NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEARBOOK 1969

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS

The first quarter of the shield depicts four stars as representative of the Southern Cross, then three ships symbolising the importance of New Zealand's sea trade; in the second quarter is a fleece representing the farming industry. The wheat sheaf in the third quarter represents the agricultural industry, whilst the crossed hammers in the fourth quarter represent the mining industry.

The supporters on either side of the shield consist of a Maori Chieftain holding a taiaha (a Maori war weapon) and a European woman holding the New Zealand Ensign.

Surmounting the Arms is the St. Edward's Crown which was used in the Coronation ceremony of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The crown symbolises the fact that Her Majesty is Queen of New Zealand under the New Zealand Royal Titles Act 1953.

(These Arms may not be used except with the consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs.)


Table of Contents

List of Figures

PREFACE

The New Zealand Official Yearbook is a basic source book on the facts and figures of the economy. In addition it describes the geography of the country and enumerates statistics of the population, their health and education, their employment and their production. Supplementary material gives social, administrative, and legislative information. There is a great value in having such a wealth of material concentrated in one volume instead of being dispersed over many publications. Thus the Official Yearbook is established as a standard reference work in government and business circles within New Zealand and on an international basis.

As a series, Official Yearbooks are a source of material for research workers and students. The yearly record becomes a survey of growth and change. Every endeavour is made to give comprehensive information as clearly as possible within the limits of space and yet fulfilling the demands of accuracy.

In this issue a new section (5D) on heights and weights of New Zealanders assembles information on a subject in which there is growing interest in medical and other circles.

There are three special articles. One summarises the main issues of the National Development Conference held in May 1969. A second deals with the development of forestry and forest industries which were the concern of the Forestry Development Conference held in February 1969. There is also a special study of Captain James Cook and his voyages of discovery in the Pacific in recognition of the Cook Bicentenary of 9 October 1969.

The photographic section features the forests of New Zealand; this year is the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the Government Department now known as the New Zealand Forest Service.

Additional detail on many subjects may be obtained from publications of the Department of Statistics. These are listed towards the end of this Yearbook and are available from the Government Printer.

I desire to express my appreciation to officers of this and other Government Departments for their assistance in preparing material and to the Government Printer and his staff for co-operation in the printing of this volume. My thanks for their comprehensive contribution to the production of the Yearbook are extended to Mr J. B. McKinney, M.A., ADMIN. PROF., Editor of Publications, and members of the Editorial Branch and Statistical Draughting Unit of the Department of Statistics.

J. P. LEWIN,

GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN

Department of Statistics,

Wellington.

15 August 1969

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

nil or zero
..figures not available
 not yet available – space left blank
...not applicable
––amount too small to be expressed
xrevised

VALUES

All values are shown in New Zealand currency, unless another currency is specifically stated. The pound (£) in issues previous to 1967 has been superseded by the dollar ($), two of which are equivalent to the previous pound. The cent is one-hundredth part of the dollar and is equivalent to 1.2 pence.

MEASURES

Unless otherwise stated, a ton is a long ton (2,240 lb).

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

1 yard= 0.914 metre
1 mile= 1.609 kilometres
1 square foot= 929.03 square centimetres
1 square yard= 0.836 square metre
1 acre= 0.405 hectare
1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometres
1 pound= 0.454 kilometres
1 hundredweight (cwt)= 112 lb = 50.8 kilograms
1 cubic foot= 0.028 cubic metre
1 cubic yard= 0.765 cubic metre
1 gallon= 4.546 litres
1 bushel= 36.37 litres
1 long ton= 1.016 metric tons
1 short ton= 0.907 metric ton

ROUNDING

On occasions figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand or some other convenient unit. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items as shown in tables. Where figures are rounded the unit is in general expressed in words below the table headings, but where space does not allow this the unit may be shown as 000 for thousand, etc.

FISCAL YEARS

Figures for fiscal years ended 31 March (the fiscal year) are indicated in the text and headings of tables; otherwise figures are mainly for calendar years.

ABBREVIATIONS

bd. ft.board feet
chchains
cu. ft.cubic feet
cwthundredweight
d.pence
Eeast
ftfeet
ggramme
galgallon
hhour
h.p.horsepower
in.inch
kWkilowatt
kWhkilowatt-hour
lbpound
mmile
minminute
mmmillimetre
Nnorth
n.e.i.not elsewhere included
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified
ozounce
$(000)thousand dollars
$(m)million dollars
ccent
Ssouth
sq. ft.square feet
sup. ft.super feet
wwest
yyard

STATISTICAL AREAS

The boundaries of statistical areas are shown on the map inside the back cover.

Chapter 1. Section 1 PHYSIOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,000 miles east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 530 statute miles to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, exclusive of island territories, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 620 statute miles north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 370 statute miles south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of two island groups in the southwest Pacific—Niue Island and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. Niue Island is 1,540 statute miles north-east of Auckland, while the Tokelau Islands are 704 statute miles further north. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator.

The Ross Dependency, some 1,500 statute miles to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this Yearbook, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only.

*Situated off North Island.

†Situated off South Island.

‡26.87 million hectares.

(a) New Zealand:Area in Square Miles
            North Island44,281
            South Island58,093
            Stewart Island670
            Chatham Islands372
            Minor islands— 
                Inhabited— 
                    Kermadec Islands*13
                    Campbell Island44
                Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)263
                    Three Kings* (3); Snares (1); Solander (1/2); Antipodes (24);
                        Bounty (1/2); Auckland (234).
Total103,736
(b) Overseas territories—
          Tokelau Islands, comprised of— 
              Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island4
          Niue Island100
(c) Ross Dependency (Estimated)160,000

Western Samoa became an independent territory from 1 January 1962. The 16 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand on 4 August 1965; more detail is given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coastline is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use is made and the use of Tauranga harbour is expanding. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, etc. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along this coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft), Ruapehu (9,175 ft), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft), and Tongariro (6,458 ft), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 4,000 ft on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft), while no fewer than 16 peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-cast are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaus determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND 
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Tongariro6,458
SOUTH ISLAND 
Kaikoura Ranges 
    Tapuaenuku9,465
    Alarm9,400
Southern Alps— 
    Cook12,349
    Tasman11,475
    Dampier11,287
    Silberhorn10,757
    Lendenfeldt10,503
    Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)10,443
    Malte Brun10,421
    Torres10,376
    Teichelmann10,368
    Sefton10,359
    Haast10,295
    Elie de Beaumont10,200
    Douglas Peak10,107
    La Perouse10,101
    Haidinger10,059
    Minarets10,058
    Aspiring9,960
    Hamilton9,915
    Glacier Peak9,865
    De la Beche9,817
    Aiguilles Rouges9,731
    Nazomi9,716
    Darwin9,715
    Chudleigh9,686
    Annan9,667
    Low9,653
    Haeckel9,649
    Goldsmith9,532
    Conway Peak9,519
    Bristol Top9,508
    Walter9,507
    Grey9,490
    Green9,305
    Hutton9,297
    D'Archiac9,279
    Ronald Adair9,276
    Hochstetter Dome9,258
    Earnslaw9,261
    Nathan9,200
    Barnicoat9,183
    Sibbald9,181
    Arrowsmith9,171
    Spencer9,167
    The Footstool9,073
    Rudolf9,039
    The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range 
    Tutoko9,042

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 11/4 miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley(8 miles), and the Hooker (71/4 miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 93/4 miles and 81/2 miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft and 690 ft.

As will be realised, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilised for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers—Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilised.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (Miles)
NORTH ISLAND 
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
    Piako56
    Waihou (or Thames)109
    Rangitaiki120
    Whakatane65
    Waiapu (from source, Mata River)75
    Waipaoa (from source, Waipapa Stream)70
    Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)85
    Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)107
    Ngaruroro96
    Tukituki70
Flowing into Cook Strait* 
    Ruamahanga77
    Hutt35
    Otaki30
    Manawatu113
    Rangitikei150
    Turakina85
    Whangaehu100
    Wanganui180
    Waitotara67
    Patea89
    Waitara61
    Mokau98
    Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)264
    Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)82
    Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)45

Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern points of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.

RiverLength (Miles)
SOUTH ISLAND 
Flowing into Cook Strait 
    Pelorus40
    Wairau105
    Awatere78
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
    Clarence130
    Conway30
    Waiau-uha (or Waiau)105
    Hurunui86
    Waipara40
    Ashley60
    Waimakariri100
    Selwyn59
    Rakaia90
    Ashburton56
    Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)75
    Opihi50
    Pareora35
    Waihao40
    Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)130
    Kakanui40
    Shag45
    Taieri179
    Clutha (from source, Makarora River)200
    Mataura149
    Oreti126
    Aparima (Jacobs River)70
    Waiau (from source, Clinton River)135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
    Hollyford47
    Cascade40
    Arawhata42
    Haast40
    Karangarua23
    Cook20
    Waiho (from source, Callery River)20
    Whataroa32
    Wanganui35
    Waitaha25
    Hokitika40
    Arahura35
    Taramakau50
    Grey75
    Buller (from source, Travers River)110
    Mokihinui35
    Karamea50
    Heaphy22
    Aorere (from source, Spee River)45
    Takaka (from source, Cobb River)45
    Motueka67
    Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)30

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means, but the amount of gold now extracted is comparatively small.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. Early in 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. This lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and is the first in a series of lakes to be created along this river in connection with the production of hydro electricity. The lake covers 301 square miles in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 181/2 miles in length and the Ahuriri Arm 1111/2 miles in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in MilesGreatest Breadth, in MilesArea, in Square MilesDrainage Area, in Square MilesApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Feet (Range in Brackets)*Greatest Depth, in Feet

*The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo25172341,2704,4901,172 (5)522
Rotorua71/2631203..920 (2)84
Rotoiti10313248852916 (2)230
Tarawera751/21472273981 (2)285
Rotoaira313/45502401,852 (3)..
Waikaremoana126211656232,015 (45)840
Wairarapa124311,236..564
Rotoehu32317..968 (4)..
Rotoma31/421/441/212..1,036 (6)..
Okataina43425..1,018 (9)..
Okareka11/211/411/48..1,160 (4)..
Rotomahana413/431/227..1,116 (22)..
Rerewhakaitu21/213/43....1,441 (4)..
Tikitapu13/41/2....1,364..
Rotokakahi21/2113/411401,298..
Artificial..............
Ohakuri211/451/21,8505,540942..
Atiamuri41/41/21,9805,830826..
Whakamaru131/21/232,1556,160742..
Maraetai41/21/211/22,3906,730618..
Waipapa61/41/22,5007,010417..
Arapuni101/252,6557,310363 (2)..
Karapiro151/432,8807,820176..
Whakamarino1/21/41/10....900..
SOUTH ISLAND..............
Natural..............
Rotoiti911/24714402,020 (6)250
Rotoroa51/2291459601,462 (5)499
Brunner51/251/215160..280357
Kaniere611/4611..429646
Coleridge11214216..1,672680
Sumner611/251/2130......
Tekapo1131/2375503,0602,347 (25)620
Pukaki91/25325234,5201,640 (30)..
Ohau113234602,3101,730 (9)..
Hawea195465672,2401,133 (53)1,285
Wanaka283749827,150915 (14)..
Wakatipu4831131,1506,1601,017 (7)1,239
Te Anau3861331,2759,730686 (15)906
Manapouri185551,78513,630608 (21)1,455
Monowai12111105495643 (13)..
Hauroko2211/2271/22251,100513 (6)..
Poteriteri1811/2181601,05096..
Waihola411/432,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmere14870745..(Tidal)7
Artificial..............
Cobb31/43/4281982,650 (50)..
Waitaki31/221/23,75012,150753..
Roxburgh201/421/46,01217,270430..
Mahinerangi9181202301,282..
Benmore—..............
    Ahuriri Arm111/223/4301/23,00012,0001,181315
    Main Arm181/2

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt; this is a region where volcanoes are active and where the earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata; earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata are in many places tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over New Zealand many times, and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale); their age is revealed by the shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old—they were formed at depth in the earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of feet thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed when huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines) were formed, in which tens of thousands of feet thickness of sediments accumulated; when these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have been intruded into the outer crust in molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

ErasPeriods Approximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene1 million
Pliocene11 “
MioceneTertiary25 “
Oligocene20 “
Eocene60 “
Paleocene70 “
MesozoicCretaceous 135 “
Jurassic 180 “
Triassic 225 “
PaleozoicPermian 270 “
Carboniferous 350 “
Devonian 400 “
Silurian 440 “
Ordovician 500 “
Cambrian 600 “

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks; this suggests that a large land mass existed at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood; for a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place: although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous landmass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand Geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country; it embraces roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others: in the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated, in swamps on the surface of the old land; these became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic . . . the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. . . we can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago. . a kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on . . .*“ The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of feet; it must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each of a few inches or feet. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of feet high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

*“New Zealand Biogeography” by Charles A. Fleming. Tuatara Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1962, pp. 53—108.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements have built, carving the detailed landscape pattern of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other constructional forms; at the coast, waves have driven back the headlands, and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island; Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, achieved much of its growth then, too. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe; more than 2,000 cubic miles of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau.

The Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, has built up this body of geological knowledge.

Geological Maps—The geological maps show the present distribution of major rock groups in New Zealand, brought about by the events and processes that have been summarised in previous paragraphs. (These maps were originally prepared for the New Zealand Encyclopaedia.)

SOUTH ISLAND

Older Rocks—Much of the late Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rock that once must have covered a large part of the South Island has been worn off by erosion since the Kaikoura Orogeny, and the “undermass” of old rocks has been exposed.

The oldest of these rocks lie to the west: Fiordland is made up mainly of metamorphic diorite, granite, and coarse schist, gneiss, and marble, with Ordovician graptolite-bearing slates in its south-west extremity; greywackes and argillites of possibly pre-Cambrian age occur in Westland and south-west Nelson, and further north in Nelson there are large areas of complexly folded Cambrian and Ordovician sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Large granitic masses, hundreds of square miles in area, occur in Westland, Nelson, and Stewart Island.

These ancient rocks terminate with an abrupt boundary (which shows clearly even on this small-scale map) extending from Milford Sound along the western margin of the Southern Alps. This boundary is the Alpine Fault, a great fracture that divides the South Island into two areas of dissimilar geological structure: to the west of it, and in Fiordland, are the granites and other ancient rocks just described; to the east, the undermass rocks are predominantly the sedimentary and marine volcanic rocks of the New Zealand Geosyncline, and their metamorphosed forms, of later Paleozoic and Mesozoic age. From Marlborough, through Canterbury to North Otago, the map shows an almost continuous expanse of these rocks; here they are mainly sparsely fossiliferous greywackes and argillite strata of Triassic and Jurassic age. On the western flanks of the Southern Alps, and in Otago, these sedimentary rocks merge gradually with schist and gneiss. Those of the Southern Alps show on the map as a very narrow belt, cut off by the Alpine Fault, but the southern schists form a belt some 60 miles wide extending for about 150 miles across Otago. To the south, also, this schist mass merges gradually with sedimentary rocks of the New Zealand Geosyncline, here of Permian age: these strata, mainly tuffs and tuffaceous greywackes forming a belt that stretches across Southland the northern limb of a major downfold or syncline; Triassic and Jurassic strata occupy its core, making up much hill country of Southland. The southern limb rocks include much marine volcanic rock, and in the core of the syncline in western Southland a belt of dunite and serpentine is intruded and is well exposed in the Olivine and Red Hill ranges.

A sequence of rocks very like that of Southland is found also in eastern Nelson; here, fossiliferous Triassic rocks and Permian sedimentary and volcanic rocks closely resembling those of Southland are found, and a belt of dunite and serpentine (the Nelson “mineral belt”) intrudes them. It has been suggested that the Nelson and Southland rocks, which terminate abruptly at the Alpine Fault and its continuation as the Wairau Fault, were originally joined, and have been displaced some 300 miles by lateral movement at the fault.

Younger Rocks—On the eastern side of the South Island, upper Cretaceous and Tertiary strata survive only as small patches, the remnants of a once fairly complete cover of younger rocks. Thick geosynclinal Cretaceous strata are found in the Clarence and Awatere Valleys of Marlborough, but elsewhere in the eastern South Island the upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary strata are thin. They include foraminiferal limestone, greensands, sandstones, and other shell deposits formed during slow transgression by the sea. Oligocene limestone remnants mark the period of maximum transgression.

On the western side of the South Island the younger rocks are more widespread, and include some thick sequences that were formed in rapidly sinking basins. The oldest are the coal measures, mainly Eocene in age. They are overlain in some areas by thick lower Tertiary marine strata. In Southland, thick Tertiary strata occupy the Waiau Syncline, between Lake Te Anau and Foveaux Strait.

The map shows some large areas of Pleistocene to Recent terrestrial deposits in the South Island. The largest forms the Canterbury Plains, and consists of old shingle deposits of unknown thickness washed from the Southern Alps during the Pleistocene glaciation. Others occupy the Moutere depression of Nelson, and form Southland Plains, and intermontane basins, such as the McKenzie Plains, in the main mountain chains. Thick Pleistocene moraines form the main surface rocks of South Westland.

Banks Peninsula is the only large mass of young volcanic rocks in the South Island; there are smaller areas at Timaru,oamaru, and in the Dunedin district.

NORTH ISLAND

Older Rocks—Unlike the South Island, the North Island has no large expanses of granite or of metamorphic rocks: the undermass rocks are almost wholly complexly folded and faulted greywackes and argillites of the New Zealand Geosyncline, predominantly Mesozoic in age.

The largest expanse of these hard rocks forms the main mountain backbone of the North Island, extending from Cook Strait to the East Cape area. Smaller areas of them are exposed between north Taranaki and Auckland; they include the richly fossiliferous strata of the Kawhia Syncline, a major downfold of the undermass rocks.

In North Auckland, deeply weathered undermass rocks, in part of Permian age, form low hill country in the east, particularly between Whangaroa and Whangarei harbours.

Younger Rocks—Over most of the North Island the older rocks are hidden by Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary rocks and by young volcanic rocks. In some areas the younger sedimentary rocks are thin and patchy; in others they are many thousands of feet thick over hundreds of square miles. The bulk of them are poorly consolidated sandstones, and grey mudstones to which the colloquial name “papa rock” is often applied.

The main areas with thick sequences of these young strata are the Taranaki - Wanganui - Rangitikei district, and the region east of the main ranges, including most of the Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, and Wairarapa districts. In both areas intensive oil prospecting of recent years has greatly added to knowledge of the structure.

In the Taranaki - Wanganui - Rangitikei district the strata dip gently south, so that increasingly young rocks are exposed in this direction, the lower Tertiary being seen only in the north. However, recent oil bores drilled to depths of about 13,000 ft at Kapuni in Taranaki, passed through a full sequence of strata from Pleistocene through all Tertiary stages, finally reaching Eocene coal measures.

In the eastern North Island the structure of the younger rocks is much more complex than in the western area. Upper Cretaceous strata are followed by Tertiary in many sedimentary basins large and small, with many unconformities. The southern part of the region is broken by many transcurrent faults, and hard lower Cretaceous greywacke piercement bodies project from the younger rocks.

Younger rocks of South Auckland do not form such large basins as those just described. The oldest of these strata are the Eocene coal measures of the Waikato region. Upper Cretaceous strata, mainly mudstones, are the most widespread of the younger rocks of North Auckland.

Young volcanic rocks are widespread in the North Island. The largest area of them is the Central Volcanic District: north of the three great andesite volcanoes, Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro, lies the “volcanic plateau”, an expanse of some 10,000 square miles made up of several thousand cubic miles of ignimbrite, rhyolite lava, and pumice. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world. Most of it has been erupted in late Pliocene and Pleistocene times. The belt of most recent activity in the Central Volcanic District is known as the Taupo Volcanic Zone; it contains all this country's active volcanoes, many inactive ones, and all the geysers and boiling springs.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition; the largest is Pirongia, some 3,000 ft high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; many small scoria cones are seen at Auckland city. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young scoria cones.

A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand contains geological maps of New Zealand and summaries of New Zealand's geology and landscape development. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 66, The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000, is a lengthier summary with a more detailed geological map and cross sections.

G.C.S.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—Earthquakes are geographically associated with active volcanoes and with major earth movements such as mountain building; these three types of disturbance are confined, for the most part, to certain limited regions of the world. Such disturbed regions, of which New Zealand is one, are evidently the site of some kind of development affecting the outer shell of the Earth. Little is yet known about the internal processes that give rise to these geophysical disturbances, nor are the relations connecting them understood in any detail.

Formerly earthquakes were believed to be caused by volcanic activity, but it is now recognised that volcanic earthquakes are restricted to small shocks in the immediate vicinity of the volcanism. In New Zealand, tremors of this kind are experienced in the zone of active volcanism that extends from Mount Ruapehu to White Island.

In some places geological faulting at the surface gives visible evidence that a major earth movement has occurred. Occasionally movement on a fault has been observed to occur simultaneously with an earthquake in the same vicinity. New Zealand provided one of the earliest examples of this to become generally known, when movement took place on the Wairarapa Fault at the time of the great Wellington earthquake of 1855. Such events as this have led to the idea that earthquakes in general are caused by fault movements, but it has proved difficult to find convincing evidence in support of this theory. It is noteworthy that there seems to be little earthquake activity along much of the Alpine Fault, which has been traced for 300 miles from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti and is classed by geologists as one of the largest and most active faults in the world. The nature of the connection between earthquakes and faulting is still somewhat obscure.

The great majority of the world's earthquakes occur at depths of less than 40 miles, and in many earthquake zones there are no shocks at any greater depth. A moderate number of New Zealand earthquakes are classed as intermediate in depth, i.e., originating at between 40 miles and 190 miles deep. The two deepest New Zealand earthquakes recorded so far occurred four and a half minutes apart on 23 March 1960, with a common focus 370 miles deep under north Taranaki; this is about 80 miles shallower than the deepest earthquake known.

It is difficult to compare the degree of earthquake activity in New Zealand with that in other regions because of the many differences that arise in earthquake type and mode of occurrence. New Zealand and California are often regarded as roughly similar, with an activity very much less than, for example, Japan or Chile.

Regional Distribution—There are two separate regions of earthquake activity in New Zealand. The larger, northern region may be roughly defined as lying between latitude 361/2°S and 431/2°S. It thus includes the northern half of the South Island, and all the North Island apart from the North Auckland peninsula; but the area from Kaipara Harbour to the lower Waikato River should be excluded. The southern active region lies to the west of longitude 1691/2°E, and incorporates Southland, western Otago, and southern Westland. Earthquakes have only occasionally been located in the parts of New Zealand lying outside these two regions.

Within the active regions the occurrence of shallow earthquakes is widely scattered. There has been a tendency, however, for the larger shallow earthquakes to lie towards the Pacific side of the northern active region and towards the Tasman side of the southern active region. Earthquakes with deeper foci are mostly confined to a narrow belt in the northern region, extending from the Bay of Plenty south-westwards to Tasman Bay.

The historical record is too brief to support a quantitative assessment of the frequency with which one might expect earthquakes to be felt at a given intensity in various parts of New Zealand. Considering the distances to which major earthquakes can be effective, in relation to the size of New Zealand, it would be imprudent to regard any part of the country as permanently exempt from the possibility of earthquake damage.

Outside the active regions there are many areas, however, where no damaging intensity has actually been experienced in historical times. Moreover, since the major shallow earthquakes on record have been rather widely distributed within the active regions, there appears to be no particular area of markedly intense seismicity.

The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931 resulted directly or indirectly in 255 deaths. The total of deaths that have been recorded as due to other earthquakes since 1848 is 32, of which three resulted from the Inangahua earthquake of 1968.

Seismological Observatory—Earthquake recorders are operated continuously at the following stations by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington: Apia and Afiamalu (Western Samoa); Suva (Fiji); Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Wairakei, Gisborne, Tuai, Tarata, Chateau, Castlepoint, Mangahao, and Wellington (North Island); Cobb, Kaimata, Gebbies Pass, Mount John, Milford Sound, Roxburgh, Monowai, and Waipapa Point (South Island); Chatham Islands; Campbell Island; and Scott Base (Antarctica). The Naval Research Laboratory, Auckland, operates a station on Great Barrier Island, the records from which are analysed at the Seismological Observatory. The installations at the following stations include instruments for recording distant earthquakes: Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, Roxburgh, Scott Base. At the Pacific and Antarctic stations preliminary readings are made locally and notified by radiogram. The analysis of records from all stations is carried out at the Observatory in Wellington.

The Observatory publishes regular reports of all significant earthquakes occurring in the New Zealand region; in a normal year there are about 400 such earthquakes, and about 100 of these are reported felt. The analysis involves using observations from stations in other countries as well as those from the local network, and the Observatory likewise contributes data to the international seismological agencies about distant earthquakes as well as large local ones. Details of tremors felt in New Zealand are supplied to the public and the press. In the study of felt earthquakes the instrumental results are augmented by “felt reports”; these are supplied by a large number of voluntary observers throughout New Zealand in response to a standard questionnaire issued by the Observatory.

Earthquake data are used by the Observatory for studying the fundamental characteristics of the Earth's crust in New Zealand, Antarctica, and the neighbouring oceanic regions, and also for contributing to geophysical knowledge of the Earth's deep interior.

