued at $45,745,394 were accepted for administration. The administration of 5,174 estates and funds was completed. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1972 numbered 19,301 and were valued at $217,249,752.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest. Recognising that the safety of the moneys is thereby assured, the great majority of testators and settlors desire their funds to be placed in the Common Fund.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1972 totalled $9,819,476. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1972 totalled $67,701,345. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1972, 15,625 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1972 was 247,009. During the year ended 31 March 1972 effect was given in 10,235 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed $600.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $12 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $60 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The value of furniture and household effects, including wearing apparel of himself and family, which a bankrupt may select and retain as his own property is $300.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there were 15 in 1966, 12 in 3967, 10 in 1968, 6 in 1969, 5 in 1970, 6 in 1971 and 2 in 1972. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 6 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesOrders of Discharge or Annulment GrantedCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors
19675336913050652
19686936511062820
19695236912167659
19704696619461596
19713505213475477
19723246511872461

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidations, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators. There were 15 such cases in 1968, 9 in 1969, 7 in 1970, 3 in 1971 and 1 in 1972; these are not included in the above table and succeeding tables.

The table following shows for each of the last 11 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $      percent
19623,61815.3
19632,93423.1
19643,52016.8
19654,61013.3
19664,01015.1
19673,54610.7
19684,5656.8
19695,68014.8
19706,14110.3
19717,27813.7
19728,97711.9

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19681969197019711972
* Excludes partnerships, 1968, 12; 1969, 4; 1970, 4; 1971, 1; 1972, 3 and also 9 companies for which no statement of liabilities received.
Under $50012179645431
      $500–   $9991911191156960
  $1,000–$1,9991531411378377
  $2,000–$3,999136129949377
  $4,000–$9,9991201191048891
$10,000 and over87687889113
                    Totals808*655*592*476*449*

Industry Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the industry in which they were last employed.

Industry Group19681969197019711972
* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1968, 12; 1969, 4; 1970, 4; 1971, 1; and 1972, 9.
Agriculture and livestock production7766484131
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2325241622
Mining and quarrying522
Manufacturing—
     Food and beverages2510151615
     Footwear and textiles871243
     Wood, furniture, and fixtures1361145
     Printing and publishing322
     Machinery (not electrical)581732
     Transport equipment282813149
     Other231171711
Construction110100905869
Wholesale and retail trade7191896359
Other commerce637711
Transport, storage, and communications11372724037
Personal and community services9468657948
Industry not adequately described10053371038
Persons not gainfully employed in any industry4230242918
               Totals*746588531401380

The types of activity in which bankrupts were engaged at the time of failure frequently bear little relationship to the fact of insolvency. Personal extravagance or business incompetence are probably much more important factors in the majority of cases.

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking on Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*
* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1962, 9; 1963, 2; 1965, 1; 1966, 4; 1967, 12; 1968, 12; 1969, 4; 1970, 4; 1971, 1; and 1972, 9.
196223513416912550
196326910416310546
19642626913913483
19652519112317482
19662629211411479
196730111614330590
196839211919342746
196926312317230588
197024310116324531
19711598712629401
19721578611621380

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Measurements of standards or levels of living between countries constitute a complex problem for which there is no completely adequate or satisfactory solution in the way of an index that can be applied internationally. United Nations statistics on estimates of gross national product per head are indicators of relativities in the production of goods and services on a national basis; leading countries include United States, Sweden, Canada, Switzerland, Denmark, France, Australia, Norway, West Germany, Belgium, New Zealand, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Finland, and Japan.

Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, the United Nations Economic and Social Council is now giving consideration to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include personal health and safety; equality of educational opportunity; occupational development and satisfaction; leisure satisfaction; social security provisions; social mobility and options; labour-management relations; race relations; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community; transportation; natural environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSweden
* England and Wales, 1967.
Number per 1,000 of population—
     Passenger cars (1970)316434308311209285
     Television sets (1970)235412294227293312
     Telephones (1971)441583452312267557
Enrolment in higher education per 100,000 of population (1969)2,0293,8962,6681,368716*1,439
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP at market price4.65.15.73.34.27.4
 (1968–69)(1967)(1965)(1968–69)(1965)(1966)
Persons per hospital bed (J 966)100120908010070
Persons per doctor (1969)870640710850860*770

LOTTERIES—Under the Gaming Act 1908 the Police may license raffles where the value of prizes does not exceed in aggregate $50 or the value of any one prize does not exceed $20. The Police may also approve specified organisations conducting raffles, where the aggregate value of prizes in any one raffle does not exceed $10, without the necessity for individual licences. Raffles with prizes exceeding the above maximum values may be licensed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. There were 22,271 licences issued under the Minister's authority during the year ended 31 March 1972 to local, provincial, and national organisations. The Gaming Act precludes the issue of licences to conduct raffles for the purpose of private gain. Otherwise the Police and the Minister may issue licences subject to such conditions as they think fit.

The Gaming Amendment Act 1962 provides for the Minister of Internal Affairs to promote lotteries. The “Golden Kiwi” and “Mammoth Golden Kiwi” national lotteries have been established. In both cases the number of tickets in a lottery is 250,000. “Golden Kiwi” lottery tickets cost 50 cents each and the prize list totals $66,000. “Mammoth Golden Kiwi” lottery tickets cost $2 each and the prize list totals $270,000. During the year ended 31 March 1972, 43 “Golden Kiwi” and 2 “Mammoth Golden Kiwi” lotteries were conducted. The aggregate financial results of these two national lotteries is shown for the latest 8 years.

Item1964–651965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Number of lotteries..5553494547504445
Gross sales$(000)8,0008,8758,3757,1246,6247,3756,2506,374
Commission on sales$(000)744776725655653711614627
Expenses$(000)273258245231240231205209
Prizes$(000)4,2424,7224,4583,7863,5103,9123,3123,378
Net proceeds$(000)2,7413,1192,9472,4522,2212,5212,1192,160
Lottery duty$(000)800887837712662737625637
Net profit$(000)1,9412,2322,1091,7391,5591,7841,4941,523

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming Amendment Act to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes beneficial to the community. A lottery board of control has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance from lottery profits and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1971–72 were as follows: $215,000 for the welfare of aged persons; $300,000 for social welfare including various mayoral and other funds for relief or distress; $417,000 for youth organisations, sporting bodies, national water safety, national mountain safety, and to various bodies providing community facilities; $125,000 for medical research; $125,000 for scientific research; $275,000 to the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council; and $66,000 for miscellaneous purposes.

For some time, more recently in consultation with the police and the Department of Justice, the Department of Internal Affairs has been engaged in a comprehensive and intensive study of the gaming and lotteries legislation with a view to complete revision of the present Act, having regard in so doing to overseas experience and to changes in public attitudes in New Zealand.

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of the liquor law of New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. The principles on which the liquor law of New Zealand rests are that no liquor may be sold without a licence, that new licences are not to be authorised unless they are shown to be necessary or desirable in the locality, and that there should be close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and services.

There is a Licensing Control Commission whose principal functions are to ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation, services, and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern, and tourist house premises licences, restaurant licences, and wholesale licences are needed and to authorise their issue; to review provisional hotel licences and determine whether the licence to be issued in their place should be a hotel or tavern premises licence; to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, amenities, and services; to grant club charters; and to hear appeals from licensing committees. There is a right of appeal to the commission from every decision of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character in which case the appeal is to the Supreme Court. Many of the commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the Supreme Court, and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Appeals now lie to the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1972 comprised 770 hotel premises licences, 258 tavern premises licences, 57 tourist house premises licences, and 176 wholesale licences.

There are 47 permanent club charters and 229 renewable club charters in force. All the permanent charters and some of the renewable charters permit the sale of liquor to members for consumption off as well as on the premises.

A total of 285 wine resellers' licences have been authorised.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry whether the issue of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, or a wholesale or wine reseller's licence is desirable in a particular locality. In the case of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, the commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. It may direct that any bar-room of a hotel or tavern shall contain facilities for sit-down drinking. There is provision for a poll of residents on the question whether a hotel or tavern premises licence is not desired in the locality, and if the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the licence the commission may not authorise one unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll the commission (or in the case of a wholesale or wine reseller's licence, the Licensing Committee) then calls for applications for the licence. The decision of the commission or the committee as to which applicant should receive the licence in effect fixes the exact site of the proposed premises. In the case of a hotel or a tavern any adult residing within a quarter of a mile may object to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board on the grounds that the site is in the immediate vicinity of a church, school, or hospital, or that the objector will be adversely affected by the establishment of a hotel or tavern on the site. In considering an objection on the ground of adverse affection, the board has regard to the provisions of any district planning scheme (or if there is no such scheme, planning principles), to the distance between the site and the nearest substantial number of houses, to the provision made for off-street parking, and to other relevant circumstances.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotel, tavern, and chartered club bar-rooms. The closing hour had been 6 p.m. since 1917. Voting for later closing was 641,105 and for 6 p.m. closing it was 353,662. Under the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1967 the usual hours of opening and closing of hotels or taverns were fixed at 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. respectively, and the new hours applied from 9 October 1967. Provision was made for the Licensing Committee to vary the hours for particular hotels or taverns but no premises are to be open for the sale of liquor to the public for more than 11 hours a day. Sales from licensed premises are prohibited on Sundays, Christmas Day, and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with the meal up to 11.30 p.m. on any day and between 12 noon and 2.30 p.m. on Sunday, Christmas Day, and Good Friday. By the same Act the hours during which licensed restaurants may sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 authorises the commission to grant permits to a hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m. It also provides for theatre, cabaret, and airport licences and prescribes the hours of sale in each case.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling the sale of liquor through privately held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. In the case of trusts, public control is direct since the whole of the liquor trade in a trust district is conducted by the trust, which is elected by the residents and is responsible to them.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition, local trusts at Hornby and Cheviot in Canterbury, Mount Wellington, Birkenhead and Parakai in the Auckland suburbs and Rimutaka and Wainuiomata in Wellington province are operating hotels. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas as a whole, legislation was enacted in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of them should carry restoration, and introducing a new form of trust control known as suburban trusts.

On the carrying of restoration in any remaining no-licence district, the Licensing Control Commission will review the area and decide what hotel, tourist-house, and tavern premises licences and what wholesale licences are necessary or desirable in the district or any locality or place therein. If the commission is of the opinion that it should authorise the issue of any licence a further poll is taken on the question whether all licences to be so authorised should be offered to suburban trusts.

Should the trust proposal be carried, any local authority in the district may apply (or if no such application is made within the prescribed time 100 or more residents may apply) for the licence or licences to be issued to a suburban trust and the application must be granted if it conforms to the standards defined by the commission. A suburban trust would then be established in accordance with the regulations to operate the licence or licences. If the trust proposal were not carried the ordinary procedure under the Sale of Liquor Act would be followed. Under this procedure five suburban trusts have so far been constituted, namely, Johnsonville and Wellington South (in Wellington), and Waitaki, Portage, and Mount Albert in Auckland.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of parliamentary representatives was held on 25 November 1972, voting in New Zealand for both European and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1972 election was Labour 53, National 34. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: November 1949, National 46, Labour 34; September 1951, National 50, Labour 30; November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1972 was 1,569,937, and persons not on the roll whose votes were allowed totalled 13,319. The percentage of qualified voters who voted was 89.05.

The following table shows for the last four general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19631966196919721963196619691972
Labour524,066499,392592,055677,66943.7441.4444.1848.37
National563,875425,955605,960581,42247.0743.6445.2241.50
Social Credit95,176174,515121,57693,2317.9414.489.076.65
Values27,4671.96
Others14,9285,24320,57721,3631.250.441.531.52
               Total valid votes1,198,0451,205,0951,340,1681,401,152100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes7,2777,03211,6459,088
               Total votes recorded1,205,3221,212,1271,351,8131,410,240

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS 1972—A statement of voting in individual electorates at the general election in 1972 is now given.

Key to Political Party Designations
AMAnti Maori Violence Pro Apartheid
CNChristian National
DILDemocratic Independent Labour
FMFamily Man's Party
IIndependent
ILIndependent Labour
INIndependent National
IPAIndependent Political Association
ISCIndependent Social Credit
LLabour
LRLiberal Reform
MHMad Hatter's Tea
NNational
NDNew Democrat
NSNational Socialist
SSocialist
SCSocial Credit
SUSocialist Unity
UMUnion Membership Optional
VValues
Electoral District, Names of Candidates, and Party AffiliationsVotes Recorded
Auckland Central
     Donovan, A. R. (SC)767
     Douglas, N. V. (L)7,105
     Edwards, W. C. (N)5,096
     Hopkinson, D. (V)878
     Ingham, G. F. (IL)101
     Pinkney, M. (ND)53
                         Total14,000
Avon
     Barrow, I. W. W. (SC)1,300
     Batchelor, Mrs M. D. (L)10,013
     Thelning, Miss R. H. (ND)101
     Thomas, G. V. (N)3,958
                         Total15,272
Awarua
     Begg, A. W. (L)7,056
     Cuttance, J. A. (LR)111
     Guytonbeck, P. J. (ND)39
     Horton. O.W.(SC)1,017
     Templeton, H. C. (N)6,333
                         Total14,556
Bay of Plenty
     Allen, P. B. (N)8,279
     Knox, Mrs A. E. (WD)478
     Mead, G. B. (L)6,090
     O'Hara, L. K. (SC)1,266
                         Total16,113
Birkenhead
     Inkster, L. S. (ND)47
     King, N. J. (L)8,213
     McKinnon, D. C. (N)6,680
     Quail, A. J. (v)642
     Thew, G. (SC)904
                         Total16,486
Christchurch Central
     Barclay, B. G. (L)9,971
     Beaven, B. J. (N)4,868
     Cox, A. J. (SU)68
     Jensen, C. G. (ND)66
     Roberts, Diane E. (V)693
     Thomas, R. S. (SC)700
                         Total16,366
Clutha
     Baxter, M. R. (ND)136
     Gordon, J. B. (N)7,830
     Lee, R. K. (LR)171
     McKay, L. J. (L)5,699
     Renton, V. B. (SC)1,268
                         Total15,104
Coromandel
     Brown, R. D. (CN)136
     Luxton, C. W. (V)422
     McDonald, A. D. (SC)2,074
     Murphy, Mrs A. (L)5,967
     Schultz, L. C. (N)8,148
     Stuart-Menzies, J. A. B. (ND)184
                         Total16,931
Dunedin Central
     Aberdeen, C. (SC)1,058
     MacDonell, B. P. (L)9,378
     Marston, J. L. (SU)105
     Murphy, C. J. (ND)119
     O'Neill, F. A. (N)5,607
                         Total16,267
Dunedin North
     Clapham, Joy P. (SC)830
     McMillan, Mrs E. E. (L)9,211
     Neill, G. H. (V)1,801
     Pullar, P. J. (ND)51
     Wallis, J. H. (N)5,191
                         Total17,084
East Coast Bays
     Edgecumbe, K. F. (ND)93
     Gill, T. F. (N)8,460
     Pauling, B. T. (L)7,481
     Ross, Betty M. (SC)1,357
                         Total17,391
Eden
     Bell, F. W. (I)48
     Bott, C. W. (ND)60
     Keiller, W. J. (V)656
     Kidd, Mary G. (N)8,258
     King-Ansell, D. C. (NS)35
     Moore, M. K. (L)9,046
     Morrison, N. J. (SC)646
     Tudor, G. T. (LR)21
                         Total18,770
Egmont
     Johnston, H. N. (SC)2,594
     Peck, R. L. (L)4,553
     Tabuteau, D. V. (ND)47
     West, R. A. (LR)111
     Young, V. J. (N)7,481
                         Total14,786
Franklin
     Birch, W. F. (N)8,300
     Braybrooke, G. B. (L)4,112
     Keven, T. E. (LR)361
     Lawson, M. H. (ND)84
     Morell, G. C. (SC)1,472
                         Total14,329
Gisborne
     Davey, T. (L)8,441
     Dwver, J. P. (SC)654
     Fairbrother, I. D. (LR)53
     Simpson, J. H. (ND)29
     Tombleson, Mrs E. I. (N)7,953
     Tomlinson, G. N. (I)44
                         Total17,174
Grey Lynn
     Houston, W. D. (V)814
     Isbey, E. E. (L)9,887
     Meder, J. (N)4,400
     Ross, W. A. (SC)1,148
     Spratt, M. J. J. (ND)63
                         Total16,312
Hamilton East
     Bishop, H. B. (I)64
     Cuttance, P. F. (V)213
     Jansen, R. M. (N)7,475
     Lewin, A. S. (ND)42
     Rogers, A. T. (L)7,872
     Wells, A. R. (LR)18
     Wilmot-Sitwell, C. H. (SC)1,128
                         Total16,812
Hamilton West
     Armitage, D. (ND)124
     Heather, G. S. D. (N)7,341
     Jelicich, Mrs D. C. (L)7,885
     Thompson, Mrs S. M. (SC)1,449
     Wainhouse, Mrs J. N. (I)86
                         Total16,885
Hastings
     Dick, Mrs G. A. (ND)50
     Duff, R. (V)304
     MacIntyre, D. (N)7,969
     Mayson, C. R. (L)9,117
     Whitcombe, G. N. (SC)663
                         Total18,103
Hawke's Bay
     Butcher, D. J. (L)7,000
     Cheer, R. E. (LR)114
     Crarer, M. (SC)1,029
     Frampton, A E. (ND)98
     Harrison, J. R. (N)7,600
     Macmillan, R. A. (V)398
                         Total16,239
Henderson
     Brodeur, W. J. (SC)1,240
     Finlay, A. M. (L)8,438
     Inkster, L. M. (ND)117
     MacFarlane, R. C. (N)4,217
                         Total14,012
Heretaunga
     Bailey, R. C. (L)8,281
     Fowlds, J. (SC)622
     Healy, G. W. (ND)129
     Northcote-Bade, Susan (V)698
     Schnellenberg, J. W. (N)5,317
                         Total15,047
Hobson
     Greig, R. D. (I)99
     Hendry, R. J. (L)3,350
     Horsfall, C. L. (ND)126
     Manning, B. H. E. (SC)4,587
     Sloane, L. F. (N)7,674
                         Total15,836
Hutt
     Fowler, E. M. C. (N)7,119
     Harvey, Annette (SC)719
     Hurren, K. G. (ND)67
     Overton, J. M. (V)595
     Young, T. J. (L)10,516
                         Total19,016
Invercargill
     Chewings, J. G. (N)7,360
     Le Page, H. W. I. (LR)60
     Manson, W. F. (DIL)251
     Munro, J. B. (L)8,125
     Murphy, Mrs J. (ND)39
     Patterson, M. L. (SC)855
                         Total16,690
Island Bay
     Brunt, A. J. (V)1,148
     Farland, B. H. (N)4,857
     McMillan, D. M. (ND)95
     Moncur, F. W. (IN)45
     O'Brien, J. G. (L)8,352
     Whitmill, C. J. (SC)359
                         Total15,056
Kapiti
     Arnott, J. H. (SC)732
     Beaufort, Mrs J. (V)363
     Brill, B. E. (N)7,455
     O'Flynn, F. D. (L)8,161
     Vincent, J. R. (ND)62
                         Total16,773
Karori
     Ayo, G. J. (ND)38
     Dreadon, B. L. (V)1,650
     England, R. W. (SC)676
     Floyd, A. (L)5,417
     Marshall, J. R. (N)9,825
                         Total17,606
King Country
     Bolger, J. B. (N)7,107
     Mason, D. H. (SC)1,351
     Norman, J. W. (ND)111
     Sakey, B. C. (L)5,867
     Soundy, R. A. (IPA)185
     Telfer S. J. (LR)191
                         Total14,812
Lyttelton
     Blumsky, J. P. C. (N)7,843
     Jamieson, W. J. (LR)52
     McGuigan, T. M. (L)11,078
     Pounsford, J. E. (SC)472
     Scarth, R. R. (ND)31
                         Total19,476
Manawatu
     Hamid, Mrs P. (SC)999
     Hancock, M. W. (L)7,587
     McCready, A. (N)8,014
     Pedley, R. J. (LR)68
     Thomson, I. E. (ND)160
                         Total16,828
Mangere
     Lawson, S. A. (N)4,849
     Logan, G. F. (SC)982
     Moyle, C. J. (L)8,788
     Quinn, P. J. (ND)96
                         Total14,715
Manukau
     Douglas, R. O. (L)7,830
     Inglis, C. E. (ND)100
     Jordan, F. C. (SC)774
     Price, C. A. (N)4,986
                         Total13,690
Manurewa
     Amos, P. A. (L)8,221
     Baker, P. N. (N)5,824
     Higham, T. W. G. (ND)180
     Hooks, K. D. (V)287
     Laurenson, L. J. (SC)872
                         Total15,384
Marlborough
     Brooks, I. J. (L)8,469
     Dalliesi, B. J. (N)7,179
     Kerr, R. G. (SC)763
     MacDonald, T. W. (ND)49
                         Total16,460
Miramar
     Boyd, K. (ND)54
     Edwards, B. F. M. (L)7,860
     Howard, J. D. (I)50
     Morgan, F. J. C. (SC)677
     Tindill, D. (V)630
     Young, W. L. (N)8,294
                         Total17,565
Mount Albert
     Freer, W. W. (L)9,196
     Howie, Mrs P. L. (ND)203
     Jordan, B. A. (SC)1,024
     Malcolm, J. H. (N)5,216
     McGrath, T. M. (V)724
                         Total16,363
Napier
     Bailey, A. W. E. (ND)95
     Barnes, J. G. (V)365
     Bell, Merle A. (N)6,507
     Christie, G. (L)10,232
     Hurdle, R. J. (SC)912
                         Total18,111
Nelson
     Mahan, A. H. (SC)715
     McWhannell, I. D. (N)6,256
     O'Brien, J. B. (ND)487
     Stanton, A. M. (V)736
     Whitehead, S. A. (L)8,189
                         Total16,383
New Lynn
     Bree, O. (ND)159
     Cross, P. W. (SU)95
     Hunt, L. J. (L)8,774
     McDermott, G. D. (N)4,462
     Wojcik, Mrs P. (SC)1,430
                         Total14,920
New Plymouth
     Barclay, R. M. (L)9,429
     Boon, T. W. (N)8,133
     Hannah, D. V. (LR)49
     Neilson, W. P. (V)280
     Pinkney, Mrs M. A. (ND)16
     Swanney, A. J. (SC)715
                         Total18,622
North Shore
     Barnett, R. J. (SC)1,346
     Brydon, S. A. W. (V)816
     Chiles, C. A. (L)6,844
     Gair, G. F. (N)9,665
     Smith, P. B. le B. (ND)74
                         Total18,745
Oamaru
     Dick, A. D. (N)7,356
     Familton. A. W. (SC)1,881
     Laney, W. R. (L)7,746
     Mitchell, H. E. (ND)55
     Perkins, J. R. (V)176
                         Total17,214
Onehunga
     Benson, A. (SC)1,669
     Blakeborough, P. A. (N)5,218
     Bree, A. O. A. (ND)194
     Watt, H. (L)10,053
                         Total17,134
Otago Central
     Klap, A. J. (V)258
     McMullan, P.J. (ND)140
     Ouigley, L. T. (L)8,544
     Rose, J. M. (N)7,061
     Woodhall, J. (SC)721
                         Total16,724
Otahuhu
     Brooker, D. C. (N)3,488
     James, E. R. (SC)935
     Langstone, Mrs C. M. (ND)101
     Moosman, J. E. (FM)56
     Tizard, R. J. (L)9,891
                         Total14,471
Pahiatua
     Cairns, L. J. (L)4,466
     Cheer, R. E. (LR)253
     Duffy, J. W. (ND)115
     Holyoake, K. J. (N)8,825
     Morrow, J. H. (SC)1,022
                         Total14,681
Pakuranga
     Collins, F. J. (ND)126
     Downie, G. P. A. (N)9,310
     Irwin, J. B. (L)7,508
     Southon, B. J. (SC)1,153
                         Total18,097
Palmerston North
     Harper. B. K. (SC)694
     Inglis, Mrs L. A. (ND)32
     Mitchell, P. W. (N)7,122
     Mouse, M. (MH)76
     Walding, J. A. (L)8,888
     Woodhams, D. J. (V)676
                         Total17,488
Papanui
     Beaumont, O. V. (UM)48
     Clark, M. McG. (L)7,544
     Grenfell, R. J. (ND)37
     Laking, B. (SC)480
     Walker, H. J. (N)9,278
     Williams, G. J. (V)533
                         Total17,920
Petone
     Colman, F. McD. (L)9,334
     Frost, T. B. (V)674
     Moore, R. C. (SC)698
     Tyley, Mrs E. G. M. (ND)90
     Ursin, N. G. (N)3,994
                         Total14,790
Piako
     Burnham, T. G. (ND)151
     Howell, I. L. (L)3,949
     Luxton, J. F. (N)8,421
     Mikkelson, A. R. (SC)2,250
     Pond, J. A. (I)430
                         Total15,201
Porirua
     Doughty, R. A. (N)4,129
     Douglas, K. G. (SU)68
     Green, G. N. (SC)487
     Prangley, E. D. (ND)52
     Smith, Helen M. (V)1,051
     Wall, G. A. (L)8,528
                         Total14,315
Raglan
     Cameron, R. H. J. (LR)156
     Carter, D. J. (N)7,498
     Smith, A. J. (L)6,148
     Weal, T. K. (ND)264
     Wheeler, T. P. (SC)1,482
                         Total15,548
Rakaia
     Clark, H. A. (L)6,424
     Hooper, R. H. (SC)754
     McLachlan, C. C. A. (N)8,557
     Wall, E. V. (ND)90
                         Total15,825
Rangiora
     Beaumont, O. V. (UM)49
     Burke, T. K. (L)8,245
     Fountain, J. S. (SC)645
     Gray, L. J. (ND)55
     Haitt, A. E. (N)7,379
     McCaskey, J. S. J. (LR)118
     Peters, A. C. (V)161
                         Total16,652
Rangitikei
     Beetham, B. C. (SC)3,309
     Jack, R. E. (N)7,060
     Pearce, N. R. (L)4,023
     Weal, L. J. (ND)58
                         Total14,450
Remuera
     Campbell, C. G. (I)237
     Clark, Mrs M. M. (SC)893
     Clough, R. C. (V)1,736
     Cox, B. W. (ND)59
     Highet, D. A. (N)9,869
     Stanton, L. R. (L)3,751
                         Total16,545
Riccarton
     Biggs, J. A. (SC)410
     Constable, E. S. W. (I)26
     Cullen, C. E. (ND)91
     Holland, E. S. F. (N)9,451
     Jackson, D. I. (L)7,287
     Lusk, P. J. (V)441
                         Total17,706
Rodney
     Allan, J. McA. (SC)2,714
     Level, G. L. (LR)471
     Staples, R. S. (V)389
     Trim, P. W. (L)4,409
     Wasey, W. H. (ND)56
     Wilkinson P. I. (N)8,916
                         Total16,955
Roskill
     Faulkner, A, J. (L)9,653
     Glamuzina, B. P.(SC)923
     Howie, R. W. H. (ND)211
     McClintock, B. V. (V)626
     Priestley, J. M. (N)5,214
                         Total16,627
Rotorua
     Fairweather, R. O. (ND)330
     Johnson, R. W. (SC)903
     Lapwood, H. R. (N)7,997
     Pachoud, N. F. (L)7,211
     Tapper, C. J. (LR)59
                         Total16,500
Ruahine
     Bartlett, A. W. (LA)66
     Edmeades, H. E. (ND)66
     Gandar, L. W. (N)7,653
     Hunter, L. W. (SC)1,162
     Layton, R. H. (V)364
     Mihaere, T. S. (L)7,101
                         Total16,412
St. Albans
     Doak, R. J. (N)6,834
     Drayton, R. P. B. (L)9,900
     Flint, Carol G. (SC)514
     Overend, R. N. S. (V)376
     Scott, R. E. (ND)47
                         Total17,671
St. Kilda
     Fraser, W. A. (L)11,022
     Kellow, A. J. (V)804
     Kirby, C. La. S. (N)5,407
     Lumsden, J. R. (ND)103
     Smith, H. (1)31
     Tavemer, J. B. (SC)1,069
                         Total18,436
South Canterbury
     Braithwaite, N. D. (L)7,021
     Hayes, M. J. (ND)220
     Julius, W. J. (SC)782
     Talbot, R. L. G. (N)9,056
                         Total17,079
Stratford
     Dunleavey, W. J. (ND)115
     Emeny, C. S. (LR)538
     Hartwell, H. W. K. (SG)1,403
     Paton-McDonald, L. W. (IN)266
     Thomson, D. S. (N)7,714
     Turney, D. G. (L)4,646
                         Total14,682
Sydenham
     Burns, J. F. (N)4,722
     Easterbrook, A. C. (SC)758
     Elliott, J. B. (ND)62
     Hansen, C. M. (AM)67
     Kirk, N. E. (L)11,711
     Leeman-Smith, A. M. (UM)42
                         Total17,362
Tamaki
     Andersen, G. H. (SU)108
     Hedger, A. H. (L)5,556
     Higdon, F. W. (S)83
     Jessup, G. R. (V)876
     Muldoon, R. D. (N)10,146
     Mullenger, G. V.(IN)48
     Robinson, J. (SC)714
     Upton, I. A. (WD)31
                         Total17,562
Tasman
     Brinsdon, J. B. (SC)882
     Eggers, G. K. (ND)177
     Hunt, G. H. (N)6,212
     Rowling, W. E. (L)8,046
                         Total15,317
Taupo
     Fairweather Mrs N. D. (ND)111
     Fenton, P. M. (LR)76
     Higgins, J. F. (N)6,701
     Ridley, J. W. (L)7,484
     Smith, R. W. (SC)711
                         Total15,083
Tauranga
     Allen, K. R. (N)8,902
     MacGillivray. C. F. (V)596
     Mills, R. L. (SC)1,907
     Owen, W. B. (ND)288
     Uttinger, H. J. (L)6,687
                         Total18,380
Timaru
     Armstrong, D. W. (ND)186
     Arthur, B. M. (L)9,760
     Body, Janet L. H. (SC)599
     Lister, P. D. (V)403
     Walker, D. A. (N)5,806
                         Total16,754
Waikato
     Adams-Schneider, L. R. (N)7,926
     Ambury, A J. (LR)116
     Caird, A McN (I)445
     Reese, R. D. (L)3,718
     Sutton, T. J. (ND)54
     Young, K. H. (SC)1,577
                         Total13,836
Wairarapa
     Bunny, T. C. (LR)94
     Couch, B. (N)7,373
     Knox, H. (ND)32
     Morrow, J. H. Jnr. (SC)698
     Williams, J. H. (L)8,459
                         Total16,656
Waitemata
     Bassett, M. E. R. (L)8,083
     Hannaford, R. J. (LR)65
     La Van's, R. J. (N)5,539
     McCormick, G. L. (SC)1,203
     Neill, J. R. (ND)106
                         Total14,996
Wallace
     Lamont, I. D. (L)4,736
     Lumsden, Mrs I. C. (ND)80
     McDonald, A. G. J. (LR)796
     Talboys, B. E. (N)7,640
     Williams, F. J. (SC)1,382
                         Total14,634
Wanganui
     Dowdle, R. A. (ND)53
     Humphreys, J. S. (SC)1,168
     Marshall, C. R. (L)9,987
     Sullivan, T. L. (I)50
     Tolhurst, W. G. (N)7,108
                         Total18,366
Wellington Central
     Brown, K. A. (I)87
     Comber, K. M. (N)8,088
     Hill, W. R. (SC)455
     Mitchell, D. K. (ND)97
     Overend, R. V. (V)1,232
     Shand, D. A. (L)8,061
                         Total18,020
West Coast
     Blanchfield, P. (L)8,291
     Bruerton, J. B. (N)3,583
     Dallow, B. M. (I)4,049
     Woodhall, Mrs H. M.707
     Woods, C. F. (ND)32
                         Total16,662
Western Hull
     Fitzgibbon, J. P. (ND)87
     King, A. A. (V)664
     Lattimer, K. G. (SC)687
     May, H. L. J. (L)8,476
     Watts, J. J. (N)6,084
                         Total15,998
Whangarei
     Carr, L. G. (N)7,261
     Gaby, B. C. (ND)30
     Ryan, Gladys J. (SC)1,582
     Smith. M. R. (L)8,441
     Still, G. A. (LR)49
                         Total17,363
Wigram
     Connelly, M. A. (L)10,040
     Cox, D. G. (V)4,785
     Davey, P. N. (SC)790
     Lusher. B. C. (V)318
     Stevens, F. W. (ND)69
                         Total16,002
Eastern Maori
     Clarke, T. T. (ND)177
     Dewes, K. M. (N)2,641
     Rangi, R. (SC)505
     Reweti, P. B. (L)8,831
                         Total12,154
Northern Maori
     Latimer, G. S. (N)1,016
     Rata, M. (L)6,276
     Sadler, M. W. (ISC)86
     Samuels, D. S. (ND)147
     Toia, H. T. (SC)551
                         Total8,076
Southern Maori
     Ngakura, Gale M. (SC)450
     Parahi, K. (N)827
     Tirikatene-Sullivan, Mrs T. W. M. (L)9,078
                         Total10,355
Western Maori
     Amohia, H. (ND)234
     Rawiri, R. Te A. H. (N)869
     Te Hira, T. (SC)706
     Wetere, K. T. (L)9,555
                         Total11,364

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 25 November 1972 held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the fourteenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1972 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows.

Voting Issue195719601963196619691972
For national continuance723,059765,952791,767817,760903,962931,778
For State purchase and control160,483138,644157,581176,946242,499244,003
For national prohibition260,132255,157235,959198,859176,055203,791

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years as at present totalled 678,960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317,973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30′ east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by comparison with radio signals from observatories in other parts of the world, and the error rarely exceeds a few milliseconds.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1971 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography 1971.

SubjectBooksPamphletsTotal
General151732
Religion, theology, philosophy302151
Sociology, statistics122537
Political science4376119
Law, public administration, social welfare374885
Education355085
Trade, communications, transport121931
Linguistics, philology172542
Sciences77106183
Technology, and trades275380
Agriculture, forestry3377110
Domestic science5712
Commercial management161834
Fine arts, etc.455095
Entertainment, sport351348
Literature404282
Geography, travel442569
History, biography8556141
               Totals6087281,336

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

At 30 September 1971 there were 1,513 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the provisions of the Copyright Act.

COMPUTERS—Technological change is an influential contributor to economic growth. Outstanding examples are the electric motor and the computer. A useful study “The Role of the Computer in the New Zealand Economy” was published in 1968 by the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research. Basically, computers are logical electronic information handlers whether they are used for accounting, traffic control, scientific calculations, design simulation, or controlling industrial processes. The first computer was imported into New Zealand in 1960 and by 1968 the total had risen to 87. (By 1972 the total was estimated to be nearly 200.) In actual practice few computers are sold; they are imported by one of the large computer companies on behalf of the user who rents the equipment and pays importation charges of around three-quarters of the first year's rental (which for a medium-sized unit may be $50,000).

An international comparison of computer rental expenditure in relation to national income in 1967 was made by the Institute of Economic Research. Equating New Zealand's proportion to a base of 100, the corresponding figure for Australia was 140, and for Denmark 180, Norway 135, and Finland 120. (The latter three countries were selected because they have populations under 5 million and have important agricultural sectors). Computer applications in New Zealand are not generally at an advanced stage and few of them are working more than one shift.

The demand for computers has come from Government departments, local authorities, universities, primary producer boards, private firms in industries such as printing, forestry, insurance, oil, food processing, electrical equipment manufacturing, building and construction, clothing, engineering, airways, banking, retailing, motor assembly, paint manufacturing, and stock and station agents. The State Services Commission has established a computer centre in Wellington to serve a number of Government departments, while small private firms use independent bureaus and those run by equipment suppliers. A computer advisory service for commercial firms is available from the Physics and Engineering Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Private Bag, Lower Hutt.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday1973197419751976
* Date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day  1 January  1 January  1 January  1 January
New Zealand Day  6 February  6 February  6 February  6 February
Good Friday20 April12 April28 March16 April
Easter Monday23 April15 April31 March19 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday* (observance)  4 June  3 June  2 June  6 June
Labour Day22 October28 October27 October24 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 6 February (Waitangi Day); Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 is designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins, for: (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

SPORT AND RECREATION—New Zealand is fortunate in having excellent natural facilities for outdoor pursuits and sports. The climate is temperate and equable.

The long coastline, the numerous rivers, lakes, and mountain ranges give full opportunity for yachting, boating, swimming, surfing, mountaineering, tramping, and ski-ing. Sea and freshwater fishing, both by rod and by line, scuba diving, hunting, and shooting are extremely popular and relatively inexpensive.

Tennis, cricket, athletics, lawn bowls, softball, water sports, and rowing are the most popular summer games and sports.

Rugby football is the leading winter sport but many people play rugby league football, association football, outdoor and indoor basketball, hockey, indoor bowls, table tennis, and badminton.

Golf is a popular summer and winter sport. Boxing, wrestling, gymnastics, judo, and fencing have a small following.

While some sports, for instance rugby football, attract many spectators, the high proportion of persons who actually take an active part in various sports and games compared with those who merely watch, is a striking characteristic of New Zealand life. In many sports there is a close association between school and club activities.

The administration of various sports clubs is generally controlled by national bodies within New Zealand through their district associations. The various sports in New Zealand are amateur. Promising players or performers have ample and equal opportunity on merit to represent first their clubs, then the district, and ultimately New Zealand in competitive play.

In major sports each organisation administers its own affairs. However, competitors to represent New Zealand at Olympic and Commonwealth Games are selected by an Olympic Council made up of representatives of the various sports associations.

The National Mountain Safety Council, together with its member organisations, conducts a national campaign for safety on the mountains. Similarly, the National Water Safety Council, its member organisations, and swimming and lifesaving organisations, conduct a national water safety campaign, which includes general instruction in resuscitation procedures.

The Cobham Outward Bound School was established in Queen Charlotte Sound, Marlborough, in 1962, and several thousand boys aged 16 to 20 years have completed its short courses which use the challenges of the outdoors to promote self-confidence and self-discipline.

Within the schools greater emphasis is now placed on the encouragement of wider recreational interests which may be continued after leaving school and to the range of traditional team sports have been added activities such as golf, squash, surfing, yachting, fencing, tramping, flying, etc.

A system of school camps has been developed by the educational authorities. Permanent camp sites include Kaeo, Kawau, Port Waikato, Kaitawa, Paraparaumu, and Rotoiti. These camps attempt to promote the value of social growth through the provision of opportunities to live and work together and develop qualities of initiative, self-confidence, and independence. Young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment by developing skills of campcraft, tramping, map and compass work, bushcraft, water safety, sailing and canoeing, and climbing, etc. Field work on the natural sciences and geography involves study of the land forms and local ecology of river, sea, and bush life.

In recent years some universities have established facilities and appointed staff to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body at large. Regular physical activity and its accompanying social recreation have been found to produce considerable improvements to health and application to studies.

Recreation involves the arts, including drama, ballet, music, art and craft, just as much as the more active physical sports, and their development is more fully described elsewhere in the Yearbook in the section Support of Cultural Activities.

The range of musical recreation, involving both participants and audiences, includes orchestras, pipe and brass bands, operatic societies, dance bands and pop groups. Music plays a large part in community recreation, especially among the youth. It is interesting to note how the change to later hotel hours has tended to shift the musical focus from the dance hall to the hotel where musical groups now entertain in the evenings.

Maori and Pacific Island cultural groups organise especially for their young people recreational activity, which provides not only a grounding in the richness of their cultural heritage but also helps to counter the stresses placed on those inexperienced in urban living.

Financial Assistance—Grants from Government to national youth organisations to assist their development and leadership training programmes are made to organisations such as the National Youth Council, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Young Women's Christian Association, and the Youth Hostels' Association. During 1971–72 these grants totalled $76,000. In addition a total of $68,440 was allocated in 1971–72 to national uniformed youth organisations by way of capitation grants on the basis of $50 per 100 members, with a maximum grant of $20,000 for any one organisation.

Sporting and recreational organisations receive some financial assistance from lottery profits, but to qualify for assistance the organisation must show a substantial degree of self help.

The Department of Internal Affairs is responsible for a subsidy scheme to provide financial assistance to religious groups of up to one-fifth of the total cost of a project of building or extending a hall or camp used for youth work. For 1971–72 a total of $110,924 was paid out.

The National Mountain Safety Council and National Water Safety Council received for 1972–73 allocations from lottery profits of $24,000 and $65,000 respectively. Seventeen mountain safety committees and five subcommittees organise courses on bushcraft, alpine instruction, map reading, and exposure prevention and firearm safety.

The Department of Internal Affairs has appointed 271 firearm instructors to tutor and test applicants for the firearm examination.

The department has a youth activities officer stationed at each of the main centres with the tasks of maintaining close liaison with local authorities, educational institutions, and youth and community associations in order to gain support and advice for schemes involving recreational activities and of keeping the community informed of the needs of young people.

A Minister of Recreation and Sport was included in the ministry appointed in December 1972, and a council is proposed to foster and promote physical and mental health and the fullest use of leisure.

NATIONAL SONG—New Zealand's National Song is God Defend New Zealand, the words being written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods.

The verses are now given.

1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet, Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar, God defend New Zealand.3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.
2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.
 5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nation's van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand. 

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms is pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook.

Chapter 39. Section 39
OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

                    His Excellency Sir Edward Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., K.B.E.

                    Official Secretary—D. C. Williams, C.V.O.

                    (His Excellency assumed office on 27 September 1972)

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
          THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD
               Lieutenant-Governor
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan 18403 May 1841
          THE CROWN COLONY
               Governor
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May 184110 Sep 1842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec 184317 Nov 1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov 184531 Dec 1847
               Governor in Chief
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan 18487 Mar 1853
          THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY
               Governor of New Zealand
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar 185331 Dec 1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B.6 Sep 18552 Oct 1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.4 Dec 18615 Feb 1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G.5 Feb 186819 Mar 1873
The Right Hon. Sir James Fergusson, BART., G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., C.I.E.14 Jun 18733 Dec 1874
The Right Hon. the Marquess of Normanby, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., P.C.9 Jan 187521 Feb 1879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.M.C.G.17 Apr 18798 Sep 1880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G.29 Nov 188023 Jun 1882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan 188322 Mar 1889
The Right Hon, Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May 188924 Feb 1892
The Right Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun 18926 Feb 1897
The Right Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug 189719 Jun 1904
The Right Hon. Baron Plunket, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O.20 Jun 19048 Jun 1910
The Right Hon. Baron Islington, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., D.S.O.22 Jun 19102 Dec 1912
The Right Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.19 Dec 191227 Jun 1917
               Governor-General of New Zealand
The Right Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun 19177 Jul 1920
The Right Hon. Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep 192026 Nov 1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, BART., G.C.B., G.C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O.13 Dec 19248 Feb 1930
The Right Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.CM.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.CM.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Right Hon. Baron Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957
The Right Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D.5 Sep 195713 Sep 1962
Brigadier the Right Hon. Baron Ballantrae, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E.9 Nov 196220 Oct 1967
The Right Hon. Baron Porritt, Bt., G.CM.G., G.CV.O., C.B.E.1 Dec 19676 Sep 1972
SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS
SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856
Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 18911 May 1893
27. SeddonRight Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189321 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., K.C.M.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. NationalRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191914 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May 192530 May 1925
35. CoatesRight Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRight Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. CoalitionRight Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRight Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserHon. Peter Fraser1 Apr 194030 Apr 1940
41. FraserRight Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.30 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
42. HollandRight Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec 194920 Sep 1957
43. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
44. NashRight Hon. Sir Walter Nash, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
45. HolyoakeRight Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec 19609 Feb 1972
46. MarshallRight Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.9 Feb 19728 Dec 1972
47. KirkRight Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec 1972 

THE MINISTRY

Right Hon. N. E. KIRK, Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Hon. H. WATT, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Labour, Minister of Works and Development, Minister in Charge of Publicity.

Hon. W. W. FREER, Minister of Trade and Industry, Minister of Energy Resources.

Hon. W. E. ROWLING, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Department of Statistics, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. Dr A. M. FINLAY, Minister of Justice, Attorney-General, Minister in Charge of Civil Aviation.

Hon. M. RATA, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister of Lands.

Hon. M. A. CONNELLY, Minister of Police, Minister of Customs, Associate Minister of Finance.

Hon. A. J. FAULKNER, Minister of Defence, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. N. J. KING, Minister of Social Welfare, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. R. J. TIZARD, Minister of State Services, Minister of Health.

Hon. C. J. MOYLE, Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, Minister of Forests, Minister of Science.

Hon. W. A. FRASER, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of State Advances Corporation, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office.

Hon. H. L. J. MAY, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. Sir Basil ARTHUR, Bt., Minister of Transport, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office.

Hon. P. A: AMOS, Minister of Education, Minister of Island Affairs.

Hon. MRS T. W. M. TIRIKATENE-SULLIVAN, Minister of Tourism, Associate Minister of Social Welfare.

Hon. J. A. WALDING, Minister of Overseas Trade, Minister for the Environment, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Associate Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Hon. F. M. COLMAN, Minister of Immigration, Minister of Mines, Associate Minister of Works and Development.

Hon. T. M. McGUIGAN, Minister of Railways, Minister of Electricity, Minister of Civil Defence.

Hon. R. O. DOUGLAS, Postmaster-General, Minister of Broadcasting, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries:

  • B. G. BARCLAY, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries.

  • E. E. ISBEY, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Labour.

  • B. P. MacDONELL, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Trade and Industry.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. N. E. Kirk

Leader of the Opposition—Rt. Hon. J. R. Marshall, C.H.

Speaker—Hon. S. A. Whitehead. Chairman of Committees—R. L. Bailey

Clerk of the House—E. A. Roussell, LL.B.

NameElectoral District
* Government Member.
     For European Electorates
Adams-Schneider, Hon. L. R.Waikato
Allen, K. R.Tauranga
Allen, Hon. P. B.Bay of Plenty
Amos, Hon. P. A.*Manurewa
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.*Timaru
Bailey, R. L.*Heretaunga
Barclay, B. G.*Christchurch Central
Barclay, R. M.*New Plymouth
Bassett, M. E. R.*Waitemata
Batchelor, Mrs M.*Avon
Begg, A. W.*Awatua
Birch, W. F.Franklin
Blanchfield, P.*West Coast
Bolger, J. B.King Country
Brooks, I. J.*Marlborough
Burke, T. K.*Rangiora
Carter, Hon. D. J.Raglan
Christie, G.*Napier
Colman, Hon. F. MacD.*Petone
Comber, K. M.Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon. M. A.*Wigram
Davey, T.*Gisborne
Douglas, N. V.*Auckland Central
Douglas, Hon. R. O.*Manukau
Downie, G. P. A.Pakuranga
Drayton, R. P. B.*St. Albans
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.*Roskill
Finlay, Hon. Dr A. M.*Henderson
Fraser, Hon. W. A.*St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.*Mount Albert
Gair, G. F.North Shore
Gandar, L. W.Ruahine
Gill, Air Commodore T. F. C.B.E., D.S.O.East Coast Bays
Gordon, Hon. J. B.Clutha
Harrison, J. R.Hawke's Bay
Highet, D. A.Remuera
Holland, E. S. F.Riccarton
Holyoake, Rt. Hon. Sir Keith, G.C.M.G., C.H.Pahiatua
Hunt, J. L.*New Lynn
Isbey, E.*Grey Lynn
Jack, Hon. Sir Roy, K.B.Rangitikei
Jelicich, Mrs D. C.*Hamilton West
King, Hon. N. J.*Birkenhead
Kirk, Rt. Hon. N. E.*Sydenham
Laney, W. R.*Oamaru
Lapwood, H. R.Rotorua
Luxton, J. F.Piako
McCready, Hon. A.Manawatu
MacDonell, B. P.*Dunedin Central
McGuigan, Hon. T. M.*Lyttelton
McLachlan, C. C. A.Rakaia
McMillan, Mrs E. E.*Dunedin North
Marshall, C. R.*Wanganui
Marshall, Rt. Hon. J. R., C.H.Karori
Mayson, C. R.*Hastings
May, Hon. H. L. J.*Western Hutt
Moore, M. K*Eden
Moyle, Hon. C. J.*Mangere
Muldoon, Hon. R. D.Tamaki
Munro, J. B.*Invercargill
O'Brien, J. G.*Island Bay
O'Flynn, F. D. Q.C*Kapiti
Quigley, I. T.*Otago Central
Ridley, J. W.*Taupo
Rogers, Dr. A.*Hamilton East
Rowling, W. E.*Tasman
Schultz, L. C.Coromandel
Sloane, L. F.Hobson
Smith, M. R.*Whangarei
Talbot, R. L. G.South Canterbury
Talboys, Hon. B. E.Wallace
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C. E.D.Stratford
Tizard, Hon. R. J.*..Otahuhu
Walding, Hon. J. A.*Palmerston North
Walker, Hon. H. J.Papanui
Wall, Dr G. A.*Porirua
Watt, Hon. H.*Onehunga
Whitehead, Hon. S. A.*Nelson
Wilkinson, P. I.Rodney
Williams, J. H.*Wairarapa
Young, T. J.*Hutt
Young, V. S.Egmont
Young, W. L.Miramar
     For Maori Electorates
Rata, Hon. M.*Northern Maori
Wetere, K. T.*Western Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs T. W. M.*Southern Maori
Reweti, P. B.*Eastern Maori

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS

ParliamentDate of Opening of SessionDate of Ending of Session
Thirty-third20 June 1961  1 December 1961
  7 June 196214 December 1962
12 February 196312 February 1963
20 June 196325 October 1963
Thirty-fourth10 June 1964  4 December 1964
27 May 196530 October 1965
26 May 1966  1 November 1966
Thirty-fifth26 April 196724 November 1967
26 June 196819 December 1968
15 May 196924 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 197013 March 1970
  1 April 1970  3 December 1970
25 February 197125 March 1971
  9 June 197117 December 1971
  8 June 197220 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 197316 March 1973
  5 June 1973 

LEGISLATION 1972—During the parliamentary session of 1972, 142 public Acts, 12 local Acts, and 8 private Acts were passed.

Notable among the new legislation was the Accident Compensation Act, an historic measure of far-reaching importance in its social, legal, and industrial implications, and the Equal Pay Act.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1973 or which had then been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1962Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Aliens Act 1948Justice
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Mines
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1971Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948Internal Affairs
Broadcasting Authority Act 1968Broadcasting
Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961Broadcasting
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Card Tournaments Regulation Act 1933Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriers Act 1948Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Child Welfare Act 1925Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Act 1956Works
Cinematograph Films Act 1961Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1950Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1925Mines
Commercial Trusts Act 1910Justice
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Control of Prices Act 1947Trade and Industry
Cook Islands Act 1915Maori and Island Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Maori and Island Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Act 1956Internal Affairs
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crowns Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1957Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1964Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Abolition Act 1925Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Electricity
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Electricity
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Electricity
Electricians Act 1952Electricity
Electricity Act 1968Electricity
Electricity Distribution Commission Act 1967Electricity
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Engineering Association Act 1961Works
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Act 1910Trade and Industry
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1908Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Services Act 1972Internal Affairs
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Gaming Act 1908Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy Resources
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy Resources
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
General Wage Orders Act 1969Labour
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Works
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Services Commission
Guardianship Act 1948Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands
Health Act 1956Health
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Articles Act 1962Internal Affairs
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955State Advances
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Assessment Act 1957Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954Labour
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1949Labour
Industrial Research and Development Grants Act 1970Trade and Industry
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industries and Commerce Act 1956Trade and Industry
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1952Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Inventions Development Act 1966Trade and Industry
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Mines
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kapuni Petroleum Act 1970Trade and Industry
Kermadec Island Act 1887Maori and Island Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Works
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori and Island Affairs
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land and Income Tax Act 1954Inland Revenue
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952Lands and Survey
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Lesotho Act 1969Foreign Affairs
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Linen Flax Corporation Act 1945Trade and Industry
Litter Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1966Internal Affairs
Local Government Commission Act 1967Internal Affairs
Local Railways Acts 1914Works
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Magistrates' Courts Act 1947Justice
Malaysia Act 1963Foreign Affairs
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori and Island Affairs
Maori and Island Affairs Department Act 1968Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Welfare Act 1962Maori and Island Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine Fanning Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Married Women's Property Act 1952Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1963Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1955Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Mines
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Local Government Act 1972Internal Affairs
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Resources Act 1972Energy Resources
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961Treasury
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Monopoly and Prevention Act 1908Trade and Industry
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Trade and Industry
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1958Justice
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Corporations Act 1954Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
Narcotics Act 1965Health
Nassella Tussock Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972State Advances
National Library Act 1965Education
National Military Service Act 1961Defence
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967Mines
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Loans Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand National Airways Act 1945Transport
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
News Media Ownership Act 1965Justice
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Maori and Island Affairs
Noxious Animals Act 1956Forest Service
Noxious Weeds Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1971Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Oil in Navigable Waters Act 1965Transport
Opticians Act 1928Health
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962Legislative
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Payroll Tax Act 1970Inland Revenue
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Petroleum Act 1937Mines
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937Internal Affairs
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964Health
Poisons Act 1960Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Growing Industry Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act: Regulations Confirmations Acts 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Protection of Depositors Act 1968Justice
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1961Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Revenues Act 1953Treasury
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works
Quarries Act 1944Mines
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1963Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1963Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Republic of BangladeshForeign Affairs
Republic of Botswana Act 1967Foreign Affairs
Republic of Cyprus Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Republic of Gambia Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Republic of Ghana Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Republic of Guyana Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Republic of India Act 1956Foreign Affairs
Republic of Ireland Act 1950Foreign Affairs
Republic of Kenya Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Republic of Malawi Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Nauru Act 1969Foreign Affairs
Republic of Nigeria Act 1963Foreign Affairs
Republic of Pakistan Act 1956Foreign Affairs
Republic of Sierra Leone Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Republic of Singapore Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Sri LankaForeign Affairs
Republic of Tanzania Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Zambia Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Treasury
Reserves and Domains Act 1953Lands and Survey
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Rural Housing Act 1939State Advances
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927State Advances
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sale of Wool Act 1937Agriculture and Fisheries
Sales Tax Act 1932–33Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1952Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971Labour
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
Standard Time Act 1945Internal Affairs
State Advances Corporation Act 1965State Advances
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969State Services Commission
State Supply of Electrical Energy Act 1917Electricity
Statistics Act 1955Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Law Drafting Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Act 1956Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Swaziland Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori and Island Affairs
Tariff and Development Board Act 1961Trade and Industry
Technicians Certification Act 1958Education
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Termites Act 1940State Advances
Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1935Trade and Industry
Tokelau Islands Act 1948Maori and Island Affairs
Tonga Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1955Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1953Works
Trade Agreement (Mew Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trade Practices Act 1958Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Trading Coupons Act 1931Trade and Industry
Tramways Act 1908Works
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Protection Act 1934–35Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Treasury
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Turangi Township Act 1964Works
Uganda Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit TitlesJustice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945Works
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Training Council 1968Education
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Day Act 1960Labour
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Waterfront Industry Act 1953Labour
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Whaling Industry Act 1935Agriculture and Fisheries
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1944Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Workers' Compensation Act 1956Labour

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. A list of administrative tribunals in New Zealand was presented in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook. A useful reference is The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the Supreme Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.; the Hon. A. O. Woodhouse; the Hon. J. N. Wilson; and the Hon. G. D. Speight.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.

Court of Appeal: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G. (ex officio); Right Hon. Sir Thaddeus McCarthy, President; Right Hon. Sir Clifford Richmond.

Supreme Court: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.; Hon. A. L. Haslam; Hon. I. H. Macarthur; Hon. A. O. Woodhouse; Hon. A. C. Perry; Hon. J. N. Wilson; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White; Hon. D. S. Beattie; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. D. W. McMullin; Hon. R. B. Cooke; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan.

Judge of the Court of Arbitration—A. P. Blair.

Judges of Compensation Court—A. P. Blair; J. B. Thomson.

PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER (OMBUDSMAN)

Under the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962 there has been appointed a commissioner whose principal function is to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations, including hospital and education boards. The commissioner is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives. Complaints to the commissioner must be made in writing and be accompanied by a fee of $2. Investigations are conducted in private, but the commissioner can decide not to investigate complaints where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

The Ombudsman is empowered to report his opinion, after such an investigation, to the department and to the Minister concerned, and if no action is taken he may report to Parliament. Nearly all complaints held to be justified are rectified by the department or organisation concerned. No complaint of actual malpractice has been found justified.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsman and the resultant action is given in the following table.

Action on Complaint1 Oct 1962–31 Mar 19701 April 1970–31 Mar 19711 April 1971–31 Mar 1972Total
* There were 163 cases still under investigation at 31 March 1972.
Outside jurisdiction1,7363003223,258
Declined85812105
Discontinued511174166851
Withdrawn4209087597
Investigated and considered justified464106113683
Investigated and considered not justified1,9453854122,742
               Totals5,1611,0631,275*7,449*

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS
DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralA. T. Johns, PH.D.(CANT)
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralK. Gillies, B.COM., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralR. C. Savage, LL.B.
CustomsComptrollerJ. A. M. Kean, ACCTS. PROF.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
Chief of Defence StaffLieut.-General R. J. H. Webb, C.B., C.B.E.
Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal D. F. St. George, C.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C.
Chief of General StaffMajor-General R. H. F. Holloway.
Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral E. C. Thorne, C.B.E.
EducationDirector-GeneralA. N. V. Dobbs, M.COM., ACCTS. PROF.
Energy Resources, Ministry ofCommissionerR. J. Hogg, B.COM., ACCTS. PROF.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryF. H. Corner, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerA. C. Paine, D.L.I.
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterA. R. Shearer.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.B., CH.B., M.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.P
Inland RevenueCommissionerD. A. Stevens, ACCTS. PROF.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsP. J. O'Dea, C.V.O., ACCTS. PROF., D.P.A.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeE. A. Missen, M.A.
LabourSecretary of LabourE. G. Davey, B.COM., A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralR. J. MacLachlan, B.A., B.COM., DIP.U.V.(AUCK.)
Law Drafting OfficeCounsel and Compiler of StatutesD. A. S. Ward, C.M.G., B.A., LL.B.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesE. A. Roussell, LL.B.
Maori and Island AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeJ. M. McEwen, LL.B.
MinesSecretaryI. D. Dick, M.SC.
New Zealand ElectricityGeneral ManagerP. W. Blakeley, F.I.E.E., R.E.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralA. P. Thomson, B. FOR. SC.
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityBrigadier H. E. Gilbert, D.S.O., O.B.E.
PoliceCommissionerW. H. A. Sharp, Q.P.M.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralW. J. Sewell, B.COM., D.P.A., A.C.A.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadF. H. Corner M.A.
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeJ. M. Fielder, A.C.A.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Small, A.M.INST.T.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralE. I. Robertson, O.B.E., PH.D., (LOND.), F.R.S.
Social WelfareDirectorI. J. D. MacKay, ACCTS. PROF.
State Advances Corporation of New ZealandManaging DirectorR. G. Millard, LL.B., ACCTS. PROF.
General ManagerE. J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP. U.V.
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerN. R. Ainsworth, ACCTS. PROF.
State Services CommissionChairman of Commission MembersI. G. Lythgoe, M.COM.
G. S. Orr, B.A., LL.M.
T. D. Clifford, ACCTS. PROF.
R. W. McKenzie, A.C.A.
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. P. Lewin, M.A., LL.B., DIP. JOUR.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerJ. E. Hartstonge, B.COM., A.C.A.
Trade and IndustrySecretary (designate)J. P. Lewin, M.A., LL.B., DIP. JOUR.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryR. J. Polaschek, B.A., M.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A.
TreasurySecretaryH. G. Lang, B.A., B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A.
ValuationValuer-GeneralV. P. McGlone, DIP. V.F.M.
Works, Ministry ofCommissioner of WorksN. C. McLeod, B.E.

THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 36 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Law Drafting Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

In the following table the staff numbers of the State services are set out.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
19491964196919711972

* Up to 1970 includes part-time staff.

† At 30 September of preceding year.

Public Service departments50,29064,33069,03971,26974,064
Railways Department26,48424,16821,41221,03220,688
Post Office17,69027,76530,67132,35932,473
Education boards and teaching staff13,32124,69927,842† x29,845† x31,151
Hospital boards and medical and nursing staff*14,89526,95232,87230,44732,242
Armed forces7,90212,95013,16312,99212,637
Broadcasting Corporation8852,1442,8012,9382,857
Police1,5412,6112,9503,2143,302
National Airways Corporation1,1122,1932,7702,8742,789
Air New Zealand3841,0712,4832,9122,952
Tourist Hotel Corporation477737756649
Legislative Department150151149163166
               Totals134,654189,511206,889x210,801x215,970
Total as percentage of total population7.27.37.4x7.4x7.4
Total as percentage of total labour force18.819.819.5x19.0x19.2

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services. A Government Computer Centre has been established in Wellington.

The relative cost of government as a percentage of gross national product is shown in the following table.

YearGovernment Current Expenditure on Goods and Services*Gross National ProductPercentage
* This figure is net of departmental receipts. It also excludes the operating expenses of trading departments, expenditure of a capital nature, and transfer payments to either persons or local authorities such as social security benefits, pensions, subsidies, and interest on the public debt paid in New Zealand.
 $(million)$(million) 
1938–3946.446410.0
1948–49100.097810.2
1953–54178.01,68110.6
1958–59236.22,27010.4
1963–64320.23,19710.0
1966–67418.43,93210.6
1967–68442.44,08310.8
1968–69484.84,31011.2
1969–70537.94,75611.3
1970–71656.25,45212.0
1971–72759.46,26012.1

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of or the Minister in Charge of any part of the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services—A Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission has been established and is responsible for the control of the computer services vested in the State Services Commission. What was previously known as the Government Computer Centre, in Wellington, is now part of the division and is now known as the Cumberland Computer Centre of the Computer Services Division. A further centre, known as the Pipitea Computer Centre, has been established at 61–63 Thorndon Quay, Wellington.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works as agent for the State Services Commission.

A computer data base is to be established at Wanganui as part of a law enforcement information system, with positive means of safeguarding access to information in the data base.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Although the Service has clearly defined salary scales and avenues of promotion, it also provides quick promotion with special salary increases to officers of outstanding merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised so that all persons in the Service, and sometimes persons outside the Service, may apply for higher positions. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 and are related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, makes full use of inspection of work and analysis of systems, standards and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (parliamentary paper H. 14). At 31 March 1972 there were 53,222 permanent officers and 2,299 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 51,371 and 2,286 respectively. Distribution of the staff by occupational classes is given in Section 32, Employment.

PAY RESEARCH UNIT—It is accepted that there should be comparability between private sector rates and rates paid to State servants employed on broadly comparable work, taking into account differences in conditions of service and fringe benefits. But it is also recognised that there is a need to make a clear distinction between fact-finding—establishing job comparability, discovering pay and conditions—and the negotiation and arbitration process.,

To this end a Pay Research Unit for the State Services was set up in August 1972 and is based in the Department of Statistics.

Such a unit had been recommended by the 1962 Royal Commission of Inquiry into the New Zealand State Services, and again by the 1969 Royal Commission on Salary and Wage Fixing Procedures in the State Services.

The Pay Research Unit has a small consultative and advisory steering committee with equal representation from both the official and the employee organisation sides to decide on which occupational groups should be surveyed, and when such surveys should be undertaken. It will also set up advisory committees and decide their functions and the composition of the committees.

Though the consultative committee will decide on the occupational groups to be surveyed, the Pay Research Unit alone is responsible for deciding the fields of employment outside the State Services where comparisons are made.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

               Health, Department of

Dental Council.

Dental Technicians Board.

Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.

Nursing Council

Supervising Committee, Rotoroa Island (section 7, Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966).

Medical Council of New Zealand.

Medical Research Council of New Zealand.

Board of Health.

Dietitians Board.

Plumbers and Gasfitters Board.

Maternity Services Committee.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons Committee.

Poisons Committee.

Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.

Food and Drug Advisory and Technical Committees.

Radiological Advisory Council.

Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.

Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee.

Council of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Laboratory Service Advisory Committee.

Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Medical Services Advisory Committee.

Ophthalmological Services Advisory Committee.

Otological Services Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.

Pharmacology and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Radiological Services Advisory Committee.

Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.

Central Committee on Training Orthopaedic Technicians.

Physiotherapy Board.

Occupational Therapy Board.

Chiropodists Board.

Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.

Opticians Board.

Board of Management of the Disabled Re-establishment League.

District Committees Disabled Re-establishment League.

               Social Welfare Department

War Pensions and Rehabilitation

War Pensions Board.

War Pensions Appeal Board.

War Pensions Medical Research Trust.

Rehabilitation Board.

N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.

               Education, Department of

Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language.

Central Advisory Committee.

Committee of Inquiry into Pre-school Education.

Committee of Inquiry into the Use of Television in Education.

Education Boards' Employment Review Committee.

National Commission for UNESCO.

National Council for Adult Education.

National Library Board of Trustees.

Ngarimu V.C. Scholarship Fund Board.

N.Z. Council for Educational Research.

N.Z. Foundation for the Blind (Board of Trustees).

Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.

School Certificate Examination Board.

Teachers Assessment Appeal Board.

Teachers Classification Appeal Board.

Teachers Court of Appeal.

Teachers Disciplinary Board.

Technicians Certification Authority.

Trades Certification Board.

University Entrance Board.

Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)

               Justice, Department of

Borstal Parole Board.

Prison Parole Board.

Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.

Legal Aid Board.

Legal Aid Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.

Indecent Publications Tribunal.

Copyright Tribunal.

Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

Chiropractic Board.

Licensing Control Commission.

Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).

Land Valuation Committees (there are 21 of these committees).

Hotel Investment Advisory Committee.

Law Revision Commission.

Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.

Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.

Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.

Torts and General Law Reform Committee.

Criminal Law Reform Committee.

Company Law Advisory Committee.

Special Companies Act Committee.

Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee.

               Ministry of Defence

Armed Forces Canteen Council.

               Police Department

Police Staff Tribunal.

               Transport, Ministry of

Transport Licensing Authorities (5).

Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.

Air Services Licensing Authority.

Transport Advisory Council.

New Zealand Road Safety Council.

Container Co-ordinating Committee.

Shipping Industry Tribunal.

Nominal Defendants Advisory Committee.

               Railways Department

Government Railways Appeal Board.

Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.

               Science, Ministry of

Building Research Association.

Carter Observatory Board.

Cawthron Institute Trust Board.

Coal Research Association Inc.

Dairy Research Institute.

Fruit Research Committee.

Hop Research Committee.

Meat Industry Research Institute.

Mineral Resources Council.

N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.

N.Z. Committee of Culture Collection of Microorganisms.

N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.

N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.

N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.

Potato Research Advisory Committee.

Research Institute of Launderers, Dry Cleaners, and Dyers.

Ross Dependency Research Committee.

Tobacco Research Committee.

Wheat Research Committee.

Wool Research Organisation.

National Research Advisory Council.

               Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of

Agricultural Chemicals Board.

Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

Animal Remedies Board.

Apple and Pear Prices Authority.

British Phosphate Commission.

Canterbury Raspberry Marketing Committee.

Central Committee of Raspberry Growers.

Christmas Island Phosphate Commission.

Citrus Canker Advisory Committee.

Citrus Marketing Authority.

Dairy Cattle Breeding Committee.

Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.

Dairy Industry Loans Council.

Dairy Products Prices Authority.

Egg Marketing Authority.

Fruit Distributors Ltd.

Honey Marketing Authority.

Hop Marketing Authority.

Marlborough Nassella Tussock. Board.

Meat Export Prices Committee.

Milk Prices Authority.

National Hydatids Authority.

Nelson Raspberry Marketing Committee.

N.Z. Agricultural Engineering Institute Management Committee.

N.Z. Dairy Board.

N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

N.Z. Milk Board.

N.Z. Potato Board.

N.Z. Poultry Board.

N.Z. Wool Board.

N.Z. Wool Marketing Corporation.

N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.

North Canterbury Nassella Tussock Board.

Otago Raspberry Marketing Committee.

Veterinary Services Council.

Veterinary Surgeons Board.

  (Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).

               Works, Ministry of

National Roads Board.

National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.

Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.

Water Allocation Council.

Water Pollution Control Council.

Building Industry Advisory Council.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority.

Engineers Registration Board.

Engineering Associates Registration Board.

Architects Education and Registration Board.

Quantity Surveyors Registration Board.

Waikato Valley Authority.

Catchment Boards.

               Lands and Survey, Department of

Land Settlement Board.

Marginal Lands Board.

National Parks Authority.

National Parks Board.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Board.

Nature Conservation Council.

Cape Kidnappers Bird Sanctuary Board.

Scenic and Allied Reserve Boards.

N.Z. Survey Board.

N.Z. Geographic Board.

               N.Z. Forest Service

Forestry Development Council.

Timber Production Advisory Committee.

Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.

Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.

Forest Parks Advisory Committees (4).

               Maori and Island Affairs, Department of

Board of Maori Affairs.

Maori Purposes Fund Board.

Maori Education Foundation.

Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.

               Valuation Department

Valuers Registration Board.

               N.Z. Electricity Department

Electricians Registration Board.

Electric Lineman Training Committee.

Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.

Committee on Electric Power Development.

Committee to Review Power Requirements.

Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.

N.Z. Gas Council.

               Trade and Industry, Department of

Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.

Consumer Council.

Electronics Advisory Committee.

Emergency Protection Authority.

Industrial Research and Development Grants Advisory Committee.

Metric Advisory Board.

Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.

N.Z. Industrial Design Council.

N.Z. Inventions Development Authority.

N.Z. Linen Flax Corporation.

N.Z. Steel Limited.

N.Z. Wheat Board.

N.Z. Wooltop Making Investigating Co. Ltd.

Productivity Advisory Council.

Standards Council.

Tariff and Development Board.

Timber Preservation Authority.

Tobacco Board.

Trade Practices and Prices Commission including Price Tribunal.

Overseas Trade

Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.

N.Z. Overseas Trading Corporation Ltd.

Trade Promotion Council.

               Mines Department

Coal Mines Council.

Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund Council.

Natural Gas Corporation.

               Treasury

National Development Council.

Monetary and Economic Council.

Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

Bank of New Zealand.

Air New Zealand.

Dominion Salt Ltd.

N.Z. Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.

Local Authorities Loans Board.

National Provident Fund Board.

National Provident Fund Investments Committee.

Government Superannuation Board.

Taxation Board of Review.

Co-operative Pig Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Milk Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Snow Loss Reserve Committee.

Visiting Experts Advisory Committee.

               Labour, Department of

Auckland Advisory Committee on Training and Employment.

Building Industry Technical Training Council.

Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.

Immigration Advisory Council.

Industrial Advisory Council.

Mediation Service.

National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.

Port Conciliation Committees under Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Rent Appeal Boards.

Shops and Offices Exemption Tribunal.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal.

Research Fund Administration Committee for Society for Research on Women.

Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of Labour, acting jointly.)

Construction Advisory Committee.

National Amenities Committee under Waterfront Industry Act 1933.

National Conciliation Committee (Waterfront).

               Internal Affairs, Department of

Local Government Commission.

Fire Service Council.

Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council.

Lottery Board of Control.

N.Z. Historic Places Trust.

National Art Gallery and Museum Board of Trustees.

Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.

N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.

Cinematograph Films Licensing Authority.

Cinematograph Films Censorship Board of Appeal.

Cinematograph Film Projectionists Licensing Board.

Film Industry Board.

University of Hawke's Bay Trust Board.

Art Union Distribution Committees (6).

Auckland Centennial Memorial Park Committee.

Anzac Fellowship Selection Committee.

Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

Civil Defence

   National Civil Defence Committee.

   National Civil Defence Plans Co-ordinating Committee (and 10 subcommittees).

               Tourist and Publicity Department

Tourist Hotel Corporation.

New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute.

New Zealand National Travel Association.

Auckland Intercontinental Properties Ltd.

               Miscellaneous

Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

State Insurance Investment Board.

Government Insurance Investment Board.

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the following honours have been conferred by Her Majesty the Queen for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

NEW YEAR HONOURS JANUARY 1973

CIVIL DIVISION

Companion of Honour (C.H.):

     The Right Honourable John Ross Marshall, M.P.

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

     Dr Robert Alexander Falla, C.M.G.

     The Right Honourable Sir Alexander Kingcome Turner.

Knight Bachelor:

     Mr Geoffrey Newland Roberts, C.B.E., A.F.C.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.):

     Mr A. E. Allen; Mr L. P. Leary, M.C., Q.C.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

     Dr G. F. Hall; Mr W. M. Manchester; The Honourable W. B. Tennent; Dr R. M. Williams.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

     Professor D. G. Bonham; Mr G. C. Burton; Mr R. D. Cox; Mr C. L. S. Cross; Dr F. W. Dry; Dr H. E. Field; Mr L. C. Harrison; Mr H. C. McQueen; The Honourable J. Mathison; Mr W. N. Sheat; Mr M. Te Hau; Mr C. S. Thomas; Mr G. A. Walsh; Mr R. R. Rex.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.):

     Mr L. J. Davis.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

     Mr R. G. Anderson; Mr J. McK. Archibald; Mr W. J. C. Ashcroft; Mr J. H. Brunt; Mr S. N. Chatfield; Mr D. B. Curry; Mr H. R. Earwaker; Dr R. S. J. Fitzgerald; Mr J. Guy; Mrs E. M. Holdgate; Mrs A. M. Karauria; Miss W. F. Lysnar; Mrs I. M. Macdonald; Miss S. G. McFarlane; Mrs B. A. Matheson; Mr A. Prentice; Mr D. D. Rowlands; Mr R. H. Simmons; Mr E. W. Taylor; Mrs W. Waitere; Mr J. A. R. Walker.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

     Mrs C. L. Bending; Mrs A. Bent; Constable P. V. Keown; Mr W. McDougall; Mrs E. M. Rimmer; Mr N. W. Rossiter; Mr J. W. Roughan; Mr W. N. Stanley.

British Empire Medal for Gallantry (B.E.M.):

     Mr G. S. Barrett.

Queen's Fire Service Medal, for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

     Chief Fire Service Officer G. Drummond; Mr R. W. McMillan; Mr E. F. Quinlan.

MILITARY DIVISION

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

     Air Commodore E. C. Gartrell, O.B.E., D.F.C.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

     Commander J. W. H. F. Dickie; Colonel M. C. Churton, E.D.; Group Captain W. G. Hughes.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

     Lieutenant Commander J. Grant; Lieutenant Commander W. M. Wheeler; Captain P. R. R. Rutherford; Major J. L. Manning, E.D.; Warrant Officer First Class J. C. Cocker; Warrant Officer Second Class R. J. Whitefield; Squadron Leader R. M. Cattermole; Warrant Officer P. C. Rice.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C):

     Wing Commander I. V. Mackay.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

     Petty Officer Engineering Mechanic D. J. Stapelton; Chief Petty Officer Writer D. A. Seaton; Warrant Radioman A. Parker; Corporal D. I. Bird; Sergeant H. H. Hokianga; Warrant Officer Second Class G. A. Mains; Warrant Officer D. B. Harlick; Flight Sergeant E. S. Dark; Sergeant J. B. Duncan.

British Empire Medal for Gallantry (B.E.M.):

     Chief Petty Officer W. S. Inglis.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Services in the Air:

     Master Signaller N. J. Crump.

BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST, JUNE 1973

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (K.C.M.G.):

     Professor Albert William Liley, C.M.G.

     Mr Alister Donald Mcintosh, C.M.G.

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

     Mr George Charles Hart, B.E.M.

Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (D.B.E.):

     Sister Mary Leo (Miss Kathleen Agnes Nicol). M.B.E.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.):

     The Very Reverend Dr I. W. Fraser; Mr J. A James; Professor N. C. Phillips.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

     The Honourable N. L. Shelton; Mr R. S. V. Simpson; Mr V. R. Skellerup.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

     Assistant Commissioner K. B. Burnside; Mr F. Chilton; Reverend Father F. J. Green; Mr R. Jones; Mr R. A. Keir; Mrs J. E. Kirk-Burnnand; Mr F. McCarthy, SM; Mr R. Macdonald; Mr G. T. Matthew; Mrs D. T. Nicholson; Mrs K. J. Park (nee Te Kanawa); Mr A. H. T. Rose; Professor J. L. Wright.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.):

     Mr J. W. Allen.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

     Miss A. R. Berridge; Mr K. W. Blackmore; Lieutenant Colonel (Mrs) V. E. Blincoe; Mrs M. W. Christian; Mr L. J. Fairbrother; Mrs C. M. Garland; Mr G. Glassey; Mr R. C. V. Hayward; Mrs R. T. Hetet; Mr J. S. Hunt; Dr V. D. M. Jacobson; Mr J. N. Laird; Mr K. C. Malcolm, Mr L. R. Mills; Miss A. A. G. Morgan; Mr G. S. O'Keefe; Mr J. B. H. Parry; Mr H. R. Peers; Mrs M. Rangi; Mr W. A. Reed; Mr H. H. Richmond; Mr A. G. Scott; Miss M. B. E. Treloar; Mr A. Veart, M.C., M.I.D.; Mr G. H. Walker; Mr J. V. Wallis; Mr J. R. Whitford.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

     Mrs L. G. Bassett; Miss C. G. Chivers; Miss M. Cooper; Mr J. Fahey; Mr R. B. Frankham; Mr J. C. Glass; Miss M. M. Hall; Mr G. L. Hocquard; Mr G. A. W. Keast; Miss J. E. P. Looker; Mr J. Smith; Miss J. A. Smith; Miss E.Stinson.

MILITARY DIVISION

Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

     Major-General L. A. Pearce, C.B.E.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

     Air Commodore R. B. Bolt, D.F.C., A.F.C.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

     Commander R. F. Faber, VRD; Temporary Colonel R. K. G. Porter; Group Captain K. R. Orsborn.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

     Lieutenant Commander G. A. Hannan; Honorary Lieutenant S. Johnson; Warrant Radioman P. G. C. Green; Major I. Bojesen-Trepka; Major G. B. M. Law; Major H. T. Harris, ED; Squadron Leader J. R. Wiltshier; Warrant Officer D. H. S. Leggett.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

     Chief Petty Officer Cook R. L. N. Ford; Corporal A. Collins; Sergeant M. Edwards; Flight Sergeant B. A. Wakelam; Flight Sergeant C. N. Carmichael; Flight Sergeant R. Neill.

NEW ZEALAND DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

Embassies

Austria—53 Bonn, Bonn-Center HI 902, Bundezkanzlerplatz, West Germany.

Belgium—51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 4.

Chile—Magdalena 160, El Golf, (postal address: Casilla 112, Las Condes).

China—Unit 1, Diplomatic Building, San Li Thun, Peking.

France—9 Rue Leonard de Vinci, Paris, XVI.

Germany, West—53 Bonn, Bonn-Centre HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz.

Indonesia—60 Djalan Prof. Moh. Yamin S.H., Menteng, Djakarta.

Ireland—New Zealand House, Haymarket, London.

Italy—Via Zara 28, Rome, 00198.

Japan—20–40 Kamiyama-Cho, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo 150.

Korea—1–42 Dongbinggo-Dong, Yongsan-Ku, Seoul.

Laos—64 Silom Road, Bangkok, Thailand.

Luxembourg—51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 4, Belgium.

Nepal—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3, India.

Netherlands—Lange Voorhout 18, The Hague 52.

Peru—Pumeahua 2713, Lince, (postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—1124 Prince's Building, Hong Kong.

Thailand—Anglo-Thai Building, 64 Silom Road, Bangkok.

United States—19 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20008.

U.S.S.R.—44, Voroskovo St., Moscow.

Yugoslavia—Via Zara 28, Rome 00198.

Vietnam—45 Phung Khac Khoan, Saigon.

High Commissions

Australia—M.L.C. Building, London Circuit, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601.

Bangladesh—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 110003, India.

Britain—New Zealand House, Haymarket, London, S.W.Y. 4TQ.

Cook Islands—Rarotonga.

Canada—Commonwealth Building, 77 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, KLP 5L6.

Fiji—P.O. Box 1378, Suva.

India—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 110003, India.

Malaysia—Police Co-operative Building, Suleiman Road, Kuala Lumpur.

Singapore—13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Sri Lanka—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3, India.

Tonga—Apia, Western Samoa.

Western Samoa—Apia.

Other Missions

Australia—Consulate-General, United Insurance Building, corner George and Hunter Streets, Sydney.

European Communities—New Zealand Mission, 51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 4.

Greece—Consulate-General, Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 29, Athens T.T. 138.

Hong Kong—New Zealand Commission, 1124 Prince's Building, Chater Road.

New Caledonia—Consulate-General, Noumea.

Philippines—Minister, 1124 Prince's Building, Chater Road, Hong Kong.

South-East Asia Treaty Organisation—Council Representative, 64 Silom Road, Bangkok.

Switzerland— Consulate-General, 58 Rue de Moillebeau, CH/1211, Geneva 19.

United Nations—New Zealand Mission, 733 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10017.

New Zealand Mission, 58 Rue de Moillebeau, CH/1211, Geneva 19.

United States— Consulate-General, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10020.

Consulate-General, 153 Kearney Street, San Francisco.

Consulate-General, 510 West Sixth Street, Los Angeles.

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Consulate of the Argentine Republic, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, Wool House, 139 Featherston Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, Dominion Farmers Institute, Featherston Street, Wellington.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 5 Elliott Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Auckland Office, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy, Hamilton Chambers, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

China, People's Republic of— Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Costa Rica—Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Legation of Czechoslovakia, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Royal Danish Embassy, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 43 Woodside Avenue, Northcote, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Commercial Building, The Square, Palmerston North.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 12–20 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, General Buildings, Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, 283 Main Highway, Orewa, Auckland.

Fiji—New Zealand Agents for Fiji. L. D. Nathan and Co. Ltd., Fort Street, Auckland.

Finland—Hon. Consul, C.P.D. House, 108 The Terrace, Wellington.

France—Embassy of France, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, 904–908 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, Corner French and Robert Streets, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 3 Claremont Grove, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Colombus House, 14–18 Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Third Floor, Prudential Building, Auckland.

India—High Commission of India, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Italy—Embassy of Italy. 24 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, corner Queen and Fort Streets, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 68 Lichfield Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, 353 Trafalgar Square, Nelson.

Hon. Consular Agent, 356 High Street, Dunedin.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 298 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Building, 45 Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, J. Pallot and Co. Ltd., Christchurch.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, Molesworth House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Malaysia—High Commission, 200 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra Leather Co., 96 Tory St., Wellington 1.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, Shell House, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 178 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, National Mortgage and Agency Co., Dunedin.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay. Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, Corner of Colombo and Lichfield Streets, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Philippines—Hon. Consul, Wilson and Horton Ltd., Auckland.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 1 Heaton Terrace, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, L. D. Nathan, P.O. Box 190, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Vice-Consul, Midland Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consul-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, Molesworth House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Federation House, 95–99 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, 48 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Church Street, Onehunga, Auckland 6.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 154 Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 98 Layard Street, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 9 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Beachcroft Avenue, Auckland 6.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Wellington.

U.S.A.—Embassy, I.B.M. Centre, 151 The Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consul-General, A.M.P. Building, Queen Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 311 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Venezuela—Hon. Consul, Brooklyn Flats, Emily Place, Auckland.

Vietnam—Embassy, 40 Panama Street, Wellington.

Western Samoa—Trade and Development Office, 7 Fanshawe Street, Auckland 1.

Yugoslavia—Embassy, 49 Hobson Street, Wellington.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Australia, with responsibility for New Zealand are: Arab Republic of Egypt, Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Burma, Chile, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Khmer Republic, Korea, Laos, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka.

NEW ZEALAND TRADE REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

There are official trade commissioners at the diplomatic missions in Canberra, Sydney, London, Athens, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Brussels, Fiji, Paris, Bonn, New Delhi, Rome, and Bangkok at the addresses given on a preceding page.

Addresses of additional official trade commissioners and other representatives are as follows: American Samoa—Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand, Fagatogo, Pago Pago.

Australia—330 Collins Street, Melbourne.

M.M.I. Building, 344 Queen Street, Brisbane.

16 St. George's Terrace, Perth 6000.

Canada—635 Dorchester Boulevard West, Montreal 101, Quebec.

700 West Georgia Street, Vancouver 2, B.C.

Djakarta—Resident in Singapore.

Guyana—Resident in Trinidad.

Jamaica—Resident in Trinidad.

Korea—Resident in Tokyo.

New Caledonia—-Trade Correspondent, 12 Rue du General Maugin, Noumea.

Pacific—Resident in Fiji. (P.O. Box 1378, Suva).

Philippines—Resident in Hong Kong.

Tahiti—Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Rue du General de Gaulle, Papeete.

Trinidad and Tobago—90 Independence Square, Port of Spain.

U.S.A.—Association's Building, 1145 19th Street, N.W., Washington D.C., 20036.

Trade Correspondent, 2270 Kalakaua Avenue. Waikiki, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklet Overseas Representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand Representatives Overseas published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

Chapter 40. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulation†Mean Population†Natural IncreaseNet Migration*
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

* Excluding tourists on cruising liners and members of armed forces, etc.

† Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

19221,301,2511,318,8841,283,5461,305,12618,57410,732
19231,325,3011,343,0211,311,3821,328,19316,9095,527
19241,347,8531,370,4031,334,0291,352,61817,7205,767
19251,379,4871,401,2301,359,9951,384,42818,02512,298
19261,409,8121,429,6691,392,0731,413,74317,38711,735
19271,438,1321,450,3561,420,8381,439,00416,67811,664
19281,453,8211,467,3701,443,5511,456,07516,078−1,235
19291,471,1101,486,1341,460,3631,473,41915,639711
19301,489,2031,506,8091,478,0271,493,01915,6772,385
19311,511,7001,522,7621,498,4161,514,21515,8055,109
19321,525,5451,534,7391,517,9401,527,06214,660−3,172
19331,538,0281,547,1241,530,1191,539,59014,342−2,595
19341,550,1251,558,3731,542,6511,551,52313,410−2,335
19351,560,9921,569,6891,554,2971,562,23313,486−3,150
19361,573,9271,584,6171,565,2631,575,23113,737−1,114
19371,587,2111,601,7581,578,7571,589,97214,681−353
19381,604,4791,618,3131,594,2751,606,76313,9712,386
19391,624,7141,641,6391,611,3621,628,51216,9394,963
19401,640,9011,633,6451,633,4471,637,30521,0706,028
19411,636,2301,631,2761,635,7151,630,94822,123714
19421,634,3381,636,4031,630,4191,639,57219,701209
19431,634,0941,642,0411,640,1911,635,63517,562541
19441,643,9001,676,2861,637,5701,655,79520,988107
19451,679,9721,727,8171,664,5851,694,64123,8481,018
19461,756,7561,781,2141,710,6801,759,52629,8042,343
19471,789,4761,817,4531,770,2911,798,26232,2563,038
19481,828,0251,853,8071,807,6111,834,65531,7775,756
19491,864,5601,892,0421,843,7671,871,74831,2634,181
19501,902,8831,927,6291,881,3171,909,09231,2477,880
19511,938,0321,970,5221,917,9341,947,52930,9707,522
19521,984,7302,024,5561,958,7291,996,14932,95015,664
19532,037,5532,074,7812,009,5062,048,82633,53422,032
19542,087,7402,118,4342,061,3762,094,91035,17915,441
19552,130,9272,164,7342,105,7672,138,94636,2717,030
19562,175,3732,209,1322,150,2902,182,83336,8358,092
19572,221,1692,262,8142,194,1082,232,59137,56311,492
19582,275,5152,315,9002,246,0932,285,85240,25515,408
19592,326,1292,359,7462,298,8142,334,61740,6709,992
19602,370,1662,403,5672,345,6022,377,01041,8873,213
19612,414,2962,461,2432,388,0042,426,65443,6081,620
19622,474,5882,515,8352,441,4002,484,87342,93318,832
19632,527,8682,566,9152,498,3572,536,91242,71113,639
19642,582,4072,616,9702,550,1142,589,15039,44115,484
19652,628,9002,663,8432,601,2192,635,35237,07111,991
19662,676,7782,711,3182,647,1962,682,60436,22512,021
19672,725,9142,744,9632,694,6802,727,65838,01514,435
19682,752,6622,772,9332,735,2072,753,51237,648−8,090
19692,777,2102,804,0592,760,0772,780,10138,199−10,848
19702,815,9872,852,1372,788,8392,819,60237,210−2,060
19712,860,8732,899,0672,831,2222,864,45640,1517,846
19722,909,916‡2,961,8692,876,388‡2,916,90038,68110,851
19732,974,659 2,932,406  25,475
VITAL STATISTICS
YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population
* Figures from 1926 have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registrations).
192230,44811,874..     23.339.03..     9,8347.53
192329,14812,239..     21.959.21..     10,3527.79
192429,26011,540..     21.638.53..     10,5027.76
192529,86911,8441,30921.578.5643.8210,8177.81
192629,90412,5171,31221.158.8543.8710,9947.78
192729,27812,6001,31620.358.7644.9510,7967.50
192828,93812,8601,16619.878.8340.2910,9197.50
192928,85913,2201,08619.598.9737.6311,4037.74
193028,82213,1451,11219.308.8038.5811,4947.70
193128,86713,0621,07719.068.6337.3110,2546.77
193227,53512,8751,03918.038.4337.7310,4926.87
193327,20412,8621,04317.678.3538.3411,0677.19
193427,22013,8101,06017.548.9038.9411,7887.60
193527,15013,6641,12817.388.7441.5512,7448.16
193628,39514,6581,16818.039.3141.1314,4489.17
193729,89615,2151,17818.809.5739.4014,9739.42
193830,84516,8741,53719.2010.5049.8315,9599.93
193932,87215,9331,37120.199.7841.7117,79110.92
194036,94515,8751,36222.569.7036.8718,08411.04
194139,17017,0471,56224.0210.4539.8813,8308.48
194237,81818,1171,38823.0711.0536.7012,7757.79
194334,68417,1221,35021.2110.4738.9212,0217.35
194438,03717,0491,47322.9710.3038.7313,6468.24
194541,53417,6861,44924.5110.4434.8916,6939.85
194647,52417,7201,52427.0110.0732.0721,09611.99
194749,69817,4421,48727.649.7029.9219,04710.59
194849,06217,2851,35026.749.4227.5217,7509.67
194948,84117,5781,46826.099.3930.0617,3549.27
195049,33118,0841,36425.849.4727.6517,0998.96
195149,80618,8361,37425.579.6727.5916,9158.69
195251,84618,8961,47525.979.4728.4517,0618.55
195351,88818,3541,33525.338.9625.7317,2248.41
195454,05518,8761,30225.809.0124.0917,5578.38
195555,59619,2251,36525.998.9924.5517,7958.32
195656,53119,6961,31325.909.0223.2317,5318.03
195758,42520,8621,42026.179.3424.3017,6147.89
195860,55620,3011,41626.498.8823.3818,3058.01
195961,79821,1281,47726.479.0523.9018,3157.84
196062,77920,8921,42026.418.7922.6218,9097.96
196165,39021,7821,49026.958.9822.7919,4268.01
196265,01422,0811,33126.168.8920.4719,5727.88
196364,52722,4161,26925.448.8419.6719,8567.83
196462,30222,8611,19324.068.8319.1520,7208.00
196560,04722,9761,17422.798.7219.5521,7028.23
196666,00323,7781,06422.378.8617.7322,9498.55
196761,02223,0071,10222.378.4318.0623,5158.62
196862,11224,4641,16422.568.8818.7424,0578.74
196962,36024,1611,05722.438.6916.9524,9718.98
197062,05024,8401,04022.018.8116.7625,9539.20
197164,46024,3091,06622.508.4916.5427,1999.50
197263,48224,801 21.778.50 26,8689.21
EDUCATION
Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 July*Primary†Secondary†Higher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

* Figures earlier than 1928 are for December.

† Excludes Correspondence School pupils.

1922217,24224,86117,5441,998..     1,1513,958
1923218,64626,01019,4912,134..     1,2024,202
1924220,07826,30220,2792,473..     1,2744,236
1925221,44925,93320,7822,511..     1,2714,442
1926225,60826,77822,6502,794..     1,1984,653
1927227,77727,35823,4742,932..     1,2004,878
1928221,16926,39427,0843,506..     1,1154,802
1929220,34726,55628,5133,877..     1,1884,623
1930219,27426,61729,2844,513..     1,1554,801
1931220,97626,44831,0534,602..     1,1655,111
1932217,23626,39030,9444,512..     9905,171
1933203,58926,09730,4734,315..     4435,085
1934201,87026,58430,9154,430..     ..     5,059
1935200,13526,92331,6114,743..     4295,101
1936213,49727,54031,8945,108..     1,1855,218
1937212,07627,50732,1155,595..     1,3465,238
1938209,96128,27134,3456,059..     1,5225,707
1939208,64127,97235,6926,266..     1,5885,979
1940208,43327,86835,2736,379..     1,4575,528
1941208,59527,83633,2536,451..     1,5035,065
1942208,72126,98332,3916,483..     1,4634,373
1943206,88428,52134,8937,184..     1,7755,953
1944207,29229,22340,7238,121..     1,6787,267
1945211,74229,58344,2798,933..     1,4318,425
1946218,12930,58144,9859,424..     1,57511,361
1947229,80431,92945,2499,968..     1,63411,874
1948235,24332,81845,1099,793..     1,87511,964
1949244,37733,94146,51210,243..     2,32111,598
1950254,66435,77548,23210,511..     2,68411,515
1951265,23037,10950,68211,045..     2,70410,956
1952282,69939,34254,12411,622..     2,71010,691
1953298,48141,27759,55812,476..     2,76910,831
1954311,54142,79766,34413,627..     2,83410,803
1955320,58044,08672,11714,970..     2,84710,851
1956332,04946,26175,35415,832..     2,96311,077
1957344,95947,95378,84316,265..     3,21811,761
1958356,22448,41882,69916,984..     3,60212,881
1959365,76151,54989,50817,663..     3,75314,388
1960371,82552,88799,36519,293713,83815,809
1961376,47554,079109,63220,7522213,81416,820
1962384,31355,293118,52322,2904414,22317,214
1963392,59556,341124,97823,6035324,53618,303
1964404,25757,154128,70924,4396204,69119,640
1965415,58257,244132,09425,0738574,79022,145
1966429,91656,050136,10425,5851,1635,02224,302
1967445,04554,910141,92226,2321,3555,15626,313
1968455,11953,782152,42227,0201,4856,09628,821
1969461,30552,407155,87327,9101,6616,91231,494
1970465,46050,904157,79728,4411,8827,58734,446
1971467,09751,009160,83929,2672,2367,79137,257
1972468,69250,859166,85129,8043,1188,08338,766

NOTE—In addition, in 1972, 42 students attended Massey University, 36 attended Otago University, and 175 attended Lincoln College for courses of less than one year's duration, 91,819 students were enrolled for part-time day and evening classes, including 16,293 with the N.Z. Technical Correspondence Institute; 1,117 pupils received tuition from the Primary Correspondence School and 726 pupils received tuition from the Secondary Correspondence School.

JUSTICE
YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme Court†Prisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Population

* Revised series. Excludes minor traffic offences as well as applications for prohibition, affiliation, maintenance and separation orders.

† Change in legislation resulting in more offences dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

192228,75822.036010.461,0520.83
192331,17923.476250.471,1410.85
192427,55920.375550.411,1970.87
192528,86720.855110.371,2840.92
192625,75918.225690.401,3880.97
192726,11318.155690.401,4831.02
192824,50816.834780.331,4350.98
192925,18617.104730.321,3420.90
193025,19216.875380.361,5231.01
193123,25915.366000.401,6141.06
193223,23615.226360.421,5220.99
193320,35513.225310.341,4100.91
193419,65412.674900.321,1990.77
193519,67212.594720.301,1120.71
193621,45013.624620.299150.58
193723,56314.825070.327900.49
193823,76214.784880.307770.48
193924,77415.215710.358950.55
194025,67015.675470.338630.53
194124,52915.045420.339880.61
1942..     ..     4570.281,3040.63
1943..     ..     4940.301,0240.62
1944..     ..     5600.349450.56
1945..     ..     6190.379980.58
1946..     ..     6550.379920.56
194720,18711.227400.411,0880.60
194821,91011.947170.399860.53
194922,02111.766760.369410.50
195021,10211.056420.341,0430.54
195122,40911.506440.331,0400.53
195227,15113.607040.351,0830.54
195328,99414.15179†0.091,0880.52
195431,48815.03148†0.071,1960.57
195532,44415.16147†0.071,1180.52
195635,30216.17204†0.091,3620.62
195736,96916.55199†0.091,4740.66
195835,39315.48206†0.091,6420.72
195931,83713.36212†0.091,7140.73
196033,97014.29286†0.121,7770.75
196135,31814.55294†0.121,8180.75
196238,31215.41265†0.121,7070.69
196339,12815.42309†0.121,7650.69
196439,54915.24242†0.091,6890.65
196539,96515.16304†0.121,6530.63
196642,14915.70280†0.101,8980.71
196747,49117.40318†0.121,9830.73
196852,35119.01351†0.132,0230.73
196954,01019.42314†0.111,9670.71
197055,56019.70360†0.132,3650.84
197161,70121.54404†0.142,6360.92
197258,98620.22476†0.162,5310.87
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*Telephones†TollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal Notes*RevenueExpenditure

* Calendar year until 1945.

† Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1973 there were 885,404 subscribers.

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1923192107.07.45.53.3..     ..     
1924214111.48.06.03.6..     ..     
1925236120.18.66.33.8..     ..     
1926243130.29.06.74.1..     ..     
1927248137.39.36.44.4..     ..     
1928259144.69.76.24.4..     ..     
1929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1942..     235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1943..     238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1944..     244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1946..     265.821.07.3..     13.312.7
1947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
19665731,025.167.67.34.787.084.9
19675761,085.169.17.24.991.593.6
19685681,119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
19695751,155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
19705951,202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
19716151,262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221,304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451,358.167.15.0 186.9188.9
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchMiles Open for TrafficRevenue Train-milesRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue†Expenditure†

* Equivalent tonnage of livestock.

† From 1925–26 figures relate to railway operation only.