Earthquakes in 1968—There was more activity in the New Zealand region in 1968 than for some years. Besides the major Inangahua earthquake and its aftershocks, a large shallow earthquake occurred to the south of the Fiordland coast, and both Christchurch and Wellington experienced moderately-sized earthquakes centred close to these cities.

The Inangahua earthquake originated in rough hill country about 10 miles to the north of Inangahua, in Westland, at 5.24 a.m. on 24 May 1968. It had a magnitude of 7.0 (Richter Scale) and was the largest New Zealand earthquake since that off the Fiordland coast in May 1960, which also had a magnitude of 7.

The earthquake resulted in three deaths and injuries to 14 people. There were major landslides in the gorge of the Buller River, with extensive slumping and fissuring in the epicentral area. At Inangahua houses were destroyed, bridges were damaged and railway lines were distorted, indicating an intensity of X on the Modified-Mercalli Scale. Other centres badly affected were Reefton, Westport, and Greymouth, where intensities ranged from MM VI on better ground to perhaps MM X on poorly consolidated sand and alluvium. At these places, many chimneys were destroyed, and some damage was done to buildings. The earthquake was felt over the entire country, with the exception of northeasterly parts of the North Island, and south-eastern Otago.

At Inangahua, an existing fault scarp was rejuvenated with maximum movement of about 15 in., and 6 miles to the south, near Rotokohu, other displacements have been interpreted as traces of bedding faults in the underlying sediment.

The main Inangahua earthquake was followed by numerous after-shocks, mostly in an elliptical area about 25 to 15 miles, extending to the south-south-east from the main shock. The largest aftershock took place at 8.58 a.m. on 25 May, and had a magnitude of 5.9.

Several other earthquakes of note occurred during the year besides those of the Inangahua sequence. The largest of these had a magnitude of 6.4 and originated about 20 miles to the south of Puysegur Point on 25 September. It was felt extensively in Southland and Otago, and caused minor damage at Otautau. Another shock in the Fiordland region, of magnitude 5.9, occurred on 2 April.

Several shocks of lesser magnitude attracted attention by occurring close to centres of population, where they caused minor damage. One of these, of magnitude 5, originated within a few miles of Christchurch on 24 January. Its effects were strongest in Christchurch, and extended over much of North Canterbury. An earthquake of magnitude 51/4 occurred near Turangi on 30 January, and caused some minor damage to buildings there. On 1 November a shock of magnitude 51/2, which was centred about 20 miles to the south-east of Wellington, caused extensive minor damage and, with the possible exception of the Seddon earthquake of April 1966, was felt more strongly than any other shock in this city since the Wairarapa earthquakes of 1942.

There was no exceptional deep earthquake activity during 1968, but shocks that occurred at depths of about 140 miles beneath the centre of the North Island on 5 May (magnitude 5.9) and 2 November (magnitude 6.3) were felt in Wanganui, Hawke's Bay, and as far south as Wellington.

Large earthquakes in the region surrounding New Zealand include one of magnitude 61/2, which occurred about 100 miles to the north-east of East Cape on 10 March, and two that originated near the Kermadec Islands, about 600 miles north of New Zealand. These shocks occurred on 25 July (magnitude 73/4) and 27 September (magnitude 71/4) and were felt on Raoul Island.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The collection of weather information and the provision of weather forecasts and climatic data for diverse interests in aviation, shipping, agriculture, Government Departments, and the general public are functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. By arrangement with the administrations concerned the Service performs similar functions for British territories in the Pacific.

Weather reports for use in forecasting are made at about 140 places within New Zealand and 40 in Pacific islands and collected by telegraph and radio, along with measurements of winds at upper levels made at nine radio wind stations and of temperatures made at eight radiosonde stations. Daily observations are made for climatological purposes at about 230 places in New Zealand and 80 in the islands. Rainfall measurements are made at a total of about 1,500 places within New Zealand and 260 outside the country.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually by the New Zealand Meteorological Service in the Meteorological Observations and in the Fiji Annual Meteorological Summary. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette and in the Fiji Gazette.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 60°S.

In the Australasian region there is no semipermanent anticyclone, as exists in subtropical latitudes in the Indian and eastern Pacific Oceans. Instead, a continual eastward migration of anticyclones takes place, roughly at weekly intervals. Most of the centres pass over or to the north of the North Island. The low-pressure troughs which separate successive anticyclones are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A period of disturbed weather accompanies the trough with a change to cold southerly or south-westerly winds as it advances north-eastwards over New Zealand. Conditions improve again with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. While this simple progression dominates the day-to-day weather, the situation frequently becomes much more complex. The troughs are unstable systems where depressions commonly form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that travel south-eastwards across New Zealand.

The anticyclones themselves continually vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their tracks are furthest north in the spring, on the average, and reach their southern limit in late summer or early autumn when most of the centres cross central New Zealand. At this time of the year, too, northern and eastern districts of the North Island occasionally come under the influence of deep cyclones of tropical origin.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Australia, the nearest continent, is 1,000 miles to the west; Antarctica is 1,400 miles to the south. Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer, or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the oceans, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 80 miles from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the south-east. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 20 miles or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This “funnel” effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction in windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These were all obtained by the use of Dines pressure-tube anemometers at well exposed sites.

StationAverage Number of Days With Gusts ReachingYears of Data
40 m.p.h. or More60 m.p.h. or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1429430.61.62.216
Whangarei620260.20.40.612
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)2029490.91.62.524
Tauranga1319320.31.11.424
Rotorua67130.20.10.316
Hamilton913220.00.60.610
Gisborne1925440.30.91.223
Napier1720370.40.40.817
New Plymouth3448822.34.87.127
Wanganui3540752.44.56.910
Palmerston North2523480.70.81.512
Wellington (Kelburn)727414616.013.929.913
Nelson2314370.50.40.926
Blenheim (Woodbourne)2216380.70.71.425
Westport1319320.81.01.818
Hokitika1518331.21.62.821
Christchurch3224561.81.53.324
Timaru138210.60.41.010
Taieri3025551.31.42.726
Gore2920490.90.00.95
Invercargill4842905.44.710.124

NOTE—These are all aerodromes, with the exception of Auckland (Mechanics Bay) and Wellington (Kelburn).

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 13 in. in a small area of Central Otago to over 300 in. in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 25 and 60 in., a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 25 in. are found in the South Island, to the east of the main ranges. These include most of Central and North Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 30-40 in. a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 60 in. Over a sizeable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 100 in. a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year, although its effectiveness in summer is, of course, much reduced. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island rain can be measured on at least 150 days a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 25 in. generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 percent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (0.10 in. or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 22 in., which occurred at Milford Sound where the mean annual rainfall is 250 in. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in northeastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 3 in. are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES) (1921-50)

StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulyAugSepOctNovDecYear
Te Paki3.33.63.35.66.57.27.35.64.53.83.03.156.8
Kerikeri4.53.93.65.77.47.47.36.25.54.73.83.763.7
Dargaville3.23.42.74.15.35.55.14.84.03.73.23.048.0
Auckland3.34.12.84.34.85.55.54.33.84.23.23.148.9
Tauranga Airport3.53.53.85.04.95.65.04.83.84.63.33.451.2
Ruakura, Hamilton3.33.22.94.04.34.94.64.13.74.33.72.945.9
Rotorua4.84.13.54.95.95.94.75.14.55.34.14.357.1
Gisborne Airport2.83.23.03.45.03.94.93.92.92.62.22.039.8
Lake Waikaremoana6.26.16.06.78.67.37.77.06.05.45.24.776.9
Taupo3.73.92.43.74.84.94.34.43.94.23.83.147.1
Taumarunui3.93.93.34.85.15.94.95.34.85.74.63.956.1
New Plymouth4.74.13.75.05.36.46.25.94.85.84.54.861.2
Napier2.62.82.22.73.83.13.52.81.91.91.92.031.2
Wanganui2.73.02.22.83.13.42.93.02.53.22.72.934.4
Palmerston North3.03.02.43.33.53.93.13.52.93.83.33.339.0
Masterton2.52.72.22.74.14.03.94.23.13.12.62.938.0
Wellington (Kelburn)2.83.53.03.64.54.64.95.13.74.63.14.147.5
Nelson Airport2.72.32.63.03.43.12.93.62.93.62.73.135.9
Blenheim2.01.91.61.92.62.32.42.52.42.51.81.925.8
Westport7.36.16.57.06.57.57.07.36.68.17.08.185.0
Hanmer3.53.73.33.44.83.53.74.04.04.33.33.845.3
Hokitika9.88.68.48.89.08.08.39.38.310.99.59.9108.8
Lake Coleridge2.62.42.12.82.82.63.13.13.13.22.42.833.0
Christchurch2.21.81.71.83.02.72.42.32.02.02.02.426.3
Lake Tekapo2.11.81.61.91.81.41.61.62.12.21.82.322.2
Timaru2.52.51.81.81.71.61.51.41.82.11.92.923.5
Milford Sound25.523.122.321.821.614.714.717.319.826.023.123.4253.3
Queenstown3.22.53.12.92.62.22.22.52.63.02.52.431.7
Alexandra1.81.51.21.30.90.80.70.60.81.21.11.313.2
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2.82.52.52.52.62.92.52.32.22.52.82.931.0
Gore3.23.13.22.82.62.92.12.12.52.73.23.133.5
Invercargill Airport3.63.84.33.83.73.92.83.03.33.43.63.642.8

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about five days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 59°F in the far north to 54° about Cook Strait, then to 49° in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 3° per 1,000 ft. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they rise to the nineties on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 101° at Ashburton and —3° at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 15°F. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 17°–19°. Further inland it exceeds 20° in places, reaching a maximum of 25° in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “Katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (4 ft above the ground) has registered below 32°F only once in nearly 50 years, yet across the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as 10° are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above about 8,000 ft on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 2,000 ft even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 7,000 ft in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 1,000 ft of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 1,000 ft, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 3,000 ft.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne89629072
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch87618973
Hokitika95789375
Invercargill90729178

Very low humidities—between 20 and 30 percent or lower—occur at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Norwester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 85°. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest areas are to be found near Blenheim, Nelson, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,400 hours per annum. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours per annum, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours per annum. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations have been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

 SummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5144
Hamilton5244
New Plymouth5347
Napier5752
Wellington5242
Nelson5857
Hokitika4344
Christchurch4645
Dunedin4143
Invercargill4235

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitudeAnnual AveragesAir Temperature (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Rain Days (0.01 in. or More)Wet Days (0.10 in. or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost (min. air temp.less than 32° F)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
Te Paki1901811052,140259.3736057467930
Kerikeri2401801022,010358.5766056438431
Dargaville641851071,940657.7745857438328
Auckland1601731012,090059.5735760468137
Tauranga Airport12153932,320857.2745756408529
Ruakura, Hamilton1311691001,9802555.4755652388423
Rotorua1,006149972,0002453.8735353378625
Gisborne Airport16156832,210756.8765755409029
Lake Waikaremoana2,110195133 551.7684852378330
Taupo1,232157932,0303953.1745151358524
Taumarunui5621751111,6903454.8775453368824
New Plymouth1601771122,1100+56.1705556437832
Napier5126642,2803657.1745657408929
Wanganui72146852,120456.1725456418330
Palmerston North110167921,8101555.0715355398327
Masterton340171902,0602853.9745351368824
Wellington (Kelburn)415158972,0100+54.3685155427934
Nelson Airport6123722,4104153.2715154348224
Blenheim17105572,4303454.5745553348924
Westport61881381,960153.5655453408128
Hanmer1,270143901,9108449.6734848288916
Hokitika1271911371,8602552.3665352367627
Lake Coleridge1,19512071 6950.0714849308818
Christchurch22117551,9903652.6705053359025
Lake Tekapo2,24097542,20010548.4714348278716
Timaru56113571,9103951.9705051339024
Milford Sound5197161 2750.2654950357727
Queenstown1,080128721,9805450.1714649318623
Alexandra46197392,0808850.9744551309018
Dunedin (Musselburgh)5167781,7301251.6675052378628
Gore235172931,7504650.4704948328822
Invercargill Airport11991061,6605049.0654948338222

NOTES: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950-66; sunshine 1935-60; mean temperature 1931-60; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

Normal Seasonal Temperature Pattern—A feature of the seasonal pattern of temperature for New Zealand is the near symmetry about either the hottest summer months or the coldest winter months. In other words the summer-winter decline is an almost identical reversal of the winter-summer rise. This shows up clearly when temperatures for 100 climatological stations are averaged month by month. The first two months of the calendar year, the summer months of January and February, display the same average temperature, that of 61.3°F. This temperature is the highest average for any month, being approached by only the December average of 59.2°F. Once February is past a decline sets in, the estimated average New Zealand temperature falling by 2.5°F from February to March to give a March average of 58.8°F. Thereafter, successive inter-monthly temperature drops of 4.4°, 5.4°, 4.2°, and 1.2°F finally produce a July average of 43.6°F, which makes this month the coldest of the year. Progressing through and past July the temperature steadily rises, the increments being successively, 1.8°, 3.4°, 3.8°, 3.2°, 3.4°, and 2.1°F, finally returning to the January mark of 61.3°F.