  (000)(000)tons(000)$(000)$(000)
19233,0288,34728,2216,61913,45611,004
19243,0539,02528,4366,91813,96810,808
19253,0859,08426,1077,02514,22611,090
19263,13810,31927,6537,24715,17812,330
19273,16410,72426,0027,30014,84612,316
19283,18010,83925,3807,35814,68812,604
19293,28711,11325,7577,61315,05012,750
19303,28712,02225,4147,78914,94813,696
19313,32211,28222,8146,95813,56212,812
19323,31510,16919,1515,82511,57810,604
19333,3159,82918,3675,49110,6789,668
19343,32010,16319,0475,64211,2589,754
19353,32010,62619,6546,02411,81610,278
19363,32011,05020,3586,18912,48811,046
19373,32011,86821,2356,81313,80812,676
19383,32312,77822,4417,51615,18414,584
19393,31913,07323,2667,53916,01015,328
19403,39013,36724,4547,67417,52415,886
19413,39013,56026,2778,42619,38816,814
19423,39013,97928,6118,47420,76817,806
19433,46015,14036,1338,88724,83020,040
19443,50415,32938,6119,02726,93022,732
19453,50412,80332,9958,95424,89623,394
19463,52813,45532,4189,21026,21025,100
19473,52813,16928,8699,32925,64827,290
19483,52613,71225,8879,52427,92830,180
19493,52613,89526,1689,66630,67833,576
19503,52614,42125,8959,94832,12434,722
19513,53114,15324,8249,61637,00037,450
19523,53912,37121,2929,82940,19443,030
19533,53513,40921,45510,02645,17845,510
19543,50413,71923,2729,63547,36447,242
19553,48914,42024,73510,33654,01851,084
19563,42214,88425,07510,67855,74253,550
19573,41815,10225,37710,32557,01457,388
19583,46614,82524,81710,33260,02062,128
19593,42014,60525,43710,36759,64661,010
19603,33614,48026,13410,54360,54261,516
19613,33314,77326,23310,83062,85862,978
19623,33214,94826,32410,82263,39063,632
19633,26314,57525,66510,04462,75266,874
19643,26514,91825,73411,09067,64867,946
19653,25415,31625,13711,97272,78671,932
19663,25115,42823,88911,88874,75373,228
19673,21215,35923,72311,53475,02875,151
19683,11813,83922,18610,58171,65371,880
19693,06313,44722,26110,79874,60272,892
19703,06313,29521,03111,59383,19479,836
19713,01213,59420,78411,85086,99996,502
19722,98713,28220,11511,311101,296107,277
19732,98613,29718,56512,127112,162117,197
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeasPotatoes
* Includes yield of beans.
 hectaresbushels (000)bushels bushels (000) tons (000)
1920–2189,0256,87277.195,2251,587355*127
1921–22142,82010,56573.976,7531,151339*112
1922–23111,6028,39575.225,688598697*114
1923–2470,3604,17559.341,965597363*106
1924–2567,5685,44880.635,707798411*122
1925–2661,3804,61775.224,116947288*144
1926–2789,0657,95289.284,9981,243455*117
1927–28105,6189,54190.333,853862802*121
1928–29103,3218,83385.493,065781528124
1929–3095,4827,24075.823,002755294130
1930–31100,7727,57975.213,377838241152
1931–32108,7626,58360.532,818537309117
1932–33122,43011,05590.305,132561585129
1933–34115,8309,03678.013,243731698131
1934–3591,2125,93365.051,980485437109
1935–36100,6208,85988.043,303745563121
1936–3789,7557,16979.873,525747481126
1937–3875,2516,04380.302,6411,086372147
1938–3976,5995,56472.642,6051,07738788
1939–40104,2208,01076.862,081916563141
1940–4198,4188,30684.403,1151,06674294
1941–42104,4108,67183.053,4451,29785290
1942–43116,1449,81984.542,8091,058889139
1943–4494,6107,20876.191,834833889162
1944–4574,4166,99293.964,2091,3851,038126
1945–4665,1745,43983.452,7971,872817140
1946–4757,2255,36893.802,6862,0271,231116
1947–4850,0804,53990.632,8542,0881,129155
1948–4959,3705,958100.353,7192,2561,195110
1949–5050,6504,90096.742,6202,4341,243135
1950–5158,5846,272107.061,8281,902626120
1951–5236,4043,890106.862,4702,18273070
1952–5351,4864,52587.892,3852,14061495
1953–5446,0594,783103.859453,335954156
1954–5542,0834,11397.741,6021,992885144
1955–5627,7122,65895.921,9472,032635101
1956–5726,6052,950110.882,8882,855846145
1957–5833,9683,727109.721,4603,5521,047157
1958–5953,7886,039112.271,5762,661830150
1959–6066,0288,700131.761,8253,137924157
1960–6175,5909,309123.152,3493,416931190
1961–6275,3887,835103.931,8863,561763191
1962–6391,3579,156100.221,0294,2021,001181
1963–6482,54010,068121.971,5845,7761,102201
1964–6574,4509,198123.552,4944,670878243
1965–6680,74510,721132.772,3995,0301,058231
1966–6793,30512,778136.941,5535,9091,183184
1967–68126,65116,253128.332,4679,6741,334232
1968–69129,97516,779129.092,87410,2542,080252
1969–70108,39410,55397.363,1817,6921,822249
1970–7197,60511,965122.443,29311,4341,905207
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs
* Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1922..     1,015..     3,32322,222384
1923..     1,125..     3,48123,081401
1924..     1,185..     3,56323,776407
1925..     1,196..     3,50424,548440
1926..     1,181..     3,45224,905473
1927..     1,182..     3,25825,649520
1928..     1,243..     3,27427,134587
1929..     1,291..     3,44629,051557
1930..     1,390..     3,77030,841488
1931..     1,479..     4,04429,793469
1932..     1,562..     4,07228,692506
1933..     1,703..     4,15527,756584
1934..     1,796..     4,26428,649653
1935..     1,807..     4,25729,077755
1936..     1,803..     4,21730,114801
1937..     1,785..     4,35231,306795
1938..     1,743..     4,46932,379749
1939..     1,724..     4,52831,879676
1940..     1,719..     4,49631,063706
1941..     1,759..     4,53931,752769
1942..     1,757..     4,642..     689
1943..     1,715..     4,448..     605
1944..     1,648..     4,43933,200573
1945..     1,697..     4,59133,975594
19462,0661,6622,6004,667..     549
19472,0481,6582,5864,63432,682546
19482,0781,7142,6384,71632,483548
19492,0411,7472,6814,72332,845545
19502,0881,8502,8674,95533,857555
19512,1491,8982,9115,06034,786564
19522,2821,9062,8835,16535,384566
19532,4781,9622,9685,44636,193628
19542,6341,9993,1105,74538,011649
19552,8081,9953,0795,88739,117681
1956..     ..     ..     ..     40,255..     
19572,8611,9982,9485,80942,382602
19582,9151,9672,9705,88646,026628
19592,9701,9313,0045,97346,876692
1960*3,0191,8872,9735,99247,134660
19613,3341,9293,1116,44648,462655
19623,4621,9683,1366,59848,988686
19633,5581,9973,1336,69150,190766
19643,5682,0113,1286,69651,292771
19653,6282,0323,1746,80153,748716
19663,8562,0883,3627,21857,343667
19674,2412,1313,5067,74760,030603
19684,5492,2323,6988,24760,474614
19694,8122,3043,7938,60559,937553
19705,0482,3213,7298,77760,276578
19715,2802,2393,5398,81958,913617
19725,4142,2003,3608,79460,883580
TRADE*
YearExportsImports (c.d.v.)Imports c.d.v. + 10 percent †
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

† From 1955 c.i.f. value.

‡ Provisional.

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
192188.469.3777.760.9685.567.05
192284.464.6563.348.5169.653.37
192390.568.1278.859.3686.765.29
1924103.976.8288.265.2297.171.75
1925109.579.1295.368.84104.875.72
192689.563.3190.664.0699.670.46
192795.966.6681.456.5889.662.23
1928110.275.6681.555.9989.761.58
1929108.973.9188.660.1297.566.14
193088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
193168.745.4048.231.8253.084.99
193268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
193379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
193492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
193590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
Jan–Jun 1962332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended June
1963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
1971x1,131.7398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
1972‡1,376.6476.51,150.3398.21,235.9427.8
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

* Including fine animal hair.

† Provisional.

 metric tons$(m)metric tons$(m)metric tons$(m)
1922103,47415.315,9814.0145,84223.8
192375,01315.811,2453.498,68621.8
192473,49622.78,2353.793,52630.5
192575,30128.56,8583.293,31635.5
192675,54117.47,7412.796,68523.7
192781,29020.36,4822.4100,01825.9
192885,91627.14,9972.2102,87733.4
192989,97825.15,7862.3106,57430.7
193069,95411.25,7401.589,46715.3
193175,0688.25,0120.996,03411.0
193284,6838.66,5971.0108,03611.5
1933104,13011.39,1411.5129,86714.8
193495,07720.27,4992.0116,02825.0
193578,88910.37,1551.5100,99714.2
1936118,72421.17,6581.9142,61426.6
1937106,20430.94,9821.9128,06738.1
1938102,01219.45,7091.6123,05224.4
1939102,74818.45,8591.5125,82323.3
1940104,76224.29,3422.9136,20933.8
194173,31517.411,1643.797,85925.2
194297,77823.317,3985.8139,50136.7
194369,62318.511,3534.093,81327.0
194458,61815.813,4594.885,54725.4
194530,9968.425,1639.575,41425.4
1946119,94935.818,9267.5165,74553.2
1947116,75040.023,02511.6170,24563.9
1948147,23764.818,25311.8190,97289.0
1949148,44766.918,40011.7194,89793.1
1950137,201110.615,09716.4178,704149.3
1951111,820188.510,81524.5143,727256.4
1952154,629122.715,35416.6198,723164.0
1953137,903124.714,68618.2177,630169.2
1954137,692130.816,14220.4178,216176.9
1955146,417138.118,72323.2189,408187.9
1956151,350136.618,44922.0194,163183.1
1957153,478161.219,41125.3195,880212.1
1958162,595122.018,71317.7207,333160.1
1959188,118137.421,20919.4240,037179.5
1960182,542152.923,58925.3236,947205.0
1961197,367152.924,33824.3251,723200.7
Jan-June 1962128,18697.815,32514.6163,039127.5
Year ended June
1963204,338163.229,59628.5261,724214.5
1964195,139201.832,00939.7256,547271.6
1965180,920149.932,31436.1241,066208.6
1966212,149170.237,15837.8278,228231.9
1967158,468117.736,06732.9227,150174.1
1968182,29799.748,91535.6268,427158.2
1969205,260131.465,91355.1307,915212.4
1970196,430119.374,68463.3303,053204.2
1971173,926100.282,22565.7293,494187.8
1972†179,632119.997,23684.4315,074229.8
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Provisional.
 lb(m)$(m)lb(m)$(m)lb(m)$(m)
192257.81.2331.315.4394.016.8
192383.41.8250.015.9340.918.0
192475.71.7278.417.0359.919.0
192581.42.2291.019.7382.422.3
192649.61.2279.715.4339.817.3
192751.21.3199.116.1264.918.2
192884.82.3317.517.2424.920.6
192943.61.3306.017.2373.719.8
193046.91.5381.919.2452.121.9
193152.81.2387.915.7463.517.8
193259.90.9431.315.0520.316.9
1933104.01.9427.516.0582.719.7
1934100.61.9390.819.0556.623.8
1935103.72.2406.720.0583.125.5
193695.32.3390.620.2573.424.5
1937112.23.0407.722.0606.029.4
1938115.83.6407.522.4601.830.2
1939136.94.5449.522.2661.530.8
1940167.56.0524.427.8781.439.4
194188.63.5423.724.5591.933.2
1942102.84.5487.227.6643.035.6
194356.92.3416.123.9494.227.6
194415.70.6427.723.0465.525.0
194566.02.9536.030.3633.235.2
1946137.86.7563.935.9756.446.5
1947150.98.7572.445.1779.058.7
1948152.18.1558.743.8769.457.2
1949132.26.7575.543.0770.654.4
1950132.27.0568.845.6757.257.2
195196.05.8467.539.6614.950.7
1952126.610.3660.860.9846.978.8
195399.49.9564.760.5725.478.8
1954133.414.7620.578.0809.6100.5
1955210.726.8578.483.8845.6121.2
1956263.829.2604.987.2927.3127.7
1957258.831.3561.487.0869.8128.1
1958259.351.1603.985.5907.8146.9
1959199.044.4720.587.0973.5142.4
1960220.444.4772.697.21,045.4152.3
1961213.944.4767.889.91,031.5144.2
Jan-June 1962109.321.6482.452.5622.380.6
Year ended June
1963283.958.8790.398.21,138.4169.5
1964267.258.1813.5107.21,152.5180.0
1965267.657.4807.8135.01,145.8208.5
1966223.154.6814.0121.41,106.7193.1
1967234.263.9811.0119.51,114.3200.8
1968285.189.3911.0147.01,281.4256.2
1969293.7109.11,043.4175.51,423.0304.5
1970391.8154.2968.6182.91,451.8364.3
1971398.7170.4937.7186.51,428.1385.7
1972*410.5187.8993.1180.81,496.3396.4
YearButterCheeseMilk, dried and condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Provisional.
 tons$(m)tons$(m)cwt (000)$(m)
192256,01018.158,0609.41021.1
192362,50721.472,07313.71451.0
192463,47323.379,72414.01201.0
192562,26620.568,83811.61230.9
192658,40217.473,07711.91010.7
192772,77721.874,64011.21110.7
192872,47922.678,36413.41540.8
192982,69026.588,95514.01230.7
193094,21223.790,64912.91360.7
193199,42821.381,8178.91150.5
1932109,27721.389,5229.91430.5
1933131,76223.399,1479.51580.6
1934130,72620.199,2259.41930.8
1935139,46527.286,3788.81860.7
1936139,80730.682,91010.22120.8
1937148,80434.082,35810.72210.7
1938130,72733.080,52611.91830.6
1939122,16532.283,86311.72190.8
1940131,13536.5101,67516.52360.8
1941113,19031.6118,31219.72651.4
1942119,88233.9134,38123.72461.4
1943106,99829.4100,49718.32341.2
1944115,37937.177,70314.91651.1
1945103,47738.687,42619.03022.0
1946101,79439.775,74616.93402.4
1947127,70857.787,04423.24003.3
1948135,63467.575,62322.45314.4
1949147,67070.993,93825.36885.7
1950138,26771.799,89029.18136.6
1951147,46483.0106,61933.39347.9
1952184,028112.391,25531.11,25513.1
1953159,106102.9101,36036.71,26012.6
1954132,48189.690,39632.89048.2
1955150,965102.085,04227.41,0187.2
1956167,449106.388,87744.51,0428.8
1957145,07576.988,47635.81,35411.5
1958175,39277.789,42824.81,0617.6
1959192,978111.683,45244.21,40811.5
1960157,051100.379,41337.11,20611.1
1961165,04078.887,60739.81,0098.4
Jan-June 196284,71841.552,15321.36054.4
Year ended June
1963164,58590.992,20937.01,2679.5
1964181,955109.687,59435.11,45211.0
1965189,144119.693,24940.71,73318.9
1966190,416109.696,48841.71,99122.0
1967199,954109.4102,71145.12,66229.8
1968201,237112.298,69747.42,76530.3
1969203,118114.886,27642.62,65223.1
1970194,893109.789,15144.33,62931.1
1971191,392113.991,21748.03,15834.1
1972*184,715182.487,52466.23,80477.3
YearCaseinApples and Pears†Grass and Clover Seeds‡
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

* Provisional.

† Whole fruit only.

‡ As from 1970, quantity is in centals.

 cwt(000)$(m)lb(000)$(m)cwt$(m)
1922290.24,7410.170,1200.6
1923500.45,9540.147,0310.4
1924460.39,7840.236,3310.3
1925440.28,7870.245,3680.3
1926360.229,3500.757,7260.4
1927470.321,8410.590,3620.5
1928420.340,6181.050,2380.3
1929570.340,3431.257,8590.4
1930570.353,0911.336,5600.3
1931530.253,6071.340,9530.3
1932430.163,2221.634,3370.2
1933490.257,5371.480,3080.3
1934580.362,6791.648,7510.3
1935650.341,5781.071,6490.4
1936810.449,3371.279,9820.5
1937780.537,7200.958,1070.4
1938410.261,8471.545,4840.5
1939390.141,9061.145,8290.6
1940240.123,7090.545,7420.7
1941120.142588,1911.1
1942532782,4991.2
1943150.118590,7201.3
1944620158,4752.9
1945160.1159166,5533.6
1946150.112,1590.3150,5983.9
1947520.7239147,0113.3
1948821.240,2041.7174,8433.4
19491091.221,3640.8161,9933.0
19501111.328,6031.4164,1144.2
19511181.927,9441.488,4282.5
19521672.655,2694.1163,4524.2
19531722.546,1223.4179,2673.7
19541632.549,6933.1184,2535.6
19552463.741,6392.679,3982.7
19562684.264,4864.1146,4033.2
19572834.557,3893.6162,5522.4
19584016.273,1374.6148,2303.0
19595848.876,7544.891,2212.0
19605648.476,8064.8128,4583.4
19615818.881,8404.8131,9212.6
Jan-June 19622944.689,8515.660,0611.2
Year ended June
19635958.474,4824.7163,5263.6
196483011.384,9875.3182,2443.5
19651,03516.897,1496.191,2162.0
196684620.0113,7407.1203,1843.2
196785218.688,5285.5223,1643.2
196880618.191,5865.7234,6073.7
196998521.797,1706.1180,3173.5
19701,22025.8127,2989.4175,0273.6
19711,36930.2122,5689.2214,2624.9
1972*82925.4134,68410.7300,7464.5
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*

* From 1923 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.

† Provisional.

 $(m)$(m)tons(000)$(m)
19224.10.9401.5
19234.80.8251.6
19246.31.1241.6
19257.71.4251.8
19266.41.6211.5
19276.51.5241.4
19287.71.6261.6
19295.91.3211.4
19304.41.6251.4
19312.50.8230.8
19322.10.5250.9
19333.70.8281.0
19344.41.3281.0
19354.81.6251.3
19366.61.3261.3
19374.51.5261.3
19384.81.5301.1
19395.11.4290.9
19406.51.8341.4
19418.21.6391.6
19429.51.8522.3
19438.82.2442.1
19449.02.1271.2
194510.02.2311.8
194611.52.8252.1
194720.83.1264.7
194818.94.5204.3
194913.44.1265.1
195020.05.3294.3
195125.77.8305.1
195219.99.8499.4
195321.44.9393.9
195420.96.4395.1
195518.48.1435.7
195621.29.8395.3
195720.29.3466.1
195816.69.0516.8
195926.58.3536.6
196026.67.0595.9
196124.37.3586.3
Jan-June 196215.26.0363.1
Year ended June
196325.410.5594.8
196430.412.0767.2
196531.711.1577.1
196640.010.9516.7
196733.612.0657.0
196839.89.9737.0
196955.410.9716.6
197048.714.0729.2
197150.614.16510.2
1972†62.515.21019.0
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
* Provisional.
 $(m)tons(000)$(m)cwt(000)$(m)
19221.0
19230.9
19240.9
19251.1
19261.0
19270.9
19280.8
19290.9
19300.6
19310.3
19320.5
19330.5
19340.6
19350.7
19360.5
19370.4
19380.4
19390.3
19400.4
19410.4
19420.2
19430.1
19440.1
19450.1
19460.3
19470.4
19481.0
19491.1
19500.7
19511.5
19521.2
19531.340.4
19541.8201.6
19552.5272.37
19562.1474.05153.1
19571.8655.37184.3
19582.9695.58355.3
19594.4775.88735.4
19604.2705.69886.2
19614.4645.09245.4
Jan-June 19622.6332.74272.3
Year ended June
19634.1695.51,4418.0
19645.0665.52,14711.5
19656.5564.72,21911.9
19666.5706.02,34111.9
19677.3725.91,89010.1
196816.5746.22,50415.8
196928.5887.42,42716.1
197034.1817.22,39215.8
197137.1959.42,19414.0
1972*40.811211.22,57716.5
PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionTimber ProductionMeat Production
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in MilkAverage Payout per Pound†

* Provisional.

† Milkfat for butter and cheese making. Excludes payment for milkfat in milk and cream consumed as such. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk for manufacture.

 kg(m)c per kg$(m)lb(m)lbcbd ft(m)ton(000)
1920–219812.8512.715517423.33308..     
1921–229514.7014.019919612.08315..     
1922–239519.9318.922620114.17304..     
1923–249828.9928.422919312.92317..     
1924–2510137.1337.624120214.17344..     
1925–2610321.9122.723419815.00353..     
1926–2710923.3225.525921912.92306..     
1927–2811530.6235.126421315.00270..     
1928–2911927.3432.628922415.42270..     
1929–3011915.7218.731422613.33282..     
1930–3111710.4312.33222159.58229..     
1931–321229.6611.83402159.17154..     
1932–331269.4611.93972307.50166..     
1933–3413220.3526.84272357.50198..     
1934–3512012.0214.44102247.92244..     
1935–3613816.7823.143724010.42293..     
1936–3713728.8639.745825411.42306..     
1937–3813518.4524.943524712.67323..     
1938–3914916.8425.140022913.75317..     
1939–4014122.4433.243124713.92336..     
1940–4115122.4935.546626213.92342..     
1941–4215620.5137.043724614.00324..     
1942–4315425.6441.340723414.25342..     
1943–4415025.6640.238723215.17351..     
1944–4516925.6845.343225416.92340..     
1945–4616625.5144.137322117.67345541
1946–4716633.0054.540824319.75354560
1947–4816446.1475.841824122.17431549
1948–4916647.4278.945725923.17470556
1949–5017769.78123.446624924.33478577
1950–51177161.38285.549025625.83528530
1951–5218573.83136.349725928.83575602
1952–5319084.86160.953026931.00575578
1953–5419392.33178.449224532.42574589
1954–5520691.25188.350225031.83616637
1955–5621084.86177.852426131.67626682
1956–57223100.60224.051925831.75597670
1957–5822575.62170.155227930.75597688
1958–5924566.27162.355028427.33637731
1959–6026282.03214.753928431.50694773
1960–6126774.12197.754928327.92714758
1961–6226671.98191.754727627.58693821
1962–6328178.70221.355927927.42643828
1963–64279101.17283.158629029.16666852
1964–6528377.40218.862230530.67736823
1965–6631576.46241.164530829.82766830
1966–6732264.77208.465330529.87750891
1967–6833050.42166.563828528.10687986
1968–6933261.86205.466328727.487191,014
1969–7032856.48185.361226427.787651,035
1970–7133453.42178.461427429.717841,040
1971–72*32266.46214.264929332,65*7401,066*
FACTORY PRODUCTION
YearEstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses
of Production
Value of
Production
Net Output
(Net Value Added)
Value of Land
and Buildings,
Plant and
Machinery

* For the year 1915–16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

† Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

 No.No.$(million)
1880–811,43013,922..     ..     ..     ..     ..     5.4
1885–861,83319,653..     ..     ..     12.9..     8.1
1890–912,15223,7613.3..     ..     17.1..     8.7
1895–962,36125,3973.57.1..     18.5..     9.6
1900–013,05938,6515.615.4..     33.0..     13.1
1905–063,38145,1987.226.6..     43.2..     19.1
1910–113,42142,1428.737.5..     57.1..     24.0
1915–163,65744,67310.659.7..     83.8..     31.6
1920–213,89462,97223.5106.0..     151.0..     51.4
1923–264,64370,21228.3102.614.5156.9..     64.8
1930–315,04770,62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1932–334,84762,58321.377.915.0120.328.465.9
1933–344,88365,96121.587.015.1131.830.763.9
1934–355,12672,09523.497.716.3146.633.764.8
1935–365,39178,70126.2113.717.3167.537.566.4
1936–375,58487,82232.6135.019.6198.845.368.8
1937–385,78093,53437.4143.519.6213.051.072.6
1938–396,00293,63839.9142.318.6213.253.477.2
1939–406,19899,34943.8160.420.7240.660.882.0
1940–416,252104,78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941–426,225108,27553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942–435,985106,17958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943–446,062109,22162.8214.127.3329.789.892.0
1944–456,340113,53468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945–466,847118,88675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946–477,498124,92583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947–487,822130,50495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948–49†7,852132,427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949–507,815133,245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950–518,113138,435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951–528,546144,352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952–538,511143,164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953–548,377146,488173.2665.780.5990.4247.8244.5
1954–558,366153,575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955–568,515158,238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956–578,488156,752221.9790.0119.81,204.1300.4360.2
1957–588,529162,985240.0835.8132.11,289.9328.3378.6
1958–598,565168,742256.6837.3140.61,318.9347.7411.8
1959–608,550171,973272.4878.2145.71,411.2394.0448.5
1960–618,745181,346301.2939.4158.01,513.6423.4498.6
1961–628,981187,579323.1977.0173.61,613.0471.0561.1
1962–639,034191,515339.91,005.8190.31,681.2495.9634.7
1963–649,365199,266368.61,160.7206.41,924.1568.4673.9
1964–659,753211,050412.01,344.0232.02,185.2621.8747.3
1965–669,945222,851455.01,416.4263.42,374.4709.2853.5
1966–6710,394229,302492.71,466.3292.62,384.7741.4948.4
1967–6810,397225,738495.91,492.9307.92,538.3756.7989.6
1968–6910,501229,074527.81,662.3334.92,791.0814.81,049.5
1969–70x10,573241,549608.31,869.0377.43,152.9929.21,216.0
1970–7110,587251,425735.82,104.9444.13,597.41,075.91,329.1
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal
* Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $1.9 million in 1958–59, $4.7 million in 1959–60, $2.0 million in 1960–61, $0.8 million in 1961–62, $0.8 million in 1962–63, $0.8 million in 1963–64.
$(million)
CONSOLIDATED FUND
192331.224.055.252.52.6
192432.823.159.952.33.6
192533.124.257.354.82.5
192634.015.549.547.12.3
192733.816.149.948.71.2
192833.716.650.249.90.4
192935.711.547.248.41.2
193039.011.750.750.40.3
193137.28.946.149.43.3
193232.413.145.449.74.3
193331.213.945.145.1
193434.112.947.048.41.4
193540.411.952.349.03.3
193643.19.252.351.80.6
193753.98.462.361.40.9
193863.326.389.688.01.6
193964.622.887.485.81.6
194065.628.293.893.20.6
194168.732.2102.998.53.5
194270.338.7109.1105.83.3
194372.437.8110.2101.88.3
194484.031.1115.1110.74.5
194591.428.5119.9117.42.4
194696.731.1127.8125.32.5
1947181.435.2216.6207.49.2
1948192.242.0234.2230.73.6
1949202.141.0243.0237.85.3
1950207.742.3250.0241.48.6
1951244.443.2287.5271.016.5
1952313.947.7361.6336.325.3
1953308.547.1355.6349.06.6
1954312.452.2364.6361.03.6
1955325.057.4382.4368.813.7
1956334.960.0394.9386.68.3
1957345.667.0412.6405.96.7
1958317.969.3387.2387.50.3
1959409.771.1480.8*480.0*0.8
1960552.976.8629.7*628.4*1.3
1961474.894.0568.7*567.9*0.8
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6*0.6
1963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9
1964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
1965783.2120.5903.7894.59.2
1966852.2122.2974.5970.93.5
1967918.8132.51,051.31,050.60.7
1968949.4147.31,096.71,095.31.4
1969992.1162.51,154.61,146.97.7
19701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.17.4
19711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.95.3
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.38.4
19731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.0−5.2

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SOCIAL SERVICES
Year Ended 31 MarchRevenue ExpenditureCapital Expenditure
HealthEducationSocial Security*War PensionsTotalHealthEducationTotal
* Includes Health Benefits.
 $(million)$(million)
195017.723.292.710.7144.40.54.75.2
195120.526.798.811.2157.20.75.15.7
195225.630.3108.412.9177.10.75.36.1
195328.833.4117.713.3193.21.19.610.7
195430.636.8124.714.5206.51.411.713.1
195531.841.0134.316.0223.20.910.211.0
195633.045.3145.816.9241.01.012.113.1
195738.563.7151.217.9271.21.5..     1.5
195845.068.5157.819.6290.91.8..     1.8
195946.772.3178.921.9319.81.7..     1.7
196051.178.9210.623.2363.71.5..     1.5
196156.587.7220.927.4392.41.8..     1.8
196259.894.4231.527.5413.31.8..     1.8
196367.4103.6234.428.3433.81.6..     1.6
196475.0114.4246.829.7465.92.3..     2.3
1965102.2122.9235.829.9490.82.67.09.7
1966115.4132.8246.930.5525.52.58.811.2
1967127.2146.4259.430.9563.92.112.114.2
1968131.7159.8279.130.7601.32.514.817.3
1969139.7175.9289.730.8636.22.512.014.6
1970155.8196.3314.932.4699.32.812.715.6
1971181.5251.9355.633.5822.53.315.719.0
SOCIAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING EDUCATION) AS PERCENTAGE OF NATIONAL INCOME, AND OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Year Ended 31 MarchNational IncomeTotal Government ExpenditureTotal Social Services ExpenditureSocial Services Expenditure less EducationTotal Social Services Expenditure as Percentage ofSocial Services Expenditure less Education as Percentage of
National IncomeTotal Government ExpenditureNational IncomeTotal Government Expenditure
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)%     %     %     %     
19501,101273.4149.6121.713.654.711.144.5
19511,396384.8162.9131.211.757.29.446.1
19521,446347.2183.2147.512.752.810.242.5
19531,517366.0203.9160.913.455.710.644.0
19541,681388.4219.6171.213.156.610.244.1
19551,860402.1234.2183.112.658.39.845.5
19561,965427.5254.1196.712.959.410.046.0
19572,061462.9272.7209.113.258.910.145.2
19582,184489.6292.7224.213.459.810.345.8
19592,270527.9321.5249.214.260.911.047.2
19602,434584.8365.3286.415.062.511.849.0
19612,622630.8394.2306.615.062.511.748.6
19622,722654.4415.1320.715.363.411.849.0
19632,921691.2435.4331.814.963.011.448.0
19643,197738.2468.2353.714.663.411.147.9
19653,491802.0500.5370.514.362.410.646.2
19663,784872.1536.8395.214.261.610.445.3
19673,919935.6578.1419.614.861.810.744.9
19684,074966.5618.6444.015.264.010.945.9
19694,3341,034.4650.8462.815.062.910.744.7
19704,7411,139.8715.0505.915.162.710.744.4
19715,4321,346.1841.5573.915.562.510.642.6
INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION
(Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and EuropeAustraliaNew Zealand

* Includes $1.9 million in 1964, $17.5 million in 1965, $29.9 million in 1966, $44.9 million in 1967, $65.1 million in 1968, $72.3 million in 1969, $76.8 million in 1970, and $74.5 million in 1971 held by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

† Comparability affected by devaluation on 22 November 1967. Devaluation adjustments added $21.5 million to the debt in London and $29.0 million to the debt in United States.

 NZ$(million)$      
1923221.34.3212.3437.9330.40
1924229.74.2209.3443.2328.80
1925241.65.9208.1455.6330.30
1926256.17.3214.3477.7338.80
1927265.08.1218.6491.7341.90
1928279.58.3214.9502.8343.80
1929298.78.3221.4528.4359.80
1930293.28.6233.1534.8359.20
1931309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1933270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1934269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1935269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1936265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1937261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1938261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1939261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1940263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1941264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1943264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1944265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1945266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1946189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1947189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1948166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1949159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1950156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1951155.61,178.81,334.5688.60
1952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
1953155.61,179.81,335.4655.40
1954175.61,233.21,408.7674.80
1955195.61,261.61,457.2683.80
1956191.61,278.81,470.4675.90
19578.9200.91,304.51,514.2681.70
19587.9199.21,357.11,564.2687.40
195947.1236.61,349.01,633.1702.10
196037.9235.51,415.61,689.0712.60
196137.0216.31,483.01,736.3719.20
196225.1254.01,528.61,807.7730.50
196341.5272.51,620.41,934.3765.18
196441.8279.91,700.02,021.7782.89
196554.3*276.51,908.82,139.6813.87
196688.3*244.81,922.82,256.0842.78
1967107.3*283.42,021.32,412.0884.42
1968†170.7*329.42,116.52,616.6949.72
1969179.2*336.22,261.02,776.5998.40
1970184.2*341.62,351.32,887.11,023.50
1971178.6397.82,430.53,007.01,051.06
1972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,095.22
1973135.1428.92,939.13,503.11,198.00
LOCAL AUTHORITIES*
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness†
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From RatesFrom Other Sources

* Exclusive of hospital boards.

† Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

‡ Includes petrol tax $14.9 million.

 $(million)
19227.612.211.030.730.273.5
19238.612.514.835.831.486.4
19248.913.411.433.733.093.1
19259.314.415.939.638.8106.7
192610.116.015.741.841.8118.8
192710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
192811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
192911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
193012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
193111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
193211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
193310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
193411.016.58.536.135.5124.0
193511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
193611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
193712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
193813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
193914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
194014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
194114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
194214.926.07.248.048.1153.2
194315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
194415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
194515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
194617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
194719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
194819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
194921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
195023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
195125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
195229.049.121.398.497.7115.7
195330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
195432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
195536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
195637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
195741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
195845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
195948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
196051.5101.783.6231.8231.2287.1
196155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
196258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
196362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
196468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
196577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
196680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
196785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
196892.4200.2137.3430 0420.7533.5
196999.9223.7149.1472.6456.6564.3
1970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1971117.9262.7155.5536.2539.2629.8
1972126.3297.6169.6‡593.5604.7667.1
LOCAL AUTHORITIES*—LOAN INDEBTEDNESS†
(Exclusive of Inscribed Debt)
As at 31 MarchCountiesCities and BoroughsHarbour BoardsElectric Power DistrictsOtherTotal

* Exclusive of hospital boards.

† Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

 $(million)
19215.132.115.30.36.659.4
19226.036.116.53.07.168.7
19237.643.217.26.17.681.7
19248.044.218.39.58.588.4
19259.251.819.513.08.6102.2
192610.856.120.017.510.1114.4
192712.060.120.520.210.8123.6
192812.463.221.020.411.6128.5
192912.764.521.524.011.7134.4
193013.163.020.925.316.1138.4
193113.364.321.026.016.9141.4
193213.463.421.126.216.9141.0
193313.263.621.226.117.1141.2
193413.162.721.026.417.0140.3
193512.862.021.126.816.4139.0
193612.561.520.427.016.3137.5
193712.361.020.324.116.1134.0
193812.261.119.723.816.2133.0
193912.261.219.524.915.5133.4
194012.461.519.926.216.0136.0
194112.360.019.926.214.7133.1
194212.259.319.625.014.6130.7
194311.757.719.624.714.2128.0
194411.356.419.423.613.9124.6
194510.855.119.023.112.9120.8
194610.454.518.722.412.7118.7
19479.953.416.821.712.5114.3
19489.553.016.522.212.1113.2
19499.351.916.123.212.0112.4
19508.952.215.624.011.4112.1
19518.652.514.824.911.2112.0
19528.654.315.026.011.8115.7
19538.659.517.828.814.1128.8
19548.668.020.731.917.6146.9
19559.273.421.634.420.0158.6
195610.280.223.237.724.6176.0
195711.989.426.139.631.3198.2
195813.5102.831.442.639.0229.4
195914.8111.535.145.948.6256.0
196017.4124.140.147.857.7287.1
196119.8132.646.049.371.2318.8
196222.3141.448.051.474.4337.6
196324.0156.656.154.179.5370.2
196428.4172.465.453.781.8401.8
196531.8187.272.158.187.0436.2
196631.5202.579.860.087.6461.4
196735.5214.482.862.090.3485.0
196840.2227.788.064.5113.0533.5
196942.9241.295.266.5118.5564.3
197046.1251.8103.370.6125.4597.2
197148.1265.0111.173.8131.8629.8
BANKING AND CURRENCY
YearAssets of Trading BanksLiabilities of Trading BanksNotes in Hands of Public†Net Overseas Assets of Banking System† ∥
Advances and Discounts*†Notes and Coin and Balances at Reserve Bank‡Securities‡Total Selected Assets§Deposits†Total Selected Liabilities§

* Includes terra loans and export finance from 1964 on.

† Average of weekly figures.

‡ Average of monthly figures.

§ As at last balance day in December, assets exclude shareholders' funds, while both assets and liabilities exclude inter-branch accounts within New Zealand, contingencies, and certain transit items.

∥Includes holdings of Reserve Bank.

¶Devaluation adjustment November 1967.

 $(million)
193589.419.410.2166.0123.0132.012.884.0
193691.825.011.0167.8130.4131.815.078.2
193798.428.215.8171.6133.6135.617.863.4
1938111.423.015.8170.2130.0133.620.042.0
1939109.431.623.0192.2134.6152.024.020.6
194096.040.433.6203.0154.8164.029.647.2
194199.435.442.0210.6161.4168.234.860.2
194290.847.656.2237.8181.8201.643.077.0
194386.665.875.4265.4212.6229.255.284.4
194493.678.877.2281.8235.2244.464.299.6
1945103.6104.863.6329.0260.2285.270.0160.8
1946116.6135.657.0358.0299.6321.076.4201.4
1947153.0132.046.0384.0328.4355.280.2205.2
1948196.4137.637.8387.0351.0381.681.6168.2
1949166.8172.229.4416.6372.2417.885.0141.2
1950189.4173.426.8450.6404.4468.090.4150.2
1951265.8166.626.4540.6501.4550.698.0208.0
1952339.6127.426.0536.4506.0510.2102.0145.2
1953273.6210.628.0582.6530.6563.2106.8207.2
1954314.0183.850.4603.2563.6611.6115.4236.0
1955365.8137.050.4600.6559.8599.0119.0176.6
1956341.2144.857.6575.4537.4568.8120.0171.8
1957329.8155.857.4599.2557.8592.2122.4173.0
1958350.8152.057.0577.0558.0560.2124.2104.2
1959340.2161.057.0632.6566.8629.8125.4179.8
1960355.4212.646.8700.6647.8720.6131.2195.0
1961435.0170.646.6648.2652.0705.4135.0107.4
1962401.0192.446.4687.2646.6701.2133.2128.4
1963403.8187.046.2722.6676.5723.8133.0159.2
1964439.9188.046.2804.8724.8782.2129.6167.4
1965493.2145.253.4812.0729.9796.0128.0139.5
1966513.4114.664.7826.6731.7817.9125.3114.8
1967527.596.672.3826.2721.5800.8117.8116.0¶
1968522.479.984.1879.6739.9851.3121.4181.2
1969580.885.0117.9x1,022.4809.1953.1130.4188.5‡
1970669.189.0130.5x1,080.8907.01,026.8142.4184.2‡
1971738.578.2167.9x1,182.21,017.51,233.8158.9225.6‡
1972774.6120.9429.71,654.41,290.71,721.7176.4393.2‡
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
YearNumber of
Accounts at End
of Year
Total Amount
of Deposits
During Year
Interest
Credited to
Depositors
Total Amount
of Withdrawals
During Year*
Excess of
Deposits plus
Interest over
Withdrawals
Total Amount
to Credit of
Depositors at
End of Year

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

† Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

‡ Excludes 15,439 amounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonus Bonds.

 Number$(million)
1922–23690,79053.43.255.51.088.7
1923–24710,15759.23.359.03.592.2
1924–25735,14859.23.460.81.793.9
1925–26758,15563.73.565.21.995.8
1926–27783,82758.93.560.32.198.0
1927–28804,72555.23.561.2−2.4†95.5
1928–29828,29654.53.556.21.897.3
1929–30852,75757.13.659.21.698.9
1930–31878,04349.13.556.1−3.5†95.3
1931–32877,09038.93.250.9−8.8†86.5
1932–33797,09733.92.939.3−2.4†84.1
1933–34798,26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934–35817,61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935–36840,67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936–37880,85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937–38920,80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938–39946,82260.93.569.2−4.9†121.4
1939–40960,56550.33.258.9−5.4†116.0
1940–411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941–421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942–431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943–441,494,136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944–451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945–461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946–471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947–481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948–491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949–501,730,072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950–511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951–521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952–531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953–541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954–551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955–561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956–571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957–582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958–592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959–602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960–612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961–622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7‡
1962–632,190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963–642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964–652,563,154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965–662,604,058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966–672,639,890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967–682,646,284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968–692,681,654487.728.0507.97.8878.1
1969–702,700,874568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970–712,736,917620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971–722,756,109663.528.9676.216.3962.4
1972–732,399,767782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration
* Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.
 $(m)$(m)percent $(m)
192352.129.26.5731,02160.0
192475.744.56.3833,29367.7
192582.259.56.3034,28967.3
192694.267.96.2236,03870.4
192780.058.56.4734,10664.7
192866.448.06.4631,14160.3
192967.150.56.4630,76062.3
193077.756.76.3532,11261.7
193160.440.16.2525,62644.1
193226.820.16.2816,94326.4
193318.316.35.8815,38122.0
193415.618.25.5615,76019.1
193523.727.55.0618,62824.4
193632.535.14.7323,04431.2
193739.439.64.6025,17837.7
193838.038.74.6526,26946.7
193940.133.24.5828,96547.3
194035.228.24.6928,05744.2
194132.531.94.6928,82851.5
194229.130.24.7328,20746.5
194324.333.44.7227,65748.3
194431.240.14.6333,70176.3
194536.242.04.5133,28464.9
194645.046.64.1038,06076.7
194762.251.93.8542,99489.9
194864.150.83.9048,80180.9
194970.646.83.9836,56476.8
195072.046.23.9939,05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957,938158.7
1952135.974.54.1556,609218.3
1953147.462.84.2948,378201.4
1954140.872.04.4952,615228.8
1955169.282.34.6956,571273.4
1956192.570.74.7649,100241.9
1957182.475.45.0945,334229.4
1958199.192.25.2450,573279.4
1959217.188.85.1549,153255.2
1960239.0102.35.0152,855285.4
1961300.8136.65.0161,412375.6
1962331.5133.85.2757,813360.1
1963295.1135.65.5153,566336.3
1964339.8168.85.7059,836419.9
1965420.0206.85.7869,548536.2
1966487.7230.06.0771,508592.6
1967493.4293.36.3168,639589.2
1968467.8236.16.6463,925541.8
1969482.3260.96.7465,655576.5
1970573.9328.16.7772,624724.4
1971703.0376.56.8883,610918.9
1972759.8415.87.4086,042985.4
1973940.7510.5 105,1931,339.9
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

* Public, private, and overseas.

† The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡ Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1922690252.31,668.741726.3
1923674249.31,337.850226.0
1924670237.31,408.056542.7
1925653197.3942.162129.5
1926752205.81,171.465521.5
1927867217.71,359.069817.4
1928806233.21,534.673622.0
1929687182.41,004.290324.9
1930780166.61,654.789313.4
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
1932661151.31,249.881213.7
1933450123.4979.883014.6
193432689.1517.8933401.5†
193525782.1451.081048.5
193626066.0339.794219.9
1937222111.9343.488812.2
1938267129.0460.982413.2
193926788.3451.068117.8
194021384.8250.63917.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
19428259.564.51981.9
19434537.840.12703.1
19445126.9102.14643.0
19454537.1236.47416.8
19465241.997.01,43522.1
19477431.189.51,81319.2
1948148100.6286.61,75117.4
194917976.8406.32,15716.0
195014298.5251.82,07420.4
195114596.5273.62,02025.6
1952168112.5502.31,74466.8
1953215144.3762.02,04186.1
1954‡277165.1826.92,68555.5
1955304224.8764.62,69536.7
1956390261.11,095.53,25541.2
1957437360.71,564.53,502161.1
1958495369.61,638.33,03461.5
1959618389.81,510.42,73794.2
1960495331.21,337.83,76774.0
1961425303.61,415.83,56771.7
1962591446.12,138.43,35145.1
1963566441.11,660.34,16574.1
1964507325.51,784.95,05490.0
1965507335.62,337.55,56385.8
1966507378.52,033.55,609187.3
1967652373.92,312.24,829102.7
1968820487.23,743.55,010190.1
1969659746.53,743.56,403286.6
1970596466.53,660.16,431282.9
1971477604.43,471.75,490359.0
1972461698.54,138.56,5474,271.1
INSURANCE
YearLife (Ordinary and Industrial)AccidentFire
Policies in Force†Sum Assured†Net Revenue*Net Expenditure*Net Revenue*Net Expenditure*

* Excluding unexpired risks reserves.

† Excludes annuities.

 (000)$(million)
1921–223571261.41.22.82.3
1922–233701311.41.32.92.3
1923–243891411.51.42.92.4
1924–254121521.71.62.92.6
1925–264331632.32.03.02.4
1926–274551742.72.33.02.7
1927–284801842.72.43.02.9
1928–295031962.82.63.03.1
1929–305322113.32.93.02.7
1930–315532243.53.13.12.6
1931–325462253.12.93.12.9
1932–335432242.62.43.02.3
1933–345582262.52.22.92.2
1934–355892332.82.42.72.1
1935–366282483.02.82.82.0
1936–376862723.53.42.72.0
1937–387513024.44.32.61.9
1938–398013225.24.72.72.0
1939–408363415.64.82.82.1
1940–418653555.34.62.92.2
1941–429003745.24.53.02.3
1942–439223884.84.13.12.7
1943–449544085.44.63.42.6
1944–459924385.44.93.12.6
1945–461,0364775.95.33.32.7
1946–471,0965326.85.73.73.1
1947–481,1515938.16.94.13.3
1948–491,1926508.98.04.63.4
1949–501,22670710.19.05.13.8
1950–511,26377412.010.45.54.5
1951–521,30486613.712.16.14.9
1952–531,34595816.414.46.85.6
1953–541,3811,05818.416.17.56.2
1954–551,4271,18420.418.18.36.5
1955–561,4631,32422.820.88.47.1
1956–571,4941,46425.623.78.87.3
1957–581,5281,62328.326.49.38.1
1958–591,5611,80430.728.710.08.4
1959–601,5982,02633.430.511.18.8
1960–611,6952,27837.533.312.19.7
1961–621,7232,54840.936.113.410.7
1962–631,7512,84344.339.614.812.0
1963–641,7933,19549.043.716.413.6
1964–651,8463,60954.248.717.614.6
1965–661,9114,07063.055.619.615.7
1966–671,9734,58769.361.621.617.4
1967–682,0285,09573.067.223.019.9
1968–692,0875,57975.870.025.422.3
1969–702,1496,15581.577.127.523.2
1970–712,2306,89492.889.431.925.7
1971–722,3377,996111.9104.136.730.7
INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Industrial Stoppages*Firms AffectedTotal Duration (Days)Average Duration (Days)Workers Involved†Working Days Lost†Average Days Lost per Worker Involved†Estimated Loss in Wages†

* The number of lockouts included in total industrial stoppages were: 1925, 2; 1928, 2; 1929, 1; 1931, 1; 1940, 1; 1944, 1; 1965, 2; 1970, 3; and 1971, 1.

† Includes workers indirectly involved.

‡ Includes in 1964, 4; in 1966, 4; and in 1971, 2 additional penalty (suspension) stoppages provided for under Port Bureau Rules.

§ A limited number of stoppages affected a large number of firms the totals of which are not available and hence excluded.

 $(000)
1922586785114.686,41493,45614.57122
1923497960312.317,162201,81228.18228
192434581343.9414,81589,1056.01125
192583935987.209,90574,5527.5398
192659673145.326,26447,8117.6365
19273840832.184,47612,4852.7924
192839562536.499,25821,9972.3845
192947603427.287,15125,8893.6254
1930384439210.325,46731,6695.7975
1931243726210.926,35648,4867.6389
1932236731313.619,355108,60511.61211
1933154320513.673,55865,09918.30119
193424371205.003,77310,3932.7514
19351265887.332,32318,5637.9931
1936431282215.147,35416,9802.3126
193752723206.1511,41129,9162.6264
1938721032873.9911,38855,4563.1184
1939666364166.3015,68253,8013.43121
194057994357.6310,47528,0972.6856
194189972332.6215,26126,2371.7269
194265781432.2014,34551,1893.57126
1943691141221.7710,91514,6871.3540
19441492692811.8929,76652,6021.77148
19451541,2553792.4639,41866,6291.69185
1946961222592.7015,69630,3931.9480
19471342348346.2226,970102,7253.81375
19481018856086.0228,49493,4643.28392
19491231,3156725.4661,536218,1723.55782
19501291,1895674.4091,492271,4752.971,028
19511093543,46431.7836,8781,157,39031.386,223
1952501771082.1616,29728,1231.73139
1953738801451.9922,17519,2910.8797
1954614471362.2316,15320,4741.27133
1955651142113.2520,22452,0432.57371
1956504263907.8013,57923,8701.76168
195751881653.2415,54528,1861.81166
195849831523.1013,70918,7881.37128
1959731192293.1418,76229,6511.58215
196060803445.7314,30535,6832.49233
196171893534.9616,62638,1852.30299
1962961294985.1839,92193,1572.33749
196360913666.0914,91154,4903.65496
1964‡932303333.5834,77966,8341.92513
19651052182872.7315,26721,8141.43184
1966‡145151§4623.1833,13299,0952.99878
1967891075716.4228,490139,4904.90869
19681532098585.6137,458130,2673.481,097
19691693251,1386.7444,041138,6753.151,384
1970323693§1,9686.09110,096277,3482.522,425
1971‡3135901,9856.3486,009162,5631.892,109
19722844341,2734.4868,110140,6722.072,046

Chapter 41. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened – Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885 New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to 74, including four Maoris.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889 South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891 Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1900 Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to 76.

1901 T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7,000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1927 Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths. Daylight saving (half hour) permanently adopted for summer months.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman air mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored. Railcar services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.

1937 New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.

1938 Mr W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington.

1940 Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service. National savings scheme inaugurated.

1941 Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. First enrolment of married men for military service. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia - New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest. Mutual-aid Agreement between Canadian and New Zealand Governments signed.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the “country quota” passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, V.C., assumed office as Governor-General (17 June).

1947 $25 million presented to United Kingdom Government by New Zealand. Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustment of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum agrees to compulsory military training. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office under Right Hon. S. G. Holland.

1950 British Empire Games held at Auckland. Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Kayforce sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. Off-course betting operations commenced by Totalisator Agency Board. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Royal Commission on Railways. Accession of Queen Elizabeth II. New Zealand team at Olympic Games at Helsinki gained one gold and two bronze medals. Report of Royal Commission on the Waterfront Industry released.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Coronation Day for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second. Mt. Everest conquered on 29 May by British expedition, the summit being reached by the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and the Sherpa Tensing. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. The London-Christchurch air race won by RAF Canberra No. 3 in record time of 23 hours 51 minutes. National Housing Conference held. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 The Queen opened a special session of Parliament. New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. New Zealand won seven gold, seven silver, and five bronze medals at Empire Games in Vancouver. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 New Zealand made contribution to defence of South-east Asia by sending squadron of fighter bombers and part transport squadron to Malaya and, later in the year, an Army Special Air Service Squadron. Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Report of Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems released. Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Building controls abolished. Team sent to Olympic Games at Melbourne wins two gold medals. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Dairy produce given unrestricted, duty-free right of entry to Britain till 1967. Plan announced to almost double generating capacity of New Zealand's power systems by 1970 at cost of $470 million, including the laying of a cable across Cook Strait. Lord Cobham succeeded Lord Norrie as Governor-General on 5 September. Separate Court of Appeal constituted. Sir Leslie Munro elected President of United Nations General Assembly. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. W. Nash. Battalion sailed for service in Malaya.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. Sir Edmund Hillary and companions reached South Pole overland from Scott Base. Royal Tour of Her Majesty the Queen Mother. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Electric power restrictions in North Island. New Zealand won four gold, six silver, and nine bronze medals at Empire Games in Cardiff. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Mr C. M. Bennett, a distinguished Maori, appointed High Commissioner in Malaya. National Consumer Council appointed and four regional consumer committees established. Scheme provided for capitalisation of family benefit for housing purposes. Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau - Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland. Commission on Education appointed with Sir George Currie as chairman. Institute of Economic Research established. Industrial Development Conference held in Wellington. New Zealand athletes won two gold medals in one day at Olympic Games in Rome, also one bronze medal. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed. Conference of British Commonwealth Statisticians held in Wellington. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office under Right Hon. K. J. Holyoake.

1961 Review of Maori Affairs (Hunn Report) published. United Nations seminar on Human Rights held in Wellington. Right of unrestricted and duty-free access to United Kingdom market for meat and dairy produce emphasised in discussions on possible entry of United Kingdom into European Economic Community; assurance given that special arrangement would be sought to protect vital interests of New Zealand. Minister to European Economic Community appointed. Expansion of overseas trade posts. Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). Monetary and Economic Council appointed. New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, Inter national Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation. Industrial Development Conference held. Television broadcasts extended to Wellington and Christchurch.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. Protracted discussions, including Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference, on possible trade repercussions of Britain's proposal to join European Economic Community. Report presented by Royal Commission on State Services chaired by Mr Justice McCarthy. Extensive building programme for universities approved. Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson succeeded Lord Cobham as Governor-General. New Zealand won 10 gold, 12 silver, and 10 bronze medals at Commonwealth Games at Perth. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1963 Breakdown of Britain's bid to enter European Economic Community. Export Development Conference held in Wellington. Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh. The Queen opened New Zealand House in London. Approval given by Government for development of iron and steel industry. The World Bank loaned $5.6 million for port development. Work was begun on Manapouri tail-race tunnel as part of electric-power project. Crash of a National Airways Corporation DC3 aircraft in the Kaimai Ranges killed 23 persons, and 15 lives lost in accident to a bus returning from Waitangi Royal celebrations. Controversy over proposed French nuclear tests in Pacific.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydro-electric power scheme. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei. Exports and Shipping Council established. New agreement on beef exports to United States. Agricultural Development Conference held. New Zealand team won three gold and two bronze medals at Olympic Games in Tokyo. Reports made by overseas consultants on steps to meet traffic problems of central areas of main cities. Private savings banks opened by trading banks.

1965 United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East held its twenty-first session in Wellington. Eleventh Conference of Commonwealth Parliamentary Association held in Wellington. Contract let for oil-fired thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. Artillery unit committed to combat service in Vietnam. Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8's) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link south Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed.

1966 Labour force reached 1,000,000. Licensed television sets reach 500,000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives. Royal Tour by Her Majesty the Queen Mother. Visit by the President of the United States, Mr Lyndon B. Johnson. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand published. New Zealand won 8 gold, 5 silver, and 13 bronze medals at Commonwealth Games in Jamaica. Revival of United Kingdom interest in joining European Economic Community.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Low wool prices led to extensive purchases by Wool Commission. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £). Contributions by public to Freedom from Hunger Campaign since 1962 reached $3.5 million. Infantry battalion moved to Vietnam. Extension from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. of hotel hours for sale of liquor. Taxation Review Committee Report completed. Roll-on roll-off vessels on Wellington-Lyttelton run and Auckland-Lyttelton-Dunedin run. New Zealand put case to GATT session for improved trade arrangements for agricultural products. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by 19.45 percent following United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent of pound sterling. Sir Arthur Porritt succeeded Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson as Governor-General.

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. Prime Minister attended five-power defence conference held at Kuala Lumpur. T.E.V. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Strong earthquake in Inangahua area resulted in three deaths. Coaster Maranui sank in gale off Coromandel Peninsula with loss of nine lives. Manapouri tunnel pierced. Construction commenced of natural gas pipeline from Kapuni to Auckland and Wellington. Jet planes introduced in internal air services. Guidelines for economic growth in next decade contained in report of Targets Committee of National Development Conference. New Zealand team won one gold and two bronze medals at Olympic Games in Mexico City. Human Rights Year specially observed.

1969 National Development Conference held; 632 recommendations approved to assist in attainment of growth targets in indicative planning for 10 years ahead. National Development Council and advisory councils set up. Vocational Training Council appointed. Technical Committee on Statistics made a special report to the National Development Council. Transport Advisory Council and Ports Authority appointed. Royal Commission on Social Security commenced hearings. Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Construction of thermal power station at New Plymouth commenced. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Widening of Auckland Harbour Bridge completed. Motorways extended into Auckland and Wellington. Selection of Auckland and Wellington as major container ports. Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister press in EEC capitals New Zealand's special case in regard to butter and lamb exports to the United Kingdom. Special celebrations for bi-centenary of Captain James Cook's discovery of New Zealand. Voting rights extended to 20-year-old persons.

1970 Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation (ASPAC) met in Wellington. Queen Elizabeth the Second, the Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne made a Royal Tour in connection with Cook bi-centenary celebrations. New Zealand represented at Pacific Basin Economic Co-operation Council in Japan and participated in Expo 70, Trade Fair at Osaka, Japan. New Zealand granted associate status in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Physical Environment Conference held. Report made by Commission on proposal to raise level of Lake Manapouri to provide additional electric power. Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland. Tender accepted for international airport at Rarotonga, Cook Islands. New Zealand team won two gold, six silver, and six bronze medals at Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh. Visit of Mr G. Rippon, Britain's representative in EEC negotiations. In Europe, Deputy Prime Minister further presented New Zealand's claim for special consideration in the marketing of butter, cheese, and lamb in an enlarged EEC.

1971 South Pacific Year observed; forum held in Wellington with Heads of State attending from Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, and Nauru. Commonwealth Declaration adopted at conference in Singapore. Centenary of birth of Lord Ernest Rutherford. Ministry of Works completes 100 years of public works dating from Vogel era. Centenary of formation of first co-operative dairy company. Stabilisation of Remuneration Act in operation, and also price justification scheme. Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. Crisis with meat schedule price for lambs, related to large increase in freight rates and imposition of levy on meat imports by United Kingdom. First container ships loaded at Wellington and Auckland. Seamen's Union deregistered. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Silver Star express introduced on North Island main trunk line. Tenders called for fourth Cook Strait rail ferry. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee presents its report. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures. Fixed exchange rate adopted between New Zealand and the United States dollar; devaluation adjustment of 1.75 percent in line with Australia. Withdrawal of New Zealand combat troops from Vietnam.

1972 Right Hon. J. R. Marshall succeeded Right Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake as Prime Minister. Special measures for stabilisation of remuneration and prices. Sheep retention scheme payments. National Development Conference re-convenes to set revised targets. Meeting of Pacific Basin Economic Council held in Wellington. Educational Priorities Conference held. Royal Commission on Social Security presented its report; some recommendations applied in 1972 Budget. Report presented by Royal Commission on Containers. Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. First container train ran from Invercargill to Wellington. Wellington Airport runway extended to enable DC8 jet aircraft to be operated on trans-Tasman service. Strong lead on opposition to nuclear testing in atmosphere given by New Zealand at United Conference on the Environment in Stockholm. Tunnel 4 miles long completed for Tongariro electric power project. Wool price recovery. New Zealand team won 1 gold, 1 silver, and 2 bronze medals at. Olympic Games in Munich. Sir Denis Blundell succeeded Sir Arthur Porritt as Governor-General. Legislation passed for Wool Marketing Corporation, Equal Pay, and Accident Compensation. Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council of Food and Agricultural Organisation met in Wellington. Meeting of 12 Antarctic Treaty consultative powers held in Wellington. Overseas reserves reach record levels. National Government defeated and Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk. Third Cook Strait rail ferry in operation.

Chapter 42. SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SubjectYearPage
Building stones1892194
Varieties of soil1892193
Acclimatisation1894430
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Frozen meat trade, the1894311
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Railways in New Zealand: Their history and progress1894377
Sheep farming1894302
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
Shipping companies1895389
Wellington-Manawatu railway, the1895381
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Waihi Gold Mining Co.1897432
Mount Cook: Its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Forest trees and the timber industry1899470
Gold dredging industry, the1899509
Mount Cook district, the1899554
Journeys in Central North Island1899520
Tuhoeland1899546
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Coal deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Hemp industry, the1900477
Kauri gum1900489
Maori mythology1900536
Mount Sefton, ascent of, and a night on Mount Cook1900519
New Zealand contingents for South Africa1900449
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Maori religion1901530
Marlborough Sounds, and Otago lakes, the1901517
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
Maori sociology1903641
Timber trees of the world1903605
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
Hanmer thermal springs1905631
Maori, colour sense of the1905637
Thermal springs district1905614
Maori marriage customs1906638
Tree planting1906611
Maori, ancient: His amusements, games, etc.1907707
New Zealand international exhibition1907701
Maori, ancient: His clothing, etc.1908734
Agriculture in New Zealand1912809
HMS New Zealand and Government training ship Amokura1913932
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Maori, topographical nomenclature of the1919936
Wages and working hours in New Zealand1919860
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Local government in New Zealand1925845
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Cancer in New Zealand: A statistical study1926889
Totalisator, the1926838
Britomart, mission of, at Akaroa, in August 184019271012
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Livestock production: A review based on standard values and units1929990
Dairy farm survey1938429
Ross Dependency1938900
Plants and fauna194028
Libraries1940928
Tourist attractions: mineral waters and spas1940932
Alexander Turnbull Library1946914
National Film Unit1946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with reference to the Consumers' Price Index1947–49998
Economic policy and national income19501033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951–521066
Standardisation1951–521076
Sources of statistical information19531016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 195419541121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions19551143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of report19561201
Consumers' Price Index—1955 Revision19571214
New Zealand activities in the Antarctic19581247
New Zealand's international activities19591221
Grassland research in New Zealand19601243
University education for science and technology19611186
New Zealand and the European Economic Community19621150
Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, 6 to 18 February 196319631167
The development of New Zealand's railway system 1863–196319631175
The arts in New Zealand, including the visual arts, literature, music and opera, and drama and ballet19641145
The Maori people as shown by the Population Census 196119651160
Industrial relations—The next ten years and beyond19661131
Population growth and economic development in New Zealand19661136
Scientific research in New Zealand19671118
Recent constitutional changes in the South-west Pacific19681104
National Development Conference 196919691103
Development of forestry and forest industries19691107
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768–7919691116
Metrication19701110
Human pressures on the natural environment19701115
Ministry of Works, 1871–197119711110
Evolution of social security in New Zealand19721015
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–197119721024

Chapter 43. SUPPORT OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

PATRONAGE has always been part of the history of the arts. If the arts are to flourish in the face of strong competition from mass media entertainment there must be both private patronage and assistance from the State and from other sources of public funds. In New Zealand private patronage has become an important source of finance and encouragement for the arts, and the State and public bodies are playing an important part by providing direct financial help as well as other forms of assistance. The Departments of Internal Affairs and Education, the Council of Adult Education, and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation have for many years given valuable assistance to the arts in the course of their everyday functions, and many local statutory bodies make worth-while donations of finance and facilities.

The Government displayed a notable interest in historical literature at the time of the centennial celebrations in 1940. A series of centennial surveys, covering various aspects of the country's history, and other works, such as the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography and Making New Zealand, were commissioned and published by the Department of Internal Affairs, making a landmark in New Zealand historical publishing.

In 1946 State aid for literature was put on a permanent basis by the establishment of the New Zealand Literary Fund, financed from the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs.

Assistance to the arts other than literature began in 1947 when a Cultural Fund administered by the Department of Internal Affairs was instituted. The fund was used mainly to help talented young people to further their studies abroad by awarding bursaries to them to pay for travel and study.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council—To commemorate the visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand in 1963, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed in 1964. The arts council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

The council recognises that a strong amateur movement represents the foundation on which professional activity is built. Through national bodies representing amateur theatre, operatic and musical comedy societies, and art societies the council channels funds to assist a variety of projects undertaken either by the national body itself or by the affiliated groups.

In April 1970, the council sponsored Arts Conference 1970, at which individuals and representatives of organisations from throughout New Zealand reviewed existing cultural policies and made a bold attempt to reach agreement on a policy for the arts which would be valid for the next decade. Two main themes emerged: the needs of the individual artists and the needs of the regions.

In 1971, the council restructured its three advisory panels which deal with the main branches of the arts—music, theatre arts, and the visual arts—and created a fourth, which will be chiefly concerned with regional development.

The council receives its finance from the Government and the Lottery Profits Board of Control. The Government grant for 1973–74 is $535,000 and for 1974–75 $570,000. This includes maximum subsidies of $50,000 and $60,000 respectively. The Lottery Profits Board of Control grant was $260,000 for the year ended 31 March 1973.

Sector Council for Cultural Affairs—Towards the end of 1970 the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand agreed to act as a Sector Council within the N.D.C. structure. The Social and Cultural Committee of the 1969 National Development Conference recommended that a cultural co-ordinating committee be set up to survey needs and support in the arts, to keep in touch with developments and to encourage desirable trends and advise Government. Following Arts Conference 1970, the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council was asked to assume responsibility for the functions outlined in the Social and Cultural Committee's report. The Sector Council has a separate secretariat provided by the Department of Internal Affairs and has an augmented membership.

Some of the specific functions outlined by the Social and Cultural Committee were the need for an institution to provide advanced training for the whole range of the arts, the assessment of the cultural needs of the individual and of the nation, economic implications, and the problems of patronage and support of the arts in a small democracy.

The brief of the Sector Council is much wider than would normally be associated with “the arts”, for culture can be defined as an expression of the way of life of a people—the activities and the products of these activities, which are recognisable as expressing a distinctive way of life. The interest of the Sector Council, therefore, ranges over a wide area. It has already considered such things as the film industry, Maori culture, the transition of young people from school to the adult community, the financial needs of museums and art galleries, and the various matters relating to literature and the arts.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS

Individual art galleries and museums were described in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook. These subjects are very well covered in An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand under the headings Art in New Zealand, and Museums, while Music is another heading for cultural activity and is covered separately.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS

The following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. The approved categories of, and order of priority for, assistance for written works of literary quality are: (1) grants towards the publication costs of creative literature in book form; (2) grants to New Zealand authors undertaking creative work of a determinate nature and likely to assume book form; (3) grants towards the publication costs of New Zealand literary magazines; (4) grants towards the publication costs of reprinting works by New Zealand authors; (5) grants towards the publication costs of historical, critical, and other scholarly studies in book form; (6) grants to New Zealand authors undertaking determinate projects other than those which may be included in (2); and (7) such other grants as from time to time appear appropriate.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. $3,000 is available from lottery profits under section 22 of the Gaming Amendment Act 1962, and $1,000 from the Literary Fund, hence it is of the value of $4,000. The scholarship is intended to enable the recipient to give all or most of his time to the project or projects nominated by him, either in New Zealand or abroad, during the year of tenure. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Writing Bursary—The bursary is awarded annually to a New Zealand writer with potential by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. It is of the value of $4,000. The bursary is intended to enable the recipient to give all or most of his time to the project or projects nominated by him, either in New Zealand or abroad, during the year of tenure. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  4. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago, a condition being that the fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the Fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August each year.

  5. Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee, from funds available from lottery profits under section 22 of the Gaming Amendment Act 1962 and the Literary Fund. (Applications are not called for.)

  6. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually for award to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander and published during the year. The award consists of a medal and the sum of $50. (Applications are not called for.)

  7. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best prose writing by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is $200. (Applications are not called for.)

  8. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best poetry written by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is $100. (Applications are not called for.)

  9. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story. The award is open to New Zealand citizens or persons who have been resident in New Zealand for the past 5 years. The value of the award is $200, and for 1969 and 1971 the award was for published or unpublished work.

  10. Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors two awards for young writers. These are—the senior award, valued at $100, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students, valued at $50. Both awards are for the short story.

  11. Winn-Manson Menton Fellowship—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be ordinarily resident in New Zealand and either New Zealanders by birth or by naturalisation, or resident in New Zealand continuously for a period of 10 years prior to the year the fellowship is awarded. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. For 1972 the fellowship consisted of an award of $1,750, and return passage. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary of the Winn-Manson Menton Fellowship, P.O. Box 10256, Wellington.

  12. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with the provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August each year.

  13. Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August each year.

HISTORIC ARTICLES ACT 1962

This Act, which came into force on 1 April 1963, has for its main purpose the control of the export from New Zealand of Maori artifacts made in or brought to New Zealand before 1903, important books and papers more than 90 years old of which there is no copy in the main types of library, and biological, botanical, and mineralogical type specimens. Permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs for the export of historic articles must be secured, and the Minister may withhold permission if he is satisfied that removal would be detrimental to historical or scientific study or research in New Zealand, or contrary to the public interest.

Government has approved grants being made on a four-year basis to the National Museum to enable the purchase of Maori artifacts.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES

Though a Controller of Dominion Archives was appointed in 1926, in the person of the Librarian of the General Assembly Library, it was not until the Archives Act 1957 was passed that the protection of New Zealand's public records was put on a firm statutory basis.

The Archives Act established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers. No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without his approval and he has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and considerable original research is done in the National Archives by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Brown and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. There are larger collections for R. J. Seddon and Sir Walter Nash. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. At present Professor Keith Sinclair, as Sir Walter's official biographer, is working with the papers.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 15. An officer of the National Archives collaborates with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST

Under the Historic Places Act 1954, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created with the complementary functions of fostering public interest in places and objects of national or local historic interest, and assisting with, or itself undertaking, the preservation and maintenance of such places and objects. The Trust is currently composed of 15 members, 11 of whom are either ex officio or appointed on the nomination of some outside agency, 3 of whom are elected by associate or public members, and 1 who is co-opted for special knowledge. A branch organisation operates through either regional or district committees or representatives.

Much of the early emphasis of Trust work was concerned with the erection of bronze plaques and notice boards to commemorate significant sites or buildings. The Trust is now giving more attention to preservation which, in the case of buildings, often means first-aid repairs and, less frequently, restoration. Repairs are usually financed through a grant-in-aid to the owner or occupant. The Trust administers four properties which are open to the public; these are the Waimate Mission House, Pompallier House in Russell, Ewelme Cottage in Auckland, and old St. Paul's in Wellington. The Trust also owns several other properties, and is involved in the administration of properties owned by other organisations.

Historic sites are sometimes, but not yet on a scale to satisfy the Trust, protected by some form of reservation. The Trust is also aware of the accelerated loss of our prehistoric heritage. Roading, hydro-electric development, closer settlements, and other undertakings, all on an increasing scale, have meant the loss or destruction of many archaeological remains. The Trust collaborated with the Ministry of Works to survey the areas affected by the Tongariro power development scheme and the Kapuni gas pipeline, and to rescue, wherever possible, the field monuments threatened by those two projects. The Trust now employs its own archaeologist.

The Trust publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection.

Chapter 44. New Zealand Books

                    Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

THE following list of books and serials has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Emphasis has been placed on works which are known to be in print. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand or written by resident New Zealanders. Works which are clearly university or school texts have been omitted unless they represent the most concise and authoritative treatment of a subject. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The standard current bibliography of New Zealand books and pamphlets as from 1967 is the New Zealand National Bibliography issued by the Alexander Turnbull Library for the National Library of New Zealand. Prices of New Zealand imprints are as shown in the Associated Booksellers' New Zealand books in print, in publishers' catalogues and from other sources, but prices of overseas publications are given at the overseas rate.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, LIBRARIES, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

ALEXANDER TURNBULL LIBRARY. English Printed Books to 1700 in the Alexander Turnbull Library. Wn, 1963. 50c.

——— Union Catalogue of New Zealand and Pacific Manuscripts in New Zealand Libraries. Wn, 1968–1969. 2 v.

BAGNALL, A. G., ed. New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969-. v. 2, 1890–1960, A-H, published 1969; v. 3, I-O, published 1972.

AN ENCYCLOPAEDIAOF NEW ZEALAND, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. 3 v. $15.

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand – Australia – Pacific – Antarctic; Book Auction Records 1962–1967. Wn, the author, 1967. $3.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Copyright Periodicals Currently Received 1971. Wn, 1972. $2.

HOCKEN, T. M. A. A Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p.

MCELDOWNEY, W. J. The New Zealand Library Association 1910–60 and its Part in New Zealand Library Development. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1962. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND BOOKSIN PRINT 1970, ed. by B. B. Collie. Wn, New Zealand Book Publishers Association, 1970. $5.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. London, O. U. P., 1965. $6.65.

RODGER, D. M. Theses on the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968–72. 4 v.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $22.50.

UNION CATALOGUEOF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVEDIN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES, compiled by J. S. Gully. 2nd. ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

UNION LISTOF SERIALSIN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–1970. 6 v. $25.

UNION LISTOF THESESOFTHE UNIVERSITYOF NEW ZEALAND, 1910. 1954, compiled by D. L. Jenkins. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p.

Supplement, 1955–1962. $1.25. Supplement, 1963–67. $4. Supplement, 1968–71. $4.

See also Rodger above.

*WILSON, J. O. A Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand, 1817–1900. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. $1.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

ADMINISTRATIONIN NEW ZEALAND'S MULTI-RACIAL SOCIETY, edited by R. H. Brookes and I. H. Kawharu. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1967. $2.

ASIAANDTHE PACIFICINTHE 1970S; the Roles of the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Bruce Brown, editor. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.

BEGG, N. C. The New Zealand Child and His Family. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs for the New Zealand Plunket Society, 1970. $2.50.

BETTS, G. M. Betts on Wellington; a City and its Politics. Wn, Reed for the Wellington City Council and Victoria University of Wellington, 1970. $6.95.

BROWN, B. M. The Rise of New Zealand Labour; a History of the New Zealand Labour Party from 1916–1940. Wn, Price Milburn, 1962. $3.50.

BUSH, G. W. A. Decently and in Order; the Government of the City of Auckland 1840–1971. Ak, Collins for the Auckland City Council, 1971. $5.

CHAPMAN, R. M., W. K. JACKSON, AND A. V. MITCHELL. New Zealand Politics in Action; the 1960 General Election. London, O.U.P., 1962. $3.50.

CLEVELAND, L. The Anatomy of Influence; Pressure Groups and Politics in New Zealand. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $3.85.

CLEVELAND, L. and A. D. ROBINSON, comps. Readings in New Zealand Government. Wn, Reed Education, 1972. $8.50.

*DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. 20c.

ESSAYSON RACE RELATIONSANDTHE LAWIN NEW ZEALAND; A series of Lectures Delivered at the Victoria University of Wellington. Ed. by W. A. McKean. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $5.50.

FIGHTFOR LIFE; New Zealand, Britain, and the European Economic Community. Papers and commentaries read at the 1970 Conference of the Institute and edited by Keith Jackson. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1971. $1.50.

GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATIONIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. J. Polaschek. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1958. o.p.

GRIMSHAW, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $5.25.

HEALTH ADMINISTRATIONIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. J. Latimer. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1969. $2.

HOUSTON, H. S., ed. Marriage and the Family in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1970. $5.75.

JOLLIFFE, W. Jolliffe's Local Government in Boroughs and Counties. 8th ed., edited by J. P. McVeagh. Wn, Ferguson and Osborn, 1964-. 2 v.

MCCREARY, J. R. Housing and Welfare Needs of Islanders in Auckland. Wn, Dept of Social Science, Victoria University of Wellington, 1965.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health; a History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

MILNE, R. S. Political Parties in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. $6.90; $5.

MITCHELL, A. V. Government by Party; Parliament and Politics in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $3.

——— Politics and People in New Zealand; Studies. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1969. $4.75.

NEW ZEALAND ASSOCIATIONOF SOCIAL WORKERS. Social Welfare at the Crossroads; Report on Social Welfare in New Zealand. Wn, 1971. $1.50.

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENTOF JUSTICE. Crime in New Zealand; A Survey. Wn, Govt. Print., 1968. $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949. edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50.

Supplement 1950–1969 edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

NEW ZEALAND. ROYAL COMMISSIONON SOCIAL SECURITYIN NEW ZEALAND. Social Security in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.95.

NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS, edited by T. C. Larkin. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1962. $1.80.

ORAM, C. A. Social Policy and Administration in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1969. $5.

ORR, G. S. Report on Administrative Justice in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $2.

PERRY, C. S. The Indecent Publications Tribunal; a Social Experiment. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1965. $2.75.

POLICIESFOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN NEW ZEALAND, ed. by G. A. Town. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1972. (Studies in Public Administration, No. 17.) $2.50.

ROBINSON, H. A History of the Post Office in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

ROBSON, J. L. ed. New Zealand; the Development of its Laws and Constitution. 2nd rev. ed. London, Stevens, 1967. $10.50.

SAUNDERS, J. L. The New Zealand School Dental Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964.

SCOTT, K. J. The New Zealand Constitution. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1962. $3.65; £2.50.

SOCIAL PROCESSIN NEW ZEALAND; Readings in Sociology, edited by John Forster. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $7.50.

SUMNER, E. F. W. Superannuation Explained. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1965. $4.50.

Sural, W. B. The Responsible Society in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $2.40.

THOMPSON, K. W., and A. D. TRLIN, ed. Immigrants in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1970. $5.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BERL PUBLICATIONS LTD. Equity Investment, 1971–72; a Ten Year Review of Public Companies Listed on New Zealand Stock Exchanges, Including Share Prices, Earning Rates, Dividend Yields and Asset Backings. Wn, 1971. $4.

BRIGHT, T. N. Banking Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1969. $12.

CAREY, R. H., and F. W. HOLMES. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. $2.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. The Economic Outlook for New Zealand. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs for the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1969. $3.

COWAN, T. K. Financial Accounting in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1966. $8.

FIGGE, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $5.

THE FUTUREOF MANUFACTURINGIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by C. A. Blyth. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1964. $2.50.

HANLEY, G., ed. Personnel Management in New Zealand. 3rd rev. enl. ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1967. $5.

HARGREAVES, R. P. From beads to banknotes. Dn, McIndoe, 1972. $5.40.

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $14.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $8.

——— Economic Practice in New Zealand 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times Co. 1970. $3.

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENTOF INDUSTRIESAND COMMERCE. Investment in New Zealand; a Ready Reference for the Overseas Investor. Rev. ed. Wn, 1971. gratis.

NEW ZEALAND FARM PRODUCTIONAND MARKETING, edited by M. J. Moriarty. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1963. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND MONETARYAND ECONOMIC COUNCIL. New Zealand and an Enlarged EEC. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970.

——— The New Zealand Financial System. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $1.50.

NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS, edited by T. C. Larkin. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1962. $1.80.

PLANNINGAND FORECASTINGIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by J. P. M. Cornwall. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1965. $2.

RESERVE BANKOF NEW ZEALAND. Overseas Trade and Finance, with Particular Reference to New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, 1966. $1.

SUTCH, W. B. Takeover New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

LAW

ADAMS, F. B. Criminal Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $28.

BRIGHT, T. N. Banking Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1969. $12.

BUTTERWORTH'S CASES ANNOTATIONSOFTHE NEW ZEALAND STATUTES REPRINT. 1908–57, by H.J. Wily. Wn, Butterworth, 1958–1965. 3 v. $40.

CAMPBELL, I. B., and D. P. NEAZOR. Workers' Compensation Law in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1964. $8.50.

CHESHIRE, G. C., and C. H. S. FIFOOT. Law of Contract. 3rd New Zealand ed., by J. F. Northey. Wn, Butterworth, 1970.

CUNNINGHAM, H. A. Taxation Laws of New Zealand. 7th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1970. 3 v.

ESSAYSON CRIMINAL LAWIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. S. Clark. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $5.

ESTATE PLANNING. Rev. ed. Wn, New Zealand Society of Accountants, 1971. $6.

GARROW, J. M. E. Garrow's Law of Trusts and Trustees. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and H. R. Gray. Garrow and Grays' Law of Personal Property in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $9.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and J. D. WILLIS. Garrow and Willis's Criminal Law. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $14.

HINDE, G. W. Land Law Study Guide. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1972. $5.50.

INGLIS, B. D. Family Law. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968–1970. 2 v. $12 ea.

KELLY, E. M. Summary of the Law Relating to Land Surveying in New Zealand. 4th ed., enl. and rev. by B. H. Davis. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Surveyors, 1971. $8.

A LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHYOFTHE BRITISH COMMONWEALTHOF NATIONS. v. 6: Australia, New Zealand, and Their Dependencies. 2nd ed. London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1958. £2.50.

MATHIESON, D. L. Industrial Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1970–. v. 1 1970. $13.

NEW ZEALAND LAWS, STATUTES, ETC. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $7.50 ea.

NEW ZEALAND PUBLICAND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW REFORM COMMITTEES. Reports … to the Minister of Justice. Wn, Govt. Print., 1968–1971. 5 v.

NORTHEY, J. F. Introduction to Company Law in New Zealand. 7th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1971. $8.50.

NORTHEY, J. F., and W. C. S. LEYS. Commercial Law in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1969. $9.

PATERSON, D. E. An Introduction to Administrative Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1965. $8.

ROBINSON, K. The Law of Town and Country Planning. 2nd rev. and enl. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $8.

SIM, Sir W. A. Sim's Divorce Law and Practice in New Zealand. 8th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1971. $15.

SMITH, N. W. Maori Land Law. Wn, Reed, 1960. $4.20.

STEPHENS, M. O. Traffic and Transport Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1964. $8.50.

STOUT, R. and W. A. SIM. The Practice of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal of New Zealand. 11th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. 2v. $30.

SZAKATS, A. Trade Unions and the Law. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968. $5.

WARD, D. A. S., and H. R. C. WILD. Mercantile Law in New Zealand. 5th ed. (rev.) Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $4.50.

WILY, H. J. Wily's Magistrates' Courts Practice. 6th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $15.

WILY, H. J., and K. R. STALLWORTHY. Mental Abnormality and the Law. Ch, N. M. Peryer, 1962. $6.30.

WOODS, N. S. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.10.

EDUCATION

BATES, R. J., ed. Prospects in New Zealand Education. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton. 1970. $2.40.

COMPULSORY EDUCATIONIN NEW ZEALAND; a Study Initiated by the National Commission for UNESCO. Rev. ed., prepared by J. L. Ewing. Paris, UNESCO, 1969. $1.90.

EWING, J. L. Development of the New Zealand Primary School Curriculum 1877–1970. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1970. $5.25.

EWING, J. L., and J. SHALLCRASS, comps. An Introduction to Maori Education; Selected Readings. Wn, New Zealand University Press; Price Milburn, 1970.

HALL, D. O. W. New Zealand Adult Education. London, Joseph, 1970. £5.

HAVILL, S. J., and D. R. MITCHELL, eds. Issues in New Zealand Special Education. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton in Association with University of London Press, 1972. $4.80.

MITCHELL, F. W., ed. Looking Ahead in New Zealand Education. Wn, Reed for New Zealand College of Education, 1971. $2.95.

——— New Zealand Education Today. Wn, Reed for New Zealand College of Education. 1968. $2.50.

New Zealand COMMISSIONON EDUCATIONIN NEW ZEALAND. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. $2.74.

NEW ZEALAND. COMMITTEEOF INQUIRYINTO PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION. Report. Wn, Department of Education, 1971. 95c.

NEW ZEALAND POST-PRIMARY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. CURRICULUM REVIEW GROUP. Education in Change; Report … Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

SEMINARON ASPECTSOF TERTIARY EDUCATION, WELLINGTON, 1968. Trends and Issues in Higher Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research and the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand, 1970. $2.40.

WATSON, J. E. Intermediate Schooling in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $3.75.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

BARROW, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. Wn. Reed, 1964. $3.50.

——— Maori Wood Sculpture of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1969. $9.50.

BEST, E. The Maori as He Was. Wn, Govt. Print., 1952. $2.

BIGGS, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori Language. Wn, Reed, 1969. $2.75.

——— Maori Marriage; an Essay in Reconstruction. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1970.

$2.95.

BIGGS, B. G., P. W. HOHEPA, and S. M. MEADS, eds. Selected Readings in Maori. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $1.50.

BIGWOOD, K. V., and H. DANSEY. New Zealand Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1967. $3.50.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1950. $3.75.

——— Vikings of the Sunrise. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1954. $3.85.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. $5.

GOLSON, J., ed. Polynesian Navigation; A Symposium on Andrew Sharp's Theory of Accidental Voyages. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

GREY, Sir G. Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the Maori. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1956. $1.75.

HARRE, J. N. Maori and Pakeha; a Study of Mixed Marriages in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1966. o.p.

MEAD, S. M. Traditional Maori Clothing; a Study of Technological and Functional Change. Wn, Reed, 1969. $6.95.

METGE, J. The Maoris of New Zealand. London, Routledge, 1967. $3.

MITCHELL, J. H. Takitimu. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

ORBELL, M. R. Maori Folk Tales in Maori and English. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $2.50.

PHILLIPPS, W. J. Carved Maori Houses of Western and Northern Areas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955. $5 (Dominion Museum. Monograph No. 9.)

Also others in the same series.

REED, A. W. Treasury of Maori Folklore. Wn, Reed, 1963. $4.95.

RITCHIE, J. E. The Making of a Maori; a Case Study of a Changing Community. Wn, Reed, 1963. o.p.

RYAN, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1971. $1.20.

SCHWIMMER, E. G., ed. The Maori People in the Nineteen Sixties; a Symposium. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $7.

——— The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1966. $2.10.

SHARP, C. A. Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia. Ak, Longman Paul. 1969. $2.10.

TROTTER, M. M., and B. MC CULLOCH. Prehistoric Rock Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $2.95.

VAYDA, A. P. Maori Warfare. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1970. $2.95.

WESTRA, A., and J. RITCHIE. Maori. Wn, Reed, 1967. $6.30.

WILLIAMS, J. A. Politics of the New Zealand Maori; Protest and Co-operation, 1891–1909. Ak, O.U.P. for the University of Auckland, 1969. $7.75.

WILLIAMS. W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $4.50.

WILLIAMS, W. L. First Lessons in Maori. 13th ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.35.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

DIRECTORYOF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE. 4th ed., edited by H. Jansen. Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1962. $4.50.

LOCKLEY, R. M. Man Against Nature; a Survival Special on New Zealand Wildlife. London, Deutsch, 1970.

Wn, Reed, 1970.

MCBRIDE, C. P. Scientific Research in New Zealand; Expenditure and Manpower 1926–1966. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1966. 50c.

MORTON, J. E., and M. MILLAR. The New Zealand Sea Shore. London; Ak, Collins, 1968. $9.60.

GEOLOGY

ADKIN, G. L., and B. W. COLLINS. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. $4.50.

BECK, R. J. New Zealand Jade; the Story of Greenstone. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

COTTON, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. About Earthquakes. New York, Harper, 1957. US$4.95.

——— Earthquakes. 2nd rev. ed. London, Muller, 1967. $3.

*GARNER, D. M., and N. M. RIDGWAY. Hydrology of New Zealand Offshore Waters. Wn, Govt. Print., 1965. $1.50.

GRINDLEY, G. W., H. J. HARRINGTON, and B. L. WOOD. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

HORNIBROOK, N. de B. A Handbook of New Zealand Microfossils (Foraminifera and Ostracoda). Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. (D.S.I.R. Information Series No. 62.) $2.20.

NEW ZEALAND WATERAND SOIL DIVISION. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $3.75.

SOIL BUREAU. Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

THOMPSON, B. N. New Zealand Volcanology. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. 3 v. (D.S.I.R. Information Series No. 50.) $4.

ZOOLOGY

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed., by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $16.50.

FALLA, R. A., R. B. SIBSON, and E. G. TURBOTT. A Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. 2nd ed. London; Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.

GASKIN, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $4.75.

——— New Zealand Cetacea. Wn, Fisheries Research Division, New Zealand Marine Department, 1968 (New Zealand Fisheries Research Division. Fisheries Research Bulletin n.s. No. 1).

FORSTER, R. R., and L. M. FORESTER. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. $5.85.

FORSTER, R. R. Spiders of New Zealand. Dn, Otago Museum Trust Board, 1967-. 3 v. $13.50.

HOWARD, W. E. Control of Introduced Mammals in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. $1.25.

LAIDLAW, W. B. R. Butterflies of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $2.70.

MILLER. D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $6.50.

LESLIE, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. $2.50.

MOON, G. J. H. Refocus on New Zealand Birds. 3rd rev. enl. ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $7.50.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETYOF NEW ZEALAND. CHECKLIST COMMITTEE. Annotated Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand, Including the Birds of the Ross Dependency. Wn, Reed, 1970. $4.95.

PENDERGRAST, J. G., and D. R. COWLEY. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak; London, Collins, 1966. $1.80.

POWELL, A. W. B. Shells of New Zealand; an Illustrated Handbook. 4th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $2.25.

SHARELL, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $9.20.

——— The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $3.50.

WILD ANIMALSIN NEW ZEALAND, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $4.50.

BOTANY

ALLAN, H. H. A Handbook of the Naturalised Flora of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. o.p.

ALLISON, K. W., and J. CHILD. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $6.60.

COCKAYNE, L. New Zealand Plants and Their Story. 4th ed., by E. J. Godley. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.

COCKAYNE, L. and E. P. TURNER. The Trees of New Zealand. 6th ed. Wn. Govt. Print., 1967. $2.50.

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. Wn, Department of Agriculture, 1960. 20c.

FLORAOF NEW ZEALAND. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961–. 3 v. v.1 by H. H. Allan, 1961. $10.50; v. 2 by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $4.50.

LAING, R. M., and E. W. BLACKWELL. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

MARTIN, W., and J. CHILD. Lichens of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $6.50.

MOORE, L. B., and N. M. ADAMS. Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $1.80.

PHILIPSON, W. R., and D. HEARN. Rock Garden Plants of the Southern Alps. Ch, Caxton Press, 1962. $4.75.

POOLE, A. L., and N. M. ADAMS. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

SALMON, J. T. Field Guide to the Alpine Plants of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. $5.60.

TAYLOR, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL. Economic Position of the Farming Industry in New Zealand. Wn, 1971. 50c.

ATKINSON, J. D. Diseases of Tree Fruits in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $7.50.

BOWEN, W. G. Wool Away; the Art and Technique of Shearing. 3rd ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1963. $1.75.

Du FAUR, R. T. Dairy arming for Profit. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.50.

——— Sheep Farming for Profit. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.50.

DURING, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.50.

EVANS, B. L. A History of Agriculture Production and Marketing in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Keeling and Mundy, 1969. $3.20.

FARRELL, B. H. Power in New Zealand; a Geography of Energy Resources. Wn, Reed, 1962. $4.25.

FISHER, M. E., E. SATCHFLL, and J. M. WATKINS. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Ak, Collins, 1970. $6.

THE FUTUREOF MANUFACTURINGIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by C. A. Blyth. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1964. $2.50.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand, rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd ed. rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1963. $5.50

——— Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. 4th ed. rev. Wn, Reed, 1967. $5.50.

HEALY, A. J. F. Identification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1970. $4.50.

LEVY, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

LEITCH, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972. $9.10.

MCMEEKAN, C. P. Grass to Milk. 3rd ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1964. $3.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTEOF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. New Zealand Beef Production, Processing, and Marketing, edited by A. G. Campbell. Wn, 1970. $7.50.

NEW ZEALAND FORESTRY. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTEFOR TURF CULTURE. Turf Culture. 2nd ed. Palmerston North, 1971. $9.

NEW ZEALAND. ROYAL COMMISSIONTO INQUIREINTOAND REPORT UPON HANDLINGOF CONTAINERS, SEAFREIGHTERS, AND UNITISED CARGO. Containers; Final Report of the Royal Commission. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $1.20.

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT CONFERENCE, VICTORIA UNIVERSITYOF WELLINGTON, 1970. Reports, Papers, and Proceedings. Ed. by C. K. McMahon. Wn, Environmental Council, 1972. $5.

PLANT PROTECTIONIN NEW ZEALAND, by J. D. Atkinson and others. Wn, Govt. Print., 1956. $5.60.

POOLE, A. L. Forestry in New Zealand; the Shaping of Policy. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton in association with the English Universities Press, London, 1969. $3.

REES, S. W. Pig Farming for Profit. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

STEVENS, P. G. Sheep. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958–1961. 2 v. $4.35.

THORPY, F. Wine in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1971.

WATSON, R. N. New Zealand Farm Accounting. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $7.75.

WHITTLESTONE, W. G. The Principles of Mechanical Milking. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $3.

ARTS IN GENERAL

*AUCKLAND CITY ART GALLERY. Ten Years of New Zealand Painting in Auckland. 1958–1967. Ak, 1967.

Also similar catalogues on New Zealand artists.

*BRASH, C. O. Present Company; Reflections on the Arts. Ak, Longman Paul. 1966. 75c.

BROWN, G. H., and H. H. KEITH. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839–1967. Ak, Collins, 1969. $7.50.

*COLQUHOUN, N., comp. New Zealand Folksongs; Song of a Young Country. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $2.25.

DOCKING, G. C. TWO Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $22.50.

JENSEN, O. The N.Z.B.C. Symphony Orchestra. Wn, Reed, 1966. $4.

KNIGHT, H. Photography in New Zealand; a Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971. $7.20.

NORTHCOTE-BADE, S. Colonial Furniture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.95.

TURNER, J. B., ed. Nineteenth Century New Zealand Photographs: a Govett-Brewster Art Gallery Travelling Exhibition. New Plymouth, Govett-Brewster Art Gallery, 1970.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

BULL, M. A. Vintage Motor Cycling; a Record of Motor Cycling in New Zealand from 1899 to 1931. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1970. $4.

BURRELL, R. W., ed. Bushcraft Manual. Wn, National Mountain Safety Council, 1968. 40c.

CARMAN, A. H. Ranfurly Shield Rugby; the Complete Book of Match Reports. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. o.p.

DOOGUE, R. B., and J. M. MORELAND. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $2.75.

HARRIS, G. A Land Apart; the Mount Cook Alpine Region. Wn, Reed, 1971. $12.50.

HEINE, A. J. Mountaincraft Manual. Wn, National Mountain Safety Council of New Zealand, 1971. 80c.

HERBERT, F. T. Harking Back; a History of Hunting in New Zealand 1870–1969. Hastings, the author, 1970. $4.

HINTZ, O. S. Trout at Taupo. New enl. ed. London, Reinhardt 1970. $3.60.

KELLY, G. M. Gold in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association, 1971. $4.50.

MACLEAN, P. J. The Veteran Years of New Zealand Motoring. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

MAHONEY, D. J. C. Trio at the Top; the Story of Bruce McLaren, Denny Hulme, and Chris Anion. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1970. $3.90.

NOLAN, M. A. Bush Lore. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1961. $1.35.

SMITH, M. W. Game as You Like. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.05.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

MCCORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. £1.25.

ORBELL, M. R., comp. Contemporary Maori Writing. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

REID, J. C., ed. A Book of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1964. $1.70.

POETRY

CURNOW, T. A. M. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, Eng., Penguin Books, 1966. $1.25.

DOYLE, C. D., ed. Recent Poetry in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1965. o.p.

MURDOCH, W., and A. MULGAN, comps. A Book of Australian and New Zealand Verse. London, O.U.P., 1950. o.p.

NGATA, A. T., ed. Nga Moteatea. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. 3v. Collection of Maori Songs.

O'SULLIVAN, V., comp. An Anthology of Twentieth-century New Zealand Poetry. London, O.U.P., 1970. $6.99; $7.50.

POETRY NEW ZEALAND. V. 1. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1971. $3.

SMITHYMAN, W. K. A Way of Saying; a Study of New Zealand Poetry. Ak, Collins, 1965. o.p.

WOODHOUSE, A. R., comp. New Zealand Farm and Station Verse, 1850–1950. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $2.50.

ALLEY, R. Winds of Change; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

BAXTER, J. K. The Rock Woman; Selected Poems. London, O.U.P., 1969. $1.20.

WEIR, J. E. The Poetry of James K. Baxter. Wn, Oxford U.P., 1970. $1.25.

BRASCH, C. O. Not Far Off; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1969. $1.60.

CAMPBELL, A. Kapiti; Selected Poems, 1947–71. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50.

CURNOW, T. A. M. Whim Wham Land. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.50.

DALLAS, R. Shadow Show; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1968. $1.50.

DUNSTAN, P. Patterns on Glass; Selected Poems. Ch, Pegasus, 1968. $1.75.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966. $2.50; paperback $1.75.

JOHNSON, O. A. A. R. D. Fairburn, 1904–57; A Bibliography of His Published Work. Ak, University of Auckland, 1958. 50c.

GLOVER, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $4.

HYDE, R. Houses by the Sea and Later Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1952. $1.25.

JOHNSON, L. A. Bread and a Pension; Selected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1964. $1.50.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems, With an Introduction by Allen Curnow. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50.

RODDICK, A. M. The Eye Corrects; Poems 1955–1965. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $1.25.

SMITHYMAN, K. Earthquake Weather. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $2.25.

*STEAD, C. K. Crossing the Bar. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $2.25.

FICTION

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; the Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. 55c.

NATIONAL LIBRARYOF NEW ZEALAND. SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE. Fiction for Post-primary Schools; an Annotated List. 2nd ed., rev. and enl. Wn, 1960.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968. $1.20.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966. $1.50.

STEAD, C. K. New Zealand Short Stories. 2nd series. London, O.U.P., 1966. $1.55.

AMATO, R. The Full Circle of the Travelling Cuckoo. With a memoir of the author by M. Shadbolt. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $1.95.

ASHTON-WARNER, S. Bell Call. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971.

——— Three; a Novel. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $4.30.

BALLANTYNE, D. A Friend of the Family. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.90.

BILLING, G. J. The Alpha Trip. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1969. $3.60.

BRATHWAITE, E. The Evil Day. London, Collins, 1967. $2.40.

——— The Flying Fish. London; Ak, Collins, 1964. $2.25.

DALLAS, R. The Children of the Bush. London, Methuen, 1969. $1.20.

DAVIN, D. Brides of Price. London, Hale, 1972. $4.

DUCKWORTH, M. Over the Fence is Out. London, Hutchinson, 1969. $2.80.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's Orchard and Other Stories. Ch, Caxton Press, 1970. $3.50.

——— Summer in the Gravel Pit; Stories. Hamilton, B. and J. Paul; London, Gollancz, 1965. $2.10.

FRAME, J. The Adaptable Man. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1965. $2.10.

——— Intensive Care; a Novel. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

——— The Rainbirds. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1969. $2.75.

——— A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $2.25.

——— Scented Gardens for the Blind. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1963. $1.75.

EVANS, P. D. An Inward Sun; the Novels of Janet Frame. Wn, New Zealand University Press, Price Milburn, 1971. $1.50.

GEE, M. In my Father's Den. London, Faber, 1972. $3.50.

GROVER, R. F. Another Man's Role. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.10.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971. $3; paperback, $1.80.

——— A Night at Green River. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1969. $2.

HYDE, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1970. $3.

IHIMAERA, W. Pounamu, Pounamu. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $3.80.

JOSEPH, M. K. The Hole in the Zero. B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.25.

LEE, J. A. Children of the Poor. London, Mayfair Books, 1963. 50c.

——— Shining with the Shiner. London, Mayfair Books, 1963. 55c.

MCNEISH, J. H. P. Mackenzie; a Novel. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1970. $5.50.

MANDER, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $3.70.

MANSFIELD, K. Selected Stories, Chosen and Introduced by D. M. Davin. London, O.U.P., 1969. $1.40.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $1.80.

SARGESON, F. Collected Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.50.

——— The Hangover. London, MacGibbon and Kee, 1967. $2.50.

——— Joy of the Worm. London, MacGibbon and Kee, 1969. $3.

——— Man of England Now. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972. (New Zealand Short Stories, No. 2.) $4.50.

SATCHELL, W. The Land of the Lost. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $4.20.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. An Ear of the Dragon. London, Cassell, 1971. $4.80.

——— This Summer's Dolphin. London, Cassell, 1969. $2.20.

STEAD, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971. $3.50.

TAYLOR, W. Episode. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1970. $3.05.

PLAYS

BAXTER, J. K. The Sore-footed Man [and] The Temptations of Oedipus. Ak, Heinemann Educational Books, 1971. $1.50.

CURNOW, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

MASON, B. E. G. Awatea; a Play in Three Acts. Wn, New Zealand University Press; Price Milburn, 1969.

NEW ZEALAND DRAMA COUNCIL. List of Recommended Plays. Wn, 1957. 25c.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—GENERAL

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1961–1962. 2 v. $7.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.50.

GRIFFITH, R. J. and J. PASCOE. New Zealand from the Air in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1968. $3.50.

HALL, D. O. W. Portrait of New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1966. $3.25.

HOLCROFT, M. H. New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1963. o.p.

Popular ed. 1968. $1.85.

MCINTYRE, P. Peter McIntyre's New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1964. $16.50.

MCLINTOCK, A. H., ed. A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. o.p.

PASCOE, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $3.50.

THE PATTERNOF NEW ZEALAND CULTURE, edited by A. L. McLeod. Melbourne, O.U.P.; Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press, 1968. A$9; US$10.

REED, A. H. The Four Corners of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1963. $2.50.

REED, A. W. A Dictionary of Maori Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1961. $1.50.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $3.50.

WHITE, L. L. White's Pictorial Reference of New Zealand. 2nd ed. Ak, White's Aviation, 1960. $14.70.

WISE'S NEW ZEALAND GUIDE; a Gazetteer of New Zealand. 4th ed. Dn, H. Wise, 1969. $6.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—HISTORICAL

ADAMS, C. W. A Spring in the Canterbury Settlement. Ch, Capper Press, 1971. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

BEST, A. D. W. The Journal of Ensign Best, 1837–1843. Edited by Nancy M. Taylor. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $3.50.

BUTLER, S. A First Year in Canterbury Settlement. Edited by A. C. Brassington and P. B. Maling, Hamilton, B. and J. Paul, 1964. $1.85.

DRUMMOND, A. E. H. At Home in New Zealand; an Illustrated History of Everyday Things Before 1865. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $3.

——— Married and Gone to New Zealand; Being Extracts from the Writings of Women Pioneers. London, O.U.P.; Ak, Longman Paul, 1963. $1.85.

EARLE, A. Augustus Earle in New Zealand, by A. Murray-Oliver. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $15.

——— Narrative of a Residence in New Zealand. Edited by E. H. McCormick. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. $7.55.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; the Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $8.50.

HEAPHY, C. Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand. London, Smith, Elder, 1842. Dn, Hocken Library, 1968. $4.25 Facsimile ed.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; a Tale of the Good Old Times. Ch. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1952. $1.25.

Ak, Wilson and Horton, 1970. 80c.

MARKHAM, E. New Zealand, or Recollections of It. Edited with an introduction by E. H. McCormick. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $3.

SHARP, C. A., comp. Duperrey's Visit to New Zealand in 1824. Wn, Alexander Turnbull Library, 1971. $4.75.

TAYLOR, N. M. Early Travellers in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1959. $9.60.

TROLLOPE. A. With Anthony Trollope in New Zealand. Edited by A. H. Reed. Wn, Reed for Dunedin Public Library, 1969. $2.50.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844. Ak, Wilson and Horton, 1971. $2.50. Also similar titles in paperback by the same publisher.

YATE, W. An Account of New Zealand and of the Church Missionary Society's Mission in the Northern Island. Wn, Reed, 1971. $10.95.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—REGIONAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ARBUCKLE, G. A. The Chatham Islands in Perspective; a Socio-economic Review. Wn, Hicks Smith. 1971. $3.

CONNOR, H. E. Mount Cook National Park Handbook. 4th ed. Ch. Mount Cook National Park Board, 1966. 75c.

LISTER, R. G., ed. Central Otago. Dn, New Zealand Geographical Society, 1965. $3.50.

NEW ZEALAND TOWNAND COUNTRY PLANNING DIVISION. Wanganui Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. (National Resources Survey, Pt. 7) $7.50.

Also similar titles on other regions.

QUARTERMAIN, L. B. New Zealand and the Antarctic. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $5.85.

TEMPLE, P. Mantle of the Skies; the Southern Alps of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $9.95.

HISTORICAL WORKS—GENERAL AND PERIOD INCLUDING MAORI WARS

BASSETT M. Confrontation 1951; The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.50.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

BEGG, A. C., and N. C. BEGG. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

BENTLEY, G. RNZAF; a Short History. Wn, Reed, 1969. $5.50.