ESTIMATED NORMAL NEW ZEALAND TEMPERATURE (°F)*

Calendar MonthMean Temperature
* Based on temperature normals for 100 climatological stations.
January61.3
February61.3
March58.8
April54.4
May49.0
June44.8
July43.6
August45.4
September48.8
October52.6
November55.8
December59.2

The following diagram illustrates the seasonal temperature pattern.

Brief Review of 1968:Year—Rainfall was above average over the greater part of the country, mainly by about 20 percent. Highest departures of 40–60 percent were recorded in parts of Central Otago and the upper Waitaki basin, around the coast of North Otago and South Canterbury, in the Marlborough high country, and in a considerable area of Northland centred near Dargaville. The only considerable area with rainfall as much as 10–15 percent below average was one extending from just east of Rotorua through Kawerau to Opotiki.

Temperatures were mainly warmer than average by half a degree; highest departures of a degree were recorded around Christchurch. It was cooler than average by half a degree in the upper Waitaki basin, the Southern Lakes district, and western Southland. The mean temperature over the whole country was 0.2°F warmer than the 1931-60 average.

Sunshine was below average by about 100 hours in most northern districts of the North Island, in Wairarapa, in Nelson and Buller, and around Invercargill. A surplus of about the same amount was recorded in Gisborne and northern Hawke's Bay, about Cook Strait, and in Canterbury and Otago, except for Central Otago.

Nineteen sixty-eight was an unusually windy year. Aerodromes where the number of days with wind gusts to 40 m.p.h. or over was the highest in 15-30 years of record included Kaitaia, Gisborne, Napier, Ohakea, Nelson, and Blenheim.

Seasonal Notes—The first 2 months of the year were both dry over the North Island, and this was the driest February there since 1946. Northern districts were especially affected by the lack of rain and they reported a drop in dairy production.

March was exceptionally warm, in many districts the warmest for 60 years. The dry weather persisted over the North Island, except in Northland. Serious flooding was reported in coastal districts from Dunedin to south Canterbury following heavy rain on 8–9 March.

The weather for April was dominated by a storm of tropical origin which passed along the east coast from North Cape to Banks Peninsula. The greatest damage occurred in and around Wellington as it passed just to the east on the morning of 10 April. In the suburban area mean wind speeds of up to 90 m.p.h. were recorded, with gusts to 123 m.p.h. These were the strongest winds yet recorded in any built-up area in New Zealand, and they caused damage to over 200 houses. The inter-island steamer Wahine sank in Wellington Harbour as a result of the storm, with the loss of 51 lives. The storm also caused flooding in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. Generally, April was very wet and very cloudy.

May was a mild month marked by an unusually high frequency of northwesterly winds. June was a very wet month-too wet for many farmers. It was also unusually cloudy over the North Island.

Persistent cold southwesterlies from about 27 June to 4 July brought snow to much of the South Island and higher levels of the North Island. In the South Island, even at low levels, falls were over a foot deep in many places. However, the effects were most serious at higher altitudes. Heavy frost followed the snow, and even in some areas below 2,000 ft several inches of snow were still lying at the end of July. Stock in some areas were isolated for weeks, and an estimated 60,000 sheep died.

July was marked by an unusually high frequency of winds from an easterly quarter, causing wet conditions in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay. August was a mild month, especially in the South Island.

The spring months of September, October, and November were marked by unusually strong and persistent westerly winds, the worst for 30 years in eastern districts. This was also the coolest spring since 1946. Rainfall was the highest on record in the Alps, with a total of 97.86 in. at Otira. The cool temperatures led to many complaints of slow growth; and the persistent dry weather in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay caused a shortage of feed. The week 22–29 October was a particularly stormy period, with reports of serious damage from Canterbury and North Otago on the 26th and 29th.

December was also cool, but with an unusually high frequency of easterly to northeasterly winds, bringing welcome rain to eastern districts, with generally favourable conditions for growth. On 7 December, during violent thunderstorms in the Taihape district, exceptionally heavy rain over a period of 1–2 hours caused large slips and washouts near Mangaweka, disrupting road and rail traffic for several days.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1968—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1968 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e., 2100 hours Greenwhich mean time.

StationRainfallRain Days (.01 in. or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost*Air Temperatures (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily Minimum1968 Extremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum

* Minimum air temperature less than 32°F.

 in. hours        
Te Paki74.421691,907 58.772.958.353.944.379.231.2
Kerikeri74.501821,944 58.376.258.354.044.083.633.2
Dargaville60.342021,848158.272.656.154.547.283.527.2
Auckland54.731971,984 59.773.757.459.346.182.037.0
Tauranga Airport59.321702,222157.773.957.055.841.683.630.1
Hamilton (Ruakura)50.461861,9381756.073.655.851.838.682.225.5
Rotorua55.441601,8701054.672.252.552.737.882.928.1
Gisborne Airport39.991512,282357.374.656.455.640.995.026.0
Taupo43.031592,0372653.473.651.750.835.685.926.0
Lake Waikaremoana95.99190 752.367.347.852.437.386.031.0
Taumarunui58.272011,7373054.974.354.651.333.889.624.0
New Plymouth63.391982,096 56.568.854.554.943.780.234.0
Napier28.681272,282857.775.355.856.340.390.827.0
Wanganui33.331562,088356.269.754.255.640.086.730.2
Palmerston North42.101731,781855.570.453.154.039.085.129.8
Masterton34.391661,9562254.372.751.351.436.588.827.3
Wellington (Kelburn)53.721682,016 54.567.750.954.540.780.132.8
Nelson Airport40.161422,3552754.271.953.354.332.883.824.7
Blenheim27.691132,5452055.474.753.954.134.489.024.3
Westport103.002061,876353.366.552.951.237.380.530.5
Hanmer Forest47.561471,9275650.572.046.348.328.593.020.8
Hokitika121.742081,8911951.964.851.750.931.777.128.0
Lake Coleridge42.39131 7850.370.445.449.428.689.319.0
Christchurch31.121072,1202953.572.249.253.832.992.426.0
Lake Tekapo30.771042,3019247.770.237.547.821.189.57.8
Timaru29.901201,9263752.070.348.252.432.395.025.9
Milford Sound275.66212 3549.862.845.248.931.074.125.2
Queenstown35.931431,8366049.870.641.748.726.485.018.0
Alexandra16.971022,0596950.772.442.450.426.192.718.9
Dunedin (Musselburgh)39.391631,801951.664.947.850.834.489.028.4
Gore32.351731,7364650.467.044.148.430.389.922.1
Invercargill Airport42.991941,5445748.863.345.747.229.785.421.1

For 1968 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland 1014.0; Kelburn, Wellington 1011.0; Nelson Airport 1011.7; Hokitika 1011.4; Christchurch 1009.9; and Dunedin 1008.8.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND GOVERNMENT

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General—When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-East Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals they displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The immediate effect of European contacts on the Maoris was the outburst of a series of tribal wars waged with greater ferocity and a vastly greater loss of life than was customary in pre-European tribal engagements. The high mortality could, of course, be credited to the acquisition of a more lethal weapon, the musket. The advantage lay originally with the coastal tribes as a result of their earlier contact with Europeans, the wars continuing until all tribes were equally well armed. These wars were later followed by wars against the colonists, but after 1870 the story has been one of unbroken peace between Maoris and Europeans.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

The overseas territories of Niue Island and the Tokelau Islands had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land. His exploration was of necessity very cursory, for having explored only part of one coast he had no knowledge of the country's extent or shape.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain Cook sighted land on 6 October 1769, at Young Nick's Head, near Gisborne. On his first voyage Cook spent six months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can be best described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on the map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the truculent Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville 1769, M. Marion du Fresne 1772, Captains Vancouver and Broughton 1791, Captain Raven 1792-93, Alejandro Malaspina and Jose de Bustamente y Guerra 1793, and Lieutenant Hanson 1793.

The European discovery of Niue Island was made by Captain Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606.

European Settlement and Colonisation—So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven of the Britannia landed a sealing party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over 12 months before being called for.

In the years that followed, whaling stations sprang up along the coast, and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, obtained permission to send two of his protégés, Kendall and Hall, to the Bay of Islands to consider the desirability of establishing a mission station. Later they returned to Sydney for Marsden, who arrived in New Zealand to preach his first sermon at the Bay of Islands on Christmas Day, 1814. Of the many admirable activities undertaken by the missionaries, their action in having the Maori language “reduced to a rational orthography” deserves special mention.

In 1825 three separate, but abortive, attempts were made to found colonies; however for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling stations, although a number of Europeans gradually penetrated inland and resided there permanently, many marrying Maori women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived in Port Nicholson in January 1840, there to found the town of Wellington, just one week before Captain William Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty (see later). These settlers were brought out from England by the New Zealand Company, whose moving spirit was Edward Gibbon Wakefield.

It was hoped that, by producing a proper balance of capitalists and artisans, self-contained communities could be successfully established. However, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the land purchases, considerable difficulty was experienced in these initial settlements, and friction grew up not only between settlers and the Maoris, but also between the Governor and the settlers. Before his death in 1842 Governor Hobson had transferred his capital from Russell to Auckland, but this transfer was of little assistance to the colonists, who had extended their settlements to Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson.

Following the death of Hobson, the existence of the colony became precarious, for, through lack of funds and weak administration, Maori aggression became a real menace. To cope with the situation, the Colonial Office appointed Captain George Grey as Governor. Being well equipped with troops and funds, as well as being a man of vigour and perception, Grey soon restored order and won the confidence of both the settlers and the Maoris. During Grey's term two further organised settlements were made. In co-operation with the New Zealand Company the Free Church of Scotland sponsored the Dunedin Settlement of 1848, and the Church of England the Canterbury Settlement of 1850. These settlements, owing to their more favoured situations, their satisfactory land-purchase agreements, and their freedom from trouble with the Maoris, achieved a greater measure of success in carrying out the company's avowed aims.

After Grey's departure the question of relationship with the Maoris again came to the fore through the land-purchasing activities of the settlers—a situation aggravated by subsequent lack of consideration for the Maori system of land tenure. Following an incident at Waitara in the Taranaki district, where a dispute arose concerning land titles, war broke out in 1860 and lasted spasmodically till 1870. The recall of Grey did not solve the problem, as Grey, an autocrat, could not work with the elected Ministers, nor did his presence prevent the confiscation of land belonging to the Maoris, whether friendly or hostile. It was under the sympathetic administration of Sir Donald McLean as Minister for Maori Affairs that the dispute finally died down.

These hostilities were confined to the North Island; and, in the meantime, in 1861, large alluvial deposits of gold had been discovered in the South Island—leading to a tremendous influx of population and an alteration of the economic structure of the country.

No organised form of European colonisation has at any time taken place in Niue Island or the Tokelau Islands.

SUBSEQUENT HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT (1870 ONWARDS)—The discovery of gold, by increasing the wealth of the South Island, allowed it to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion, especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally, but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

These factors, together with freedom from strife with the Maori population, led after 1870 to a quickening in political activities. Under the leadership of Sir Julius Vogel a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction was begun. The provincial system, which really commenced in 1853, had largely outlived its usefulness; in fact, the parochialism of the provincial assemblies had frequently proved obstructive, and in consequence the system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act of 1876.

Of great social significance was the passing in 1877 of the Education Act, making education free, compulsory, and secular, while the laying during that decade of the first cable between Australia and New Zealand was a major advance in communications. At this time party politics began to enter into the parliamentary system, and the slump conditions which prevailed in the eighties (due to a fall in the world price level) intensified the political atmosphere. By the abolition of plural voting in 1889, and the introduction of female suffrage in 1893, the way was opened for a practical expression of political convictions by all adult members of the community.

In 1891 Ballance, as Leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier, to be followed on his death in 1893 by Seddon, and during the next decade the legislative essays of this party evoked world-wide interest. The main aim of the legislation was social justice, and its principal manifestations were in land division, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old-age pensions. The policy of land division aimed at closer land settlement, and it was achieved by the compulsory subdivision of large estates, with subsequent loans to small independent farmers wishing to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognised bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time.

With the commencement of the refrigerated trade in 1882, the move to closer land settlement progressed rapidly, since the production of frozen meat and dairy produce for export encouraged more intensive farming. There thus arose a new farming class which in 1911, some five years after Seddon's death, was mainly responsible for the overthrow of the Liberal regime.