CHAPMAN, R. M., and K. SINCLAIR, ed. Studies of a Small Democracy; Essays in Honour of Willis Airey. Ak, Longman Paul, 1965. $3.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. New Zealand in the Making. 2nd ed. London, Allen and Unwin, 1959. $3.20.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955-.5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

HALL, D. The Golden Echo; Some Aspects of New Zealand Social History. Ak, Collins, 1971. $3.80.

JACKSON, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; a Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $7.40.

LISSINGTON, M.P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

——— New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print, 1972. $3.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MORRELL, W. P. The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Report on Experience. 2nd ed. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND CENTENNIAL BRANCH. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., Wilson, G.H.O., in following section. gratis.

NEW ZEALAND WAR HISTORY BRANCH. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.; 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. $3.50; paperback $1.35.

PASCOE, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $3.95.

Ross, A. New Zealand Aspirations in the Pacific in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964. $6.45.

Ross, J. O. This Stern Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969. $3.95.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

SINCLAIR, K. A History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1969. $1.35.

——— The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1961. $3.

SUTCH, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; a Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

——— The Quest for Security in New Zealand. 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. $6.50: paperback $3.

WAKEFIELD, E. G. The Collected Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. Edited with an introduction by M. F. Lloyd Prichard. Ak, Collins, 1969. $13.95.

WARDS, I. M. The Shadow of the Land; a Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict, 1832–1852. Wn, Historical Publications Branch, 1968. $6.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

HISTORY—REGIONAL AND LOCAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ADKIN, G. L. The Great Harbour of Tara; Traditional Maori Place Names and Sites of Wellington Harbour and Environs. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1959. 75c.

A HISTORYOF CANTERBURY. Ch, Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3v.

ALLAN, R. M. Nelson; a History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed, 1965. $4.50.

CARMAN, A. H. The Birth of a City. Wn, The author, 1970. $4.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; a Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

GRAYLAND, E. C. Tarawera. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1971. $4.50.

HALL-JONES, J. Early Fiordland. Wn, Reed, 1968. $3.95.

MCDONALD, K. C. City of Dunedin; a Century of Civic Enterprise. Dn, Dunedin City Corporation, 1965.

MAY, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $5.

MILLER, F. W. G. Golden Days of Lake Country. 4th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $3.50.

NEWPORT, J. N. W. Collingwood; a History of the Area from Earliest Days to 1912. Ch, Printed at the Caxton Press, 1971. $5.40.

OLIVER, W. H. Challenge and Response; a Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

PINNEY, R. Early South Canterbury Runs. Wn, Reed, 1971. $9.95.

PLATTS, U. The Lively Capital, Auckland 1840–1865. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1971. $12.

REED, A. H. The Gumdiggers; the Story of Kauri Gum. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.75.

*STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 50c.

Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENTOF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. The New Zealand Honours List. 7th ed. Wn, Govt. Print. 1969. $2.50.

WHO'S WHOIN NEW ZEALAND. 10th ed., edited by G. C. Peterson. Wn, Reed, 1971. $6.50.

AIREY, W. T. G. A Learner in China, a Life of Rewi Alley. Ch, Caxton Press and the Monthly Review Society, 1970. $4.50.

CRESSWELL, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

DUNMORE, J. Norman Kirk; a Portrait. Palmerston North, New Zealand Books, 1972. $2.80.

ELWORTHY, G. and A. ELWORTHY. A Power in the Land; Churchill Julius, 1847–1938. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $4.50.

HALL–JONES, J. Mr Surveyor Thomson; Early Days in Otago and Southland. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; the Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Reluctant Editor; the Listener Years, 1949–67. Wn, Reed, 1969. $3.50.

LUSH, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850–63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $7.

*MCCORMICK, E. H. The Fascinating Folly; Dr Hocken and His Fellow Collectors. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1961.65c.

RAFTER, P. Never Let Go; the Remarkable Story of Mother Aubert. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

ROLLESTON, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

SINCLAIR, K. William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

STACPOOLE, J. William Mason; the First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U. P.; Wn, O. U. P., 1971. $7.40.

STUART, P. Edward Gibbon Wakefield in New Zealand; His Political Career, 1853–54. Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University of Wellington, 1971. $2.50.

WRIGHT-ST. CLAIR, R. E. Thoroughly a Man of the World; a Biography of Sir David Monro, M.D. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $6.50.

Chapter 45. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEAT INDUSTRY 1922–72*

New Zealand exports well over 600,000 tons of meat every year. Most of this is Iamb and mutton—with more than 400,000 tons shipped to countries all around the world. Then comes beef— nearly 200,000 tons, with another 50,000 tons of sundries and by-products. With a total farming area of only 42 million acres, and a population of less than 3 million, New Zealand has become the greatest meat exporting country in the world. To do this has meant a steady increase in the size of its flocks and herds.

The increased production over the past 50 years has not come about by accident. It has resulted, partly from a deliberate effort on the part of New Zealand's farmers, and on two occasions at the request of the United Kingdom.

Although the policy of the Meat Producers Board at its formation in 1922 favoured increased production, little of a positive nature could be done to encourage this. However, the New Zealand sheepfarmers increased their flocks at an average rate of 750,000 a year. A decline during the depression years was more than offset by an upsurge following increased use of aerial topdressing and the wide practical application of scientific technology (much of it developed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries), until by the beginning of the 1970s there were well over 60 million sheep grazing on New Zealand's carefully tended pastures.

Between 1922 and 1938 sheep increased by 10 million, beef cattle by 350,000, and pigs by 370,000. This had seemed steady and satisfactory progress, but suddenly it was proved not good enough. The Second World War provided an immediate market for all the meat New Zealand could produce, but shipping difficulties had still to be surmounted.

Then in 1944, Britain signed a 4-year contract to buy all the meat New Zealand could supply. This contract, primarily intended to provide the largest possible quantity of meat for the British public enabled New Zealand meat producers to plan ahead, confident that all their production would be sold.

In 1948 a new long-term bulk purchase contract was signed—this time for 7 years. In return for the extended agreement, the New Zealand Government introduced a programme to increase production. The target was an extra 50,000 tons more meat a year for the United Kingdom. However, this was not achieved. Only in the last of the 7 years did the increase reach 50,000 tons.

However, the situation was not as bad as the statistics might indicate. Before they could produce more young animals for slaughter, farmers had to increase the sizes of their breeding flocks. This meant that lambs or cattle had to be held back from export, and added to the breeding herd. During the long-term contract period, the sheep population increased by nearly 7 million, while beef herds rose by 800,000 head.

With the return to free trade in 1954, export meat production rose by leaps and bounds, and most of this went to the British market.

Probably the greatest single factor in increasing the number of sheep on New Zealand farms, almost three-fold in the past 50 years, has been widespread use of aerial topdressing. Most farmers will readily admit the debt they owe to these skilled flying men, who handle their specially-designed aircraft with such a sure touch, flying along narrow valleys, up over steep ridges, and following the contours of a hill.

The Meat Producers Board played a major role in the development of the aerial topdressing industry. By the 1950s one or two visionaries could see the advantages of spreading fertiliser from the air to make more grass grow on New Zealand farms, and particularly on hill-country farms with their steep slopes, and sharp ridges.

* This survey has been based largely on the publication of the Meat Producers Board edited by Dai Hayward Golden Jubilee, with supplementary information from B. L. Evans A History of Agricultural Production and Marketing in New Zealand, and a paper by J. V. White Producer Participation in Meat Marketing in New Zealand.

By the early fifties some former Air Force Tiger Moth training aircraft were being used to spread fertiliser. In 1954 the board arranged for short-term loans to the owners to convert their Tiger Moth fleet to more modern types of aircraft which could carry much bigger loads of fertiliser. A total of $500,000 was loaned to 29 companies to purchase 62 new aircraft. The total value of this fleet was $840,000. It is worth recording that every penny of this loan money was repaid.

By that time the aerial topdressing industry had expanded rapidly until it was spreading 400,000 tons of fertiliser a year. Most of this went on to hilly country, difficult to reach with wheeled transport.

New Zealand farmers were now able to make two or more blades of grass grow where only one had grown before. The impact on production was immediate and staggering. In 6 years from 1954 there were 10 million more sheep on New Zealand farms. In the decade 1956–66 the sheep population increased by more than 17 million, or an average of nearly 1 3/4 million animals each year.

Although the action of the Meat Producers Board in assisting the development of the topdressing industry was—like so many of its other activities—relatively unspectacular its impact on the New Zealand economy was dramatic.

As a result of the expansion of the aerial topdressing industry, the demand for fertiliser rapidly accelerated. There was some doubt that the existing fertiliser works would be able to produce the quantities which were obviously going to be needed. The problem was particularly acute in some areas—one of these being the East Coast of the North Island.

Once again the Meat Producers Board played a major role on behalf of the farmers. It provided finance from the Meat Industry Reserve Fund to build farmer-owner fertiliser works at Napier and farmer co-operatives works at Tauranga and Invercargill. Although the loans to each of these companies was over $2 million the major part of these has been repaid.

Along with the rise in sheep numbers over the past 50 years, there has also been an increase in the number of sheep-owners. There are now more than 38,000 owners of sheep in New Zealand compared with 23,800 in 1922. The number of farmers owning bigger flocks has also increased—largely as a result of the development of the topdressing industry. The biggest increase has been among those farmers owning between 1,000 sheep and 5,000 sheep. Their numbers grew from 5,000 to over 20,000, and more than half of all sheep-farmers in New Zealand now come into this category. It is interesting to note that the number of owners with fewer than 1,000 sheep is almost the same today —at 17,000 farms—as it was in 1922. The number of breeding ewes on New Zealand farms has increased from 12 million in 1922 to 43 million today.

The increase in the number of lambs available for export has also been assisted by an improvement in the fertility rate of breeding ewes. In the 1920s the average lambing return was probably around 85 percent of the flock. In one year it actually dropped to 82 percent, but today the national New Zealand lambing return is invariably well up in the nineties, climbing towards 100 percent.

Along with the expansion of the sheep population there has been a marked increase in the herds of beef cattle on New Zealand farms. In 1922 the beef industry was in the doldrums with a price paid to the producer of only $2 per 100 lb.

Important changes in beef cattle took place. The Polled-Angus challenged the Hereford and Beef Shorthorn as the chief breed. By 1936, Herefords numbered 426,000, Beef Shorthorn 417,000 and Polled-Angus 351,000.

During the Second World War beef exports had to be curtailed and this caused the number of beef cattle to remain static; but with the return to normal shipping conditions the industry entered on a period of rapid expansion. Throughout the 1950s the annual increase of about 100,000 in beef stock was reminiscent of the steep rise in dairy cattle in the 1920s and early 1930s. In 1950 beef cattle numbered 2.08 million, and in 1960 3.01 million, when they outnumbered dairy cattle; by 1970 they were over 5 million, and exceeded dairy cattle by 1.3 million.

Beef has assumed a position of importance among major exports only since the Second World War. Annual exports in the 1920s were round about 30,000 tons. The rapidly increasing dairy industry had reduced beef production to a minor role, while the difficulty of competing on the London market was a further obstacle to expansion in beef.

Until 1946 beef exports hovered annually between 25,000 and 50,000 tons. Following the Second; World War there was a steady increase, and from 1957 to 1967 annual exports were round about 100,000 tons. In 1967 total frozen meat exports of 553,000 tons included 103,000 tons of beef. Since then beef exports have risen by over 50 percent.

The meat freezing industry is New Zealand's largest industrial group. In 1970–71 the industry employed over 26,000 people, paid over $104 million in wages and salaries, and had an output valued at factory door of $519 million. The total capital value of the plant was over $150 million.

For the year ended 30 June 1972 the total value of exports of goods from New Zealand was $1,369.8 million, and the significance of meat to the economy can be gauged by the fact that exports of meat and meat preparations were valued at just over $399 million, the two principal items being lamb ($154 million) and beef ($178 million). Meat by-product exports (excluding slipe wool) were valued at $86 million, thus the total value to exports was some $486 million or 35.5 percent of total export of goods.

FORMATION OF THE MEAT PRODUCERS BOARD 1922—During the First World War and for a period thereafter, all New Zealand's exportable meat was requisitioned and sold under contract to the United Kingdom Government. This contract terminated on 30 June 1920. At that date more than 180,000 tons of meat were in store in New Zealand, being the equivalent of at least one season's export meat production. As a result, during the ensuing season the United Kingdom market was called upon to absorb nearly two seasons' production of meat from New Zealand.

On 10 January 1922 a conference attended by primary producers and members of a Parliamentary Committee was held in Wellington to discuss methods of dealing with the crisis. The Prime Minister, the Right Hon. W. F. Massey, presided. The proposal before the conference was to set up a producers' board to control the export of meat from New Zealand.

They came from all over New Zealand determined to have their say at what was to be the most important gathering in New Zealand's agricultural history. And on that fine warm Tuesday morning, 10 January 1922, many of them did not wait for the start of the Producers' Conference in the Dominion Farmers' Institute to make their views known. They button-holed friends and acquaintances—despite the north-west breeze—every street corner around Featherson Street had its knot of farmers debating, gesticulating, and arguing their respective points of view. But there were no lingerers, and all were inside when the Prime Minister arrived for the start of the meeting.

Mr Massey, who was asked to take the chair, was obviously pleased to see such a large and representative gathering.

“For quite a long time the Government has been watching closely what has been going on in the meat industry, and we came to the conclusion it was time to interfere to assist the meat producers to get a better price than they had been receiving,” said Mr Massey, in his opening remarks.

He pointed out that before the war, farmers were receiving approximately 80 percent of the British market price. In 1922 they received only 46 percent. To get a Iamb from the farm to Smithfield was taking 54 percent of the selling price. The net return in 1921 for a 60 lb wether sold in London for 4 1/2d per lb was 15s, but by 1922 it had fallen to 6s 3d.

The farmers needed little reminder of these facts, and the Prime Minister struck a sympathetic response when he declared: “This is not satisfactory”. The intention in forming a new organisation was to improve matters, but this could only be done effectively and satisfactorily if farmers combined together. …

The Prime Minister simplified the main objectives as a need to reduce production, shipping, and marketing costs, and at the same time to do everything possible to obtain fair prices in the United Kingdom.

Mr. Massey assured the farmers that Parliament was practically unanimous, and repeated his famous declaration—made in Parliament a few nights earlier: “We have put our hand to the plough, and we are going on. It does not matter what the opposition may be, we are going on.”

A committee of Parliamentary and producer representatives formulated the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 which was passed on 11 February 1922. This Act was entitled:

“An Act to make provision for the appointment of a Meat Producers Board, with power to control the meat export trade.” The Board had its first meeting on 14 March 1922.

Powers of Meat Producers Board—Under the original Act the Meat Producers Board could assume control over all export meat, prohibit or limit exports, impose a levy, negotiate all shipping contracts, lay down conditions on grading, handling, storage, and insurance, arrange promotion, or make any arrangements it considered necessary for the sale and disposal of New Zealand meat.

The Meat Act 1939 extended the board's powers.

The most important functions of the board laid down by these two acts, and including amendments since that time, are as follows:

  1. The export of any meat from New Zealand may be prohibited save in accordance with the determination of the board.

  2. The export of meat under the authority of meat export licences is subject to such conditions and restrictions as may be imposed by the board pursuant to the act.

  3. The board has power to assume absolute or limited control of meat intended for export.

  4. The board may make arrangements as to the slaughtering of stock where meat is intended for export.

  5. No contract for the carriage by sea or by air of any meat to be exported from New Zealand can be made save by the board or conformity with conditions approved by the board:

  6. The board may make such arrangements and give such directions as it thinks fit for the following matters:

    1. The grading, handling, pooling, storage, and insurance of meat.

    2. The shipment of meat on such terms and in such quantities as it thinks fit.

    3. The sale and disposal of meat on such terms as it deems advisable.

    4. Generally for all such matters as are necessary for the due discharge of its functions in handling, distributing, and disposing of New Zealand meat.

  7. The board has power to exhibit and advertise New Zealand meat.

  8. The board may advance money or give guarantees to any society carrying on business in New Zealand connected with the export of meat.

  9. The board may buy any meat produced in New Zealand and sell it in any other country in order to promote the sale of, or maintain the market for, New Zealand meat. The board may establish a new market by this means and, if required, expand it.

  10. The board implements the decisions of the market development committee as to the percentage of lamb which shall be diverted by exporters to markets outside the United Kingdom and the size of the levy payable for non-compliance.

Power to buy and sell meat was given to the Board by a 1971 amendment to the Act.

The board also has statutory powers concerning licensing of export slaughterhouses and meatpacking houses.

Under the terms of the Meat Act 1964, the Meat Producers Board has wide powers and obligations relating to the processing, packing and exporting of meat. In certain instances the board's approval or recommendation must be obtained by the Minister of Agriculture before he exercises certain powers under the Act.

The board's statutory obligations under the Act can be summarised as follows.

Section 28—before consenting to the issue of an export slaughterhouse licence, the Minister “shall obtain the approval of the Meat Producers Board”.

Section 30—the issue or renewal of any export slaughterhouse licence “shall be subject to such conditions as the Minister, or the Meat Producers Board with the authority of the Minister, may impose”.

Sections 34, 35, and 36 require the Minister to obtain the approval of the board in certain circumstances relating to the operation of an export slaughterhouse.

Section 37—no alterations or additions may be made to any export slaughterhouse except with the approval of the Minister on the recommendation of the board.

Section 50—where premises are intended to be used as an export packing house or a cannery, the Minister shall not give his consent without having regard to any recommendations of the board.

Section 55—the Minister shall have regard to any recommendation of the board before consenting to alterations or additions to an export packing house or a cannery.

Section 58 is a lengthy and complex section empowering the Minister “after full inquiry and discussion” with the board and the parties concerned, to require an export slaughterhouse to kill stock on behalf of an export packing house, provided the board has recommended that the Minister should so require.

Sections 64 to 67 deals with the issue and revocation of meat exporters' licences. A licence is granted or refused by the Minister “after consultation with the Meat Producers Board”.

Section 72—the consent of the Minister, or of the board with the authority of the Minister, must be obtained to any sale, lease, or other disposition of an export slaughterhouse or export packinghouse.

Meat Producers Board in Action—Mr Massey, and his Government, intended the board to make full use of the very wide powers conferred upon it, but the first board was able to make satisfactory progress towards achieving its main objectives without actually assuming the major powers available to it.

As the central organisation of the producers and the industry it has always been one of the chief architects of a marketing policy designed to obtain highest prices for meat in overseas markets. It has achieved this by regulation of shipments of meat, by supervision of meat grading, by improvement in quality, and by advertising and general promotion.

After constitution, the board began the important work of negotiating all freight contracts for transporting meat overseas, of allocating space for all shipments of meat from New Zealand and of regulating shipments to prevent glutting the market.

Prior to the establishment of the board, enormous quantities of mutton and lamb were exported, often without consideration of the stock position in the United Kingdom. This glutted the market and depreciated the value of the consignments, simply because it was nobody's business to regulate it. Regularity and continuity of supplies are the most important factors in selling on the British market.

In addition the board undertook the supervision of the grading of meat. The object was to gain the confidence of overseas buyers by ensuring that all New Zealand meat compiled strictly with the grade specified.

When the Meat Board was established in 1922, the exporters all had their own type of grading marks for various qualities of meat. As well, particular qualities at each works were given a distinctive brand.

The board wasted no time in laying down a system of grade marks to apply to every freezing works in New Zealand and, in its first annual report issued only 15 months after its formation, was able to say:

“Today there is only one mark for first quality lamb for New Zealand, and the same for other grades.”

The purpose of grading export meat is simply to put like with like so that New Zealand meat can be purchased in the world's markets according to the grade specified without the buyer necessarily sighting the meat.

It is this buyer confidence inspired by the Meat Board's grading system that has enabled our meat to be sold in advance or for large quantities to be bought over the telephone, the way most New Zealand lamb is still bought and sold.

In order to put its policy into practice, the board appointed supervising meat graders to visit all freezing works and check the standard of grading of the works' graders. They attended at ship's side to supervise loading of meat, paying particular attention to its condition as it emerged from the rail wagons, and to stowage on board ship. As a further check against mutilation in transit, dock inspectors were appointed in the United Kingdom to watch the unloading. Their reports led to many reforms in the handling of frozen produce.

The active co-operation of producers was also vital in another aspect of improving the quality of meat, and this was by improving the livestock. By its own actions the board could do little, but by publicity and promotion of fat stock competitions and other similar activities it helped to educate producers in the requirements of the overseas market.

Also, in order to increase sales aboard, the board initiated an advertising and public relations campaign. It aimed not only to establish a high reputation for the quality of New Zealand meat, but also to keep this fact incessantly before the consumer. In the initial stages advertising took the form of displays at exhibitions and in the larger London stores, but with expansion of production the board decided to intensify its advertising campaign. The annual amount spent on publicity increased from $3,000 in 1926 to a peak of $34,000 in 1939.

During the first 7 or 8 years of the board's administration, the meat trade progressed fairly normally. The annual export during the period 1922 to 1929 ranged between 150,000 and 200,000 tons, with the usual annual fluctuation in price.

This period of orderly marketing did not continue indefinitely. In 1930 some 200,000 tons of exported frozen meat was worth approximately $22 million; but in 1932, when the quantity had increased to 225,000 tons, the value had dropped to £17 million, and board and producers were faced with the paradox of increasing production and the falling prices of the depression.

In 1932, when the whole industry was paralysed by a nation-wide strike of butchers, many freezing companies adopted the “chain” system of slaughtering. Under the former system of “solo” killing each butcher was responsible for the whole process of killing and dressing the carcass, but under the chain system carcasses are hung on a moving chain with each member of the gang contributing one small part to the general operation. The principle of mass production replaced that of the individual workman.

During the Second World War, there were several developments within the industry. There was an increase in production amounting to a total of over 40,000 tons and, for two seasons only, the dehydration of small quantities of boneless beef for export. The major developments, however, were the introduction of bulk purchase marketing, and the creation of a Meat Pool Account. The Meat Producers Board and the Government, finally and the producers, agreed to forego any increase in schedule prices granted by the United Kingdom, and to use the increments to establish a Meat Pool Account, the primary purpose of which was to provide a fund to maintain the value of ewe mutton at a reasonable level, and to cover the capital cost of providing emergency canning plant, buildings, and cool stores. This was rapidly accomplished, and all ewe mutton was canned during 1941–42 and 1942–43. By the commencement of the 1943–44 season the shipping crisis was sufficiently past to enable ewe mutton to be shipped once more in carcass form.

Meanwhile, in 1942, the Economic Stabilisation Emergency Regulations came into operation. Under these regulations farmers could receive additional prices only when they proved increased costs of production. This meant that a portion of the increase in the price of meat paid by the United Kingdom Ministry of Food was frozen, and the increased prices which might have been paid to farmers were paid into a Meat Stabilisation Account for future use of the industry. As a result the sum of $6,712,138 (as at July 1946) had accumulated for the future benefit of the industry, and continued to accumulate by varying amounts from season to season. By 1949 it had reached $31,586,208. During 1950–51, the Government, with the approval of the Meat Producers Board and Federated Farmers, passed legislation amalgamating the Meat Pool and Meat Industry Stabilisation Accounts into one account to be called the “Meat Industry Reserve Account”. In September, 1952, the balance in the Meat Industry Reserve Account was $80,858,758. It was from these huge reserves that the board was able to make loans to fertiliser companies, producer-owner freezing works and, to aerial topdressing companies—all towards assisting greater farm and factory production.

Prior to the war, freezing companies and meat exporters had marketed their own meat, but under the war-time bulk purchase system the U.K. Government purchased all meat and shipped it to the United Kingdom. An important development in 1948 was the arrangement with the Government by which the Meat Producers Board, as agents for the New Zealand Government, resumed the regulation of shipping and physical handling of meat, and became responsible for purchase of meat for export and for payment to freezing companies. The Meat Producers Board, was not directly responsible for marketing of meat, nor had it ever been; but in the annual negotiation of contract prices under the bulk purchase contract, the representatives of the board acted as advisers in association with the New Zealand Government. The board has no jurisdiction over meat destined for local consumption.

Shipping Arrangements—When the Meat Producers Board held its first meeting on 15 March 1922 one of the items high up on the agenda was “Shipping”. The board wasted no time in tackling this problem and one of its first actions was to arrange a meeting of representatives with the shipping companies in Wellington.

Board members gathered for the first of their monthly meetings on the Tuesday. On Friday of that same week they met the shipping companies to discuss freight and loading charges.

The board assumed control of all shipments of frozen meat from New Zealand. It negotiated all freight contracts for the shipment of meat.

A shipping Allotment Committee on which the board was represented was set up to regulate shipments. The Allotment Committee has operated ever since, except for a break during the war, and is still one of the board's most important functions. Its work is to allot the quantities of meat from each works which will be loaded into each ship, and to regulate the shipping services and departures to the best advantage of all concerned.

Improvements which the Allotment Committee brought about through planned programming of shipping were apparent soon after the Meat Producers Board came into existence. The violent fluctuations in price, which had occurred in the 1921 season, and which had been aggravated by the unco-ordinated shipping services, ceased.

In 1921, New Zealand sent 3,824,000 lambs to Britain. It is worth noting that 3 years later, in 1924, the number had risen to 4,619,000, but as a result of the boards' programming efforts, this large increase was absorbed onto the British market without the adverse effects which a smaller quantity had created before a shipping programme was established.

The committee must know the amount of meat held in store on the London market, and shipments of frozen meat expected in London from other exporting countries, particularly the Argentine and Australia.

Prices for New Zealand lamb and mutton in the United Kingdom are affected by seasonal rises and falls in demand. Sales decline when the fresh spring lambs from England, Wales, and Scotland reach the market, and rise again as the home-produced lambs disappear. Shipments of New Zealand meat are timed to take full advantage of this.

The Allotment Committee is given an estimate of how much shipping space will be needed for 3 months ahead. This allows shipping companies to plan their voyages.

Freezing companies also notify the Meat Producers Board and the Allotment Committee of the amount of meat they want to ship from each works for the next 2 months. When the whole picture has been examined, meat is allocated to various vessels travelling to different ports, and freezing companies are told their allotment of meat cargo for each vessel.

The early members of the board worked to improve the situation regarding beef and with the help of the freezing companies, shipping companies, and the railways, negotiated special concessions for freezing charges, and shipping and rail freight.

In 1933 the board co-operated with a freezing company in sending two trial shipments of chilled beef to the United Kingdom. This was successful, and regular shipments soon followed until they reached 250,000 quarters of chilled beef. This was half as much again as the amount of frozen beef being sent to Britain. During the war chilled beef shipments were suspended. They resumed again in 1952, and reached a record of 330,916 quarters in the 1956–57 season.

That season saw a dramatic change. The American market for boneless beef had been opened up. Just 1 year later, only 36,447 quarters of chilled beef went to Britain, and from then on this was reduced to a mere trickle.

One reason New Zealand was able to keep freight charges down in the 1960s lay in a determined effort, spearheaded by the Board, to improve the efficiency of meat handling at New Zealand ports, speed up loading times and cut down the time vessels spent turning round in the New Zealand coast.

In 1963 committees in both New Zealand and London had looked at loading and unloading and considered ways in which they could be improved. Their report presented in February 1964 had 18 main headings and was to result in worthwhile savings and improvements in shipping services.

The report recommended that agreements between the various boards and the shipping lines should provide a reasonable measure of mutual security, encouraging capital and other commitments to bring about modernisation, and greater efficiency; freight rates should be specified in the agreements, renegotiated not more than once a year, and be settled by a formula which would take into account alterations in costs, and profits and other relevant changes since the rates were last agreed.

One recommendation was to encourage freezing companies to ship more meat at the off-peak time of the year. This, of course, means that the companies require larger cold stores in which to hold meat waiting shipment so the board provided incentives for freezing companies to organise their shipping to make more meat available for shipment outside peak periods.

They were also encouraged to send bigger quantities of meat early in the season. This means careful planning and reorganising and sometimes several works combine to make up a full cargo for a ship loading at the start of the season.

The board employs two shipping inspectors in Britain who report on the condition of New Zealand meat discharged in British ports. In New Zealand the board's 22 supervising meat graders, who also act as shipping inspectors, keep a close eye on meat sent to the wharves for export. They make sure that meat does not lose any of its condition or quality during transit. They visit the wharves to supervise the meat being transferred from refrigerated wagons into the ship's hold and they are particularly concerned to check the temperature and appearance of the meat as it passes from one to the other.

Each day the shipping company with a vessel in port notifies the works of the amount of meat it estimates can be loaded on the following day. If for any reason loading is delayed, the meat is sent back to the freezing works to maintain its proper condition. Strict rules decide who carries the responsibility and the expense when meat is not immediately loaded into a ship's hold.

Over the years the Meat Producers Board has encouraged the adoption of a number of procedures to reduce wharf handling. The need for more efficient meat loading methods at New Zealand ports led to the introduction of the all-weather meat-loaders at the ports of Timaru and Bluff.

Another important development arising from the report was the formation of the Exports and Shipping Council to co-ordinate shipping planning and speed up turnaround of vessels.

This council held its first meeting in Wellington on 5 June 1964. Sir John Ormond was appointed chairman and presided over representatives from the three producer boards, the four shipping lines, freezing companies, railways, Harbours Association, and the Associated Chambers of Commerce. The Wool Board and the Federation of Labour joined in 1965. Eight working committees were appointed to cover the wide field of investigation recommended by the 1964 report. Committees were also formed in London.

By 1967 the board reported that, compared with the 3 years prior to the report, time spent on the New Zealand coast loading and discharging refrigerated ships had been cut by 10 percent; for loading only it was cut by 14 percent; ports of call had been reduced by 20 percent, and the flow of cargoes on and off the ships increased by 8 percent. All represented substantial cumulative savings in the total freight bill.

Freight charges in current values, of course, rose more or less in line with inflation. Between September 1960 and 1 February 1971, refrigerated freight rates for meat and dairy produce increased nine times, the highest rise being in 1966 when 7 3/4 percent was agreed, the lowest in 1969 when it was 2 1/2 percent. In 1972 there was a freight increase of 28 percent.

During the mid sixties the shipping world began looking towards containerisation which, it was hoped, would at least hold costs and speed the turnaround of ships. The parent companies of the four British lines became members of two container consortia—Overseas Containers Limited (O.C.L.) and Associated Container Transportatation Limited (A.C.T.)—and introduced container ships in the Europe-Australia service.

Today, 50 years after the Meat Producers Board came into existence, the transport of export meat still depends upon shipping, but in the mid fifties the board began to study developments in air transport. Several members of the board and of the industry believed that with bigger aeroplanes it would become economical to carry the more valuable portions of meat to some markets by air.

In 1959, the board obtained the power to negotiate contracts for the carriage of meat by air, as well as by sea. It arranged experimental shipments in which temperatures of meat parcels stowed in aircraft holds were carefully checked and all other factors, including cost, thoroughly examined.

By the early 1960s small but increasing tonnages of meat were regularly leaving New Zealand by air. Many restaurants in Singapore, Malaysia, and other parts of Asia, now serve “jet fresh” New Zealand meat on their menu. In 1963, 121 tons of meat were shipped by air and by 1966 this had grown to 700 tons. In the late sixties regular shipments of lamb were sent by air to Canada to put fresh lamb into the supermarkets and meat stores at a time when local home-produced lamb was not available.

FINDING NEW MARKETS—The number of sheep, breeding ewes, and lambs tailed annually well nigh doubled between 1946 and 1968, and, with corresponding increases in cattle, the meat industry experienced a period of unprecedented growth involving huge expansion and investment in plant, equipment, and labour.

Expanding production, however, brings in its wake a crop of problems both in processing and marketing; and ever since the First World War the meat industry has had to face the twin problems, maintaining traditional markets and exploring new markets.

Breaking into new markets required patience, hard work and perseverance. Although for many years the bulk of New Zealand's meat went to Britain, the Meat Producers Board has been conscious, right from its inception, for the need to put New Zealand meat on the dinner tables of people in other lands.

In its very first annual report the Meat Producers Board referred to the importance of extending sales of New Zealand meat to other markets. At that time less than 10 tons a year of New Zealand beef was sold to Europe. But even this minimal sale was lost as the various European countries imposed restrictions to protect their own meat producers.

Although some meat went to other countries, Britain remained the dominant market until the Second World War, when the United Kingdom contracted to take all the meat New Zealand could produce. The bulk purchase agreement lasted for 9 years after the war, which meant that New Zealand could make no effort at all during this period to try out other markets.

In the 1951 season Britain agreed to release a small quantity of meat which was sent to other countries. Again in 1952–53 and 1953–54 modest quantities of various types of meat were available for testing alternative markets, and the board was able to find buyers in such widely separated areas as Honolulu, Italy, and Japan, as well as North America. Slowly but surely New Zealand was knocking on the door of markets outside Britain.

When bulk purchase ended the board was poised to venture into other areas, and did all it could to encourage New Zealand meat exporters to find customers around the world. In the first season of free marketing New Zealand shipped 51,884 tons of meat to 26 different countries outside the United Kingdom. Three seasons later this was to exceed 100,000 tons for the first time, mainly as a result of the tremendous expansion of beef sales to the United States.

In one season alone exports of boneless beef to the United States jumped from 18,800 tons to 69,400 tons. In the mid sixties this amount was to drop temporarily, due to an abnormal demand from the United Kingdom, but was restored in 1967. Most of New Zealand's beef exports to the United States is used in processed meat products.

UNITED KINGDOM AND THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—By 1966 Britain's meat production had climbed to 1,894,500 tons under the agricultural support policy. This included just over 266,000 tons of mutton and lamb, and was the result of an increase of 5 million sheep since 1957. Britain now had a flock of 30 million but this was to be the peak. Production began to fall and, despite subsidies, the number dwindled by about 1 million a year. By 1969 it was nearer 27 million and home-killed supplies of mutton and lamb had fallen by over 60,000 tons a year. New Zealand meat helped to make this up.

In June 1966, Britain agreed to go on admitting New Zealand meat “without restriction of quantity” until September 1972.

From 1966 to 1970 New Zealand's lamb exports to Britain rose steadily—from 269,500 tons to nearly 287,000 tons. New Zealand was selling lamb in Britain far more cheaply than the British farmers with the market on their doorstep. The schedule price paid to New Zealand farmers was well under half the standard price paid to British farmers for their sheep.

Even when freight, then at 4.56d per lb, cold storage, insurance, dock dues, and other costs were added, New Zealand could still provide cheaper lamb for the British housewife than that grown on her doorstep—a tribute to New Zealand's farming industry.

It was at the 1970 talks that the British delegation announced the ending of the guaranteed price and subsidy system to her sheep-farmers. Britain was again getting ready for membership of the EEC.

With the return of a Conservative Government in June 1970, membership negotiations with the EEC were renewed.

The board's European director told the British that New Zealand sheepfarmers would be puzzled, bewildered, and alarmed at Britain's alteration of the efficient and well-proven system of free and unrestricted entry for lamb exports, which had existed for 90 years and was formalised by treaty. New Zealand sheepfarmers had suffered from obstructive conditions of entry in EEC countries which restricted their sales, and were now to be hit by a customs duty on lamb entering Britain. This would seriously prejudice any negotiations for more reasonable conditions of entry into EEC countries.

The British Government, however, was determined, and on 1 July 1971 a customs duty of £9.33 a ton was imposed on imported lamb. This duty was raised to £18.67 a ton on 1 January 1972. It was due to go to £28 a ton on 1 July 1972, but this step was postponed and then cancelled.

In July 1971, the British Government published a White Paper on the terms for her entry to the EEC. This stated that Britain recognised that New Zealand depended heavily on the British market for her exports of lamb.

The White Paper also said: “There is no common organisation of the market in the Community for sheepmeat and each Member State at present sets its own conditions for entry into their countries. There is, however, one common element. This is the common European tariff (CET) set at a level of 20 percent and we have agreed to adjust to this tariff over the transitional period. Both we, and New Zealand, consider that an acceptable volume of trade in New Zealand lamb will continue to flow over such a tariff. Forward estimates of production and consumption indicate that the United Kingdom in the enlarged Community will remain a substantial importer of New Zealand lamb.

“Both the United Kingdom and New Zealand are closely concerned for sheepmeat following British entry, as the United Kingdom will be by far the major consumer of sheepmeat in an enlarged Community. The Government has, therefore, been able to express to the New Zealand Government its confidence that there will continue to be adequate and remunerative access for lamb from traditional sources of supply.”

For about 90 years New Zealand's lamb and meat entered the United Kingdom in unrestricted quantities, free from customs duties and other forms of Government tax. New Zealand farmers had been encouraged to produce the particular quantity and class of lamb that. British housewives have always been able to buy it at reasonable prices unencumbered by duties and taxes.

Now this was to change. The Meat Producers Board and its officers were worried. The EEC countries could obstruct easy entry of New Zealand lamb, with prohibitions, quantitative restrictions, customs duties, high variable levies, and import licensing. If these obstructive entry conditions were applied to the huge quantity of New Zealand lamb entering the United Kingdom, New Zealand's efficient lamb exporting industry would face a serious situation.

Accelerated moves to promote lamb in other markets has been a consequence of developments, but the dependence on the United Kingdom market remains.

MEAT FREEZING COMPANIES AND THE PURCHASE OF LIVESTOCK—The first shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand to Britain was made in 1882 and the structure of the New Zealand meat industry stems from this event. The first requirement was for a considerable amount of industrial capital which was provided mainly by overseas companies. Later many companies were established with New Zealand capital but quite a number were unsuccessful. Large overseas companies in many cases absorbed the unsuccessful attempts at the establishment of locally owned and financed companies. These overseas companies possessed the necessary capital, market outlets, and technical know-how in respect to both marketing and processing. They invested very large sums in processing establishments as did of course, a number of New Zealand companies. In New Zealand these establishments, while technically slaughterhouses, are popularly known as freezing works because the emphasis is almost entirely on frozen meat for export while the term abattoir is confined to slaughterhouses, mainly owned by municipalities, killing animals for local consumption although a few abattoirs do a certain amount of export trade.

The present position is that there are five overseas companies engaged in processing and exporting meat. There are 17 New Zealand-owned companies all of which own freezing works (slaughterhouses) and process meat, and most of these companies export as well. Three of these are co-operatively owned companies, shareholding in which is confined to meat producers, all profits being returned to the producers. One of these companies operates on a large scale owning three large and one smaller freezing works. One company was established within the last decade, obtaining part of its capital from farmers in the district and part from loans from the Meat Producers Board's Reserve Account. The position is complicated, however, by the fact that while there are only 39 establishments (some companies own more than one works) engaged in processing export meat, the total number of firms with licences to export meat is several times this number. These firms include the freezing companies but the greater number are various types of commercial enterprises. A few of these firms do buy animals from farmers and have them processed at a freezing works, but most exporters purchase meat from one or more of the freezing companies and resell overseas. The position is however complicated in that some New Zealand-owned freezing companies, while they purchase stock and process it, then sell the meat to one of the overseas companies to market.

A still further complication is that in addition to New Zealand-owned and overseas companies there are two producer co-operatives. Producers selling through these co-operatives receive the market values at time of sale less usual freight, handling, and processing charges. The development of producer co-operatives in the meat industry has been relatively slow. In 1970–71 they owned at time of slaughter just under 9 percent of stock for export, while the overseas companies owned 46 percent and the New Zealand-owned companies and those exporters who owned meat at time of slaughter controlled 45 percent. This included, however, meat processed on “own account” through company pools which is about 9 percent of total. Thus something like 18 percent of total exports are handled through co-operatives or “own account” selling.

The process by which farmers sell their livestock for slaughter is fairly complicated. Most stock are sold on what is called “schedule”. Each week the exporters offer a range of schedule prices. In the case of lamb this consists of so many cents per pound of meat plus a value for the skin (pelt) including wool growth. For beef, a price of so many dollars per 100 pounds is offered (which includes a price for the hide). These prices are all on a carcass-weight basis and there is, of course, a wide range of price differentials according to quality and type. However, by-products from the animals (tallow, offals, casings, etc.) are regarded as perquisites for the processing companies and in fact do offset the costs of killing and processing.

In setting the schedule the exporting companies obviously have to take account not so much of current values but of values which they expect to receive when the meat is sold on consignment in 3 to 6 months' time in the case of sales in Britain.

While most stock is sold this way the farmer does have other alternatives. He can sell in local sale yards or he can have a stock buyer come and offer him so much per head, in which case the company takes the risk of the buyer's judgment being sound, or he can sell in what is known as “own account”, that is he has the power to instruct a freezing company to process and export his stock at the usual charges and he will take whatever value they bring overseas. This is a useful provision if the farmer is dissatisfied with the schedule but in fact direct “own account” selling is fairly limited and farmers who prefer to market this way do so through the producer co-operatives or through a pooling system operated by some companies.

HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY OF LIVESTOCK—Animal health has been a prime concern of the Meat Producers Board for many years. It realised that to maintain animal health, and to detect possible ill health at an early stage, New Zealand must have an efficient and widespread veterinary service with qualified men offering farmers the benefit of their experience. In 1943 it collaborated with other producer boards, with Federated Farmers, the New Zealand Veterinary Association and the Government to establish the Veterinary Services Council.

In 1955 the Meat Industry Research Institute was set up and its object is to foster, promote, and undertake research in meat, and the meat industry, whether in New Zealand or overseas.

The institute has been involved in a variety of interesting and profitable investigations. These range from establishing the causes for variation in the degree of tenderness in lamb and beef to methods of heat recovery from the steam used in dry-rendering cookers.

The drive for new and enlarged markets has brought with it the need for greater diversification in the range of exported commodities. This in turn has created a demand for more cutting and boning, new products, improved presentation and greater emphasis on quality standards. The almost universal demand for higher standards of hygiene and sanitation, the growing need to up-grade by-products, and better utilisation of waste materials and labour has called for a greater understanding of the technical problems involved and the need for innovation.

It has been the policy of the institute over the last decade to anticipate developments wherever possible, and this has been reflected in the nature of the research which has been undertaken.

The institute's research programme has covered many vital operational aspects of the meat industry to include the chilling and freezing of meat; transportation of meat in containers; pollution abatement and tenderising of lamb and beef.

In 1960, the Meat Producers Board set up the New Zealand Sheep and Beef Cattle Survey—again as a joint operation with the Wool Board.

Productivity in the sheep and beef cattle industry can be affected by many factors. Disease, and ill health can affect the productivity of numbers of animals in a herd or flock, while correct breeding, and selection of stock contributes immensely towards improving animal health and increasing stock numbers.

Parasites, infection, and specific diseases are carefully watched and the effects recorded by survey officers. The survey works towards the elimination of congenital weaknesses in animals by recommending selective breeding to improve herds. The pastoral industry has shown the benefits of the information and advice given by the Sheep and Beef Cattle Survey during the past decade.

In 1961, the Romney Marsh Sheep Breeders' Association obtained the co-operation of the two boards in setting up an organisation, known as the Romney Survey, to make intensive regular surveys of disease, breeding, feeding, and management of the large number of Romney flocks throughout New Zealand.

Along with the Southdown, the Romney is one of the major sheep breeds in this country. The majority of lambs produced specifically for the British market are Romney/Southdown cross, and the boards agree that anything which would help to protect and improve the breed would help make an important contribution to the economy of the meat industry.

(The Survey has now been superseded by the Livestock Improvement Organisation, which will also develop a system of recording to ensure that farmers have available proven quality breeding stock, as has been done by the dairy industry.)

ADMINISTRATION OF MEAT PRODUCERS BOARD—The Meat Producers Board at present consists of nine members. Six of these are elected by producers, two are appointed by Government, and one is nominated by the Dairy Board to represent the interests of the dairy industry. The board elects its own chairman.

The elected members are chosen by an electoral committee of 25 members, who are themselves elected on a regional basis by sheep and cattle farmers (excluding dairy farmers). The chairman of Federated Farmers meat and wool section is also a member of the committee.

Over the years the board has been financed by a levy on export meat at a rate for a period up to 1972 of 0.075 cents per pound. However in recent years the board has drawn the greater part of its finance from interest on its reserve account. This account was built up over the years of economic stabilisation during and after the Second World War, and has been used to finance in part a freezing works, several fertiliser manufacturing plants, and to finance extensions to the freezing works run by a major co-operatively owned company. However the greater part of the fund is invested in government stock and can be used for any purpose agreed between board and Government as being to the benefit of the meat industry.

This fund is also used to finance a minimum prices scheme which was initiated in 1954. Minimum prices for each major class of meat are established before the commencement of each season by a committee comprised of Meat Producers Board and Government representatives with an independent chairman, and if the f.o.b. value of any class of meat falls below the minimum a deficiency payment can be declared on all meat of that class produced in the following week. In practice floor prices have been set conservatively and no payments have been made under this scheme since 1962.

To enable it to expand its activities and supervise satisfactorily promotional and other work the Meat Producers Board established an office in London at an early stage of its development. This office later took over the supervision of meat promotion and advertising throughout Europe, but a separate European office is being established. Later the Board established similar offices but on a somewhat smaller scale in New York and Tokyo. In all its activities the board naturally works in very closely with Government departments, not only in Wellington at the policy-making level, but also in various countries through the diplomatic and trade posts which the Government has established.

In the late 1950s board expenditure increased rapidly, mainly due to increased advertising. The board's income from the levy on exported meat was again not sufficient to meet its expenditure, and the deficiency had to be made up by drawing on the special reserve account which had come into existence during the stabilisation period. During those years the board began promotional work in other countries outside of Britain. This caused a rapid rise in expenditure.

The levy was gradually increased to .05d of a lb and then to .09d—or .075c per lb. This was still not sufficient to cover the board's total administration costs and in recent years the Meat Industry Reserve Account has been drawn upon to meet the difference. (In 1973 the levy was increased to 0.35c per lb.)

Apart from the export activities which have been stressed in this survey, the Meat Producers Board, along with the other primary produce boards, has worked steadily at improving the springboard for production, the local farm. For instance, through the Meat and Wool Boards' Economic Service, valuable advice has been given to individual farmers and surveys made for the benefit of the farming industry.

The work of the Meat Producers Board now touches on every facet of the industry— production, processing, marketing, shipping freights, meat research, animal health, air freighting of meat, and meat grading. The meat industry itself is in an active state of evolution. Prior to the First World War it was a relatively simple affair— farmers, freezing companies, and a seemingly insatiable market in the United Kingdom. Since, it has developed into a great sophisticated machine employing economists, scientists, technicians, skilled labour, and sales promotion experts, all geared to the one supreme purpose of producing highest quality meat and promoting successfully its sale in the markets of the world.

APPENDIX A—Exports 1969–70

COUNTRY ANALYSIS
BEEF AND VEAL
CountryTonsValue f.o.b.
 $(000)
Barbados1,426902
Bermuda872889
Canada46,04035,379
Cyprus375289
French Polynesia1,3851,703
Guam1,1911,116
Hong Kong677812
Jamaica1,489997
Japan3,3352,536
Netherlands302302
Netherlands Antilles320276
Philippines313375
Puerto Rico813726
Singapore2,3602,267
Switzerland1,1771,302
Trinidad and Tobago2,0641,616
United Kingdom14,00410,237
United States87,90385,721
Other countries8,8526,764
               Totals174,898154,244
LAMB
CountryTonsValue
f.o.b.
 $(000)
Canada1,5761,003
Cyprus1,136513
Fiji862309
Germany, Federal Republic1,785853
Greece8,9003,807
Italy839498
Japan5,6122,731
Netherlands1,164533
Singapore870379
Switzerland608308
United Kingdom271,076132,753
United States11,4316,839
Other countries8,4553,754
               Totals314,313154,280
MUTTON
CountryTonsValue
f.o.b.
 $(000)
Canada660293
Cyprus20465
Fiji467129
Germany, Federal Republic439103
Greece18438
Jamaica1,751463
Japan82,07519,621
Netherlands33788
Singapore18845
United Kingdom19,6374,638
United States2012
Other countries12,1303,099
               Totals118,09228,593

APPENDIX B—Meat Freezing and Preserving Industry—The industry comprises establishments primarily engaged in the slaughtering of cattle, sheep, lambs, pigs, calves, and other animals for export and for local consumption. Firms which also engage in killing stock for clients on a commission basis are required to estimate the cost of stock killed and the value of meat and by-products produced.

Important products in the industry include frozen beef, mutton, lamb, and veal for export; canned beef, tongues, and other meat goods; meat extract, tallow, hides, and pelts; slipe wool; manures and stock meals; and runners.

The total meat produced by the meat export works amounted to 845,851 tons in 1969–70, while production outside export works totalled 165,140 tons at registered abattoirs, 3,933 tons at rural slaughterhouses, and 19,612 tons on farms.