The policy of the succeeding Reform Party under Massey was one favouring agricultural production. Farming interests were given constant encouragement by a series of enactments of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Three years after the advent of the Reform Party the First World War, 1914-18, broke out, leading to the formation of a Coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports. War activities were marked by heavy casualty lists, in proportion to the population, and by enhanced cordiality in Imperial relations. One noteworthy outcome of the war commandeer was the precedent given for the establishment, after the war, of control boards to regulate the export of pastoral products.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921-24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and from the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Owing to the encouragement given to farming, pastoral production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. As a consequence, her national income was extremely sensitive to price fluctuations of these products; so that, with the advent of the depression in 1930, her economic position became extremely vulnerable. In order to produce balanced budgets, both public and private, various legislative remedies were attempted. In particular, enactments were provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. With the recovery in price levels and consequent general economic revival, amendments were made to several of these Acts, removing the more stringent measures. The election of a Labour Government in 1935 led to a change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. Further amendments were made to the depression legislation, certain restrictive measures were removed, and other temporary adjustments made permanent.

The general climate of opinion and gradual maturity of outlook furnish the background in which certain distinctive trends appear in legislation passed since 1936.

The first major influence was a humanitarian attitude reinforced by a progressive economic policy. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers' compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of basic prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalisation of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

The second major influence on legislation was conditioned by the outbreak of the Second World War, 1939-45. A vast body of legislation was placed on the statute book during the war period dealing with the control of manpower and materials, stabilisation of prices, wages, and rents, conditions of employment and suspension of certain peacetime features of industrial activity, discouragement of some industries and diversion to or encouragement of other industries, provision for rehabilitation, etc.

A third dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and by the provision of a system of medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, reduction of working hours, extension of workers' compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

A fourth approach to law making resulting from maturity of outlook has been the increased participation by New Zealand in international affairs consequent on its acceptance of responsibility in the wider issues of the present era. Legislation authorising participation in United Nations activities generally and in particular emergencies, such as military service in Korea, Malaya, and elsewhere; the extension of New Zealand representation in overseas countries and with the United Nations; the greater frequency of Commonwealth consultation; extension of aid to less developed countries, e.g., participation in the Colombo Plan, all bear witness to this change in outlook.

Another influence on legislation presents some parallels to that last mentioned, but is more concerned with the domestic sphere. It is exemplified in the increasing interest taken in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific with New Zealand ties.

Contemporaneously with the expansion of the field of legislative interest, the economic and industrial development of the country has proceeded with marked impetus in recent years. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries have provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force. At the same time the basic industries of the country, those concerned with primary production, have increased output, assisted by the rapid application of technological improvements and research findings.

The history of New Zealand's overseas territories has been largely one of wise paternal oversight, particularly in the earlier periods, by the New Zealand Government and by the various missions established in the islands. More recently, successive Governments have in various ways encouraged the inhabitants to take an increasing share in the administration of their communities, thus paving the way for self-government. Much attention has been paid to combating tropical diseases and to health problems generally; such island industries as citrus fruit and banana growing have been fostered and encouraged in various ways, with outlets being found for produce available for export. Financial and other assistance has been provided from New Zealand Government sources for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as roading, conservation of water supplies by reservoir construction, communication facilities, etc. Fuller information is given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

For detailed information, reference should be made to the many excellent books dealing with the subject of New Zealand history, of which the more recent ones are listed in the Select Bibliography in this Yearbook. A useful reference is the Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, published in 1966.

SOVEREIGNTY—Following representations from Maori chiefs for protection from the prevailing turmoil and lawlessness caused by tribal warfare and the rough element around the whaling stations, the New South Wales Government appointed, in 1832, Mr James Busby as British Resident at Russell. Owing to the failure to supply him with any means of exerting authority, his appointment was largely ineffective. Finally the disorder, and the friction between the two races, became so intolerable that even the missionaries, who were opposed to annexation, made representations for British sovereignty.

On 29 January 1840, Captain William Hobson, RN, arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Maoris, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30 January 1840, and on 6 February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

With the gradual development of the country's economy, the acquisition of political and administrative experience, and the increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, the degree of self-government became more complete. In recognition of this and of a nascent sense of nationality, New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth Legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing members countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the Legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminister.

NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES—Though in the nineteenth century Sir Julius Vogel and the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon had original views about the policy which Britain and New Zealand should pursue in the Pacific area—views which they announced with vigour—New Zealand did not acquire the right to conduct an independent foreign policy until the end of the First World War when the full nationhood of the “Dominions” was recognised. For some years after this, however, successive New Zealand Governments chose not to exercise this right and (pursuing a passive role in the League of Nations and refraining from establishing diplomatic relations with foreign Governments, or with other members of the Commonwealth apart from Britain) preferred to make known any views on matters of foreign affairs only to the British Government and through the confidential channels of intra-Commonwealth consultation.

Few pressures existed in the 1920s and early 1930s to impel New Zealand towards enunciating an independent foreign policy. The population was mainly British in composition and comparatively few were concerned to distinguish between New Zealand's interests and those of Britain. Nor had they much cause to do so: New Zealand had established a fruitful economic partnership with Britain, upon which country nearly all her material and cultural links were centred; and New Zealand's surest protector against dangers which it was incapable of meeting alone was the Royal Navy. It was, moreover, realised that New Zealand in her own right could make little impact on world affairs, whereas Britain was a great power capable of affecting the pattern of world events. New Zealand “foreign policy” therefore consisted chiefly in seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain.

The emergence of an independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually held to date from 1935. Some Ministers in the new Government were deeply interested in world affairs in general, and the Government's approach was influenced by theory and principle. In particular, they held strong views on the principle of collective security and upon the League of Nations as the embodiment of that principle. In its method of championing the principles of collective security, pressing for the restoration of the authority of the League of Nations and, at a time when the United Kingdom Government was pursuing the policy which came to be known as appeasement, urging positive League action over Abyssinia, Spain, and China, the Government came to depart from the pattern of the previous 16 years: for, in addition to making its views known in confidential communications to the United Kingdom Government, it also stated them with vigour in the international forum of the Council and the Assembly of the League of Nations.

There was, nevertheless, no fundamental departure from the traditional policy of association with Britain. Moreover, the course that would be followed in the event of war was never in doubt. As early as 16 May 1938 a leading member of the Government had said, “If the Old Country is attacked, we are too. we will assist her to the fullest extent possible.” When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms that were as true in 1939 as they would have been in 1914:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand.”

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand gradually to revise its foreign policy and its method of implementing that policy. Even though the basic attachment of New Zealanders to Britain was little affected, the fact became manifest that Britain was no longer a power able to determine events on a world scale and that, since New Zealand interests could no longer be protected by British actions alone, it did not suffice to confine New Zealand foreign policy to occasional attempts to persuade the British Government to take note of New Zealand views. Japanese aggression and, later, the rise of Communist China forced New Zealand to face the reality of its geographical location with respect to Asia and the Pacific and to develop an additional relationship with the only other friendly power capable of protecting New Zealand—the United States of America—with the least possible prejudice to its association with the United Kingdom.

During the war years New Zealand was admitted to the councils of the Allies and was expected to advance informed views. The Government honoured its responsibility and, having established in wartime the habit of participating in the making of international decisions, accepted it as natural that New Zealand should continue to participate in the development of a post-war world order and in subsequent international consultations. To this end New Zealand established (in effect from 1943) a professional Department of External Affairs and a career foreign service, and proceeded slowly to establish diplomatic missions in countries where New Zealand's interests merited protection. In particular, New Zealand sought increasingly to make its individual contribution to fostering good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increasing the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

To be woven into any post-war policy was the now traditional New Zealand belief in the principle of collective security and international justice, especially as symbolised by the United Nations. This was by no means an easy task in a world where the divisions of the cold war were reflected in competing regional alliances. There had to be a place, too, for belief in the ability of international co-operation to control armaments and to eliminate poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

The threat to New Zealand's security, posed by the entry of Japan into the war at a time when the United Kingdom was fully committed in Europe, brought New Zealand into the closest relations with two of her neighbours on the borders of the Pacific—Australia and the United States. Recognition of the need for a greater measure of collaboration with Australia resulted in the signing in 1944 of the Canberra Pact which provided machinery for continuing consultation between the two Governments. Upon the entry of Japan into the war, both New Zealand and Australia had looked principally to the United States for protection. Relations among the three countries thus entered a new phase. The close association of wartime found expression in peacetime in the Anzus Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a treaty of alliance and mutual defence with a foreign country and achieved the aim of both countries to enter into a close relationship with the major Pacific power. The Anzus Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard from aggression in the area.

The establishment of SEATO, like the formation of the ANZUS alliance, took place against a background of continuing insecurity and of danger in the Far East. In 1950 New Zealand had participated in collective action by the United Nations in Korea. In 1954, following the Indo-China crisis and the Geneva Accords, a broader collective defence treaty covering South-East Asia and the South West Pacific, known as the Manila Treaty, was signed by New Zealand and Australia, France, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The parties agreed that in the event of armed attack on the parties or on a “protocol” State (Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam) they would act to meet the common danger. The parties established the South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) in Bangkok. In furtherance of its obligations under the Manila Treaty, New Zealand sent forces to Thailand for some months in 1962 and to South Vietnam in 1965. In 1955 New Zealand had transferred its war-time commitment from the Middle East to South-East Asia and agreed to contribute forces to a Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve. These forces participated in the Malayan Emergency and in the defence of Malaysia and Singapore against Indonesian confrontation. New Zealand, with Australia, became associated with the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement concluded in 1957, which subsequently became the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement upon the formation of Malaysia in 1963. More recently New Zealand has participated in defence talks with Britain, Malaysia, Singapore, and Australia in the implication of the British decision to withdraw its forces from South-East Asia by the end of 1971.

These developments reflected a new awareness of the international and strategic implications of New Zealand's position. In 1955 the Minister of External Affairs, the Hon. T. L. Macdonald, discussing New Zealand's foreign policy, said that the only possible threat to New Zealand's security could come from Asia and in particular from the spread of Communist power in South-East Asia. “New Zealand foreign policy grows”, he said, “from the need to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact. In practical terms at present this seems that without weakening the many links which bind us to Britain and the whole Atlantic Community we must increase our concern with South-East Asia.”

This concern was already being expressed in social and economic terms as well as in defence. In 1950, New Zealand, along with a group of other Commonwealth countries, had become a member of the Colombo Plan established to assist the countries of South-East Asia to improve their standards of living. To New Zealand, a pioneer in the field of social legislation and a country with a high standard of living fairly evenly shared, the Colombo Plan has a special significance. Contributions, large by New Zealand standards (if small when measured against the potential need), have been made to it. The scope of New Zealand's presence in Asia widened considerably in the years following signature of the Manila Treaty—diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of countries in the area, and increased activity in other fields of co-operation besides that of defence followed the extension of this network of diplomatic posts. By the mid 1960s New Zealand had more complete representation in Asia than in Western Europe. Subsequent accession to regional membership of ECAFE, the Asian Development Bank and ASPAC (the Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation) is further demonstration of this country's acceptance that it has a role to play in the Asian area.

New Zealand's direct interest in political, social, and economic developments in the South Pacific is reflected not only in its membership of such regional organisations as the South Pacific Commission, but also in a wide and growing range of contacts with island people and an increased sense of involvement in their problems. The evolution of self-government and nationalism in the South Pacific reached a new stage when Western Samoa became the first independent Polynesian state on 1 January 1962. Three years later the Cook Islands achieved internal self-government. New Zealand's own colonial past, its liberal tradition of friendship for emergent peoples, and the fact that large numbers of Polynesian people have settled there, means that the islanders tend to look to New Zealand for leadership and encouragement. In particular, Western Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji already regard New Zealand as an important export market and as a source of administrative and technical assistance. Inevitably, New Zealand is going to be increasingly involved in the South Pacific region.

These regional concerns have implied no weakening of the belief in the pre-eminent value of action organised on a world basis to deal with social and economic, as well as security problems. New Zealand has continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It has been an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation, has provided troops to the United Nations Force in Korea, and military observers in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon, and has endeavoured to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

If, since the Second World War, the facts of geography have had an important influence on New Zealand's attitudes towards foreign affairs, history and tradition continue nevertheless to mould its outlook. The historic links with the United Kingdom and with Western Europe and North America remain as close as ever; and the economic links with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's best customer, remain strong. No situation is, however, constant. One of the key problems of external political and economic policy now presented to New Zealand arises out of the movement towards political and economic integration in Europe and the continuing possibility of Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. New Zealand must expand the volume and value of its exports of primary products if the standard of living of its rapidly growing population is to be maintained and improved. In recent years it has become increasingly apparent, however, that the United Kingdom market is capable of only a limited expansion. The development of new markets in Asia and other less developed countries has been slowed by low income levels as well as by consumption patterns in which the type of foodstuff exported by New Zealand has not figured prominently. New Zealand's foreign policy is likely to continue the endeavour to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact.

Department of External Affairs—The External Affairs Act 1943 made provision for the appointment of a Minister of External Affairs charged generally with the administration of external and foreign affairs, including relations with other countries, communications with other Governments, representation abroad, and representation of other countries in New Zealand. The Act also authorised the appointment of a Secretary of External Affairs and (superseding the High Commissioner Act of 1908) dealt with the appointment of High Commissioners and of overseas representatives.

The functions of the Department were defined at its inception as follows:

  1. To act as a channel of communication between the Government and other Commonwealth and foreign Governments on matters relating to external affairs.

  2. To assist in negotiating treaties and international agreements.

  3. To direct New Zealand's overseas diplomatic posts.

  4. To deal with foreign diplomats, and to issue exequaturs to foreign consuls.

The Act thus established the Ministry of External Affairs as the normal channel of communication with the Governments of other countries. As, however, the new Department was in fact still a part of the Prime Minister's Department, no change in procedure, apart from the use of the changed nomenclature, was necessary.

Dealings with overseas Governments usually involve considerable interdepartmental coordination. Since the Prime Minister's Department has always been regarded primarily as a department of co-ordination, an intimate relationship has existed between the two Departments. The Prime Minister has for three periods found it appropriate to assume the portfolio of External Affairs and the Departments have in any case been run as a unit. The staff is held in common and, though some officers are engaged on work peculiar to one Department, the work of the majority involves both Departments. The Secretary of External Affairs is also Permanent Head of the Prime Minister's Department. For the first 23 years of the existence of the Department of External Affairs, until October 1966, the same person, Mr A. D. McIntosh, held the two posts. His successor, Mr G. R. Laking, also fills both positions. In defence matters the two Departments have been closely associated. During the war, the Permanent Head was also Secretary of the War Cabinet. In that period the responsibility of the Prime Minister's Department for defence co-ordination was extended and developed; in discharging this responsibility the Permanent Head was assisted by the Defence Secretariat of the Prime Minister's Department. The functions of the Secretariat have been taken over by the unified Ministry of Defence which was established by Act of Parliament in November 1964. A close relationship is still maintained between the Ministry of Defence and the Defence Division of the Department of External Affairs, and the head of that Division is chairman of the body which co-ordinates military and civilian intelligence.

In the formulation and application of external affairs policy, close association with other Government Departments is necessary. Participation in the Colombo Plan entails close liaison with the Treasury and with the many Departments which supply experts and training facilities, consular questions with the Department of Labour, and legal questions with the Department of Justice. Moreover, the Department is a clearing house for a wide variety of material provided by overseas posts for other Departments. As well as fulfilling its major function of acting as a channel of communication with other Governments, the Department thus acts as a co-ordinating centre for other Government Departments. The Department and its network of posts overseas also perform numerous services on behalf of Departments which are without overseas representatives of their own.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—Despite the emphasis in New Zealand's approach to international affairs resulting from the realities of its geographical position, membership of the Commonwealth remains a significant feature of its policy. In the past the Commonwealth tended to be identified with Britain through special and historic ties. As these ties have loosened, with the growing orientation of Britain towards Europe, the Commonwealth has assumed a rather different perspective for New Zealand. Providing as it does for contacts with a wide range of countries, and on a great variety of subjects, it is a ready-made forum for co-operative effort. Thus, although the Commonwealth ideal does not embody the identity of purpose formerly apparent among its members, it nevertheless has an important function, particularly for the smaller and more isolated members such as New Zealand.

Although one of the oldest members, New Zealand, unlike some of its fellow members, did not seek to hasten the process of constitutional transition within the Commonwealth. At the Imperial Conference in 1930 the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. G. W. Forbes; stated that “We have felt that at all times within recent years we have had ample scope for our national aspirations and ample freedom to carry out in their entirety such measures as have seemed to us to be desirable”. There was little interest in the adoption of the relevant provisions of the Statute of Westminster enacted in 1931 to give legal endorsement to the transformation that had taken place in the relationship between Britain and the Dominions. It was not, in fact, until 1947 that the necessary formalities were completed in New Zealand by the passing of the Statute of the Westminster Adoption Act.

Since that time there have been many changes in the Commonwealth association both in constitutional respects and in numbers of members. Whereas at the beginning of the Second World War there were only five members, by the end of 1968 there were 28. The Commonwealth has become an entity embracing several continents and its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. New Zealand, itself a country where two races live side by side, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

New Zealand has as yet exchanged representatives with only the following members of the Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, India, Ceylon*, Malaysia, Singapore, and Britain.

The importance New Zealand attaches to the Commonwealth association has been given practical expression in its membership of a number of Commonwealth organisations, including the Commonwealth Air Transport Council, the Commonwealth Telecommunications Board, the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, the Imperial War Graves Commission, the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Economic Consultative Council, the Commonwealth Scientific Committee, and the Commonwealth Education Liaison Committee. New Zealand also contributes to the budgets of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Foundation, which were both established at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' meeting in 1965.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—The first areas of the world towards which New Zealanders developed a distinct and characteristic attitude was the South Pacific. This is New Zealand's immediate environment, its Polynesian peoples close kin to the New Zealand Maori, its islands nearest and most important in the lines of communication which link New Zealand with America and Europe.

Within a decade of New Zealand's establishment as a British colony Bishop Selwyn had made it the base for Anglican missions in the South Pacific and Sir George Grey as Governor had begun to advocate a policy of expansion in the area. The increasing involvement of other powers and a desire to develop trade led Sir Julius Vogel in the 1870s to take up Grey's idea and to put forward various schemes for political and commercial expansion, which, however, found no favour in London. In the 1880s New Zealand joined the Australian colonies in an effort to preserve “Oceania for the Anglo-Saxons”, and soon after the movement reached its peak in the robust opposition of Richard John Seddon to the bargaining away of Samoa in 1899.

The meagre fruit of half a century's agitation was the annexation in 1901 of the Cook Islands and their inclusion within the boundaries of New Zealand. Thereafter, New Zealand's interest in the South Pacific declined as its trade and its thoughts came to centre more and more on Great Britain. But though declining, the tradition was still strong enough to provide support for the Imperial Federation movement in the first decade of the twentieth century and, more practically, to inspire New Zealand on the outbreak of war in 1914 to occupy Germany's colony of Western Samoa.

At the end of the war Western Samoa, like other former German possessions, was retained by the occupying power under a League of Nations Mandate. New Zealand embarked on its new responsibility with greater enthusiasm than it had shown in the Cook Islands and much effort was devoted to solving the problems of the territory. The rate of change thuscreated, however, proved too rapid for the tradition-loving Samoans. In the late 1920s a series of unfortunate incidents occurred and, for some time afterwards, the pace slackened. The opening up in the late 1930s of air routes across the Pacific led New Zealand, along with other countries, to take an increased interest in some of the more remote islands in the area, but it was the outbreak of the Second World War which forcibly reminded the country of its situation.

The New Zealand High Commissioner in India is also appointed High Commissioner in Ceylon.

Overnight half-forgotten islands became strategic points for the defence of New Zealand and its allies, and New Zealanders again became aware of the need to prevent them from falling into unfriendly hands. Accordingly, New Zealand joined with Australia in seeking ways to guarantee the future security of the area, and there emerged first the Canberra Pact of 1944 and later the 1947 Agreement to establish the South Pacific Commission.

Through the Commission the Governments administering territories in the South Pacific— Britain, the United States, France, Australia, New Zealand, and (until 1962) the Netherlands— have made a concerted effort to promote the economic and social development of the area and its peoples. In the 20 years of its existence the Commission has, within its budgetary limits (it currently spends about NZ$870,000 annually), done much valuable work, particularly in bringing the islanders together and developing a sense of community amongst them. Originally laying much stress on research, the Commission has come to concentrate mainly on providing technical assistance and on pooling experience of handling common problems of development. It maintains close working links with the United Nations Specialised Agencies which are taking, an increasing interest in the region.

But New Zealand has not been content with promoting progress in the economic and social spheres only. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945 it took a leading part in working out the trusteeship system embodied in the United Nations Charter, and subsequently the League of Nations Mandate for Western Samoa was replaced by a trusteeship agreement.

In accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people, a programme of political and constitutional development was launched which continued throughout the 1950s and which culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The transfer of sovereignty did not, however, weaken the close and friendly relationship which had grown up between Western Samoa and New Zealand and this was confirmed in a Treaty of Friendship between the two countries signed in August 1962. In the educational as well as in other fields New Zealand assists Western Samoa.

Whilst Western Samoa was moving towards independence, constitutional development was taking place in New Zealand's other island territories. Following expert surveys a programme of economic and social development for the Cook Islands was formulated in 1955 and legislative assemblies for the Cook Islands and for Niue were set up in 1957. In 1962 the New Zealand Government gave these bodies full responsibility for allocating the large subsidies granted by New Zealand. In the same year possible alternatives concerning constitutional development were submitted to the assemblies. Both chose full internal self-government together with a continued association with New Zealand. Events thereafter moved most rapidly in the Cook Islands. In 1963 a “Shadow” Cabinet was set up and a Leader of Government Business elected. The following year the New Zealand House of Representatives passed the Cook Islands Constitution Act, with provision for the Act itself to come into force after a General Election in the Cook Islands. This election was held on 20 April 1965 and after the New Zealand Parliament had at the request of the Cook Islands Government made certain amendments to the Constitution Act, the new Constitution was brought into force on 4 August 1965 and the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. The Legislative Assembly, assured of New Zealand's financial assistance, is fully responsible for the internal affairs of the Cook Islands.

Similar progress in the constitutional field has also been made in Niue and the Tokelau Islands, New Zealand's remaining dependent territories. The Executive Committee of the Niue Island Assembly exercises power delegated to it by the Resident Commissioner over a wide range of Government activities. Responsibility for deciding priorities for government works and expenditure has been given by the Administrator to the Tokelau Islands Councils or Fonos which have also fully discussed their future development and have expressed the wish to retain their association with New Zealand. At the request of the Fonos the New Zealand Government has instituted a pilot programme to assist Tokelau Islanders to resettle in New Zealand.

The independence of Western Samoa, self-government in the Cook Islands and the progress of the remaining New Zealand territories are indicative of broader changes in the South Pacific. Economic, social and educational development has made the peoples of the area more self-conscious and desirous of managing their own affairs, and the intensification by the United Nations of interest in still dependent territories is likely to bring the South Pacific into yet greater prominence.

New Zealand in the United Nations—For New Zealand, geographically isolated and with limited direct diplomatic relations, the United Nations is inevitably one of the most important forums available, not only to influence the course of international events, but also to secure the friendship and understanding of the world community. For any country, its international reputation is a valuable asset. If New Zealand is better known and commands more influence in international affairs than some other small States similarly situated, this is, in some measure at least, due to New Zealand's record of active participation in the United Nations.

New Zealand's share of the United Nation's regular budget is 0.36 percent; in 1968 this meant a New Zealand contribution to the organisation of US$408,112.

Collective Security Arrangements—It has been noted earlier that the first significant expression of an independent New Zealand foreign policy occurred in the League of Nations and was directed to supporting the principle of collective security. Support for this principle later and through the United Nations has remained a cornerstone of New Zealand's foreign policy.

The purposes which motivated the policy in 1935 were strongly held beliefs rather than principles developed from any careful assessments by a national foreign service. The beliefs were nevertheless a reflection of widely held concern over world events, a concern which the succeeding years were to reinforce. It was, therefore, perhaps understandable that at San Francisco in 1945 New Zealand should argue so forcibly, if unsuccessfully, to eliminate the veto and to strengthen the collective security provisions of the United Nations Charter.

Despite its physical isolation, New Zealand has felt unable to regard with unconcern the fate of other small countries helpless to defend themselves against a powerful aggressor and thus liable to be picked off one by one.

The United Nations does not, it is true, offer a complete guarantee of New Zealand's or any other small country's security against aggression. Nor has it yet achieved agreement on disarmament. But New Zealand Governments have acted upon the conviction that the United Nations, and it alone, contains the rudiments of a universal collective security system and that it is through the United Nations and not through its abandonment in favour of some alternative, that an effective and comprehensive collective security system may eventually be developed and agreement on disarmament achieved.

Within the United Nations the expression of this policy has taken several forms. New Zealand has sought to remove the causes which might produce the need for recourse to collective security action. Its representatives have urged that the Assembly be used as a place for harmonising relations between nations: they have voiced the need for restraint in the pursuit of national objectives; they have consistently sought and supported responsible action in aid of an effective international organisation; they have reiterated the need for the early adoption of a broad programme of supervised disarmament.

New Zealand was elected to the Security Council, which is charged with the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, for the years 1954 and 1955, and for a second term in 1966 when membership of the Council was increased from 10 to 15.