GENERAL STATISTICS1970–71
ItemUnit of Quantity1970–71
EstablishmentsNo.46
Persons engaged—
        MalesNo.24,975
        FemalesNo.1,031
               TotalsNo.26,006
Overtime worked by wage earnershalf (000)7,026
Production Costs
     Salaries and wages paid—
        To males$(000)102,002
        To females$(000)2,158
               Totals$(000)104,160
     Cost of materials used$(000)360,029
     Other expenses of production$(000)43,546
               Total production cost$(000)507,736
Value of production$(000)519,156
Manufacturers' surplus$(000)11,420
Net output (net value added)$(000)118,122
Value of production per person$19,963
Net output (net value added) per person$4,542
Ratio of salaries and wages to net output (net value added)percent88,2
Volume of production index, Base: 1956–57 (=1000) 1646
Premises and plant
     Value at end of year—
        Land and buildings$(000)108,141
        Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)46,657
        Transport equipment$(000)1,237
     Capital expenditure during year—
        Land and buildings$(000)11,294
        Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)12,960
        Transport equipment$(000)480
STOCK SLAUGHTERED AND MATERIALS USED1970–71
Stock and MaterialsUnit of QuantityQuantityCost
Stock purchased by company or slaughter on owner's account (including meat subsequently canned)—$(000)
     LambsNo.(000)25,475141,938
     Sheep     ″     7,08028,075
     Cattle     ″     1,452142,852
     Pigs     ″     38710,102
     Bobby calves     ″     1,05210,673
     Other calves     ″     291,287
     Other3,423
Other materials used in killing, dressing, and freezing5,973
   Stock purchased for boiling-down and manure manufacture—
     Carcasses, etc.472
     Other materials for boiling-down and manure manufacture357
     Casks, bags, etc.3,425
All other materials (for fellmongery, etc., but excluding materials for cannery)6,007
Materials used in canning and preserving—
     Beef and vealCwt121,8323,853
     Mutton and lamb     ″     14,498260
     Tongues, and other materials     ″     26,343412
     Vegetables and other materials284
     Containers637
               Totals360,029
PRODUCTS1970–71
ProductUnit of QuantityQuantityValue
Meat$(000)
     Lamb, whole carcassesNo.(000)24,954141,029
cwt (000)6,376
     Mutton, whole carcassesNo.(000)6,44127,528
cwt (000)2,601
     Boned muttoncwt (000)1603,582
     Mutton and lamb pieces     ″     3259,055
     Beef quarters, bone-in     ″     67520,635
     Beef cuts (boneless weight)     ″     1,20359,867
     Boneless beef     ″     1,94792,335
     Bobby veal     ″     1519,398
     Other veal     ″     371,290
     Pork     ″     31410,140
     Edible offals     ″     1,01125,877
     Inedible offals     ″     3923,033
     Other meat     ″     734,385
By-products
     Runners (not processed)No.(000)5,1961,317
     Sheep and lamb casingsBundles(000)6,29911,363
     Hog casings     ″     263525
     Sheep and lamb bungsDoz(000)1,4791,156
     Woolly sheepskins (not fellmongered at works)No.(000)552989
     Pelts     ″     34,21937,381
     Cow hides     ″     8544,601
     Ox and bull hides     ″     6513,840
     Bobby-calf skins     ″     1,0751,688
     Other calf hides     ″     46151
     Other hides     ″     135217
     Woollb (000)83,24619,892
Other products excluding preserved meats914
Boiling-down products
     Fats and oils—
       Edible tallow—
          Beefcwt207,4301,874
          Mutton     ″     41,963340
          Mixture     ″     79,833631
        Inedible tallow (all kinds)     ″     1,260,4609,002
        Neatsfoot oilgal144,411136
     Manures—
        Bonedustcwt141,555822
        Blood     ″     
     Blood and bone     ″     360,304576
     Other     ″     
     Stock meals—
        Meatmeal     ″     226,3751,071
        Meat and bonemeal     ″     971,8803,797
        Other     ″     113,933511
     Other boiling-down products     ″     ..618
Other products, including small goods and canned other preserved meats, pastes, and extracts     ″     169,2017,619
               Total value of production519,156

Chapter 46. NEW ZEALAND MEMBERSHIP OF THE ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

In 1972 New Zealand actively explored the possibility of full membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). On 15 May 1973 New Zealand accepted an invitation to become a full member and the formal steps towards membership were completed when the Ambassador in Paris on 29 May 1973 lodged New Zealand's instrument of accession to the OECD Convention. In announcing New Zealand membership the Prime Minister commented that the unanimous decision by existing OECD members to invite New Zealand to accede to the OECD Convention marked a significant milestone in our development as a nation.

Membership encompasses a wide spectrum of differing economies and social structures, ranging from the advanced welfare states of Scandinavia, through the countries of North America and western Europe with their traditional market economies, to countries such as Spain and Turkey which share many of the problems of less-developed countries.

The present role of the organisation has been summed up by the Secretary-General as, to “promote co-operation among sovereign governments in all fields of economic and social policy”. The countries which make up the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are seeking to formulate effective national economic policies through a joint endeavour marked by regular co-operation, consultation and constructive mutual criticism.

The aim is to work out policy approaches conducive both to balanced economic growth and social progress in the Member countries and to the sound development of the economically less advanced nations.

OECD serves this effort as:

  1. an instrument for assembling and examining knowledge relevant to rational policy-making in every major field of economic activity;

  2. a forum, meeting the year round in Paris, in which such policy-making is facilitated by the exchange and analysis of ideas and experiences from all the Member countries.

Birth of OECD

This new economic diplomacy first emerged from the devastation of the Second World War and proved to be an historically unprecedented instrument for recovery on an international scale. The European countries which in 1948 founded the OECD's parent body, the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), to allocate Marshall Plan aid and to work together for the restoration of their economies were acting on the recognition of certain facts that experience had shown to be fundamental. These were: the crucial importance of knowledge in both the formulation and implementation of policy; the inter-relatedness of all economic problems; the increasing interdependence of national economies.

It was natural that the Member countries should wish to perpetuate their joint economic endeavour and apply it to the longer-term objectives of development in a rapidly evolving world, and one in which the problems of the economically less-advanced nations were seen to be intimately linked with those of the industrialised countries. Hence, on 30 September 1973, the OEEC became the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

The new Organisation set for itself three major aims:

  1. to promote the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in its Member countries;

  2. to contribute to the sound economic expansion of both Members and non-member nations which are in the process of development; and

  3. to further the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations.

The work of the Organisation is based on the recognition that not only are these goals inextricably linked but also that programmes undertaken to attain any one of them have inevitable consequences for a whole series of different fields of economic activity. Thus, economic growth is facilitated by liberalisation of trade, and vice versa; but this is only to state the problem in its most general terms.

The achievement of both these aims requires a favourable economic climate, including the maintenance of virtually full employment and a state of reasonable equilibrium in the balance of payments. In turn, the achievement and maintenance of a sound economy may necessitate substantial adaptations in industry and agriculture, which cannot be effected without solving problems of manpower and social policy, technology, science and education.

One example may be cited here of the multiple ramifications of a given policy objective. An effective strategy for the optimum utilisation of modern industrial technology may involve, over the long term, policies concerned with: the allocation of financial and manpower resources to various aspects of scientific and technical research; educational and vocational training reforms with a view to producing both skilled specialists and a general labour force capable of grasping the basic principles of modern technology; adaptation of workers to new types and conditions of production, and protection of individuals against hardships that may result from technical and economic change; assistance and encouragement to industry to invest in scientific research and to introduce economically advantageous innovations in the techniques of production, administration and management.

Many other such examples could be given. A connecting thread runs through the work of all the various OECD Committees, which deal with the whole gamut of economic life: e.g., economic policy, trade and payments, science and education, manpower and social affairs, agriculture and fisheries, development aid, industry and energy (including the activities of the OECD European Nuclear Energy Agency).

But the chain of mutual implication does not stop at the borders of the industrialised countries. The growing gap between the richer and the poorer nations has often been noted. If the latter are to participate more fully in world economic growth, they need not only financial aid to build the material foundations of modern economies, but also technical assistance to help them in the rational planning and implementation of development projects.

Development of Organisation

The functions of the organisation are reflected in the nature of the debates within it. To the extent that member countries have found the OECD invaluable, on the basis of a certain common level of economic development, to review and assess the merits of national policies in a number of important areas, this examination has only proved possible in an atmosphere of co-operation and understanding, without recrimination or acrimony. Sovereign governments have understandably preferred, for example, that the reasoned scrutiny of certain of their policies which impinge on other countries should take place within the OECD in a calm and well-informed manner, and where there is no need to strike firmer, more public attitudes. While this ability to serve as a forum for positive co-operation through the free exchange of experience among policy makers represents the great strength of OECD, it of necessity accounts in large measure for a certain reticence in claiming credit for the organisation's achievements.

It will be apparent from the above that New Zealand has much to gain from acting in co-operation with other OECD members. Tangible benefit has already been derived from our participation since 1970 in the work of the OECD Agriculture Committee and for some years in certain more limited areas of the organisation's activities. The Prime Minister indicated on 16 May 1973 that a major consideration in seeking membership was the Government's conviction that the problems of less-developed countries, the expansion of world trade, and the principles of international monetary reform, which are vital concern to New Zealand, could be effectively tackled within OECD.

The accession over the years of Japan, Australia, and New Zealand has done much to redress a former geographical imbalance among the membership, and to broaden the range of interests which are taken into account by OECD countries when drawing up their national policies. New Zealand membership will be of interest and value to the organisation in its own right for at least two areas of our experience which would not otherwise be represented within the forum. The first stems from the nature of the New Zealand economy, which differs from those of other members in having reached a high level of development and sophistication on the basis of the production and export of pastoral products. The concomitant need for a strong drive towards the diversification of the economy, our exports, and markets, has given rise to trading difficulties which are of a different order to those faced by the industrialised countries, but are in many respects similar to those of developing countries. The other major area in which New Zealand has a special contribution to make to the deliberations within OECD concerns our unique relationship with the smaller countries of the Pacific.

Advantage to New Zealand

There is little doubt that, given the timing of New Zealand membership of OECD, a major advantage will be the access which New Zealand will gain to the important financial and economic consultations which are currently taking place, and which emphasise in particular the interrelationships between monetary concerns and international trade. These discussions within OECD in addition to their absolute significance, will form the important background to the negotiations scheduled to take place in GATT later this year. New Zealand participation in this vital work began with the attendance of the Minister of Trade and Industry at a meeting of the OECD Council at ministerial level in Paris on 6–8 June 1973 and should ensure that New Zealand's interest, and the interests of this part of the world, are taken into account when the major economic and trading powers are defining their attitudes to these current problems. It would be unrealistic to suggest that New Zealand will be able to exert more influence in these important economic and financial events than our economic weight would warrant, but membership of OECD does establish the principle that we will be consulted by our major trading partners on a continuing basis.

A second major benefit of membership will be the access which is gained to the flow of important documentation from OECD which embodies the results of its examination of policy measures ranging across the spectrum of Government activity. This material should prove of particular relevance in those areas where new policies are under review such as the environment, energy resources, science policy, education, and manpower questions. In future, as a corollary of New Zealand membership this documentation will gain an added dimension from the inclusion of statistical and other information arising from the review of New Zealand policies in each area of the OECD's concern.

A further activity of special interest to New Zealand will arise from the work of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee, which is concerned with aid policy questions and with the improvement of statistical methods in relation to aid flows. The Government is currently pursuing a major expansion in New Zealand's overseas aid, and has accepted the OECD targets for the levels of development assistance. Through the OECD's practice of reviewing each country's aid programme, methods for the better administration of aid programmes may be revealed, and in New Zealand's case the attention of other members could be drawn to our aid performance, and the special needs of those developing countries to which our aid programmes are principally directed.

There are finally two aspects of participation in the work of the OECD which are closely identified with the special character of the organisation and which have been found to be of value to members. The first is the practice of engaging those directly responsible for policy planning in capitals in the substantial work of the OECD's major committees and working parties. This leads to a direct acquaintance with, and consequent opportunity to benefit from the experience of their counterparts in other member countries. The second concerns the reviews of each member's policies across the range of Government activity. The purpose of these reviews is again to broaden and deepen the experience which a country can bring to its decision-making. For a country as distant as New Zealand from many of the centres of innovation in economic and social policies, there should prove to be considerable advantage in preparing for these reviews, and in receiving independent assessments of the problems we face.

To sum up, participation in the OECD should contribute to the achievement of New Zealand's economic and social objectives, both domestically and internationally. Within New Zealand policies can benefit from the experience of other countries at a similar stage of economic development. In the larger world New Zealand for its part will gain increasing awareness of the processes by which are shaped the attitudes of those major powers which have such a profound effect on our well-being, and that of our partners in the Pacific region.

Appendix A

Member Countries of OECD
     AustraliaFranceJapanSpain
     AustriaGermanyLuxembourgSweden
     BelgiumGreeceNetherlandsSwitzerland
     CanadaIcelandNew ZealandTurkey
     DenmarkIrelandNorwayUnited Kingdom
     FinlandItalyPortugalUnited States
Special Status Countries
     Yugoslavia

Appendix B

Articles 1–3 of the Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, contain the principal aims and obligations of membership:

                         Article 1

The aims of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (hereinafter called the “Organisation”) shall be to promote policies designed:

  1. to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy;

  2. to contribute to sound economic expansion in member as well as non-member countries in the process of economic development; and

  3. to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations.

                         Article 2

In the pursuit of these aims, the members agree that they will, both individually and jointly:

  1. promote the efficient use of their economic resources;

  2. in the scientific and technological field, promote the development of their resources, encourage research and promote vocational training;

  3. pursue policies designed to achieve economic growth and internal and external financial stability and to avoid developments which might endanger their economies or those of other countries;

  4. pursue their efforts to reduce or abolish obstacles to the exchange of goods and services and current payments and maintain and extend the liberalisation of capital movements; and

  5. contribute to the economic development of both member and non-member countries in the process of economic development by appropriate means and, in particular, by the flow of capital to those countries, having regard to the importance to their economies of receiving technical assistance and of securing expanding export markets.

                         Articles 3

With a view to achieving the aims set out in Article 1 and to fulfilling the undertakings contained in Article 2, the members agree that they will:

  1. keep each other informed and furnish the Organisation with the information necessary for the accomplishment of its tasks;

  2. consult together on a continuing basis, carry out studies and participate in agreed projects; and

  3. co-operate closely and where appropriate take co-ordinated action.

Chapter 47. TENTH BRITISH COMMONWEALTH GAMES

                         Christchurch, New Zealand

                         24 January to 2 February 1974

The countdown for the holding of the Tenth British Commonwealth Games, New Zealand's largest sporting venture, took place in 1973.

The Games, scheduled to be held in Christchurch from 24 January to 2 February 1974, represent the culmination of efforts going back to 1962 to bring the event to New Zealand for the second time.

New Zealand has played a regular role on the Games scene, having sent teams and won medals at every Empire and Commonwealth Games since the first in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, in 1930.

The 1950 Empire Games were held in Auckland and the successful running of that festival of sport set the yardstick for other post-war Games. Auckland in 1950 had 12 countries and 663 competitors and team officials take part.

The Christchurch Organising Committee invited 49 countries to the 1974 Games and catered for the participation of more than 40 countries and a record 1,900 competitors and team officials.

Prior to Christchurch the largest Games were at Edinburgh in 1970 when there were 42 nations and 1,744 competitors and team officials.

Countries invited to Christchurch were: Antigua, Australia, Bangladesh, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Belize (British Honduras), Brunei, Cook Islands, Canada, Dominica, England, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Jersey, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Malaysia, Malta, Isle of Man, Mauritius, New Zealand, Nigeria, Northern Ireland, Papua-New Guinea, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Scotland, British Solomons, Western Samoa, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Swaziland, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Tonga, Uganda, Wales, Zambia.

During 1973, the Organising Committee received the very welcome news that the Queen and members of the Royal Family would be coming to New Zealand for the Games. His Royal Highness. Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, is President of the British Commonwealth Games Federation and as such it was fitting that he should be here to officially open the Games on 24 January. Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II, is Patron of the Federation and after arriving during the course of the Games was to officiate at the Closing Ceremony.

Venue preparation for the Games started in earnest in early 1972 with the laying of the foundations for the impressive Queen Elizabeth II Park sports complex. Christchurch was fortunate when it made its application to hold the Games in that most of the sports on its proposed programme could be catered for by only relatively minor alterations to existing facilities. The exceptions were the two compulsory sports, track and field and swimming and diving. Originally, existing facilities were to be altered to cater for these sports. However, the Christchurch City Council took the bold and imaginative step of building a combined sports complex at the former site of the New Brighton Trotting Club.

Of a design unique in the world of sport, the $4.5 million complex features back to back swimming and track and field stadiums. Under the 2 1/4 acres of roofing are swimming pools, squash courts, restaurant, competitor, and spectator facilities. The swimming pools are completely enclosed and comprise a 50-metre competition pool and large diving well which can also double as an internationally sized water-polo pool. There is also an enclosed training pool and a specially constructed learners and paraplegics' pool.

The swimming hall is comparable in size to those used for swimming at the Munich Olympics and the Edinburgh Commonwealth Games. It was to hold 5,000 for the Games while the track and field stadium was designed for 34,000 Games spectators.

The other major construction for the Games involved Denton Park, the venue for the track cycling. Here the Paparua County Council undertook a $60,000 transformation of the park to provide an international standard track, a stand, and provide permanent headquarters for Canterbury track cycling. Other venues for Games sports needed only minor alterations.

To do this an organisation with a small permanent headquarters staff and more than 500 voluntary workers on 25 committees was established. People from throughout New Zealand, but mainly in Christchurch, were involved in the project.

The organisation was divided into four administrative sections, finance and legal, public services operations, and general services.

Finance and legal had to deal with the raising of the $2.7 million needed for the running of the Games and to initiate and control all budgetary systems.

The main sources of revenue were to be derived from $200,000 grants from the Government and Canterbury local bodies, a budgeted return of $882,000 from ticket sales, $700,000 from a national appeal, $175,000 from fund-raising activities, $200,000 from the letting of concessions such as television rights and the use of the distinctive Games symbol, and $270,000 from the marketing of Games items such as the special Games dollar.

The public services group were to deal with tickets for an estimated 245,000 spectators, accommodation for nearly 30,000 visitors, programmes, traffic, city decorations, the Games design concepts, and publicity needed to promote the Games.

Operations had the job of catering for the needs of the nine games sports, namely, track and field, swimming, and diving, badminton, lawn bowling, cycling, shooting, wrestling, boxing, and weightlifting, as well as those for the competitors and officials.

The general services group of committees was to handle communications, facilities for 700 news media visitors, ceremonial functions, other activities associated with the Games time, manpower, and protocol.

Government involvement has been extensive 14 Government departments giving assistance.

Handling of a multi-million dollar project such as the Games meant the sports involved had to approach their assignment with a sophistication never before seen in this country.

Equipment for the Games came from many overseas countries during 1973 and, in most cases, was of an international standard never before seen in this country. Major items of equipment needed for the Games included complex electronic scoreboards from England, an extensive range of timing equipment supplied free by a Japanese company, and a Chevron 440 all-weather synthetic track surface from the United States.

Ultimate benefit arising from the Games will be the development of better facilities and administrative and presentation techniques which will stand New Zealand sport in good stead for many years.

As well, Games organisers are hoping that similar incentives for sports participation as accrued from the 1950 Games in Auckland will be achieved after the 1974 Games.

New Zealand has benefited from considerable overseas publicity from the Games. The presence of more than 600 news media people at Christchurch means further Commonwealth-wide focus on New Zealand and travel incentives.

Spectator capacities at these venues were: lawn bowling, Woolston Working Men's Club, 2,000; badminton, Cowles Stadium, 2,000; wrestling, Town Hall auditorium, 1,400; weightlifting, Town Hall James Hay Theatre, 1,000; boxing, Canterbury Court, 4,000; shooting, City ranges, 500 at each.

The courses for the Games road races were laid out within city boundaries early in 1973. Road cyclists were given a 6.5 mile course which they had to cover 17 times and at one point climb 385 ft in nine-tenths of a mile and then make an equally abrupt descent.

The marathon and 20-mile road walk planners are using Queen Elizabeth II Park as the start/finish mark and a course which brings the competitors out into Hagley Park, a central feature of Christchurch, and then almost out to the airport before returning along the same route. Part of the selected course bordered Kerr's Reach, the stretch of river in Christchurch on which New Zealand's successful gold and silver medal Olympic rowing crews trained for many months before going to Munich.

For Christchurch, a city of nearly 300,000. the holding of the Tenth British Commonwealth Games has been a major undertaking which will leave lasting effects on the city as well as New Zealand. For example, the University of Canterbury's Halls of Residence at Ilam which will be used for the Games Village have had some construction plans advanced due to the needs of the Games. Two new halls have been under construction in 1973 and the Students Union Building, hub of village activities, had a major extension started for completion by Games time.

Christchurch is one of the smallest cities to have staged a Commonwealth Games. Other hosts have been, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (1930); London, England (1934); Sydney, Australia (1938); Auckland, New Zealand (1950); Vancouver, Canada (1954); Cardiff, Wales (1958); Perth, Australia (1962); Kingston, Jamaica (1966); Edinburgh, Scotland, (1970).

Chapter 48. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS

Obtainable from the Government Bookshop, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag), Wellington; Cubacade, Wellington; State Advances Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344), Auckland; 130 Oxford Terrace (P.O. Box 1721), Christchurch; T. & G. Building (P.O. Box 1104), Dunedin; and Barton Street (P.O. Box 857), Hamilton.

TitleLatest No.Date of IssuePrice
per Copy
(Post Free)
(1) $6.00 a year.
 $   
Annual Report of the Government Statistician (G. 28)1973July 19730.30
New Zealand Official Yearbook1973October 19732.50
New Zealand Pocket Digest of Statistics1973July 19730.60
Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics1972February 19733.00
Annual Statistical Reports:
     Agricultural Statistics1969–70June 19721.35
     Balance of Payments1970–71June 19720.60
     Incomes and Income Tax to 1969–70..August 19721.35
     Industrial Injuries1966September 19680.65
     Industrial Production1969–70February 19733.00
     Insurance1970–71June 19720.60
     Justice1971May 19731.60
     Local Authority Statistics1970–71February 19731.85
     National Income and Expenditure1971–72July 19730.60
     Population, Migration, and Building1969–70April 19711.35
     Prices, Wages, and Labour1971July 19731.60
     Transport1971February 19731.10
     Vital Statistics1970August 19721.10
Trade Publications:
     ExportsJul–Dec 1971July 19733.00
     External Trade, Country AnalysesJul–Dec 1971July 19720.50
     External Trade, Report and Analysis of1969–70February 19731.35
     Imports (pt. A) Commodity by Country1970–71July 19734.00
     Imports (pt. B) Commodity by Country1970–71July 19734.00
Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand Economy:
     Part 1. Transactions between 110 Productive Industries at Producers' Prices1959–60September 19660.45
     Part 2. Derived Tables from Transactions of 110 Industries1959–60December 19660.45
     Part 3. Transactions Between 44 Productive Industries and Derived Tables1959–60March 19670.45
     Part 3. A Description of the Input-Output Tables and System1959–60December 19670.85
Monthly Abstract of Statistics....0.60(1)
Census of Building and Construction1968–69July 19710.85
Census of Distribution1968July 19701.35
Census of Libraries1969November 19710.85
Population Census;
     Vol. 1. Increase and Location of Population1971October 19721.15
     Vol. 2. Ages and Marital Status1966August 19681.25
     Vol. 3. Religious Professions1966September 19680.45
     Vol. 4. Industries and Occupations1966August 19692.25
     Vol. 5. Incomes1966May 19690.75
     Vol. 6. Education and Birthplaces1966November 19690.75
     Vol. 7. Race1966June 19690.55
     Vol. 8. Maori Population and Dwellings1966March 19702.35
     Vol. 9A. Dwellings1966April 19701.35
     Vol. 9B. Households1966February 19712.10
     Vol. 10. General Report (Including Details of War Service, Dependent Children, and Usual Place of Residence)1966April 19712.35
     Appendix A. Census of Poultry1966November 19680.45
     Provisional Results: Census of Population and Dwellings1971September 19710.60
     Life Tables and Life Annuity Tables1965–67April 19700.60
     Maps of Statistical Boundaries1971March 197214.00
Special Supplements to Monthly Abstract of Statistics
 cents
     Compound Interest, Annuity-certain and Life Annuity Tables..August 196375
     Consumers' Price Index, 1965 Revision..September 196655
     New Nominal Wage Rates Index..October 196845
     N.Z. Tables of Male Working Life1966March 197025
     Population Projections1971–2001July 197360
     Maori Population and Labour Force Projections1970–90February 197160
     Remarriage and Length of Widowhood, 1965–67..February 197160
SUPPLEMENTS TO MONTHLY ABSTRACT OF STATISTICS
TitleLatest No.Date of Issue
     Accounts of the Government Sector1968–69September 1971
     Balance of Payments1971–72February 1973
     Census of Mining and Quarrying, and Prospecting1968–69January 1971
     Census of Population and Dwellings1971Oct–Nov 1971
     External TradeJan–Jun 1972May 1973
     Exports and Imports Transported by AirTo Dec 1971May 1972
     Ex-Nuptial Births..January 1967
     Factory Production, General Summary1970–71April 1973
     Farm Employment1969–70August 1971
     Gross Domestic Product and G.N.P. at Constant Prices1971–72August 1973
     Income TrendsTo 1972January 1973
     Indexes of Production and Productivity1971–72April 1973
     Industrial Classification of Salary and Wage PaymentsTo 1972January 1973
     Industrial Injuries1969–70July 1973
     Land Transfers1972–73August 1973
     Livestock Numbers and Other Farm Statistics1971August 1971
     Manufacturers' StocksDec QuarterMay 1973
     Mortgages1971–72July 1972
     National Income and Expenditure1971–72January 1973
     Price, Volume and Terms of Trade Indexes for External Trade..May 1972
     Private Superannuation Funds1967–68August 1969
     Projections of Permanent Private Dwellings up to 1980..Oct–Nov 1969
     Retail TradeMar QuarterMay 1973
     Seasonal Correction of Statistics..May 1968
     Survey of Commercial Gardeners' Incomes1971–72July 1973
     Survey of Dairy Farmers' Incomes1970–71September 1972
     Survey of Orchardists' Incomes1970–71July 1972
     Survey of Sheep Farmers' Incomes1970–71September 1972
     Survey of Tobacco Growers' Incomes1971–72July 1973
     Survey of Town Milk Producers' Incomes1970–71September 1972
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
     Supplements on nearly 100 manufacturing industries are also available.

Chapter 49. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 992 to 1019). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population (p. 52)—Recent figures are given in the following table for the total population.

DateTotalMean Population for Year
31 December 19722,960,9962,916,572
31 March 19732,974,6592,932,406

The above figures do not include the population of the Cook Islands, 21,227 (at 1 December 1972); Niue Island, 4,419 (at 31 March 1973); and Tokelau Islands, 1.599 (at 21 February 1972).

Migration (p. 68)—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197119721973
* Mainly on cruise ships
            Arrivals
Permanent and long-term arrivals39,37745,09954,651
New Zealand residents returning122,050135,602160,087
Temporary visitors190,869227,580254,644
                        Totals352,296408,281469,382
Crews142,727150,581157,518
Through passengers*80,54682,44483,138
                 Grand totals, all arrivals575,569641,306710,038
            Departures
Permanent and long-term departures38,16537,54635,483
New Zealand residents departing temporarily117,747133,878154,992
Temporary visitors departing188,539226,006253,432
            Totals            344,451397,430443,907
Crews142,092151,420156,859
Through passengers*80,54682,44483,138
                 Grand totals, all departures567,089631,294683,904

Age Distribution (p. 82)—The estimated age distribution of the population at 31 December 1971 is given below.

Age Group in YearsN.Z. MaorisTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 519,56618,88938,455153,879147,617301,496
  5–919,79019,15038,940156,490149,750306,240
10–1417,77017,49035,260157,370150,890308,260
15–1912,82012,53025,350136,220130,130266,350
20–249,5809,65019,230120,280116,950237,230
25–297,4107,48014,89098,61096,680195,290
30–346,8906,79013,68087,99086,290174,280
35–395,9105,96011,87076,41074,660151,070
40–444,8904,8609,75082,79078,460161,250
45–493,6803,6207,30080,68077,820158,500
50–542,8502,7205,57070,55072,240142,970
55–592,2602,1604,42065,26067,660132,920
60–641,7301,5303,26056,43059,230115,660
65–691,1301,0102,14043,53048,81092,340
70–746506101,26029,47037,75067,220
75–7934031065016,87026,92043,790
80 and over25025150115,62028,58144,201
               Totals117,516115,010232,5261,448,4491,450,6182,899,067
Totals—
     Under 1453,89652,369106,265437,809419,697857,506
     Under 1660,19658,569118,755497,209476,197973,406
     Under 2069,94668,059138,005603,959558,3871,182,346
     Under 2172,12670,139142,265629,139602,3671,231,506
     20 and over47,57046,95194,521844,490872,2311,516,721
     21 and over45,39044,87190,261819,310848,2511,667,561
     65 and over2,3702,1814,551105,490142,061247,551

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport (pp. 301–309)—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the year ended 31 March 1973 are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197119721973
* Including road motor, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
     Railways(000)20,78420,11618,565
     Railway road motor services(000)22,59921,52420,866
Livestock tonnagetons (000)198135103
Goods tonnagetons (000)11,65111,17612,024
Revenue—
     Railway operation$(000)86,999101,296112,162
                    Total*$(000)105,242122,368134,990
Expenditure—
     Railway operation$(000)96,502107,277117,197
                    Total*$(000)112,827126,696138,340

Road Transport (p. 316)—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1973 are compared with those for 31 March 1972.

ClassAs at 31 March
19721973
* Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars966,5661,032,228
Trucks190,625194,654
Contract vehicles1,1391,117
Omnibuses and service cars3,1023,100
                    Totals1,161,4321,231,099
Motor cycles39,49847,698
Power cycles23,61424,950
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*86,83592,930
Trailers and caravans238,798256,281
               Grand totals1,550,1771,652,958

Registration of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country during the year ended 31 March 1973 were: cars 95,582; motor cycles (including power cycles), 20,637; commercial vehicles, 23,971; trailers, 22,135; total, 162,335.

BUILDING AND HOUSING (pp. 517–537)

Building Permits—The following table presents the latest statistics on building permits issued (including Government buildings).

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19721973
NumberValueNumberValue
 $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats24,333246.432,770365.7
Alterations and additions to houses and flats39,83740.240,91349.4
Other buildings (including alterations)14,634252.216,530330.7
                    Totals, all buildings78,804538.890,213745.9

Houses and Flats Completed—There were 26,505 houses and flats completed in the year ended 31 March 1973 compared with 22,505 in the preceding year.

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool (p. 567)—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the last three seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per KgIndex Numbers* Base: 1963–64 (= 1000)
* Based on price on floor, clean.
 kg(m)$(m)c     
1970–71218.2116.653.43560
1971–72209.2139.066.46693
1972–73196.2282.5143.961423

Dairy Products (p. 568)—The prices for dairy products converted to cents per kilogram are given in the following table.

Season Ended 31 MayCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93–93 1/2 pt)Cheese (First Grade 92–92 1/2 pt)Spray Skim-milk Powder (Finest)Acid Casein (Industrial)

* These extra amounts are surplus payments expressed on a product basis.

† Interim final prices.

 cents per kilogram
1963–6454.4033.22  
2.26*1.11*
1964–6557.0936.00
1.51*0.74*
1965–6657.1039.29
1966–6757.0639.37
1967–6854.2137.57
1968–6954.3937.08
1969–7054.5038.6515.6338.89
1970–7157.4344.8022.2242.73
2.17*1.08*
1971–7260.3056.8841.5165.10
10.85*5.40*
1972–7363.3257.83†30.27†67.84
27.5*1.36†
1973–7463.32 

The prices quoted in the preceding table for butter and cheese were designed to enable dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in cents per kilogram of milkfat used for butter or cheese manufacture (columns 1 and 2). Also given is the actual net revenue per kilogram of milk fat supplied achieved by companies for the main products. The figures for spray skim-milk powder and acid casein are for milkfat in the original wholemilk from which the liquid skim milk was derived.

Season Ended 31 MayBasic PriceFinal PriceActual Average Net Revenue
Butter MakingFinal Price MakingButter MakingCheese MakingSpray Skim-milk PowderAcid Casein
* Estimate only.
cents per kilogram
1963–6458.7967.9863.5272.98  
1964–6562.2875.1466.0279.76
1965–6662.2882.8864.1184.25
1966–6762.2882.9563.7984.1018.82
1967–6858.6277.2759.9177.70161.620.64
1968–6958.6271.9160.2274.1110.3317.92
1969–7058.6274.1060.0875.1213.4017.17
1970–7161.4083.6465.8089.4325.3219.08
1971–7264.04110.6979.26124.8758.6932.32
1972–7371.17111.7371.87*115.04*40.83*34.22*
1973–7470.90 

NOTES—(1) The basic price for butter making is on a farm gate fat in cream basis up to and including 1971–72. All other figures are on a factory stage basis (i.e., milk and cream collection costs must be paid out from these amounts).

(2) Columns (1) and (2) do not include surplus payments. These are price structure calculations.

(3) Columns (3) and (4) do include the surplus payments shown below:

 Cents per kilogram milk fat
1963–642.76
1964–651.84
1970–712.65
1971–7213.23
1972–733.31

(4) The 1972–73, 1973–74 buttermaking basic prices include revenue items.

DOMESTIC TRADE (pp. 571–590)

Retail Trade—Values of quarterly turnover for retail stores, adjusted for seasonal fluctuations and for price and population changes, are shown in the following table for the latest quarters.

Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current'sIn Constant 1957–58'sIn Current'sIn Constant 1957–58's
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally AdjustedAs RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
* Provisional.
 $(m)  $(m)  $(m)  $(m)  $    $    $    $    
1972 Dec749.43672.74441.92396.70254.73228.66150.21134.84
1973 Mar674.61719.50386.27411.80227.31242.42130.14138.74
          Jun*729.54738.41409.28414.25245.61248.60137.79139.46

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with previous quarters) by surveyed businesses covering about 72 percent of total hire purchase business.

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal
* As at end of quarter.
1972—$(000)$(m)  
     December51,67110,30041014,17876,559153.4
1973—
     March49,21210,37538810,46770,44215.8.7

Summary of Stocks—The following table gives a summary of stocks held by manufacturers, wholesale traders, and retail traders.

StocksAs at 31 March
1970197119721973
Manufacturers—$(million)
     Materials334.6394.4444.1450.6
     Finished goods166.2180.5210.3209.7
Wholesale347.5416.2473.9462.7
Retail337.1363.0394.6408.5
                    Totals1,185.41,354.11,522.91,531.5

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 659–674)—Details of the consumers' price index for later quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX
Base: Weighted average 25 centres, 1965 (=1000)
Group or SubgroupCalendar Year 1965Quarter Ended 31 March 1973Quarter Ended 30 June 1973
Food—
     Fruits and vegetables100013811470
     Meat and fish100017141849
     Other foods100014381451
            Food100015121577
Housing—
     Rent100016001621
     Home ownership100016991750
            Housing100016691711
Household operation—
     Fuel and light100012621290
     Home furnishing100014501482
     Domestic supplies and services100015391560
            Household operation100014251453
Apparel—
     Clothing100014911519
     Footwear100015211566
            Apparel100014961527
Transportation—
     Public transport100016401666
     Private transport100016261646
            Transportation100016301651
Miscellaneous—
     Tobacco and alcohol100015471547
     Other supplies100016541675
     Other services100017571881
            Miscellaneous100016371676
All groups100015621605

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE (pp. 721–730)

Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

(Source: Receipts and Payments of the Public Account.)

ItemYear Ended 31 March
97119721973
* All credited to National Roads Fund. Included in highways taxation.
Direct taxation—$(thousand)
     Income and social security taxes957,2531,161,1141,314,495
     Estate and gift duty29,33825,04828,566
     Land tax3,0513,7643,400
                    Total—Direct taxation989,6421,189,9261,346,461
Indirect taxation—
     Customs duty138,876157,274168,338
     Beer duty39,65240,70041,901
     Sales tax125,343139,538171,142
     Payroll tax20,45740,76346,308
     Racing duty13,15715,65616,513
     Stamp duties13,46414,17419,917
     Motor spirits duty3,918**
     Highways taxation81,95789,66795,706
     Other taxation18,52719,24920,347
                    Total—Indirect taxation455,351517,021580,172
                    Total—Taxation receipts1,444,9931,706,9471,926,633

Consolidated Revenue Account Expenditure—The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197219731974*
* Estimated.
$(thousand)
Permanent appropriations—
       Under Special Acts of Legislature—
          Civil List9901,1281,138
       Debt services—
               Interest166,808184,817190,000
               Transfer to Loans Redemption Account—
                    New Zealand Loans Act 1953—
                      Section 5937,39738,39841,516
                      Section 57 (c)12,60311,6028,484
               Administration and management1,2001,6891,000
               Total—Debt services218,008236,506241,000
Special Acts—
     Superannuation Act 195620,18219,15518,884
     Miscellaneous6,3707,5276,656
               Total—Special Acts26,55226,68225,540
               Total—Permanent appropriations245,551264,316267,678
Annual appropriations—
     Administration—
       General administration—
          Vote—
               Accident Compensation–      –      18
               Audit1,1221,3461,460
               Broadcasting232830
               Customs4,6315,0945,250
               Inland Revenue10,11711,32412,100
               Internal Affairs11,61311,57616,6.5
               Legislative1,4721,6281,900
               Prime Minister's Department84137230
               State Advances Corporation81529
               State Services Commission1,0396,1536,900
               Statistics3,5863,2863,800
               Treasury2,6433,0412,980
               Valuation2,8012,9703,180
               Total—General administration39,13946,59854,552
       Law and order—
          Vote—
               Crown Law264302327
               Justice16,30621,18521,780
               Police23,13926,24928,450
               Security Intelligence Service434504560
               Total—Law and order40,14348,23951,125
       Government services—
          Vote—
               Government Printing Office9,3539,58710,420
               Works54,04439,81432,240
               Total—Government services63,39649,40242,660
       Stabilisation—
          Vote—
               Stabilisation28,70036,19578,700
               Total—Administration171,378180,433227,037
       Foreign relations—
          Defence—
               Defence121,169129,823132,000
          Foreign affairs—
               Foreign affairs18,03822,49433,100
               Total—Foreign relations139,207152,317165,100
       Development of industry—
          Land use—
               Agriculture88,66396,99986,100
               Forest Service4,1224,9465,035
               Lands and Survey7,0418,89810,040
               Total—Land use99,826110,843101,175
          Fuel and power—
               Energy Resources–      –      160
               Mines1,7511,7452,572
          Other industrial services—
               Labour7,8539,9388,800
               Scientific and Industrial Research13,87216,15417,430
               Tourist and Publicity7,5657,1977,500
               Trade and Industry5,5267,07911,700
               Total—Other industrial services34,81640,36845,430
               Total—Development of industry136,393152,956149,337
       Education—
          Education319,250379,353409,200
       Social services—
          Internal Affairs–      –      4,000
          Maori and Island Affairs9,95411,02611,066
          Social Welfare378,210509,535583,000
               Total—Social services388,164520,561598,066
       Health—
          Health288,800339,575384,700
       Transport and communications—
          Transport—
               Marine4,6025,336–      
               Transport23,00129,44136,170
               Roads, Works, etc.2,3595,390700
               Total—Transport29,96240,16836,870
               Total—Annual appropriations1,473,1541,765,3631,970,390
Adjustment on currency realignment19412,857–      
Unauthorised expenditure1593,393–      
Defence credits and other special entries3,27195,097–      
Additional contributions to Loans Redemption Account60,000–      –      
Transfer to Reserve Fund20,000–      –      
Transfer to Works and Trading Account10,000–      –      
Provision for Supplementary Estimates…    …    70,000
               Total payments1,812,3292,141,0262,311,797

National Roads Fund Expenditure

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197119721973
 $(thousand)
Highways maintenance14,05714,39615,725
Highways construction31,21932,83838,029
Subsidies to local authorities33,21133,79039,388
Administration and general7,2407,0738,570
Unauthorised669
                    Total expenditure85,73388,103101,722

Summary of Budget Proposals—The Financial Statement was presented on 14 June 1973. Principal changes from the existing situation are as follows.

Increased monetary social security benefits which are to be reviewed at 6-monthly intervals.

Provision for better health services and improved cultural and recreational facilities.

Major changes in housing policy to assist those on lower incomes to be more adequately housed.

The introduction of a new savings scheme to help people acquire their first home.

A new system of personal taxation designed to assist those on middle and lower incomes and in particular married people in these income groups.

The Government has extended its price control policy so that, while allowing a degree of flexibility appropriate in a complex economy, it lays down conditions designed to prevent another wage-price explosion. The broad principles of the scheme are:

The pricing authorities will be told, when looking at a firm's costs, to disregard wage and salary increases, including the value of all fringe benefits, to the extent that they exceed a certain level which for this year is being fixed at 5 percent. The same rule will apply to all those goods and services where actual approval from pricing authorities is not required.

If employers and unions negotiate wage increases above this level the excess must be absorbed by the firm through an increase in productivity or a reduction in the firm's profits.

Wage and salary increases resulting from an employer's obligations under the Equal Pay Act will be recoverable in addition to the 5 percent.

Increases on account of wages which can be recovered in escalation clauses in contracts will also be limited to 5 percent. This will apply to contracts in both the Government and private sectors.

The scheme came into effect on 15 June 1973 under the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1972, Amendment No. 4.

Social Security Benefits (p. 169)—The table below gives a summary of the annual and weekly rates of cash benefits as from 6 June 1973. (From 1 August 1973 married couples have received an additional $2 a week and single beneficiaries $1.20 a week more.)

                Basic Mates of BenefitsWeekly Rate
5 July 1972
Weekly Rate
6 June 1973
* Rate of benefit including payment for dependent children.
Superannuation—$    $    
     Unmarried person21.0022.50
     Married person17.5018.75
Age—
     Unmarried person21.0022.50
     Married couple if both eligible (each)17.5018.75
     Married woman—husband not eligible17.5018.75
     Married man with wife included35.0037.50
Widow21.0022.50
Orphans—
     Each child10.0011.00
Family—
     Each child3.003.00
Invalids—
     Unmarried person 20 years or over21.0022.50
     Unmarried person under 20 years16.0017.00
     Married man with wife included35.0037.50
     Married woman17.5018.75
Miners—
     Unmarried man21.0022.50
     Married man with wife included35.0037.50
     Miner's widow19.4020.90
Sickness Benefit or Unemployment Benefit (paid weekly)—
     Unmarried person under 18 (without dependants)16.0017.00
     Unmarried person 18 years and over21.0022.50
     Married woman 18 years and over17.5018.75
     Married man with wife included35.0037.50
Solo Parents*—
     With one dependent child32.0034.50
     With two dependent children35.0037.50
       Increased by $65 a year ($1.25 a week) for each subsequent dependent child.
Married Couples*—
     With one dependent child38.0040.50
       Increased by $65 a year ($1.25 a week) for each subsequent dependent child.
Emergency BenefitsAccording to circumstances

Industrial Classification of Salary and Wage Payments (p. 888)—The total salary and wage bill, is given below for 1970–71

Industry Group1968–691960–701970–71
Agriculture and livestock production102,803108,545116,386
Forestry, hunting and fishing8,3779,76610,934
Mining and quarrying12,93813,17515,309
Manufacturing, food, beverages and tobacco158,994177,271222,748
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel and made-up textiles74,70789,023107,197
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, etc., products including miscellaneous manufacturing)233,252266,868318,832
Manufacturing, metals and metal products152,240179,045223,773
Construction187,070205,698243,269
Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services (not construction)35,66638,08845,743
Commerce—Wholesale and retail trade355,410392,374460,199
Commerce—Other116,447130,254150,531
Transport, storage and communication263,888293,099366,329
Services, community, business, recreation and personal548,704600,967729,596
Activities not adequately described474377634
             Total2,250,9702,504,5513,011,481
             Increase on previous yearsPercent5.3    11.3    20.2    

Salaries and Allowances of Ministers and Members of Parliament (p. 43)—The following table sets out the salaries and allowances in accordance with the recommendations of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances. Their implementation has been postponed by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973, which limited wage and salary increases to $5.80 a week.

OfficeSalaryExpense Allowance

* Where the ministerial office of Minister of Foreign Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister an additional allowance would be paid.

† Additional to normal allowances as member.

 $    $    
Prime Minister27,5005,000
Deputy Prime Minister21,0002,150
Minister with Portfolio18,0002,000*
Minister without Portfolio15,5001,600
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries13,5001,600
Speaker16,5001,500†
Chairman of Committees14,000900†
Leader of the Opposition18,0002,000
Deputy Leader of the Opposition13,500800†
Chief Whips12,5002,350
Junior Whips12,0002,350
Members11,0002,350

There is an additional allowance depending on classification of electorates: (a) electorates which are wholly urban, $110; (b) electorates which are substantially urban, $275; (c) electorates which are partially urban and partially rural, $625, (d) electorates which are ordinary rural, $1,100; (e) electorates which are predominantly rural, $1,380. The special additional allowance for Southern Maori electorate is $420 and for each of the other Maori electorates is $210. The daily sessional allowance is $4 and the night allowance for members entitled thereto is $10. In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain travel concessions and a stamp allowance.

Overseas Exchange Transactions (p. 817)—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest four March years on a revised layout.

(Source: Reserve Bank)

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1970197119721973
RECEIPTS—$(million)
     1. Exports—
               (a) Butter121.0115.4149.5109.2
               (b) Cheese47.350.264.574.6
               (c) Other dairy products69.582.799.8133.1
               (d) Meat390.4405.2440.2547.8
               (e) Wool233.4206.3225.1383.1
               (f) Other animal products91.492.5105.2122.9
               (g) Forest products63.976.186.591.8
               (h) Other primary products41.748.356.161.2
               (i) Manufactured exports62.382.0100.0122.8
               (j) Miscellaneous8.46.55.66.2
                    Total exports1,129.41,165.11,332.51,652.7
     2. Other current receipts156.3194.4246.4327.3
                    Total current receipts1,285.71,359.61,578.91,980.0
     3. Capital receipts—
               (a) Government borrowing6.447.5107.330.7
               (b) Other official borrowing–      –      –      –      
               (c) Private57.3101.4153.2208.9
                    Total capital receipts63.6149.0260.8239.6
     4. I.M.F.—
               (a) Drawings–      –      –      –      
               (b) Allocations of SDRs23.619.619.1–      
                    Total Receipts1,372.91,528.21,858.82,219.6
PAYMENTS—
     1. Imports—
               (a) Government47.258.262.169.0
               (b) Private800.5951.3991.51,113.7
                    Total imports847.71,009.61,053.71,182.7
     2. Other Current Payments—
               (a) Government69.568.779.588.9
               (b) Private290.0320.2350.7422.5
                    Total other current payments359.5388.9430.2511.4
                    Total current payments1,207.21,398.51,483.81,694.1
     3. Capital Payments—
               (a) Government debt repayments18.921.150.690.4
               (b) Other official repayments27.85.15.4–      
               (c) Private50.453.382.4100.2
                    Total capital payments97.179.5138.4190.6
     4. I.M.F. Repurchases18.4–      –      –      
                              Total Payments1,322.71,478.01,622.21,884.8
Balance on trade transactions+281.7+155.6+278.8+470.0
Balance on invisible transactions−203.1−194.5−183.8−184.2
Current account balance+ 78.5−38.9+95.0+285.9
Capital account balance−33.5+ 69.5+ 122.4+ 48.9
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+ 5.1+ 19.6+ 19.1–      
Change in official overseas reserves+ 52.6+ 39.9+256.4+287.3
Official overseas reserves at end of period332.7372.5629.0917.2

MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Horse Racing (pp. 749–750)—Totalisator turnover totalled $201.3 million in 1972–73 ($174.8 million in 1971–72) while Government taxation totalled $18.4 million in 1972–73 ($16.0 million in 1971–72).

Land Transfers (pp. 278–282)—The average amount per transaction (urban properties) in 1972–73 was $11,349 as compared with $9,479 in 1970–71 and $10,279 in 1971–72.