New Zealand has also advocated adequate and timely preparations in case aggression should occur and has supported the fullest possible development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping. When occasion has arisen, New Zealand has been prepared to play its part: troops were supplied to the United Nations Force in Korea, and military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon; a civilian police unit has served in Cyprus; and the Government has indicated to the Secretary-General its intention in principle to designate a stand-by unit which would be available for properly instituted peacekeeping operations of the organisation in the future.

In some respects, however, the United Nations has not lived up to the hopes placed in it. There has never been complete agreement in the United Nations itself on peacekeeping issues, and further practical developments to increase United Nations capability for peacekeeping are not likely to occur, due to the existing power conflicts in the world, or in view of the divergent interests of many of its present members. New Zealand has therefore recognised that the objective of developing the United Nations potential in security and peacekeeping is a long-term one, and that the United Nations in its present form must be buttressed by regional defensive alliances.

Economic and Social Activities—Apart from this substantial and primary concern with international peace and security, other aspects of the work of the United Nations have increased greatly in importance in recent years. Article 55 of the United Nations Charter recognised that peaceful and friendly relations among nations depend largely on conditions of economic and social progress. Advancement in these latter fields absorbs annually more and more of the United Nations' resources, and represents at least one area in which international understanding and co-operation are reaping tangible rewards. The United Nations organ with primary responsibility in this vast field is the Economic and Social Council (or ECOSOC), an elective body of 27 members, which co-ordinates the activities of the wide variety of bodies with interests in these fields, ranging from the functional commissions and committees of the United Nations itself to the independent Specialised Agencies.

The biggest single task now facing ECOSOC is to promote and direct programmes for economic development in underdeveloped countries. New Zealand has always recognised the need for this type of development, and has been concerned to ensure that the international programmes in this field should be effective and realistic. Its interest in social and economic questions is illustrated by its membership of ECOSOC from 1947-49 and 1959-61. New Zealand in 1963 became a full regional member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), a body of which it had previously been a non-regional member. New Zealand has also served terms of office from time to time on the Status of Women Commission, the Technical Assistance Committee, and on the Statistical, Social, and Fiscal Commissions. It is currently serving on the Commission of Human Rights for a second consecutive term for the period 1969-71.

In undertaking these responsibilities, New Zealand may to some extent be regarded as “taking its turn”. It is, however, keenly aware of the advantages of doing so. It certainly shares with others an interest in ensuring that economic and social conditions are such as to permit ordered political progress. It is concerned to ensure that where political principals are at issue, the beliefs which New Zealanders hold as essential should be recognised and, if possible, accepted by the world community. Sometimes, too, there are strong reasons of self-interest; it is important that New Zealand's interests and its special problems be taken into account in the work of these bodies. Moreover, the international activities of the various agencies are nowadays on such a scale (the United Nations Development Programme, for example, spends almost $200 million a year), that detailed knowledge of their work can provide mutually valuable opportunities for New Zealand to provide goods and expert services for their programmes.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the Specialised Agencies except the International Development Association, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which though not strictly a Specialised Agency, exist under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessments similar to that used in the United Nations itself, range from $2,600 to $17,000 annually. New Zealand has also subscribed capital to the financial agencies.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote areas like New Zealand. In other cases, New Zealand benefits by the free interchange of knowledge and experience, and from the endeavours of the agencies to establish world-wide standards of safety, to promote facilitation of international traffic, and to examine restrictive or discriminatory practices in these fields. Minimum standards of working and living conditions for wage-earners are the concern of the International Labour Organisation.

In the case of the “humanitarian” agencies—the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)—the emphasis tends understandably, to be more on catering for the urgent needs of peoples in underdeveloped countries who lack the necessities basic to human dignity: food, shelter, and education. Here the pooled resources of the richer nations can provide a wealth of expertise and technical and financial assistance to which New Zealand is glad to contribute its measure of support.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education), and donations of equipment or commodities.

Two major fields of this sort of additional assistance are the contributions made to the United Nations Development Programme and to the World Food Programme. New Zealand gave $400,000 to UNDP in 1968; and in addition has sent experts abroad to work in the field on UNDP assignments. The WFP is a programme approved by the United Nations in 1961 and administered jointly by the United Nations and FAO. For the three years, 1965-68, New Zealand made a total grant of US$750,000, part in cash and part in commodities.

New Zealand's accession to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation not only allows this country to participate in measures designed to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world, but also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

New Zealand has strongly supported any expansion of agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands for which it is directly responsible. WHO has assisted in the past in the eradication of yaws and tuberculosis; FAO is at present the executive agency for a UNDP project designed to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops; and expert services have supplied assistance in several smaller projects. Within the General Assembly of the United Nations and in specialised forums New Zealand will continue to draw attention to the needs of the South Pacific.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of WHO, FAO, and UNESCO, and is currently a member of the Executive Council of the UPU. Although because of its size and limited scale of contributions, New Zealand is not likely to be elected frequently to the boards of at least the larger agencies, it can expect, over the years, to bear its share of administrative responsibility within them. In any case, by participation in the plenary sessions of the assemblies of the agencies, New Zealand is able to play some part in trying to ensure that the agencies do not duplicate activities with one another, that there is rational budgetary growth, and that the rightful spheres of activity of the agencies are not unduly disrupted by the political conflicts that occur in the main United Nations forums.

Conference on Trade and Development—As a result of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development held in Geneva in 1964, the General Assembly agreed to hold a triennial conference on Trade and Development with the objective of promoting international trade, particularly between countries at different stages of development, with a view to accelerating the economic growth of developing countries. UNCTAD is therefore the United Nations body generally responsible for all matters relating to trade and development. It is open to all United Nations members and other states members of the Specialised Agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency. The Conference has become a permanent organisation, with a Trade and Development Board which conducts the affairs of the organisation between plenary conferences. New Zealand commenced its second consecutive term on the board in 1968. There are also within the organisation functional committees on commodities, manufactures, financing of trade and shipping. New Zealand held a seat on the Committee on Commodities until the end of 1967 and was re-elected to the Committee on Shipping in 1968 for a further three-year term. UNCTAD held its second session in New Delhi early in 1968.

GATT—New Zealand has been a contracting party to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade since its inception in 1947. Although not strictly a specialised agency, the GATT has assumed the characteristics of one, and its activities have extended into all aspects of international trade including, more recently, measures to liberalise non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade and to provide special export opportunities for the goods of the developing countries.

New Zealand and Collective Defence—The defence of New Zealand has been judged by successive governments to call for active support for the concept of collective security. New Zealand alone is unable to defend its considerable but very isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. As a small country with limited resources, New Zealand is in no position to maintain the extensive defence effort needed if all possible contingencies are to be met. It has therefore supported efforts to promote the effective implementation of those provisions of the United Nations Charter that are designed to establish a universal system of collective security and, until this goal is reached, has accepted that its defence efforts should be made in concert with like-minded countries in order to create a broader framework for security than its individual national effort could provide. This in turn involves the obligation to make credible and effective contributions to collective defence arrangements from New Zealand's own armed services.

Since the Second World War, New Zealand has contributed collective security action under the United Nations flag in Korea where two frigates and a special combat unit were sent from New Zealand in support of United Nations forces. From 1955, units from the three services were based in Malaya, where they took part in actions during the emergency. During 1962, New Zealand took part in a SEATO deployment to Thailand. New Zealand forces actively supported Malaysia in its successful resistance to Indonesian Confrontation. In 1964, in accordance with the same principle of support for collective seurity, a New Zealand Army Engineer detachment was sent to South Vietnam. In 1965, this unit was replaced by an artillery battery, which has subsequently been joined by two infantry companies, for service with 1st Australian Task Force.

ANZUS—A basic expression of New Zealand's support for the principles of collective security is provided by the ANZUS Pact. This tripartite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States was signed at San Francisco on 1 September 1951 and came into force on 29 April 1952. The Treaty assured New Zealand and Australia of American support in the event of aggression in the Pacific and also provided for periodic discussions of common problems at ministerial level. ANZUS is a defensive arrangement among the three parties. It has been agreed that, in keeping with the close ties between the three countries, the machinery for consultation should be as simple and flexible as possible. The main provision of the ANZUS Pact is that each party recognises “that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of the Parties would be dangerous to its own peace and safety and declares that it will act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes”. In the context of the agreement an armed attack on any of the Parties is deemed to include “an armed attack on a metropolitan territory of any of the Parties or on the island territories under its jurisdiction in the Pacific or on its armed forces, public vessels or aircraft in the Pacific”.

SEATO—The Geneva Agreements for Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, which were completed on 21 July 1954, were an achievement of considerable importance and value, but they fell short of a fully guaranteed settlement of the security issues then posed in the area of Indo-China. Eight governments—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States—signed the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty, also known as the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The Treaty was ratified by New Zealand on 19 February 1955. Under its terms, each party recognised that aggression by means of armed attack in South-East Asia or the South West Pacific against any of the Parties or against a “protocol state” (Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam) would endanger its own peace and safety, and agreed that it would act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes. In the event of any other threat, the parties would consult on the measures to be taken for the common defence.

The South-East Asia Treaty Organisation, or SEATO, established under the Treaty is headed by the Council, made up of the Foreign Ministers of the signatory governments, which meet annually in members' capitals. Between meetings a body known as the Council Representatives provides continuity with representatives made up of the heads of member countries' diplomatic missions in Bangkok; New Zealand is thus represented by its Ambassador to Thailand. From time to time various expert committees and study groups are convened to give collective advice to Council Representatives. The Council also agreed in February 1955 that the Military Advisers to the Ministers should meet as a group to advise it on measures for common defence. In 1957, a Military Planning Office was established in Bangkok. From 1958 to 1960, the chief of this office was a New Zealander (the present Chief of Defence Staff). Joint military exercises in which units of the sea, land, and air forces of members countries participate are held regularly. The civil and military Secretariat has its headquarters at Bangkok.

SEATO is essentially a defensive alliance and provides a forum for military planning. New Zealand has long recognised that political stability and economic progress go hand in hand with security. SEATO has special significance because it is the only multilateral defence treaty applying to South-East Asia and the only treaty under which the United States has an obligation towards mainland South-East Asia. It is also the only treaty under which Thailand has any security guarantee. Thus the treaty helps maintain the fabric of collective defence without which the region would become the target of intensified Communist pressure. It provides a backing for the efforts of those countries of the area striving, as the Manila Treaty states, “to uphold the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law”.

Neither in concept nor in structure is SEATO fitted for a major role in spheres other than defence. Nevertheless, the nature of the challenge in South-East Asia was well recognised by the member nations in making provision in the treaty for joint action in the economic, social, and educational fields. While most of this action is taken outside the framework of SEATO, it has a useful aid programme designed to meet particular needs of the members of the treaty area. Thus SEATO has sponsored wide-ranging research efforts in the field of tropical medicine, agriculture, and engineering. A number of special SEATO professorships, post and under-graduate scholarships, research fellowships, and travelling lectureships have been established. The SEATO Graduate School of Engineering, established in Bangkok in September 1959, has now developed into an independent institution known as the Asian Institute of Technology. A programme to provide for a SEATO agricultural survey of the farming problems of the South-East Asian member governments has recently been initiated; New Zealand has contributed one expert to this programme. The New Zealand Government has also established a fund of $20,000 from which to contribute to SEATO aid programmes.

Commonwealth Arrangements—The Commonwealth defence arrangements known as ANZAM has provided a further basis for co-operation in defence matters, between Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. Unlike SEATO or ANZUS, it is not an organisation established by a formal treaty but has gradually evolved from certain general principles of closer defence co-ordination among the three countries. One of the main functions of the ANZAM machinery has been the preparation of joint plans for the defence of the area as a whole, and the co-ordination of existing plans drawn up by the respective national authorities. The three Governments, however, retain full control over their individual defence policies. ANZAM meetings are usually held in Canberra, making use of the Australian higher defence organisation with the participation of the New Zealand and United Kingdom liaison staffs.

In 1955, New Zealand transferred its wartime commitment from the Middle East to South-East Asia and agreed to contribute with Britain and Australia to a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve to be established in Malaya and Singapore. Upon its accession to independence in 1957, the Federation of Malaya concluded the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement, which was subsequently extended to Malaysia on that nation's formation in September 1963 and renamed the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement. Under its provisions, the United Kingdom undertook to assist in the defence of Malaysia and was accorded the right to maintain forces, including a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve as agreed, for the defence of Malaysia and for the fulfilment of Commonwealth and international obligations.