ItemYears Ended 31 March
1970197119721973
Urban properties—
     Number63,72874,02076,54394,015
     Consideration($m)530.7701.7786.81,068.0
Rural properties—
     Freehold—
          Number8,4809,0809,10610,760
          Areahectares (000)574.1628.4513.8620.7
          Consideration$(m)184.1205.0190.0260.6
Weighted overall average price per hectare$301.07315.80312.21355.82
All properties: Total consideration$(m)724.4918.9985.41,339.9

Mortgages (pp. 823–827)—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last four financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
 $(m) $(m)
197083,478573.965,713328.1
197197,942703.074,562376.5
1972102,900759.875,699415.8
1973119,004940.790,868510.5

ESTIMATES OF POPULATION AT 1 APRIL 1973

STATISTICAL AREAS
Statistical Area1972 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1973
* Includes Shipboard: North Island 3,278; South Island 1,508; New Zealand 4,786.
North Island—
     Northland96,19197,400
     Central Auckland698,400747,339
     South Auckland - Bay of Plenty422,299442,400
     East Coast47,34247,800
     Hawke's Bay133,250138,300
     Taranaki100,895101,900
     Wellington552,986570,000
          Totals2,051,3632,145,139
South Island—
     Marlborough31,64232,700
     Nelson68,83870,000
     Westland22,86122,500
     Canterbury398,830412,420
     Otago182,749183,000
     Southland106,348108,900
          Totals811,268829,520
          Totals, Statistical Area2,862,6312,974,659
CITIES AND BOROUGHS
City or Borough1971 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1973
North Island—
     Kaitaia3,5013,700
     Kaikohe3,3403,410
     Whangarei C.30,74632,100
     Dargaville4,1014,160
     Helensville1,2901,300
     East Coast Bays15,92918,800
     Takapuna C.24,03324,600
     Devonport11,02211,000
     Northcote9,5819,830
     Birkenhead15,81918,100
     Henderson5,8896,140
     Glen Eden6,7717,170
     New Lynn10,02910,200
     Auckland C.151,580152,300
     Newmarket1,2291,220
     Mount Albert26,15126,700
     Mount Eden20,08420,600
     Mount Roskill33,84934,200
     Onehunga15,69315,600
     One Tree Hill12,96113,000
     Ellerslie5,0625,330
     Mount Wellington20,17820,700
     Howick12,00813,700
     Otahuhu9,9169,990
     Papatoetoe C.21,81622,600
     Manukau C.104,024119,600
     Papakura17,21019,500
     Pukekohe7,5908,040
     Waiuku2,8793,060
     Tuakau1,8141,870
     Huntly5,3105,290
     Cambridge6,4356,680
     Ngaruawahia3,9954,080
     Hamilton C.74,78481,600
     Te Awamutu6,9297,060
     Te Kuiti4,8424,850
     Taumarunui6,6926,710
     Thames5,7805,870
     Paeroa3,4313,560
     Waihi3,0713,060
     Te Aroha3,2003,170
     Morrinsville4,4524,440
     Matamata4,0574,190
     Putaruru4,5854,620
     Mount Maunganui8,7719,770
     Tauranga C28,18831,000
     Te Puke3,4063,610
     Rotorua C.31,26534,400
     Taupo10,56311,900
     Whakatane9,74810,250
     Kawerau6,6877,670
     Murupara2,7602,820
     Opotiki2,6082,610
     Gisborne C.28,20029,200
     Wairoa5,4185,540
     Napier C.40,18642,900
     Hastings C.29,75331,500
     Havelock North7,2848,130
     Waipawa1,7251,680
     Waipukurau3,5983,570
     Dannevirke5,6105,600
     Woodville1,5171,520
     Waitara5,1255,320
     New Plymouth C.34,31436,000
     Inglewood2,0862,140
     Stratford5,3985,380
     Eltham2,3212,320
     Hawera8,1348,210
     Patea1,9501,940
     Ohakune1,4181,400
     Raetihi1,3591,360
     Wanganui C.35,78235,750
     Taihape2,7932,760
     Marton4,7004,670
     Feilding9,7809,980
     Foxton2,8082,810
     Palmerston North C.51,89354,300
     Levin13,05113,850
     Otaki3,7743,860
     Upper Hutt C.26,25627,900
     Lower Hutt C.61,37562,800
     Petone9,4649,400
     Eastbourne4,7274,800
     Porirua C.36,21439,700
     Tawa11,24411,900
     Wellington C.137,376140,000
     Pahiatua2,6102,620
     Eketahuna722700
     Masterton18,49418,900
     Carterton3,7343,830
     Greytown1,7251,730
     Featherston2,0902,210
     Martinborough1,3901,360
          Totals, North Island1,475,0521,547,270
South Island—
     Picton2,8243,000
     Blenheim14,85915,600
     Nelson C.29,28230,400
     Richmond5,7076,360
     Motueka3,8743,930
     Westport4,9854,880
     Runanga1,4491,340
     Greymouth7,9367,750
     Hokitika3,3323,380
     Rangiora4,8545,150
     Kaiapoi3,9624,330
     Riccarton7,1367,120
     Christchurch C.165,637168,800
     Lyttelton3,2813,200
     Ashburton13,31213,700
     Geraldine1,9371,950
     Temuka3,3163,400
     Timaru C.28,32628,900
     Waimate3,2283,210
     Oamaru13,07813,050
     Port Chalmers3,0072,970
     Dunedin C.82,23583,100
     St. Kilda6,4536,400
     Green Island6,1496,300
     Mosgiel8,3778,680
     Milton2,1642,180
     Kaitangata1,0991,050
     Balclutha4,6014,710
     Tapanui854860
     Lawrence604620
     Roxburgh750760
     Naseby109110
     Alexandra3,5513,880
     Cromwell988970
     Arrowtown260280
     Queenstown2,1592,460
     Gore8,6488,880
     Mataura2,5492,540
     Winton2,0552,200
     Invercargill C.47,42048,900
     Bluff3,2413,250
     Riverton1,3111,340
          Totals, South Island510,899521,880
          Totals, Cities and Boroughs1,985,9512,069,150
STATISTICAL DIVISIONS AND URBAN AREAS
Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Urban Area (U.A.)1971 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1973
Auckland S. Div.—
     Northern Auckland U.A.107,965123,870
     Western Auckland U.A.89,94699,130
     Central Auckland U.A.286,787289,650
     Southern Auckland U.A.165,048185,370
     Remainder S. Div.48,65449,319
          Totals698,400747,339
Hamilton S. Div.—
     Hamilton U.A.80,81287,810
     Remainder S. Div.55,19455,130
          Totals136,006142,940
Napier - Hastings S. Div.—
     Napier U.A.43,60146,370
     Hastings U.A.45,51248,210
     Remainder S. Div.7,8207,840
          Totals96,933102,420
Palmerston North S. Div.—
     Palmerston North U.A.57,06559,780
     Remainder S. Div.23,66723,810
          Totals80,73283,590
Wellington S. Div,—
     Upper Hutt Valley U.A.30,98633,020
     Lower Hutt Valley U.A.92,00394,850
     Porirua Basin U.A.47,85852,040
     Wellington U.A.136,782139,400
     Remainder S. Div.16,40318,370
          Totals324,032337,680
Christchurch S. Div.—
     Christchurch U.A.275,968285,920
     Remainder S. Div.26,64227,290
          Totals302,610313,210
Dunedin S. Div.—
     Dunedin U.A.111,059112,430
     Remainder S. Div.6,6816,540
          Totals117,740118,970
Urban Areas not included in Statistical Divisions—
     Whangarei U.A.34,02935,400
     Tauranga U.A.40,34944,400
     Rotorua U.A.39,75243,360
     Gisborne U.A.30,16131,200
     New Plymouth U.A.38,78040,720
     Wanganui U.A.37,98238,020
     Masterton U.A.20,14720,590
     Nelson U.A.37,99439,840
     Timaru U.A.28,95929,530
     Invercargill U.A.50,68152,270
          Totals, 24 Urban Areas1,930,2262,033,180
          Totals, 7 Statistical Divisions1,756,4531,846,149

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abattoirs, registered, 396
Abortion, 101, 102, 111, 147
Accident Compensation Act, 914
Accident insurance, 850–854, 1018
Accidents—
aircraft, 113, 150, 337
drowning, 112
cases treated in hospitals, 150
drowning, 112
causes of, 320–321, 919
drowning, 112
deaths from, 102, 103, 112–114, 320–321, 915–917
drowning, 112
farming, 112, 113, 919–920
frequency and severity rates, 916–918
industrial, 113, 915–919
in home, 113–114, 150
mining, 113
motor-vehicle, 113, 150, 320–321
poisoning, 151, 920
railway, 113, 150
time lost through, 915–916
transport, 113, 150, 320–321
water, 114, 150
Acclimatisation of fish, 5, 451
Accommodation, 139
inventory of hotels, 942
Accommodation licences, 955
Accommodation services, 139
Accounts—
inter-industry study, 711
public, 721–730
Acts (see Legislation)
Administrative tribunals, 978
Adolescent dental service, 130
Adoptions, 93, 178
Adult education, 233
National Council of, 233
Adultery, 120
Adults, heights and weights of, 160–162
Advances—
bank, 794, 976–800, 1014
bank, control policy, 799–800
bank, reserve ratio, 800
building societies, 829–838
rural, 829–835
Advertisements, medical, 126
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 347, 350, 351
Aerated water and cordial industry, 473, 503
Aerial—
land survey, 380
topdressing, 333, 402–403
work operations, 333, 337
Aero clubs, 336, 337
Aerodromes, 335–336
Age benefits, 23, 166, 170, 1083
Age distribution of population, 76, 82, 1074
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Corps, etc.)—
aviation, 333
imports of, 646
clubs, 216
imports of, 646
colleges, 204
imports of, 646
Development Conference, 399, 420, 716, 1024
imports of, 646
Economics Research Unit, 238
imports of, 646
machinery, 476, 515
imports of, 646
production, 381–386, 405–412, 998
Production Council, 400, 716
research, 234–235, 238, 401
Workers Act, 911
Agriculture, 236–237, 381–425, 998
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 237, 364, 400
publications on, 1040
Aid—
commonwealth schemes, 37, 38
distribution of New Zealand, 34, 37–39
legal, 260
nature of, 37–39
Air—
accidents, 113, 150
Force, Royal New Zealand, 270–272
licensing and control, 329, 336
mails, 331, 338, 339
navigation services, 329
pollution, 125, 360
Aircraft—
safety of, 923
types of domestic services, 330
types of international services, 328
Air New Zealand, 328, 333, 605, 727, 981, 1024
Airport statistics, 335
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 682
duty on, 652, 731, 733
exports of, 609
imports of, 644
sale of, 955–956
Alexander Turnbull Library, 351, 352
Aliens, 74–75
Aluminium, 466
Amortisation of public debt, 723, 750–755
Amputees, 184
Amusement tax, 356
Angling, 451, 944
Animal life, publications on, 1040
Animals, noxious, 431
Anniversary Days, 963
Annual Holidays Act, 910
Annual value system of rating, 756–757
Annuities, 188–194
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in the, 934–937, 1024
Ante-natal services, 128
Anzac Day Act, 911
ANZAM, 30, 36
ANZUK, 36, 37, 273
ANZUS Treaty, 28, 30, 35
Apiaries and apiculture, 425
Apples, 406, 407, 415–417
consumption of, 416–417, 681
exported, 417, 611, 628, 682, 1004
marketing of, 416–417, 564–565
Apprentices, 873–875
Arable farming, 405–413, 998
Aramoana, G.M.V. 302, 332
Aranui, G.M.V. 302, 332
Arbitration Court, 23, 24, 46, 243, 873, 894–895
Armed Forces—
honours and awards conferred, 988–989
in war, 274–276, 1022–1023
pay and allowances, 691, 694
serving overseas, 272–273
strengths of, 274–276, 981
superannuation, 188–190
Army, 269–270
Arrivals (see Migration)
Arson and incendiarism, 857
Art galleries, 1031
Articles on special subjects in previous issues, 1028–1029
Artificial aids (under Social Security), 137
Arts in New Zealand, 1030–1032
Asbestos, 459
Asian Development Bank, 29, 37, 699, 705, 706, 727, 821
Assessable income, 766–786
Assessment of—
income tax, 731–742, 772–789
land tax, 741
ASPAC, 29, 31, 226
Assurance, life, 844–850, 1018
Astronomy, 238
Auckland Harbour Bridge (see also Harbour Bridge Authority), 310
Audio-visual teaching aids, 218, 219
Australia—
trade with, 598, 606, 614, 617–618, 637–638
Free Trade Agreement with, 593, 604, 653–654
New Zealand representation in, 989
reciprocal trade with, 593, 653–654
representation in New Zealand, 989
shipping to and from, 293
visitors and migrants from, 71, 939
Aviation, 327–337
agricultural, 333
Awards, cultural, 1031
Awards to armed forces personnel, 988

B

Bacon and ham—
consumption of, 681
curing, 473, 499
Balance of payments, 698–711, 703
capital account, 703, 704, 715
current account, 701–703
insurance, 705
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 708–711
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 707–711
Balance of trade, 596
Bananas—
consumption of, 681
imports of, 565, 644
Bank notes, 790, 813
denominations of, 813
in circulation, 813, 1014
Bank of New Zealand, 795, 1020
Bankruptcy, 951–954, 1017
industry groups of bankrupts, 953
Banks and banking, 537, 790–822
assets and liabilities, 793, 794
economics, publications of, 790, 841, 1036
merchant banks, 811
overseas assets of, 794, 815, 1014
savings, 809–816, 1015
trading, 537, 795–800
Barley, 405–406, 411, 611, 998
Beds, hospital, 142–143
Beef—
cattle, 419–420, 421–423, 998
chilled, 569, 620–621
consumption of, 395, 681
exports of, 552–553, 562, 570, 620, 682, 1002
production of, 394–395, 498
retail prices of, 668
slaughterings for, 396
Beer—
consumption of, 682
duty on, 652, 723, 731, 733, 1079
export of, 609
production of, 502
Bees, 425
Benefits, social security, 135, 138, 163, 165, 166, 175, 691, 692, 694, 872
Bentonite, 452, 459
Beverage industries, 473, 502, 633, 635, 710, 785–786, 798, 840
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 962–963, 1034–1046
Biographies and autobiographies, 1045–1046
Biology publications, 1040
Birth rate, 85–87
Birthplaces of population, 83
Births, 85, 86–93, 993
ex-nuptial, 91–92
first, 90–91
multiple, 88–89
of Maoris, 86
registration of, 86
still, 89, 94, 111
Biscuit industry, 473, 501
Blind, benefits for and education of, 173, 204
Board of Health, 124
Boarding of school children, 214, 215
Boards, Producer (see New Zealand Wool, Meat, etc.)
Boatbuilding and ship repairing, 476
Boilers, inspection of, 922, 923
Bonds, National Development, 805
Bonus Bonds, 805
Bonus issue tax, 738
Book publishing, 962
Books—
imports of, 644
library, 352–355
New Zealand, 1034–1046
Boroughs, 48, 60–62, 757–764
area of, 60–62
capital and unimproved values, 286, 758
councils, 48
debt, 757, 1013
franchise, 48
number of, 48
population, 60–62
stores in, 574
Borstal institutions and training, 245, 254
Breeding ewes, 419, 420, 422
Breweries, 473, 502
Brick production, 511, 525
Brides and grooms, 116–117
Bridges and bridging, 302, 310, 313
Brigades, fire, 859
Britain—
New Zealand representation in, 989
relations with, 27–30, 35–37
representation in New Zealand, 989
British—
Airways, 333
postal orders, 340
sovereignty, 26
trade preference, 653
Broadcasting, radio and television, 346–350, 981
for schools, 218–219
local, 347
stations, 347
Building (see also Housing), 517–537, 1075
board, exports, 610
imports of, 645, 648
business of private contractors, 519
imports of, 645, 648
costs, 517, 519, 526, 531
imports of, 645, 648
index of production, 712
imports of, 645, 648
Industry Advisory Council, 518, 525, 716
imports of, 645, 648
materials, 511–513, 519, 525, 536
imports of, 645, 648
permits, 517, 521–524, 530
persons engaged in, 519, 864
programming, 518
wages and working hours of employees, 519, 891–892
work put in place, 524
Building societies, 537, 812, 835–838
assets and liabilities of, 838
Bullion production, 452, 458
Burials, 100, 124
Bursaries—
academic, 213
dental, 130
ex-servicemen's children, 184
secondary schools, 213
secondary teachers', 217
technical, 213
university, 217, 221–222
war, 184
Buses, 316, 322, 325, 326, 852–853
Bush, 384, 426–433
Bushel units, weights of, 407–408
Business—
census of, 571–576
failures, 952, 1017
loans, 831, 834
Butter (see Dairy produce)
Butterfat (see Milkfat)

C

Cabinet, 44–45
Cable tramway, 323–324
Cables, overseas, 344
Cadet Corps, 272
Cadets—
navy, 268
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 396
Campbell Island, 2, 53
Camps, health, 140
Canada—
exchange rate with, 813
New Zealand representation, 989
reciprocal trade with, 618, 654, 702–704, 706, 708
representation in New Zealand, 989
Canberra Pact, 28
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 105
deaths from, 104–106, 147, 149
site of disease, 105–106
Canned and preserved meats, etc.,
exported, 609, 623
production of, 498
Canned fruits—
consumption of, 681
production of, 473, 502
Canned vegetables—
consumption of, 681
exports of, 611, 682
production of, 473, 502
Capital—
expenditure of Government, 725–726
expenditure on farms, 387–388
formation, 686–687
invested in electric-power undertakings, 543, 545–546, 549
invested in manufactured industries, 491
of companies, 839–841, 1017
transfers, 817, 819
value of land, 285–287, 757
Capital punishment, 247
Capitalisation of family benefit, 166, 172, 520, 526, 531, 726, 830
Carbonettes, 455
Cargo carried by air transport, 331–332
Cargo handled at ports, 296–299
Casein exported, 557, 606, 609, 1004
Casein produced, 392, 557
Casualties in war, 275–276
Catchment authorities, 370, 372, 758
number of, 48
Cattle, 388, 392, 396, 419–421, 422–423, 999, 1020
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 396
Cement—
exports of, 610
industry, 475, 512
production of, 525
Census, 53
age distribution of population, 76, 82
country of birth, 83
dependent children, 77–78
employment statistics, 872
ethnic groups, 82
income earners in each household, 788–789
incomes of individuals, 787–788
major industrial groups, 877
marital status, 76–77
occupations of married women, 880
occupations of population, 876–882
of agriculture, 384
of building and construction, 519
of distribution, 571–576, 662
of dwellings, 532–537, 788–789
of libraries, 353–355
of mining and quarrying, 462
of poultry, 424
of religious professions, 81
publications, 1073
Central Government finance, 696, 721–755, 1009–1010, 1079
Cereals, 405–411, 413, 998
consumption of, 682
Certificates of title, 278
Chatham Islands—
schools, 209, 211
Cheese (see Dairy produce)
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 475, 710, 781–783
Chemists, 134, 138
Childbirth accidents, etc., 102, 103, 111, 112, 148
Child health and welfare, 129–130, 177–178, 257–258
Children—
adopted, 92, 178
affected by divorce proceedings, 119–120
allowances, 163, 165–169, 171–172
born, number and sexes, 88, 993
deaths of (see Infant mortality)
deaths of, Maori, 96
dental treatment of, 130
dependent, 77–78, 177–180
delinquent, 178–180, 257–258
handicapped, 129, 204, 207–208
heights and weights of, 156–159
legitimated, 92
intellectually handicapped, 139–140
offences by, 257–258
restrictions on employment of, 911
school, 198–200, 203–216
under supervision, 180
Children's courts, 178–179, 242, 257–258
Children's homes, 129, 177–178
China, People's Republic of, 29, 618
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, 311
Chronology of principal events, 1020–1030
Churches, 81
marriage in, 118
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 652
imports of, 635, 640, 645
production of, 473, 503
Cinemas, 355–358, 731, 750
Cities and Boroughs, 60, 61
Cities, area and population of, 60–62, 1087
Citizenship, 73–74
Citrus fruits, 406, 416, 418
imports of, 565, 650, 929
consumption of, 681
Civil—
aviation, 327–337
defence, 276–277
jurisdiction, 258–259
List, 43, 725
Civilian Rehabilitation Centre, 131
Claims, insurance—
accident, 850–853
fire, 854–859
motor vehicle (third party), 852–853
Clays, 452, 511
Clergy of each church, and marriages by, 118–119
Climate, 11–20
observations for year, 19–20
Clinics—
ante-natal, 128
child health, 129
dental, 130
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 668–669
Clothing, imports of, 637, 644
Clothing industry, 474, 504, 710, 781–786, 798, 840
Clover, 406–408, 414
seed (see Grass and clover seed)
Club charters, 955
Coal—
and petroleum products industry, 475
consumption of, 456, 485–486
deposits, 8, 454–456
exports of, 612
mining, 452, 454–456, 461, 462
production of, 452, 454–455, 462
research, 454, 461
resources, 454–455, 461
State mines, 456, 727, 728
used in gas industry, 549
Coastal shipping, 288–289
Coastline, 2
Co-education, 200
Cocoa imported, 640, 644
Coffee imported, 634, 640, 644, 657
Coin and coinage, 812, 813
held by banks, 796
Colleges—
agricultural, 204
teachers', 203, 204, 216–217
Colombo Plan, 37, 705
Colonisation, 22
Commercial failures, 952, 1017
Commercial radio and television, 347–349
Commodity sales—
retail, 572, 575–577, 581–588
wholesale, 579–580, 588–589
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 29–30
aid schemes, 37, 38
defence, 36, 272
Education scheme, 37
Games (special article), 1068–1069
Strategic Reserve, 272
Communications, 338–358
radio, 344–345
satellite, 344
Community centres, 234
Community nurses, 133
Companies, 839–842
balance dates of, 787
bank advances to, 798
deposits with, 810–812
financial statements, analysis of, 841–842
income of, 685, 686, 689, 691, 771–773, 779–787
joint stock, 575, 785–786, 839–842
overseas, 839–840
paid-up capital, 784–786
private, 575, 785–786, 839–841
public, 575, 785–786, 839–842
registered, 839–841, 1017
share prices, indices, 677–679
taxation of, 738, 772–773, 780–787
with overseas affiliations, 707–710
Comparisons with other countries (see International comparisons)
Compensation—
Court, 46, 259, 978
criminal injuries, 259–260
workers, 914–924
Compulsory—
arbitration, 894
unionism, 897
Computers, 963
Conciliation service, 903–904
Concrete products industry, 475, 512, 525
Condensate, natural gas, 457
Confectionery industry, 473, 501
Confinement, deaths in, 101, 102, 111, 112, 148
Confinements, 89, 111
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 116
Conservation—
land, 363–365
soil, 367, 369–372
soil, 367, 369–372
water, 367, 369–372
Consolidated Revenue Account, 166, 313, 315, 565, 721, 724, 730, 1009, 1080–1082
Constitution of New Zealand, 39–41
Construction Act, 921–922
Construction, building, and housing, 517–537, 829–835
Consumer Council, 661
Consumer prices, 661–669
index, 661–667, 679
Consumer protection, 658
Consumption of food, 780–785
Contagious diseases (see Diseases)
Convictions, 246–254
for traffic offences, 249–250, 321, 322
of juveniles, 257–258
of women, 251
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 247–249, 322–323, 995
Convictions in Supreme Court, 246–247, 995
Cook Islands, 10, 26, 29, 31–32, 53, 71, 73, 83, 632, 925, 1021
constitutional changes, 29, 31
history, 29
immigrants from, 71, 82, 83
population, 53, 927–928
public finance, 930
trade, 632, 649–650, 657, 817, 929
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 302, 332
submarine power cable, 542
vehicular ferry service, 302, 305, 307
Co-operative credit associations, 829, 830
Co-operative dairy companies, 393–394
Copper ore, 452, 458, 461
Copra, 928–929
Copyright, 950
Cordial and aerated-water industry, 473, 503
Correspondence schools and classes, 198, 204, 208, 212, 215, 216, 994
Cosmetics, manufacture of, 475, 510
Cost of living, 658–680
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 641, 645
Council for—
Adult Education, 233
Educational Research, 232, 238
Counties, 48, 62–64, 756–764
area, of, 62–63
debt, 757, 1013
franchise, 48
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314, 315
building values, 524
debt, 757, 1013
franchise, 48
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314, 315
capital and unimproved values, 286, 757
debt, 757, 1013
franchise, 48
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314, 315
population of, 62–63
debt, 757, 1013
franchise, 48
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314, 315
councils, 48, 315
debt, 757, 1013
franchise, 48
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314, 315
Country Library Service, 352–353
County Boroughs, 62
County towns, area and population, 62
Court of Appeal, 46, 242–243, 245–246, 259, 978
Court of Arbitration, 23, 24, 46, 243, 873, 894, 896, 978, 1023
Courts (see also Supreme, Magistrates, etc.), 46, 242–250
Judges of, 242–243, 978
structures and types of, 46, 242–243
Cranes, inspection of, 922, 923
Crayfish, 445, 446, 448, 449
exports of, 449–450, 610
Cream, consumption of, 680
Credit, rural intermediate, 829
Creditors' petitions, 952
Cremation, 100, 124
Crime, law and, 242–262, 995
Criminal—
appeals, 243, 245, 246
habitual, 254
injuries compensation, 259–260
jurisdiction, 245–255
reformation and punishment, 244–245, 253–257
Crippled children (see also Handicapped children), 140
Crops, 383, 386, 405–419, 998
Crown land, 278–279, 372–377, 383
Cultivation, area in, 383
Cultural awards, 1030–1032
Currency and banking (see also Exchange), 790–822, 1014
Currency realignment, 813
Customs tariff and revenue, 650–657, 696, 723, 731, 733

D

Dairy—
Board, 393–394, 567–568
account, 571
consumption of, 680–685
export, 298, 552–565, 591, 606, 608–611, 623–625, 682, 817, 1003
cows, 392, 419–421, 999
account, 571
consumption of, 680–685
export, 298, 552–565, 591, 606, 608–611, 623–625, 682, 817, 1003
factories, 392–393, 473, 499, 788
account, 571
consumption of, 680–685
export, 298, 552–565, 591, 606, 608–611, 623–625, 682, 817, 1003
farming, 386, 392–396, 419–421, 766, 771, 798–799
account, 571
consumption of, 680–685
export, 298, 552–565, 591, 606, 608–611, 623–625, 682, 817, 1003
machinery, 403–404, 611
account, 571
consumption of, 680–685
export, 298, 552–565, 591, 606, 608–611, 623–625, 682, 817, 1003
produce, 392, 393, 609
account, 571
consumption of, 680–685
export, 298, 552–565, 591, 606, 608–611, 623–625, 682, 817, 1003
export price index, 674–675, 678
inspection of, 401
marketing of, 552, 555–562, 565, 567–569, 1075
prices for, 567–568, 678, 1007
subsidies on, 684
Deaf, education of, 207, 216
Death duty, 696, 724, 731, 742–748
estates passed for, 745–748
Death rates, 95–96, 100–114, 993
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 95–97, 105–106, 108–110
Deaths, 85, 95–113, 147–149, 151, 993
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 95, 96
by causes, 101–113, 915–917, 920
distribution over year, 96
due to earthquakes, 9, 10, 11
from accidents on farms, 920
from external causes, 112–113
from puerperal causes, 102, 103, 148
in confinement, 102, 103, 111, 148
in hospitals, 146–149, 151
in mental hospitals, 155
neo-natal and perinatal, 102, 103, 111
of friendly society members, 196
of infants, 94, 95, 96, 993
of Maoris, 94–96, 99–112
of insured persons, 846–848
of servicemen, 275
registration of, 100
Debentures, 808, 1011
Debt—
hospital boards, 144–145
local government, 761–765, 1012, 1013
public, 707, 750–755, 1011
Debtors' petitions, 951
Decimal currency, 813
Defence, 259–277
Civil, 276–277
expenditure on, 266–267, 696
science, 266
services, strength of, 267
Degrees, university, 223, 226–227
Delinquency, juvenile, 178–180, 257–258
Demography, 52–84, 992
Denominational schools, 200
Dental—
benefits (social security), 130
bursaries, 130
Council, 133
health, 130, 137
nurses, 130
research, 130
services, 137
Department of—
Health, 123–133, 135, 140, 164, 520, 527, 528
Internal Affairs, 364
Justice, 207, 242
Labour, 73, 127, 164, 716, 865, 888
Maori and Island Affairs, 180–181, 233, 315, 379, 520, 528, 874
Mines, 454
Scientific and Industrial Research, 234–236, 360
Social Welfare, 163–180, 207
Trade and Industry, 300, 605
Departments, Government (see also under individual Departments), 45–46, 970, 973, 979
Departures (see Migration)
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 181–183
Dependent children, 77–78, 177–180
Deposits—
interest rates on, 809
time, 795, 797, 798
with building societies, 838
with Reserve Bank, 793–794
with savings banks, 802, 803, 806, 807, 1015
with stock and station agencies, 808–809
with trading banks, 795–798
Depreciation allowances, 689, 739
Desertion in marriage, 118–119, 171
Designs, registration of, 949
Detention centre, 245, 254
Development Finance Corporation, 468, 727, 822
Diagnostic laboratory services, 136, 138
Diagrams and graphs (see Contents, vii)
Diatomite, 452, 453, 459
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 303–304
Dietitians, 134
Diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus immunisation, 129
Diplomas, 226, 230
Diplomatic representation, 988–989
Directories and encyclopaedias, 1034
Disabled Re-establishment League, 131
Disabilities from industrial accidents, 915–918
Disability war pension, 184, 187
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 131
Disabled servicemen, 181, 182
Discount rates, 793
Diseases—
deaths from, 102–112, 147–149
mental, 153–155
occupational, 127
treated in hospitals, 147–149
Displaced persons, 72
Disputes, industrial, 903–913, 1018, 1024
Dissolution of marriage, 119–121
Distribution—
census of, 571–581
of labour force, 864
of population, 58–64
by ages, 76, 82
by industries, 877
District planning, 50
District high schools, 204, 212, 214
Dividends—
assessable, 783, 786
taxation on, 737
totalisator, 749
Divorce, 116, 117, 118–119
Divorced persons remarrying, 117, 118
Doctors (see Medical practitioners)
Dogs, 424
Dolomite, 452
Domains, public, 375
Domestic assistance, 137
Domestic proceedings, 260
Domestic trade, 571–590, 1077
Dominion, 27
Drainage boards, 369, 758–763
number of, 48
Drama in New Zealand, publications on the, 1043
Drivers' licences, 316, 321
Drowning accidents, 112
Drugs, 126–127
dangerous, 248
therapeutic, 126
Drunkenness, 248, 251, 253, 322
Ducks, 429
Duties—
customs and excise, 650–657, 723, 731
estate and gift, 731
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 517–537
amenities, 535–536
census of, 532–537, 788–789
materials used, 530, 536
number of rooms and occupants, 537
projections of, 521
tenure, 534, 537

E

Earthquakes, 9–11, 1020, 1022, 1026
Earthquake and War Damage insurance, 860, 861
Earths, soil types, 381–382
Economic—
aggregates, 685–720
pensions, 182, 183
planning, 716–720
research, 238
stabilisation, 725
Economic and banking publications, 790, 1036
Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), 29, 33, 34
Education (see also School), 198–234, 994
Act, 198, 913, 1021
adult, 233–234
annual appropriations, 726, 728
boards, 198–199, 203
buildings, 202–203, 517, 522–524
Commonwealth scheme, 38
Department of, 198–199, 207–209, 219, 873, 925
dental health, 130
development, 203
expenditure on, 200, 201, 202, 696, 722–723, 726, 729, 1010
handicapped children, 207–208, 209
health, 129
higher, 220–228, 994
Maori, 208
Pacific Islands, 233, 928
pre-school, 200, 208
primary, 200, 208–211, 218, 994
psychological service, 207
publications, 219, 1037–1038
rural, 214
secondary, 199, 211–214, 218, 994
special classes, 200, 207
system, 198–200
technical, 213, 214, 216, 228–231, 873–875, 994
training of teachers, 216–217
Educational—
qualifications of labour force, 231, 788, 882
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 33
Eels, 451
Effective weekly wage rates, 892–893
Eggs—
consumption of, 680
export of, 609, 683
marketing of, 424, 565
production, 424
retail price of, 668
subsidy on, 565, 684
Elections, general, 42–43, 46–47, 957–961
Electoral—
Act 1956, 40, 46
Representation Commission, 40, 42, 47
roll, 47, 957
Electorates, 971
Electric—
appliances in homes, 535–536, 548
boards, 48, 193, 543, 756–764, 1013
estimates, 542
finance of, 543
in manufacturing industries, 484–485
railways, 302
stations, 456, 538–542, 544–546
supply account, 728
power, 538–549, 1024
boards, 48, 193, 543, 756–764, 1013
estimates, 542
finance of, 543
in manufacturing industries, 484–485
railways, 302
stations, 456, 538–542, 544–546
supply account, 728
Electrical machinery and appliances imported, 643
Electrical machinery and appliances industry, 476, 496
Embassies, 989
Emergency benefits, 166, 169, 175
Emigration, 68–71
Employers—
liability insurance, 850, 861
unions, 897–898
Employment, 862–884
by local authorities, 870–871
districts, production in, 470–472
forestry, 442–443
index of, 713
on farms, 387
placement service, 866, 872
promotion, 866–868
public service, 869–870
regulations affecting, 910–913
survey of, 868–869
vacancies, 872
women in labour force, 880–883
Encyclopaedias and directories, 1034
Endowment, land, 376, 377
Energy Resources, Ministry of, 539–540
Engineering industries, 476, 514–516, 710
Ensilage (see Silage)
Environmental health, 125
Epilepsy, 140
Erosion, 7, 8, 333, 430
protection, forest, 430
Estate duty, 731, 742–744, 746–749, 1079
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 950
assigned, 952
passed for death duty, 745–748
Ethnic groups, 82
Europe, relations with, 25
European Economic Community (EEC), 26, 29, 558–561, 1024, 1025
trade with, 338–339, 555, 557, 558–559, 594, 599, 602, 615, 617, 702–704, 706, 709
European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 561, 593, 599, 602, 615, 617
Events, historical, 1020–1030
Ewes, breeding, 419, 420, 422
Examinations, 199, 206, 226
Excess retention tax, 738
Exchange allocation, 814–821
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 791, 814–815, 819
New Zealand—London, 813–814
rates of, 791, 814–815
Exchange transactions, overseas, 817–820
Exchanges, telephone, 341–342
Excise duties, 652, 723, 731
Executive council, 40, 44, 970
Ex-nuptial infants, 91–92
ages of mothers, 92
births of, 91–92, 178
legitimation of, 92
paternity, 260–263
protection, of, 177, 178
Exotic forest, 365, 426–434
Expectation of life, 97–99, 882–883
Expeditionary forces, 274, 1022–1023
Expenditure—
broadcasting and television, 349, 1080
cinemas, 356
civil aviation, 330
defence, 266–267, 1080
education, 200, 201, 202, 722–723, 1081
electric power, 545, 548–549, 728
farms, 387–388
Forest Service, 432, 1081
government (see Government Finance)
health, 125, 722–723, 1081
hospital boards, 144–145
insurance companies, 846, 848, 850, 1018
local government, 314, 759
national, 685–698
National Roads Fund, 313–316, 1082
Post Office, 345
Railways, 304–306, 997, 1074
rehabilitation, 187
research, 239–241
roads, 312–315, 729–730
social security, 166–167
social services, 722–723, 726, 1010, 1081
urban transport, 324–325
war pensions, 185, 187
Explosives, 923
Export Import Corporation, 468
Export and Shipping Council, 288, 566
Exports (see also under individual products) 467, 592–601, 606–618, 1000–1006, 1085
by ports, 297–298, 631
value, 597–602, 606–607, 609–610
volume, 608–614
dairy produce, 562
meat, 562
index numbers, 673–675
classification of, 612–613
value, 597–602, 606–607, 609–610
volume, 608–614
dairy produce, 562
meat, 562
index numbers, 673–675
commodities exported—
value, 597–602, 606–607, 609–610
volume, 608–614
dairy produce, 562
meat, 562
index numbers, 673–675
control of, 603
dairy produce, 562
meat, 562
index numbers, 673–675
destination of, 593, 598–601, 614–630
index numbers, 673–675
incentive scheme, 602
index numbers, 673–675
licences, 603
index numbers, 673–675
prices, 566–570
index numbers, 673–675
re-exports, 631–632
value of, 595–632, 816–818, 1000–1006
volume, 608–614, 620–633, 817, 1000–1006
index numbers, 602–603
Ex-servicemen—
dependants of, 181–183
disabled, 181–187
pension for, 181–187
rehabilitation, 187, 830
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 53, 68–73, 992
trade, 440, 591–657, 1000–1006

F

Factories, 463–516, 517, 522, 524, 1008
accidents in, 916–917
Act, 911
classified by size, 481
coal consumed in, 485–486
dairy, 392–393, 473, 499
employees, 469–476, 478–481, 483, 484, 498–516, 1008
expenses of operation, 491
fire losses, 858
summary of operations, 496
Factory production, 463–516, 1008
Fallow land, 383, 408
Family—
and the law, 260
capitalisation of, 166, 172, 520, 526, 531, 830
benefits, 163, 165, 166, 168, 171, 172, 696, 1083
capitalisation of, 166, 172, 520, 526, 531, 830
Farm—
accidents, 112, 113, 919–920
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
advisory service, 401
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
area in cultivation, 383, 408
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
capital expenditure, 387–388
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
employees, 387, 911
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
rates of pay, 886
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
superannuation, 192
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
finance, 378, 798–799, 828, 829, 831
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
gross farming income, 389–390, 391
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
holdings, 383
classification by types, 386
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
incomes, 389–390, 766–771
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
industry reserves, 571
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
machinery, 404–405, 476, 515
imports of, 646
production of, 515
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
produce—
consumption of, 392, 395, 397, 680–685
export of, 298, 591, 682, 1001–1004
marketing of, 552–571, 1075
production, 390, 399–405, 710, 998, 1007
index of, 390–391, 712
settlement and assistance, 377–378
subsidies, 403–404
tractors, 405
Farmers' mutual insurance association, 859
Farming, 381–425, 781–783, 798–799
arable, 381–383, 405–413, 998
cattle, 419–421, 422–423
dairy, 382, 386, 419–421, 422–423, 766–771
nature of, 382
occupations, 388
sheep, 382, 386, 396–398, 419–423, 771, 798–799
Fathers, ages of, 89
Federation of Labour, 566, 897
Female suffrage, 47, 1021
Female wage rates, 481, 483–484
Ferry services, 302, 305, 307
Fertiliser—
imports of, 297, 636, 641, 644
industry, 475, 498, 509
land topdressed with, 402–403
subsidy on transport of, 404
Fibreboard, 438, 506
Fiction, selected New Zealand, 1042–1043
Film-hire tax, 731, 750
Finance—
and investment, 823–843
companies, 810, 811, 812
farm, 378, 798, 828, 829, 831
Government, 686, 689, 695–698, 721–755, 1009–1010
hospital board, 166–167
housing, 520, 526, 537
local government, 697, 756–765, 1012–1013
structure of system, 812
Fire—
boards, 48, 193, 758–763
brigades, 859
districts, 857
insurance, 854–859, 1018
losses, 858–859
prevention in forests, 431
Service Council, 856, 859
Fires—
causes of, 857
on vessels, 300
First births, 90–91
Fish—
acclimatisation of, 5, 451
and fisheries, 444–449
consumption of, 448, 681
exported, 448–449, 610, 630, 682
imported, 634, 644
value of production, 446–449
Fishing, 444–451, 710, 718, 781–783, 798–799, 810, 942, 943
big-game, 450, 943, 944
industry, index of production, 712
Industry Board, 444–445
Fixed deposits, 795
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 139, 520, 527
Flax, linen, 408, 419, 473
Flax, phormium (see Phormium)
Flour—
production of, 500
Fluoridation, 131
Fodder crops, 405–408, 413
Fog signals, 300
Food—
And Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 34
and Drug Act, 126
consumption, 680–684
imports of, 634–645, 1085
inspection and sale of, 127
poisoning, 127
production, 473, 498–503
retail prices of, 668–670, 1078
subsidies, 684
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 669
Footwear industry, 474, 477–480, 505, 781, 785–786, 798, 840
imports of, 637
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 29, 991
annual appropriations, 726
Foreign citizenship, 73
Foreigners, naturalisation of, 73–74
Foreign policy, 27–39
Forest—
conservation, 365–366, 428–431
exotic, 426–431, 440, 441
fire prevention, 431
indigenous, 426–430, 440, 442
private, 432–433
produce exported, 429, 610, 612, 630
resources, 427–428
service, 360, 355, 428–432
State, 360, 361, 426–432
utilisation, 433–439
Forestry, 1, 426–443, 710, 712, 718, 781–783, 798–799, 840
development and future prospects of, 426–434, 442–443, 717
Development Conference, 443
Development Council, 443, 716
persons engaged in, 443–444
publications, 428, 1040
regulations, 429
research, 431–432, 441
training, 441
Forty-hour week, 910, 911
Fowls, 424
Franchise, central government, 47, 1021, 1026
Franchise, local government, 48
Freehold land, 278–280, 376–377, 383
Freight—
carried by air transport, 331, 334–335.
carried by shipping, 288–299
carried by trains, 307
Freshwater fisheries, 444, 451
Friendly societies, 195–197
Frost, 16, 18, 20
Frozen foods, 502, 609–611, 682
consumption of, 681
Fruit—
berry, 414–415
citrus, 406, 416, 639
consumption of, 681
export of, 298, 417, 607, 609–611, 1004
imports of, 297, 634, 639, 644, 650
industry, 383, 406–408, 414–417
marketing of, 416–417, 564–565
stone, 417
sub-tropical, 418
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 473, 500–501
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 633, 640, 1085
Furniture and fixtures industry, 474, 506, 840

G

Gardens, market, and nurseries, 383, 406–407, 415–416
Gas—
appliances in homes, 535, 549–551
boards, 758–760
council, 540, 550
generation and supply, 549–551
price, 551, 668
subsidy, 551, 684
Gazetteers, 1043–1044
Geese, 424
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 34, 555, 654, 655–656
Assembly (see Parliament)
Assembly Library, 351–352
Elections, 42–43, 46–47, 957
wage orders, 894
Geographical features, 2–6
Geology, 7–9, 460
maps, 460
publications, 9, 1039
Geothermal steam, electric power stations, 538, 541, 544, 1024
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 731, 742–744
Glaciers, 4, 9
Glass and glass products industry, 459, 475
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 458, 1020
exported, 614
mining and production, 452, 458
reserve, 791
Goods—
carried on railways, 305, 307, 997
dangerous, 923
Government—
and public administration publications 1034–1035
Industrial Tribunal, 884
Departments (see also under individual names), 45–46, 979
Industrial Tribunal, 884
employees, 981
Industrial Tribunal, 884
finance, 695–698, 1009
Industrial Tribunal, 884
houses, sale of, 833
Industrial Tribunal, 884
housing, 517, 519, 520, 523, 526–531, 537, 728
Industrial Tribunal, 884
Railways (see Railways)
Industrial Tribunal, 884
superannuation fund, 188–191, 778, 812
system of, 40–50
Governor-General, 1027
powers, duties, etc., 40–44, 46, 239
Graduates, university, 216, 223–224, 227
Grain—
crops, 405–409, 998
milling, 473, 500
Grapes and vineyards, 406, 416
Grass and clover seed, 405–407, 413–414
exports of, 629, 1004
Grasses, 406–408, 413, 414
Grassland and grasses research, 235, 236–237, 402
Grasslands, 402, 419–420
Greenstone, 452, 460
Groceries, retail prices of, 668
Gross—
capital formation, 686–687
of Central Government, 750–755, 1011
of local government, 761–765, 1012–1013
domestic expenditure, 686
of Central Government, 750–755, 1011
of local government, 761–765, 1012–1013
domestic product, 714–715
of Central Government, 750–755, 1011
of local government, 761–765, 1012–1013
farming income, 389–390, 391
of Central Government, 750–755, 1011
of local government, 761–765, 1012–1013
indebtedness—
of Central Government, 750–755, 1011
of local government, 761–765, 1012–1013
national product, 685, 686, 688, 689
Guardianship, 178

H

Hail, 16
Halloysite, 459
Ham (see Bacon and ham)
Handicapped children, 129, 204, 207–208
Harbours, 2
Harbour boards, 48, 193, 727, 758–760, 1013
Harbour Bridge Authority, 47, 48, 310, 758–760
Harvests, 405–419, 998
Hay, 406–408, 413
Health—
Act 1956, and others, 124
annual appropriations, 726
benefits, 125, 135–138, 165–168, 173–174
Board of, 125, 133–134
camps, 129, 140
centres, industrial, 924
child, 128–129
dental, 124, 130
Department of, 123–130, 520, 527, 528, 924
education, 129–130
expenditure, 125, 696, 722–723, 726, 729, 1010
hazards, 128
insurance, 195–196
mental, 152–156
occupational, 127, 921–924
public, 123–133
Heart disease, 102, 103, 107–108, 147, 149
Heavy traffic fees, 313
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 298, 498, 606, 609–611, 627–628, 1004
High commissions, 989
Higher education (see Education)
Higher School Certificate, 199
Highways, 312–315, 730
taxation, 313, 731, 733–734, 1082
Hire purchase trade, 576, 589–590, 1080
Historic Articles Act, 1032
Historic Places Trust, 374, 1033
History of New Zealand, 21–26, 1020–1030
Niue Island, 22
Tokelau Island, 22
publications on, 26, 1043
Holdings (see Land holdings)
Holidays, 910–911, 963
Home lay-by accounts, Post Office Savings Bank, 805
Home service (in war), 276
Homes—
accidents in, 112–114, 150, 151
children's, 129, 177–178
joint family, 531
old people's, 139
Homicide, 112, 150, 247
Honey, 424, 668
consumption of, 682
exported, 609, 683
marketing of, 566
Honours conferred, 987–989
Hops, 406, 418
export of, 611
Horse-racing, 1086
Horticulture, 386, 401
Hosiery and other knitting mills, 473, 504
Hospital—
benefits, 135, 138, 166
employees, 981
expenditure, 144–145
finances of, 144–145, 696, 697
indebtedness of, 144
number of, 48
Boards, 48, 141–145, 193, 761–763, 981
employees, 981
expenditure, 144–145
finances of, 144–145, 696, 697
indebtedness of, 144
number of, 48
districts, 141
Hospitals (see also Patients), 140–152, 517, 522, 524
beds in, 142–143
deaths in, 147–148, 151
general, 143
Karitane, 140, 156
maternity, 136
mental, 152–155
old people's, 139
private, 141–142, 143
psychiatric units, 136, 145, 152
public, 142–151
staff of, 144, 156
Hostels, 139, 528, 866
pre-release, 255
Hot springs, 944
Hotels, licensed, 955
Hours of work, 495, 498–516, 889–890, 910
Households, 78–81
incomes of, 79–80, 788–789
size of, 79–80, 537
age group of head, 79
occupational status of head, 79
House of Representatives, 27, 40, 41, 957–961, 971, 1020–1025
members of, 42–43, 957–961
Houses and flats (see also Dwellings), 517–537, 829–835, 1078
census enumerations, 532–537
completed, 520
conversion to flats, 520
finance of, 520, 526, 537
fire losses on, 858–859
for the elderly, 139, 520, 527, 834
Maori, 528
rental value of owner-occupier, 685, 689, 691
rents, 533, 663–664
sale of State, 833
State, 517, 519, 520, 523, 526–531, 537
Housing, 517–537, 666–667, 728, 828–835, 1075
Division, Ministry of Works, 520, 528, 529, 530
of elderly, 139, 520, 527, 834
rural, 527
Humidity, 17
Hunting, 944
Hydro-electric power, 538–542, 544, 545
schemes, 24
water sources, 4–5
Hydrology, 370
Hygiene, 123–128

I

Ice cream—
consumption of, 680
industry, 473, 500
Illegitimacy (see Ex-nuptial)
Immigration, 70–73, 992
ages of migrants, 70
assisted, 72–73
hostels, 866
original, 22
policy, 71–72
Immunisation, 123, 128
Import price indexes, 675–677
Importers, bank advances to, 798
Imports, 633–650, 1000, 1085
by ports, 297
classification of, 633–634, 647–648
licensing and control of, 603–604, 647–648
origin of, 593, 598–601, 637
payments on account of, 817, 818
value of, 597–602, 633–650
volume of, 644–647
volume index numbers, 602–603
Income—
company, 685–694, 779–787
earners in each household, 788–789
gross farming, 389–390
industrial classification of, 777, 781–783, 785–786
investment, 766, 770, 777, 817, 842
national, 685–698, 733
of individuals, 766–771, 787–789, 773, 777, 788
of insurance companies, 846–850
of salary and wage earners, 766, 769, 773–776
of self employed, 766, 767, 768, 770, 775–777
of women, 774, 777, 789
private, 685, 686, 691, 694
returnable, 772–789
sources of, 766, 775–777
Income tax, 696, 723, 731, 732, 734–738, 766–789
Indebtedness (see Debt)
Index numbers—
building and construction, 712
consumers' price, 663–664, 666–667, 670–671
employment, 712
export prices, 673–677
by commodity groups, 671–672
external trade, volume of, 602–603
farm production, value and volume, 390–391, 712
gross domestic product, 714
gross farming income, 390–391
import prices, 675–677
manufacturing industries production, value and volume, 494
production, 712–713
productivity, 713
reproduction, 87
retail prices, 663–664, 666–667
retail turnover, 586
share prices, 677–679
volume of production, 494, 712
wage rates, 891–892
wholesale prices, 670–673, 678–679
wool prices, 567, 673
Indigenous forest, 426–430, 440, 442
Industrial—
associations, 902
classification of salary and wage payments, 887–888, 1085
Commission, 904
conciliation and arbitration, 884, 894–897, 903–905, 1021
Conciliation Service, 903
Design Council, 950
disputes, 903–913, 1018
distribution of population, 816–817
Health Centres, 924
injuries, 915–919
life assurance, 843–849
Mediation Service, 903
production, 463–516
Relations Act, 894–895, 903
research, 235–236, 468
stoppages, 886–887, 905–908, 1019
days lost through, 905–910
unions, 896–902
Industrial accidents, 113, 915–919
compensation paid, 915–918
deaths from, 113, 915–917
frequency and severity rates, 915–917
time lost through, 915–918
Industries—
bank advances to, 798
aids to development, 468
export earnings, 467
manufacturing, 463–516, 1008
aids to development, 468
export earnings, 467
Industry—
groups of bankrupts, 953
persons engaged in, 469–476, 481, 483, 484
State aid to, 722–723, 726, 729, 831, 834
wages and overtime, 469–476, 481–484, 489, 495, 496–516, 889–890
Infant mortality, 96, 109–111, 993
Injuries, industrial, 915–919
Insanity, 152–155
Insecticide, aerial spraying of, 333
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 431
Insolvency, 952, 1017
Institute of Nuclear Sciences, 236
Instruments, duty on, 731
Insurance, 844–861, 1018
accident, 850–854, 1018
balance of payments, 705
earthquake, and war damage, 861
employers' liability, 850, 861
fire, 854–859, 1018
life, 844–850
motor-vehicles, third party risks, 322, 850–853
policies, 844–850, 1018
sickness, 196, 850
State, 859–861
tax exemptions, 738
Intellectually handicapped children, 139–140
Intelligence service, 277
Intercensal records, 54
Inter-industry studies and sector accounts, 711
Interest—
credit by savings banks, 802, 803, 806, 807, 1015
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
on hospital board debt, 144
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
on local government debt, 759
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
on Post Office capital liability, 724
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
on public debt, 686, 725, 752–753
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
payments to consolidated revenue account, 728
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
rates on—
fixed deposits, 809
mortgages, 825–826, 829–830, 1016
public debt, 832
savings banks, 806–809
stock and station desposits, 609
International—
Activities, 25
air services, 328–329, 333–334
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 34, 288, 301, 542, 699, 704, 820, 1025
Coffee Agreement, 657
Finance Corporation, 34, 699, 820, 1025
investment income, 817
Monetary Fund, 34, 698, 699, 705, 706, 727, 815–816, 820, 1025
Refugee Organisation, 72
relations, New Zealand's, 28–39
Sugar Agreement, 656–657
Wool Secretariat, 399, 554
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 85
cinema attendance, 358
consumption of foodstuffs, 683
dairy produce consumption, 683
expectation of life, 99
external trade per head, 596
hire purchase trade, 589
infant mortality rates, 109
libraries, 354–355
life assurance, 844
marriage rates, 115
motor accident, death and injury rates, 321
newspapers, 351
population, 74, 85
heights and weights, 156–157, 159
prices, 669–670
public expenditure on education, 202
standards of living, 953–954
telephones, 341
wages, 893
Invalids' benefits, 166, 168, 169, 173
Inventions Development Authority, 949
Investment—
accounts, 805
and finance, 823–843
incomes, 765, 766, 769, 777, 817, 842
in New Zealand and overseas, 707–711, 794
pool—National Provident Fund, 192–193
Reserve Bank, 794
societies, 835–838
State, 752–753
Invisible imports and exports, 817
Iron and steel—
imports of, 297, 636, 642–643, 645
industry, 457, 466
Iron ores and ironsands, 452, 457
Irrigation, 370–371
Island territories, 1–2, 29, 53, 233, 925–934
constitutional changes, 29
Islands, 1–2
annexed, 30

J

Jails, prisoners in, 253–254
Japan, trade with, 554, 555, 591–593, 600, 616, 637
shipping to and from, 293
Joinery industry, 474, 506
Joint family homes, 531
Judiciary, 46, 242–243
members of, 978
superannuation of, 188–190
Juries, 243–244
Justice, 242–264, 995
Justices of the Peace, 243
Juvenile—
delinquency, 257
offenders, 178–180, 257–258
working conditions, 911–912

K

Karitane hospitals, 152
Kauri gum, 460, 610
Kermadec Islands, 2, 53, 1021
Kindergarten schools, 203, 204, 208
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 473, 504

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 136, 138
Labour—
Department of, 73, 127, 164, 726, 866–868, 888–890, 921
distribution of, 864
educational qualifications of, 231, 788, 882
projections, 865–866
Disputes Investigation Act, 894
distribution of, 864
educational qualifications of, 231, 788, 882
projections, 865–866
force, 469
distribution of, 864
educational qualifications of, 231, 788, 882
projections, 865–866
hours, 495, 498–516, 889–890
laws and working conditions, 910–913
Lakes, 5–6
artificial, 5–6, 540–542
Lamb—
consumption, 395, 681
exported, 552–553, 562, 569–570, 621, 682, 1002
produced, 394–395, 498
Lambs, 419–422
slaughtered, 396, 489
Land, 278–287, 372–378
classification for soil conservation, 371–372
classification by farm types, 384–386
mortgages on, 823–833, 849
conservation, 363–364
classification by farm types, 384–386
mortgages on, 823–833, 849
Crown, 278–279, 372–377
classification by farm types, 384–386
mortgages on, 823–833, 849
development, 279, 377–378
classification by farm types, 384–386
mortgages on, 823–833, 849
drainage boards, 48, 758–760
classification by farm types, 384–386
mortgages on, 823–833, 849
holdings, 383
classification by farm types, 384–386
mortgages on, 823–833, 849
Maori, 278–279, 378–379, 427
registration, 278–279
settlement promotion, 279, 371, 377, 728
surveys, 380
tax, 696, 731, 741–742
tenure, 383, 1022
transfers, 280–282, 1016, 1086
use, 367
Valuation Court (see Supreme Court, Administrative Division)
valuation of, 283–287, 756–757
Latest statistical information, 1073–1088
Law (see Legislation)
affecting labour, 894–896, 903–905, 910–913
and crime, 242–260, 995
revision of, 242
suits, 259
Lead, 452, 458
Leasehold landholdings, 279, 280, 377, 383
Leather and leather products, 475, 508, 710
Legal aid, 260
Legal profession, 244
Legislation—
in force in January 1973, 973–978
influences on, in New Zealand, 24
labour and allied, 885–893, 894–896
passed in 1972, 972
Legislative authority, 40–42
Legislative Council, 27, 40
Legitimations, 92
Letters, etc., posted, 338–340, 996
Libraries, census of, 353–355
Library school, 253
Library services, 200, 352–354
Licences—
aerodrome, 336
by local authorities, 758
drivers', 316, 321
export, 603
fishing, 451
flight crew, 336
import, 603–604
motor-vehicle, 316–318
petroleum prospecting, 457
publicans', 955–956
radio and television, 347, 350
restaurant, 956
transport, 318–319
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 318–319
Control Commission (liquor), 955, 1022
poll, 961
trusts, 956
Licensing of—
commercial air services, 329, 336
goods and passenger services, 316–318
lotteries and raffles, 954
motor vehicles, 316–318
private hospitals, 141
sale of alcoholic liquor, 955–956
Life insurance, 537, 844–850
international comparison, 844
Life, expectation of, 98–99, 882–883
Lifts, inspection of, 922, 923
Lighthouses, 300
Lime—
for agriculture, 402–403
industry, 475
Limestone, 452, 462, 512
Linen flax, 408, 419, 473
Linseed, 413
Liquor licensing, 955–956
Literary awards, 1031–1032
Literature, New Zealand, 1034–1046
Livestock, 419–45, 608, 611
slaughtering, 396
Loans—
allocation of, 750–751, 754
by building societies, 835–838
dates of maturity, 754–755
domicile of, 1011
forestry, 432
harbour boards, 727
hospital boards, 144
housing, 520
land development, 378
national development, 750, 751, 752
of local government, 756, 761–765, 1012–1013
on assurance policies, 849
overseas, 750–751, 753–755
redemption of, 725, 730, 750–753
State Advances, 527, 829–835
supplementary, 834
suspensory, 834
Local Authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Government, 47, 756, 765
advances to, 831, 833, 834
assets and liabilities of, 760–761
Commission, 48
debt of, 706, 760–765, 1012–1013
districts, 47–48
employees of, 870
expenditure of, 314, 697, 759
finance of, 697, 1012–1013
franchise, 47
health and welfare responsibilities of, 125, 520
history of, 47–50
housing by, 517, 523
investment pool, 191, 192–193
number of local authorities, 48
rates, 697, 756–758
revenue of, 312, 313
roading, 314, 697
stock, 764
subsidies and grants to, 312, 313, 315, 403, 404, 520, 697, 730
superannuation, 192
taxation, 697
urban transport operated by, 323–327
Local railway board, 758–760
Lockouts, 894
Locomotives, 303–304
Lodges, friendly societies, 195–197
Logging, 433–435, 440, 442
London prices for dairy produce, 555–558
London prices for meat, 569
Losses from fire, 854–859
Lotteries, 954–955
duty on, 748, 955
grants, 139, 965
Lubricants and fuels, imports of, 635
Lucerne, 406–408, 414

M

Machinery—
accidents, 915
exports, 613
farm, 404–405, 476, 515
imports of, 297, 636, 642, 647–648, 1085
industry, 476, 516, 840
safety of, 921–923
used in manufacturing industries, 484–485
Magistrates' Courts, 46, 243, 247–250, 259, 995
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 243
Mails, 338–339, 996
air, 331, 339
Maize, 405–408
Malaysia, reciprocal trade with, 654
Malting barley, 411
Manganese ore, 458
Manila Treaty, 28, 29, 35
Manpower Planning Unit, 716, 867
Manufacturing industries, 463–516, 712, 717, 718, 781–783, 798–799, 840, 889–890
assets of, 491
by employment districts, 470–472
coal consumed in, 485–486
development, 463–468
expenses of operation, 491
export earnings, 467
motive power, 484–485
net output (net value added) in, 469–476, 489–490, 494, 498–516, 1008
persons engaged in, 469–476, 478–481, 483, 484, 498–516, 864, 876–877
stocks, 492–493
summary of operations, 496
value of production, 469–476, 487–489, 494, 496, 498–516
volume of production, 490, 494, 497–516
wages in, 469–476, 481–484, 489, 496–516
Maori—
Affairs, Board of, 379
and Island Affairs Dept., 180, 181, 233, 315, 379, 520, 528
Appellate Court, 243, 244, 279
apprentices registered, 874
birth rate, 85, 86
children, heights and weights of, 158
council, 180
death rate, 93–95, 101–105
education, 208
Education Foundation, 232
electorates, 23, 46, 971
housing, 528
Land Court, 243, 244, 279, 378
lands, 278–279, 378–379, 427
life expectancy, 99, 111
Members of Parliament, 42–43, 971, 1021
population, 64, 67, 97, 98, 99
tribes, 21, 22
trustee, 379, 528
Women's Welfare League, 180
youths, trade training for, 874
Maoris—
births of, 85, 86
children attending schools, 211, 212
census of, 67–68
deaths of, 85, 95, 97, 103, 104–111, 114
expectation of life, 99
franchise, 46, 47
history of, 21–24, 26, 27
infant mortality of, 109–111
natural increase of, 85
population, 55, 67–68
pre-employment courses, 875
publications and articles on, 1038
scholarships for, 212, 232
settled on farms, 378, 379
Maps—
factory production, 471–472
holdings by type of farming, 380
mineral resources, 453
New Zealand (end of volume)
rainfall, 15
topographical, 380
Marginal land, 378
Marine officers' certificates, 300, 912
Marital status, 76–77, 116
Market gardens, 383, 406–408, 414–415, 886
Marketing of primary produce, 552–571
Marriage guidance, 121, 122
Marriages, 115–122
dissolution and nullity, 115, 117–119
rates, 115, 993
Masseurs (see Physiotherapists)
Materials used in manufacturing industries, 469–473, 486–487, 489, 490, 493, 496, 498–516 1008
Maternal deaths, 112
health, 128
Maternal welfare, 128, 136, 140
Maternity—
benefits, 136, 138, 166
hospitals, 128, 140, 142
nurses, 133, 136
Meat—
consumption of, 395, 681
wages and hours worked, 891–892
export of, 299, 395, 552–554, 562, 569–570, 602, 1002
wages and hours worked, 891–892
export price index, 674–675
wages and hours worked, 891–892
freezing and preserving industry, 473, 498
wages and hours worked, 891–892
industry (special article), 1047–1063
industry reserve account, 571
inspection of, 401
levy on. 562
marketing of, 562–563, 569–571
prices for, 569–570
production, 394–396, 498, 1007
retail prices, 668
Meat Producers Board, 396, 562–563, 569, 1047–1063
Mediation, industrial, 903
Medical—
advertisements, 126
benefits, 135–138, 166–167
Council, 132
practitioners, 133, 135, 771
Research Council, 124, 132, 238
Research Endowment Fund, 132
research foundations, 132
services, 123–156
statistics, 131
Medicine, physical, 131
Members of Parliament, 41–43
salaries of, 43, 1085
superannuation of, 44, 188–190
Mental—
diseases, 153–155
health and psychology publications, 152
hospitals, 152–156
Mercantile marine, 275, 288–300
pensions, 184
merchant banks, 811
Mercury, 458
Metal products industry, 476, 515, 710, 781–783, 785–786, 798
Meteorological—
observations for year, 19–20
Service, 329
Meteorology (see also Climate), 11–20
Metric equivalents, 948
Metrication, 946–947
Metric Advisory Board, 946
Midwives, 133, 136
Migration, external, 53, 68–73, 992
Mileage of—
bus, etc., routes, 325–327
commercial air services, 331–332
railways, 301–997
roads, 312, 313, 314, 315
State highways, 314, 315
Mileage tax, 313, 731, 733
Military—
colleges, 269
forces, 269–270
Milk—
boards, 565
consumption, 680
dried and condensed, exports of, 609, 1003
dried and condensed, production of, 392
levy on, 565
marketing of, 565
subsidy, 565, 684, 1007
Milkfat, 302, 393
Milk products (see Dairy produce)
Milking machines, 404–405
Minerals and mineral production, 452–462, 475, 509, 710, 718
Miners' benefits, 165, 166, 173
Mines Department, 454, 726, 923
Mining and quarrying, census of, 462
Mining, 452–462, 710, 712, 781–783, 798, 840
accidents, 113, 916
legislation, 454
persons engaged in, 456, 462, 864, 877
State aid to, 460
value of production, 452, 460, 462
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 119
Ministers of the Crown, 970
Ministries, successive, 968–969
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 237, 364, 400, 410
Ministry of Energy Resources, 539–540
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 29
annual appropriations, 726
Ministry of Transport, 288, 300, 321, 923
Ministry of Works, 302, 310, 311, 367, 369, 923
Minors, marriages of, 117
Monarch, the, 40
Monetary and Economic Council, 238, 537, 661, 822
Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, Royal Commission on, 820
Monetary policy, 800–802
Money orders, 340, 996
Mortality (see Deaths)
Mortgage guarantee scheme, 830
Mortgages, 537, 808, 823–828, 849, 855, 1016
discharged, 823–827
rates of interest on, 829–830, 1016
registered, 823–828
sources of finance, 537, 827
State Advances, 829–835
Mothers—
ages of, 89–91
in ex-nuptial cases, 92
issue of, 90
Motor body building industry, 476, 514
Motor cycles, 316
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 317
imports of, 298, 645
retail price of, 669
taxation on, 312, 731, 733, 734
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 113, 150, 320–321
assembly of, 476, 514
drivers' licences, 316, 321
imports of, 297, 643–644, 646
inspection of, 321–322
insurance, 322, 850–853
registration and licensing of, 316–318
repairs industry, 476, 514
taxation, 313, 696, 731
value of hire purchase sales, 590
Motor-engineering industry, 476, 514
Motorways, 310
Mountaineering, 944
Mountains, 1, 2–3, 7–13
Multiple births, 88
Murder, 112, 150, 247
Museums, 219, 738, 1031
Music in New Zealand, publications on, 1041
Mussels, 446
Mutton—
consumption of, 395, 681
exported, 552–553, 562, 570, 622, 682, 1002
produced, 394–395, 498
retail prices of, 668, 669
Mutual insurance associations, 859

N

Narcotics, 127
Nassella tussock boards, 48, 758
National—
accounts, 685–720
Airways Corporation, 330–333, 727, 981
Archives, 1033
Art Gallery, 1031
Development bonds, 741, 805
Development Conference, 232, 241, 362, 366, 367, 399, 539, 606, 716–720, 866, 938, 1026
targets, 314, 399, 420, 716–718
Development Council, 198, 452, 518, 687, 716–719, 1026
development loans, 730, 734–736, 752, 754, 828
employment services, 866
Film Library, 219
flag, 966
Health Institute, 132, 238
Health Statistics Centre, 131
income and expenditure, 685–698, 733
Library of New Zealand, 200, 351–354, 962
licensing poll, 961
Marriage Guidance Council, 121–122
Mountain Safety Council, 964
parks, 363–365, 372–376, 426
Provident Fund, 191–194, 778, 812
Radiation Laboratory, 128
Research Advisory Council, 239, 716
Roads Board, 48, 311, 314, 315
Roads Fund, 311–314, 315, 730, 1082
Safety Association, 924
scheme for farm employees, 192
song, 966
superannuation scheme, 192
Water and Soil Conservation Authority, 364, 369, 371
Nationality and naturalisation, 73–74
Native bush, 384, 426–433
Natural gas, 452, 457, 550, 727, 1026
Natural increase of population, 52, 85
Natural resources, 359–372, 426–432, 453–460
Naturalisation, 73–74
Nature Conservation Council, 365, 375
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy) bases, 268
defence, 267–268
vessels, 267–268
Navigational aids, air, 329
Netherlands, immigration from, 70, 71, 74
Net value added in manufacturing, 469–476, 489–490, 494, 498–516, 1008
New Zealand—
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 416–417, 564–565
area of, 2, 66, 361
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 593, 654
books, 1034–1046
boundaries of, 1
Broadcasting Corporation, 347–350, 727, 981
Broadcasting Authority, 347
constitution
Dairy Board, 393, 562, 567
Egg Marketing Authority, 565
Electricity Department, 543
Forest Products Ltd., 435, 442
Gazette, 44, 47
in the Commonwealth, 29–2
life and scenery, publications, 1035–1036
Literary Fund, 1030, 1031
mean time, 962
Meat Producers Board, 396, 562, 569
Milk Board, 565, 659
Ports Authority, 288
Red Cross Society, 140
representation overseas, 988–989
Road Safety Council, 322
Steel Ltd., 457, 466, 727, 752
Wheat Board, 410
Wool Board, 398
Wool Marketing Corporation, 564
New Zealand's International Relations, 27–39
Newspapers, 351–352, 644
produced, 497
Newsprint—
exports of, 299, 441, 610, 630, 1006
imports of, 441, 644
production, 436, 506, 507
Niue Island, 2, 21, 22, 26, 31–32, 53, 71, 83, 632, 649–650, 657, 925, 930–932
immigrants from, 71, 82
Note issue, 790, 813
Notes in circulation, 1014
Noxious animals, 431
Nurseries, plant, 383, 415
Nurses—
community, 133
dental, 130
in public hospitals, 144
industrial, 128
male, 133
Plunket, 128, 140
psychiatric, 133
psychopaedic, 133
registration of, 133
training of, 130, 133
Nursing, 129, 133
services, 129
Nutrition, 127

O

Oatmeal, etc., 500
Oats, 406–408, 411, 998
Occupational—
classification of—
married women, 881
population, 878–879
school-leavers, 214
of bankrupts, 951
health, 127–128, 924
of bankrupts, 951
safety, 912, 921–924
of bankrupts, 951
status, 876
of bankrupts, 951
therapy, 131, 133
Oceanographic Institute, 236
OECD (special article), 1064–1067
Office machines, imports of, 642
Officers' Certificates (Marine), 300, 912
Offices Act, Shops and, 911
Oil drilling and prospecting, 457, 461
Oil, imports of, 298
Oil refinery, 1025
Old people's homes, 139
Ombudsman (Parliamentary Commissioner), 46, 978
Onions, 408, 413, 661
exports of, 611, 682
Opossum skins exported (see Hides)
Opticians, registration of, 134
Oranges, imports of, 639, 644, 650
Orchards, 383, 406–408, 415, 886
Orchestras, NZBC, National Youth, 348–349
Orphans benefits, 166, 168, 170, 171
Ottawa Agreement, 651
Outpatients, 142, 143
Output of manufacturing (net), 469–476, 489–490, 494, 498–516, 1008
Outward Bound School, 133
Overdraft authorities, unexercised, 800
Overdraft rates, 809
Overseas—
exchange transactions, 791, 814–818, 1085
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 605, 989–991
reserves (banks), 794, 796, 814–815, 816, 1014, 1027
territories (see Island territories)
travel allowances, 819
war service, persons with, 276
Overtime, 495, 498–516, 889–890
Oysters, 445, 446

P

Pacific Islands (see Island territories, or individual islands)
constitutional changes, 31–32
Paint and varnish industry, 475, 510, 525
Painting in New Zealand, publications on, 1041
Paper and paper products industry, 435–437, 474, 506–507, 710, 781–783
Paper and pulp, external trade in, 298, 439–441, 636, 641, 1005
Parcel post, 340
Parents—
ages of, 89–90
births by duration of marriage, 91
previous issue of, 90
Parks, National, 372–377, 426
Parliament, 27, 29, 33, 34, 40–44, 971–972, 1020
Members of, 41–43, 971
term of, 957
Parliamentary—
Commissioner (Ombudsman), 46, 978
elections, 42–43, 46–47, 957
functions and control, 41–42
procedure, 41
salaries, 43–44
Parole boards, 256
Particle board, 438, 466, 513
Passenger services—
railway, 305
road, 319–320
Passengers—
buses, etc., 308–309, 323–324
commercial aircraft, 331–332
overseas, 68–69, 992
railway, 305, 306–307, 308, 997
shipping, 291
Passports, 73
Pasture grasses, 402
Patents, designs, trade marks, 949
Patients in hospitals, 146–149, 152
Patients in mental hospitals, 152–155
PAYE taxation, 734–738, 1024
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 406, 407, 415–417, 681
export of, 417, 682, 1004
marketing of, 416–417, 564
Peas, 406–409, 412, 998
export of, 412, 611, 629
Pelts (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Penal institutions, 245, 252
Penal system, 244–245
Pensions—
social security, 163–177
war, 168, 184–187
Perinatal mortality, 102, 103, 111
Periodic detention, 245
Perlite, 452, 453, 459
Permanent heads of Government departments, 979
Permits, building, 517, 521–524
Pest destruction boards, 49, 404, 758, 759, 760
Petitions—
bankruptcy, 952
divorce, 119–120
Petrol (see Motor spirits)
Petroleum, 298, 452, 457, 475, 1075
imports of, 633, 645
industry, 475, 516
Pharmaceutical benefits, 135, 166
Pharmaceutical chemists, 134, 138
Pharmaceutical Society, Council of, 134
Pharmaceuticals, manufacture of, 475–510
Phormium, 384
industry, 473
Phosphate rock, 459, 509
imports of, 640
Photography, aerial, 380
Physical education, 159
Physical welfare and recreation, 943–944
Physical medicine, 131
Physiotherapists, 131, 133
Physiotherapy benefits, 136
Pig-meats—
consumption of, 395, 681
exports of, 570, 622, 682
prices for, 570
production of, 394–395, 498
Pigs, 389–391, 420, 424, 999
slaughtered, 396
Pilots, air, 336
Placement service, 872
Planing mills, 474, 505
Planning, town and country, 50–51, 956
Plantations, 383, 408, 414–415, 426–432
Plantation board, 760
Plastics, industry, 476, 515
Platinum, 459
Play centres, 203, 208
Plumbers, registration of, 133
Plunket Society, 128, 129, 140
Plywood and veneer, 438, 474, 512–513, 525, 610, 647
Poems, publications of, 1041
Poisoning, 112, 125, 920
Poisons, 126, 127
Police, 179, 188–190, 263–264, 725, 981
youth aid section, 179
superannuation, 188–190
Policies, insurance, 844–850, 1018
Political parties, 41, 957
Polynesian Education Foundation, 232
Polling at—
general elections, 957
Pollution—
air, 125
water, 368
Population (see also Census), 52–84, 1073–1074
age distribution, 76, 82
density of, 66
distribution of, 57–66
ethnic groups, 82
heights and weights, 156–160
increases, 52–55, 67, 85
industrial distribution of, 877
international comparisons, 54, 85. 87, 717
Maori, 55, 67–68
projections, 56–57, 1086–1088
sex proportions of, 65–66
urbanisation of, 64–65, 1073
vital statistics, 85–122
world, 84
Pork (see Pig-meats)
Portfolios of Ministers, 970
Ports—
Authority, 288
fishing, 448
imports by, 297, 649
of arrival and departure, 291
safety of, 922, 923
shipping trade of, 288–299, 631
Postal notes, 340, 996
Post Office, 338–346, 727, 981, 996
bonus bonds, 741, 805
superannuation of, 188–190
debt, 707
superannuation of, 188–190
employees, 346, 996
superannuation of, 188–190
interest on capital liability, 724
National Development Bonds, 741
Savings Bank, 526, 803–806, 809, 812, 1014
Staff Tribunal, 912
Potato Board, 412, 565
Potatoes, 406–408, 412, 565, 668, 997
consumption of, 681
export of, 609, 611, 682
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 475, 511
Poultry, 424, 1020
consumption of, 681
Power (see Electric power)
Preferential tariff, 650–657
Pregnancy, diseases, etc., of, 112, 148–149
deaths from, 101, 102, 111, 148
Premiums, insurance—
accidents, 850–853
fire, 854–857
life, 844–848
motor vehicle (third party), 852–853
Pre-school education, 200, 203, 208
Preserved meats, etc., production of, 498
Preventive detention, 245, 247, 254
Price Tribunal, 658–660
Price Control, 658
Prices, 658–680, 1078
basic for dairy produce, 567–568
index numbers, 663–664, 666–667, 1078
comparisons with other countries, 669–670, 673
index numbers, 663–664, 666–667, 1078
export, 566–571, 1078
index numbers, 663–664, 666–667, 1078
export, indexes of, 673–675, 679
index numbers, 663–664, 666–667, 1078
import, indexes of, 675–677, 679
index numbers, 663–664, 666–667, 1078
retail, 668–669, 1078
index numbers, 663–664, 666–667, 1078
stabilisation of, 658–660
Trade Practices Act, 660
wholesale, 671–673, 678–679
Prices and Trade Practices Commission, 660
Primary products—
consumption of, 392, 394, 395, 397, 680–685
by ports, 299
export of, 298, 606–612, 620–630, 682, 1001–1004
by ports, 299
marketing of, 562–571
Primary schools, 199, 200, 208, 209–210, 218, 788, 994
Prime Ministers, successive, 968–969
Principal events, 1020–1027
Printing and publishing industry, 474, 507, 710
Prisoners of war, 275
Prison service superannuation, 188
Prisons and prisoners, 253–255, 995
Prisons policy, 254–255
Private—
assignments, 951
income, 685, 686, 690, 691, 694
savings banks, 537, 806, 810, 812, 1025
schools, 199, 200, 204, 211, 994
Privy council, 243
Probation of offenders. 178, 244, 247, 249, 252
Production, 712–717
building materials, 511–513
clothing, 474, 504
dairy, 392–394, 1007
farm, 389, 390–396, 399–405, 998, 1007
fisheries, 444–449
index numbers of, 712–713
manufacturing industries, 463–516, 1008
meat, 394–396, 498, 1007
mineral, 452–462, 475, 509
pulp and paper, etc., 435–437, 506
timber. 433–435, 565, 1007
wheat, 406–411
wool, 391, 396–399, 473, 1007
Productivity Advisory Council, 719
Productivity index, 713
Projections—
labour force, 865
permanent private dwellings, 521
population, 56–57
school population, 206
Property price index, 526–527
Proprietors, working, 868, 876
Protection of wages, 887
Psychiatric health, 153–155
Psychiatric units of public hospitals, 152
Public—
accounts, 721–728
interest on, 692, 725, 752–753
administration and Government, publications on, 1036
interest on, 692, 725, 752–753
authority sector of national income and expenditure, 686, 695–698
interest on, 692, 725, 752–753
debt, 706, 750–755, 763–765, 1011
interest on, 692, 725, 752–753
finance, 721–750, 1009–1010
health, 123–133
holidays, 910, 963
Public Service, 912, 981
employees, 982
superannuation, 187–190
Public Trust Office, 950–951
Public Works—
maintenance appropriations, 727
occupational safety, 921–924
railway construction, 302
road construction, 309–316
services, maintenance of, 696
Publicans' licences, 955–956
Publications (see also by subject)
Education, 219
Education Gazette, 219
New Zealand Gazette, 47, 372, 791, 962
New Zealand Listener, 349
School Journal, 219
Publishing and printing industry, 474, 507, 962
Pulp and paper industry, 435–437, 439–440, 465, 474, 506, 781–783
export of, 298, 439–440, 607–608, 640–641, 1005–1006
import of, 439–440, 640, 647
Pumice, 452, 453, 610

Q

Quadruplets born, 88
Quarries, 453, 462
accidents at, 916
persons engaged in, 462, 864, 876
safety in, 921
Quarrying and mining, census of, 462
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 1030

R

Rabbit boards (see Pest destruction boards)
Race relations, 964
Racial origins of population, 82, 83
Racing taxation, 728–729, 749–750, 1086
Radiation protection, 128
Radio and television, 346–350
advertising, 347–350
assembly and manufacture of sets, 466, 476, 497, 513
licences, 344, 350
Radio—
beacons, 300
private commercial, 347–348
communications, 344–345
private commercial, 347–348
New Zealand, 347, 350
private commercial, 347–348
time signals, 962
Radioactivity, protection against, 128
Radiology, 128
Radiotelephone services, 343, 344
Raffles, 954
Railcars, 303, 1022
Rail traffic—
goods, 305, 307, 997, 1074
passengers, 305, 306, 997, 1074
Railway equipment, imports of, 643
Railways, 301–309, 981, 997
accidents, 113, 150, 1022, 1024
air freight service, 302, 332
debt, 752
employees, 308, 997
licensing protection, 318–319
notional, 301
private, 308
revenue and expenditure, 304–306, 727, 728, 997
road-rail ferry service, 302, 305, 1025
road services, 305, 307, 1074
superannuation, 188
Tribunal, 912
Rainfall, 13–15, 18, 20, 369–370
Rangemaking industry, 476, 513
Raoul Island, 2, 10
Rarotonga Island (see also Cook Islands), 926
Rates, local government, 756–758
valuation for, 283–284
Rates of exchange, 791, 814–815
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 653–657
Recreation, 365, 431, 943–944, 964–965
Redemption of loans, 751, 763
Re-exports, 631–632
Refrigerators, 497, 516
Refugees, 72
Regional Authority, 48, 764–768
Regional planning, 50
Regional water boards, 369
Registrars, marriages before, 115, 118
Registration of—
adopted children, 92–93
aircraft, 336
aliens, 74–75
apiaries, 425
apprentices, 874
births, 86
building societies, 836
chemists, 134
child care centres, 178
community nurses, 133
companies, 839–841, 1017
deaths, 99, 100
dental technicians, 133
dentists, 133
designs, 949
dietitians, 134
electors, 47
employers' unions, 897–898
ex-nuptial births, 91
friendly societies, 195
land titles, 278–279
land values, 283–284, 287
male nurses, 133
Maori electors, 47
marriages, 116–119
maternity nurses, 133
medical practitioners, 133
midwives, 133
mortgages, 823–826, 1016
motor vehicles, 316–318
nurseries, 415
nurses, 133
occupational therapists, 133
opticians, 134
patents, 949
pharmaceutical chemists, 134
physiotherapists, 133
plumbers, 134
private schools, 199
psychiatric nurses, 133
psychopaedic nurses, 133
still births, 94
trade marks, 949
trade unions, 896–897
unemployed, 871–879
vessels, 295
Rehabilitation, 181, 187, 696, 830
disabled civilians, 131
Religious professions, 81
marriages by ministers of, 118, 119
Renewable leases, 376, 377
Rental cars, 316, 320, 322, 852
Rental value, owner-occupier houses, 685, 689, 691
Rents, 533, 563–564, 664
stabilisation of, 537
Representation Commission, 40, 42, 47
Representation in New Zealand, 989–990
Representation overseas, 988–989
Representatives, House of, 27, 40, 41, 971
Reproduction index, 87
Research, 234–241
agricultural, 234–235, 238, 401
animal, 237
Antarctic, 236, 934–937
coal, 454, 461
dental, 130
economic, 238
educational, 232
expenditure, 239–241
forestry, 431–432, 441
fruit, 235
grassland and grasses, 235, 236–237, 402
medical, 132, 238
mining, 454
oil, 457, 461
plant, 235, 236–237, 402
scientific and industrial, 235–236, 238
social sciences, 235–236, 238
soil, 235–236
wheat, 235–236, 410
wool, 399
Reserve Bank, 24, 46, 705, 706, 790–822, 1023
assets and liabilities, 793–794
securities held, 796, 800
Reserve ratio bank advances, 799–800
Reserves—
air force, 272
farm industry, 571
military, 270
naval, 268
overseas (banks), 796, 815–819
public or scenic, 374–375
Resources, natural, 359–367, 426–432, 453–460
Restaurant licences, 956
Retail prices, 668–669, 1079
index numbers, 663–667, 678–679
Retail trade, 571–577, 581–588, 710, 1077
Retailers, bank advances to, 798
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 349–350
cinemas, 356
customs, 652, 696, 724
electric power, 545, 548, 728
forest service, 432
Government (see Government finance)
insurance companies, 846, 848, 850, 853, 855, 859, 1018
local government, 312–313, 697
National Roads Fund, 312, 313, 730, 733–734
Post Office, 345–346
railway, 304–306, 728, 997
urban transport, 324–325
Rheumatism, 147
Rice, 644, 668
River boards, 48, 758, 759, 760
Rivers, 4–5
control of, 369
hydro-electric development on, 538–542
Road—
accidents, 113, 150, 320–321
boards, 48, 758–759
districts, 312
safety, 321–322
services, 305, 319, 320–322, 323–324
transport, 309–327, 1074
Tunnel Authority, 48, 311, 758–760
Roads, 309–327
expenditure on, 312–316, 729–730
taxation, 731, 733–734
Rock lobsters (see crayfish)
Rolling stock, railway, 303, 305
Roman Catholic schools, 211
Ross Dependency, 2, 53, 236, 380, 925, 934–937, 1022
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, 820
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 270–272
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 268
Royal New Zealand Navy, 267–268
Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, 237
Rubber products, 475, 508, 640, 710
Rural—
education, 214
housing, 527
intermediate credit associations, 829
land transfers, 282
mail deliveries, 339
mortgages, 824–828, 830
population, 64–65
Reticulation Council, 544
Ryegrass, 414

S

St. John Ambulance, 140
Safe Air Limited, 302, 328, 332
Safety of machinery, 922
Safety of workers, 911–912, 921–923
Salaries and wages, 689, 691, 694, 884–893
by industry groups, 887–888, 890–892, 889–890
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
by institutional sectors, 887, 889–890
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
by occupations, 777, 782, 889–890
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
equal pay, 887
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
hourly average, 889–890
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
industrial classification of, 887–888
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
in manufacturing industries, 469–476, 481–484, 489, 496–516, 888
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
international comparisons, 893
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
legislation, 885–888
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
lost through industrial stoppages, 905–909, 1018
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
protection of, 887
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
rates, 885–893
average, 794, 890
effective, 892–893
minimum, 886–887
nominal, 889–890
weekly, 888–889, 892
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 43–44, 1085
House of Representatives, 43–44, 1085
Sales tax, 696, 723, 731, 732, 750, 1079
Salt, 452, 453, 460
Samoa (see Western Samoa)
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 374, 375
Sand and gravel, 452, 460, 461
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 430
Sausage casings, export of, 610, 628, 1005
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 805
banks, 802–808, 1015
private, 686, 687, 690
small, 802–808, 809
Sawmills, etc., 433, 435–438, 474, 505
wages and hours of employees, 888
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 212, 232
for Pacific Islanders, 233
university, 203, 221
School—
Certificate, 199, 211, 788
ages of, 210, 211
boarding allowances, 214–215
duration of attendance, 213
intended occupations of, 214
medical examinations of, 129
roll numbers of, 203–204, 206, 208, 209–21
transport, 214–215
children, 198–200, 203–216, 994
ages of, 210, 211
boarding allowances, 214–215
duration of attendance, 213
intended occupations of, 214
medical examinations of, 129
roll numbers of, 203–204, 206, 208, 209–21
transport, 214–215
committees, 199
dental service, 124, 130
inspectors, 209, 212
Journal, 219
Library Services, 218, 353
Savings Bank, 805
of Pharmacy, 134
teachers (see teachers)
Schools—
area, 214
broadcasts to, 218–219
consolidation of, 214
correspondence, 198, 204, 208, 212, 994
curricula, 208, 211
denominations, 211
free textbooks for, 209, 218
intermediate, 204, 209, 211
military, 269
primary, 198, 200, 201, 204, 994
private, 199, 200, 202, 204, 211
secondary, 198, 199–202, 204, 233, 994
special, 200, 207–208
State, 198, 200, 201, 204, 208–211
technical, 203, 204, 208, 994
Science in New Zealand, 234–241
budget, 239
publications, 241, 1038
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 234–236, 367, 410, 726
Sea fisheries, 444–451
Seals, 444
Seamen Act, Shipping and, 912
Secondary education (see also Schools, education), 199, 211–214, 218, 994
Secondary school boards, 199
Secondary School Councils, 199
Securities, Government, 796, 800, 808, 833, 849, 855, 861
Security Service, 277
Seed certification, 413
Seed sowing, aerial, 333
Seeds, grass and clover, 405–407, 413–414
exported, 629, 1004
Seismology, 9–11
Self employed, incomes of, 766, 768, 775–777
Sentences by courts, 249–250, 252–254, 995
Separation, marital, 119–120
Separation orders, 261–262
Serpentine, 452, 459, 509
Service establishments (trade), 580–581
Service-coach licences, 316
Servicemen (see also Ex-servicemen)—
casualties on active service, 275–276
dependants of, 182–184, 186, 187
registration of deaths of, 275–276
Settlement of land, 279, 376, 377
Sex proportions of population, 65–65
Sexes of—
children born, 88
factory employees, 481, 483, 484
patients in public hospitals, 151
prisoners, 253, 254
Sexual offences, 247, 248, 258
Share prices, index numbers, 677–679
Shares in building societies, 835–838
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 912
Sheep, 419–422, 999, 1020
and lambs slaughtered, 396, 498
farming, 382, 386, 396–398, 419–423, 766, 771, 777, 798
skins and pelts exported (see Hides)
Sheetmetal-working industry, 515
Shipping, 288–300, 912
on inland waters, 294
Shipping and Seamen Act, 912
Ships (see Vessels)
Shops, 571–579
and Offices Act, 911
fire losses on, 858
Short-wave radio broadcasting, 347
Sickness, 147–149
benefits, 166, 168, 169, 173, 1083
funds, 196
insurance, 196, 850, 851
Silage, 406–408
Silica, 452, 459
Silver, 452, 458
Silviculture, 428, 431
Sixth Form Certificate, 199, 213
Ski-ing, 944
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Slaughter of animals for food, 396, 498
Snow, 16
Soap industry, 475, 497, 509
Soaps, export of, 611
Social science and welfare publications, 238, 1036
Social Security, 163–179, 1010
Act, 24, 163, 164
annual appropriations, 726
benefits, 163–177, 691, 692, 694, 876, 1083
reciprocity with other countries, 164, 176
supplementary assistance, 166, 175
taxation, 166, 696, 731, 780–781, 1080
Social services, expenditure on, 722–723, 726, 1010
Social welfare, 163–197
Soil conservation, 363, 365, 369–372
Soils, 381–382
Soldiers, 265–266, 269–270, 272–275
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 28, 35–36, 265, 1026
Southern Alps, 3, 8, 16, 17
South Pacific Commission, 31, 925
Sovereignty, 27
Special articles—
Meat Industry, 1047–1063
OECD, 1064–1067
Commonwealth Games, 1068–1069
in previous issues, 1028
Special education, 200, 207
Speed limit, 321
Spirits—
consumption of, 682
duty on, 652
imports of, 635, 645
production of, 502
Sports, 964–965
publications on, 103, 1040
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act, 885–886
Stamp duties, 724, 1079
Standard time, 962
Standards Council, 950
Standards of living, international indicators of, 953–954
State—
Advances Corporation, 520, 526, 528, 537, 725, 812
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
aid to private schools, 200
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
coal mines, 460, 727, 728
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
departments, 45–46
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
finance, 695–698, 721–755, 1009–1010
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
forests, 362, 426–432, 752
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
highways, 314, 315, 729
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
housing, 517, 519, 520, 523, 526–531, 537, 728, 833
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
indebtedness, 705, 750–755, 1011
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
insurance, 859–862
accident and fire, 860–861
earthquake and war damage, 861
life, 843–849, 860–861
Commission, 725, 912, 981
placement services, 866
Commission, 725, 912, 981
schools, 201–209, 994
Commission, 725, 912, 981
Services, 884, 912, 980
Commission, 725, 912, 981
wards, 179–180
Statistical areas, 58
area and population of, 58, 1073
cinemas in, 357
crops grown in, 405–406
density of population in, 66
divisions and urban areas, 58–59
industrial production by, 469, 477–480, 482–483, 488–490
livestock, 421
retail trade in, 572
wholesale trade in, 578
Statistical—
information, latest, 1073
publications, 596, 1070–1072
summary, 922–1019
Statistics of world population, 84
Statutes of Westminster, 27, 40, 242
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory Boards and Committees, 983
Steel and iron, imports of, 642, 645–646
Steel industry, 457, 466
Sterling exchange rates, 814
Stewart Island, 2, 27, 64
Still births, 89, 94, 111
Stock and station agents—
advances to, 798, 808, 812
deposits, etc., with, 812
Stock, registered, local government, 764
Stocks—
manufacturers', 492–493
retail, 572–575, 585
wholesale, 578–579
Stoppages, industrial, 905–908
Straits Air Freight Express (see Safe Air Limited)
Stranding of vessels, 300
Strikes, 894–895, 1018
Students, teachers' college, 216–217, 994
Students, university, 220–226, 994
Studentship, secondary teacher, 216, 217
Submarine power cable, Cook Strait, 542
Subscribers, telephone, 341
Subsidies, 684, 692, 697
agricultural, 403–404
highways, 313, 315
on butter, 684
on food, 684
superannuation fund, 684, 728
to gasworks, 551, 684
to local government, 312, 313, 315, 520, 697, 757
to mining, 460
Suffrage, 47
Sugar—
consumption of, 682
duty on, 652
imports of, 297, 634, 639, 644
international agreement on, 656–657
used by factories, 500–503
Suicides, 102, 103, 114, 150
ages of, 114
Sulphur, 459
imports of, 641, 645
used in fertiliser industry, 509
Summary convictions, 248–251, 995
Sunshine, 17–20
Superannuation—
government, 188–191, 725, 778
of Members of Parliament, 44, 188–190
social security, 163, 165, 170, 1080
Superphosphate and fertiliser industry, 475, 509
Supreme Court, 46, 242–244, 246–247, 250, 258, 978, 995
Administrative Division, 243, 283, 978
Surveys—
aerial land, 380
employment, 869–870
geological, 235, 460–461
land, 380
of ships, 200
Sweepstakes, 977
Swimming accidents, 112

T

Tallow exported, 298, 626, 1005
Tallow produced, 498
Tanning industry, 465, 475, 508
Tariff and Development Board, 604
Tariff, Customs, 650–657
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 34, 555, 655–656
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 435, 436, 442, 752
Taxation (see also individual taxes), 685–698, 723, 731–750, 766–789
amendments to legislation, 742
direct, 692, 724, 731–732, 1079
exemptions from, 734, 737–738, 777–778
incentives, 740–741
indirect, 689, 724, 731–733, 1079
rates of, 734–748, 782
Taxis, 316, 318, 322, 852–853
Taxpayers, incomes of, 772–789
Tea—
consumption of, 682
imports of, 640, 644
Teacher studentships, 216, 217
Teachers, 216–217, 218
primary school, 218
secondary school, 218
superannuation, 188–189
training of, 204, 216–217
Teaching aids, 218
Technical Correspondence Institute, 203, 204, 228, 231, 873, 995
Technical education (see also Education, Schools), 203, 204, 228–231, 873–875, 995
Technology—
Central Institute of, 229
publications on, 1038
Telecommunications, 343–345, 996
Telegraph services, 342–343
Telephone services, 341–345
Television, 348–350, 466
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 590
Television and radio assembly and manufacture, 466, 476, 497, 513
Telex (teleprinter) services, 343–344
Temperature, 16–18, 20
Tenancy Act, 537
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 376, 377
of dwellings, 534, 537
of occupied land, 278–282, 376, 377, 383
Term of parliament, poll on, 962
Terms of trade, 676–677
Territorial Air Force, 271, 272
Territorial Forces (Army), 269–270
Tetanus immunisation, 129
Textbooks in schools, free, 209, 218
Textiles, production of, 473, 503–504
Theatres, etc., fire losses on, 858
Theft, 247, 248, 251, 253, 258
Therapists, occupational, 131, 133
Thermal activity, 3, 944
Third-party risks insurance, 322, 850–853
Thrift club accounts, Post Office Savings Banks, 804
Thunderstorms, 16
Timber, 426–443, 505, 512–513, 525
exports of, 298, 439–440, 610, 630, 1005
imports of, 439–440, 645
inspection of, 431–432
output, 433–438, 505–506, 1007
plantations, 383, 426–432
preservation of, 438–439, 474, 505
resources, 427–428
Timber Preservation Authority, 438
Time service (radio), 962
Tin, 459
Tobacco—
consumption of, 682
duty on, 652
growers, 886
imports of, 633, 640, 645
industry, 418–419, 473, 563
Tokelau (Union) Islands, 26, 32, 38, 53, 73, 181, 632, 649–650, 657, 933–934
history of, 21
Toll service, 341
Tonnage of registered vessels, 295
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 288–299
Topdressing, 333, 402–403
Topographical mapping, 380
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 749–750
taxation, 749–750
turnover on, 749–750
Tourist—
accommodation, 940–943
and Publicity Department, 543, 945
attractions, 943, 945
Hotel Corporation, 727, 752, 940, 981
industry, 718, 938–945
Tourists, 938–945
Town and country planning, 30–51, 956
Town districts, 49, 61–62, 756–764
area of, 61
capital and unimproved values, 286, 757
councils of, 49
debt, 757, 762
mileage of streets, 310
population of, 61
Tractors, imports of, 642, 646
Tractors on farms, 405, 920
accidents, 114, 920
Trade, domestic, 571–590
marks, 949
practices, 576, 660
retail, 571–577, 581–588, 710
training of Maori youths, 874
unions, 896–897
wholesale, 571, 577–581, 588–589, 710
Trade external, 653–657
agreements, 558–561, 653–657
balance of, 596
commissioner service, 605
direction of exports, 595, 618–630
origin of imports, 595, 637–644
per head value of, 595
Promotion Council, 716
representation overseas, 991
statistics, compilation of, 596–597, 699–700
terms of, 676–677
volume of, 602–603, 607–614, 644–647
Trade Certification Board, 206, 229, 231, 873
Trades, examinations, 206, 229, 873
Trading and works account, State, 728, 730
Trading banks, 537, 795–800, 812, 1014
advances, classification, 798–799, 1014
Traffic—
accidents, 113, 150, 320–321
deaths from, 113, 320–321
air, 328–337
motor, 316–318
offences, 247–248, 249, 250, 321–322
railways, 305–307, 1074
Tramways, 324
Transhipment Of cargo, 297–299
Transport, 288–336, 943, 1074
accidents (see Traffic accidents)
boards, 48
equipment, imports of, 636, 643–644, 1076
equipment industry, 476, 514, 710, 798, 840
licensing, 318–319
of school children, 214–215
research, 320
urban, 323–327
Travel and tourism, 938–945
allowance overseas, 819
Trawling, 444–445, 447
Treaty of Waitangi, 27, 278, 1030
Trees, forest, 426–428
Tribunals, administrative, 978
Triplets born, 88–89
Trolley-buses, 324–326
Trout, 5, 451, 943
Trust (liquor) control, 955
Trustee, Public, 950
Trustee savings banks, 537, 806–808, 809
Tuberculosis, 124, 129, 140, 149
deaths from, 102, 103, 149
Tungsten ore, 452, 458, 461
Tunnels, road and railway, 302, 311
Turkeys, 424
Tussock boards, 48, 403
Twins born, 88, 89

U

Undergraduates, 220–226
Underground water authorities, 49, 758–760
Unemployment, 871–872
benefits, 166, 168, 169, 173, 872
UNESCO, 34
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 800
Unimproved occupied land, 384
Unimproved value of land, 285–287, 741
rating on, 756–757
Unions, trade, 896–897, 898–901
United Kingdom—
communications with, 339, 344
dairy produce and meat imported into, 559, 561–562, 621–626
debt domiciled in, 1011
exchange rate with, 813
New Zealand representation in, 989–991
relations with, 27–29
representations in New Zealand, 989–991
shipping to and from, 293, 294
social security reciprocity, 176
trade agreements with, 558–563, 653
trade with, 591–592, 599, 614–615, 617, 637, 702–704, 707, 708, 709, 711
visitors and migrants from, 71, 83, 939
United Nations, 32–34, 273, 1024, 1025
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 1011
exchange rate with, 813
New Zealand representation in, 989–991
representation in New Zealand, 989–991
shipping to and from, 293
trade with, 552–554, 592–593, 616, 618, 637, 702–705, 707, 709, 711
visitors and migrants from, 71, 239, 939
Universities, 204, 220–217, 728
bursaries, 217, 221–222
colleges of agriculture, 221, 223, 225
education, 204, 220–228, 994
entrance examinations, 199, 207, 220–221
graduates, 216, 223–224, 227, 788
Grants Committee, 199, 203, 220, 528
scholarships, 203, 221
staff, 228
students, 203, 220–226, 994
Uranium, 458
Urban—
areas, 58–59
cinemas in, 357–358
population, 58–59
stores in, 573
drainage boards, 48, 369, 758–760, 762, 763
house price index, 526–527
mortgages, 824–828, 832
movement, 64–65
population growth of, 64–65
renewal, 527
transport, 323–327
transport boards, 48, 758–760
Urbanisation—
effects of, 361
of population, 64–65

V

Vacancies, employment, 872
Valley authority, 48, 369, 758–760
Valuation—
of land, 283–287, 756–757
roll, 283, 756
Value added in manufacturing (net), 469–476, 489–490, 494, 498–516, 1008
Valuers' Registration Board, 287
Veal—
consumption of, 395, 681
export of, 552–553, 562, 570, 620–621, 682, 1002
production of, 395, 498
Vegetable growing, commercial, 406–408, 409
Vegetables—
consumption of, 681
exported, canned and frozen, 611, 682
retail prices of, 668
Vehicles, motor (see Motor vehicles)
Veneer and plywood, 438, 474, 512–513
Venereal disease, 101, 102, 125, 147
Vessels—
entered and cleared, 290–295
fishing, 444
nationality of, 294
safety of, 912, 922, 923
wrecked, 300
Veterans' allowances, 182–186
Veterinarians, training of, 221, 223, 227
Veterinary services, 400, 401
Vineyards and grapes, 406, 416
Visitors, to New Zealand, 68, 938–945
points of arrival of, 939
Visual aids, in teaching, 219
Vital statistics, 85–120
Vocational guidance, 219, 868, 872
Vocational Training Council, 231, 255, 867, 1026
Volcanism, 7 Volcanoes, 2–3, 9, 1021
Volunteer Service Abroad (V.S.A.), 38
Voluntary welfare organisations, 140
Voting—
at general elections, 47, 957
at licensing polls, 957
Maoris, 47
qualifications, 47, 49

W

Wages (see Salaries and wages)
Waikato Valley Authority, 369
Waitangi, Treaty of, 27, 278, 1030
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 184
casualties, 275
damage and earthquake insurance, 861
pensions, 165, 174, 181–187, 1010
pensions, supplementary assistance, 175
veterans' allowances, 183
Warships, 267–268
Washing machines, 497, 516
Water—
boards, regional, 369
conservation, 365, 368–369
pollution, 368–369
Pollution Control Council, 368
power, development of, 540
resources, 367
safety campaign, 965
Safety Council, National, 965
supply boards, 48, 758–760
Waterfront control, 913
Weather, 11–20, 943
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 333
Welfare—
Maori, 180–181
maternal, 128, 136, 140
of children, 177
of workers, 894–905, 910–913
organisations, 180–181, 528
Pacific Islanders, 180
Western Samoa, 10, 29, 31–32, 53, 71, 83, 599, 615, 925, 1022
Westminster, Statute of, 27, 40, 1023
Whales and whaling, 936
Wheat, 406–408, 409–410, 644, 998
Board, 410
imports of, 410, 644
milled, 500
research, 235–236, 410
Whey butter (see Dairy products)
Whisky, imports of, 640, 645
Whitebait, 446, 451
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 956
prices, 671–672, 678–679
trade, 577–581, 710
Widowers, remarriages of, 116–117
Widows—
benefits, 166, 168, 170, 171, 1083
number of, 76
remarriages of, 116–117
war pensions, 181–182
Wildlife sanctuaries, 375
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 950–951
Winds, 12–13
Wine, consumption of, 682
Wine licences, 956
Winemaking industry, 416, 473
Withdrawals from savings bank, 802, 804, 806, 807, 1015
Women—
Air Force, Royal New Zealand, 272
child bearing ages of, 87
criminal charges and convictions against, 251
deaths of, in childbirth, 101, 102, 143
employed in industry, 465, 470–472, 479–481, 483, 484, 495, 862, 864, 865, 869–870, 875–877
incomes of, 774, 787, 789
in labour force, 880–881
married, occupations of, 881
nationality laws, re, 73
Naval Service, Royal New Zealand, 268
offences by, 251
on juries, 243
police, 264
wage rates of, 481, 483–484
working conditions of, 911
working hours of, 495, 911
Wood preservation, 438–439, 474, 505
Wood and cork products industry, 474, 635, 640, 710
Wood pulp—
exports of, 298, 439–441, 610, 630, 1006
imports of, 439–441, 645
production of, 435–437, 465, 506
Wool—
Board, 398
Corporation Account, 571
export, 298, 554–555, 591, 606, 609, 619–620 816, 1001
export price index, 566, 673
levy, 399, 563
Marketing Corporation, 563–564
marketing of, 554, 563–564
prices for, 397, 566–567, 674–675
production, 391, 396–399, 473, 1007
research, 399
scouring, 473
used at local mills, 504
Woollen mills, 473, 503–504
Woollen piece-goods, imports of, 642, 647
Workers' compensation, 915–916
Board, 915
Workers—
ages of injured, 919
Educational Association, 234
safety and welfare, 915, 921–924
unions of, 896–897, 898–901
Working—
conditions, 910–913
hours, 495, 498–516, 889, 890
life expectancies, 882
proprietors, 868, 876
Works and trading account state, 721, 728, 729
Works, Ministry of, 302, 310, 311, 367, 369, 528, 923
Works programme, 729
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World currency realignment, 813
World Health Organisation, 34
World population statistics, 84
Wrecks, 300, 1026

X

X-ray services, 136

Y

Youth hostels, 528
Youths, working conditions of, 911

Z

Zinc, 452, 458