The Agreement has been accepted as applying generally to Singapore upon its accession to independence in August 1965. New Zealand, together with Australia, is associated with the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement by an exchange of letters placing on record the fact that the provision of the Agreement applicable to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, in particular the provisions dealing with the status of forces, apply in respect of New Zealand forces in the Reserve. In a statement made when tabling the relevant document in Parliament on 20 September 1963, the Prime Minister noted that “New Zealand has always given cause to believe that she would not stand idly aside in the event of an armed attack on Malaysia” and stated that “in the event of any armed threat against Malaysia the New Zealand Government would promptly consult with the Malaysian and other Governments concerned in the measures to be taken”.

New Zealand's military contribution in the area of Malaysia and Singapore has varied according to the circumstances of the time. In general, however, New Zealand has in recent years maintained in the area one infantry battalion, one RNZN frigate, and one squadron of RNZAF transport. These forces have taken part in the Malayan Emergency and in the defence of Malaysia and Singapore against Indonesian confrontation.

The British Government announced in January 1968 that its forces in South-East Asia would be finally withdrawn by the end of 1971. The New Zealand Government stated that it would continue to seek its security in concert with like-minded nations and to play its part in collective defence. Discussions among the Commonwealth countries concerned have steadily continued.

New Zealand Aid—New Zealand aid for overseas development and relief takes many forms including capital aid projects in Asia and Africa, technical assistance (experts and students), food aid, and loans. It is channelled through a number of programmes: these are multilateral, bilateral, or non-governmental.

New Zealand has for many years played an active role in aid programmes initiated by the United Nations and its specialised agencies. Contributions to voluntary programmes such as UNICEF, UNDF, the World Food Programme, UNRWA and European refugees, amounted to $788,000 for the financial year ended 31 March 1968.

The biggest bilateral aid programmes undertaken by New Zealand are those to the islands of the South West Pacific; to the Cook Islands, Niue, the Tokelau Islands and Western Samoa; and the Colombo Plan, the main vehicle for civilian aid to South and South-East Asia. Bilateral aid to the islands of the South West Pacific amounted to $3,281,000 for the year ended 31 March 1968, while aid to Asia under the Colombo Plan alone amounted to $3,058,000.

Contributions to the Asian Development Bank, some $1,622,000 in 1967, form an important adjunct to New Zealand's bilateral aid to Asia.

Other programmes in which New Zealand participated included the Special Commonwealth Aid to Africa Programme, under which over 80 Africans are studying in New Zealand and a number of New Zealand experts are working in Africa, and the Commonwealth Education Scheme, under which up to 21 Scholarships and Fellowships are offered each year. Over $325,000 was spent under these programmes in the 1967-68 financial year.

New Zealand and the Colombo Plan—New Zealand was a foundation member of the Colombo Plan which had its origin in, and takes its name from, a meeting of Commonwealth Foreign Ministers held in January 1950 in Colombo to exchange views on world problems, particularly on the economic needs of the countries of South and South-East Asia. The Colombo Plan is not a single plan but rather the aggregation of a series of separate plans drawn up and administered by each country in the region. The external assistance required and made available to help implement these plans is negotiated on a bilateral basis. What was once a Commonwealth idea has grown into a truly international co-operative effort with 24 member countries.

Up to 31 March 1968 New Zealand has made available under the Colombo Plan capital aid and technical assistance amounting to $32,142,000. The sum of $3,058,000, the highest annual total to date, was spent during the 1967-68 financial year.

Total expenditure on capital aid has amounted to $20,488,000 including $1,532,000 in the 1967-68 financial year. Major capital aid projects assisted during the year included dairy projects at Bombay and Dehra Dun in India; a milk condensory at Polunnaruwa in Ceylon; a feeder road project and a Faculty of Agriculture at Khon Kaen in Thailand; the Nam Ngum Dam in Laos; and the Indus Waters Scheme.

Up to 31 March 1968 New Zealand has spent a total of $7,591,000 on technical assistance. The number of students and trainees brought to New Zealand under the Colombo Plan awards has reached 2,432, of whom 493 were in New Zealand on 31 March 1968. The number of experts who have served in Asia under the Colombo Plan had reached 372 by the same date. The two current major technical assistance projects are the 23-member road construction team in North-East Thailand and the 15-member civilian surgical team in Vietnam.

Volunteer Service Abroad—The Council for Volunteer Service Abroad, although a non-governmental organisation, receives Government assistance in carrying out its programme of dispatching volunteer workers for assignments in many Asian and Pacific countries. As of 31 March 1968 there were 105 volunteers in the field. The Government grant during the 1967-68 year was $23,010 for administrative purposes and fare costs amounting to $16,136. The grant for 1968-69 is $28,000 plus fare costs estimated at $22,500.

Distribution of New Zealand Aid—The distribution of the total aid given by the New Zealand Government to developing countries during the two latest financial years ended 31 March is set out in the following table. Aid is shown as bilateral where the arrangements were concluded directly between New Zealand and the country or countries assisted, and multilateral where the aid was contributed to an international agency or fund. The table lists only Government aid. It does not take into account the substantial aid given privately in cash and kind through CORSO, religious missions, the Red Cross, organisations assisting lepers, the Save the Children Fund, and by other means.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19671968
Development AidNZ$ (000)NZ$ (000)
Bilateral—
    South Pacific—
        Cook Island—Grants1,9721,965
                                Loans6010
        Niue Island762785
        Tokelau Islands132163
        General5037
        Western Samoa—Grants356320
                                      Loans150-
        Tonga12
    South and South-East Asia—
        Colombo Plan2,3513,059
        SEATO Aid24
        Ministry of Defence contribution Road Construction Team, Thailand5080
        Services Medical Team, Vietnam-85
    South Pacific and South-East Asia—
        Volunteer Service Abroad3839
    Commonwealth—
        Special Commonwealth Aid to Africa Plan231220
        Assistance to Zambia24-
        Commonwealth Education Scheme129106
            Total bilateral6,3086,875
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19671968
Multilateral—NZ$ (000)NZ$ (000)
        United Nations (one half contributions assessed as aid)136144
        International Labour Office6976
        United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation8585
        World Health Organisation108131
        South Pacific Commission97102
        UNESCO6476
        Commonwealth Secretariat913
        Commonwealth Foundation99
        Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau6034
    Voluntary programmes for development—
        UNICEF150120
        United Nations Development Fund400400
        World Food Programme283189
    Bank Subscriptions—
        Asian Development Bank (one half foreign exchange and one half New Zealand currency)1,6221,622
            Total Government contribution for development9,4009,875
Refugees and Relief  
Bilateral—
          Disaster Relief2010
          Red Cross66
          CORSO1414
Multilateral—
        U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees10060
        European Refugees4020
            Total Government assistance for relief180110
            Total Government contributions for development and relief9,5819,985
            Unrecovered value of educational services provided for both1,1251,125
              Government-sponsored and private students  
                    Grand totals10,70611,110

General Aims—It is clear that, as New Zealand has assumed the international responsibilities appropriate to an independent country, its foreign policy has changed in emphasis and scope. The foundations of New Zealand's pre-war position in international affairs—its identification with Britain and its membership of the Commonwealth—have been modified and extended to meet the demands of an international situation greatly changed from that of 1939. As a country of predominantly European settlement, New Zealand retains its traditional loyalties to the United Kingdom and a sense of identity with Europe and of involvement in its destiny. As a Pacific power, it has sought security in friendship and formal defensive arrangements with Australia and the United States of America. New Zealand's growing involvement in the problems of the South Pacific region and its close ties with the island people are giving rise to a new recognition of the importance of the role it will have to play in this area in the future. New Zealand is in a unique position to encourage the growth of a regional consciousness in the South Pacific which is essential if the problems of the area are to be seen and tackled as a whole. At the same time it has recognised the importance of regional developments in Asia and the future security of that region, and has sought to develop its associations with Asian countries. As a country concerned with the preservation of world peace and the organisation of defence against aggression it has placed prime importance upon development of the United Nations as an agency for peaceful settlement of international disputes and for the achievement of collective security. Pending the establishment of a broadly based United Nations security system, however, New Zealand has been prepared, in respect of South-East Asia, to participate in a protective grouping concerned with the defence of a single area. Moreover, while it sees aggressive Communism as the greatest threat to individual liberty at the present time, it is well aware of the powerful stirrings of other forces—the yearning for political emancipation, the antagonism to systems of racial discrimination, the demand of underprivileged countries for a greater share of the world's prosperity, or social advancement and opportunity. New Zealand's action in the international field are designed to take account of these forces and, where possible, to assist the people of other countries in their striving for a better life. The limits of what it is able to do are those imposed by its size and capacity; its disposition is towards peaceful and friendly relations with all nations and (whatever the modifications which the needs of national security may impose) it is to that ultimate goal that its foreign policy is directed.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General—New Zealand is a monarchical State; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth. It is in this context that the preamble to the Royal Titles Act 1953 is significant “. . . whereas it is expedient that the style and titles at present appertaining to the Crown should be altered so as to reflect more clearly the existing relationships of the Members of the Commonwealth to one another and their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth ...”

Constitutional elements besides that of the titular head, the Monarch, can be reviewed under the categories of legislative authority, the executive and administrative structure, and the judiciary. This division is a convenient one, even though there is no absolute line of demarcation between the three phases (e.g., legislation may and often does arise through the day-to-day experience of those responsible for administration and execution of policy, or through difficulties or anomalies made explicit in the course of dispensing justice or interpreting law). Conversely, in the exercise of the powers and functions of industrial and other tribunals, commissions, authorities, etc., both administrative and judicial elements may be discerned.

THE MONARCH—The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the Royal style and titles as follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of Her New Zealand Ministers. The Governor-General has, however, an official existence, even in the country to which he has been appointed, only in the absence of the Queen from that country. In the island territories the Crown is represented by the Resident Commissioner or Resident Agent. These officials carry out the constitutional functions of the Crown, but they also possess in varying degrees certain executive and legislative powers, being responsible to the New Zealand Government for the administration and good government of the islands concerned.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot constitutionally be ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her absence the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices; confers knighthoods and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors in New Zealand in 1953-54 and in 1969. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY—The supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is the General Assembly, which now consists of the Governor-General and the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are legally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand to the Statute of Westminster in 1947 there was incapacity to make laws on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial effect.

Although they do not limit the legal powers of Parliament as stated earlier, the provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 creating reserved sections in that Act are of great constitutional significance. The Act provides that certain of its sections may not be repealed except by a 75 percent majority of the House of Representatives or following a referendum. These sections are those relating to:

  1. The constitution and order of reference of the Representation Commission.

  2. The number of European electoral districts and the basing of their boundaries on the total population.

  3. The fixing of the tolerance within which the Commission must work at 5 percent.

  4. The age of voting.

  5. The secret ballot.

  6. The duration of Parliament.

This innovation is not legally effective in the sense that it does not prevent a subsequent Parliament from repealing it, since one Parliament cannot bind its successors. It should not be thought, however, that the provision is a mere gesture. It records the unanimous agreement of both parties represented in Parliament that certain provisions have a fundamental character in the system of Government and should not be altered at the whim of a bare majority. Considered in this light the provision creating reserved sections introduces something in the nature of a formal convention which could not constitutionally be ignored.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, laws are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament—i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probably been made in the deliberations of Cabinet.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, the multifarious concerns of a modern twentieth century government, and the necessity of conserving time for consideration of more important issues, much of the detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter must become the subject of regulations made by Order in Council under the authority of some statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. The power to make such regulations lies with the Executive Council which comprises those senior members of the majority party in Parliament who are appointed thereto, together with the Governor-General. Regulations, though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the formal proceedings of the Executive Council, rest fundamentally on the will of Parliament as a whole and are now subject to its supervisory jurisdiction. A general provision contained in the Regulations Amendment Act 1962 requires all such regulations to be laid before Parliament, though most empowering Acts contained a similar provision prior to that date. An amendment to the Standing Orders of the House of Representatives, also passed in 1962, enables the House or any member thereof to refer any regulation to the Statutes Revision Committee, a Select Committee of the House, which is empowered to consider the regulation and to determine whether the special attention of the House should be drawn to it on any of the following grounds: (a) That it trespasses unduly on personal rights and liberties: (b) That it appears to make some unusual or unexpected use of the powers conferred by the statute under which it is made: (c) That for any special reason its form or purport calls for elucidation.

Meeting of Parliament—Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the summoning of Parliament and its prorogation. Its length varies, but it usually occupies the months from June to November. When Parliament is prorogued all the business on hand lapses, and if this is to be proceeded with in the next session it must be re-introduced.

The course of a session may be interrupted by an adjournment.

Parliamentary Privileges—While in session these include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest in civil cases, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System—The two main political parties represented in Parliament are National and Labour. A third party—Social Credit—obtained a seat for the first time at the 1966 General Election. At any general election these parties, together with any other political parties which may be desirous of so doing and also those candidates standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each party normally puts forward one candidate for each of the 80 electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the general election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who makes Ministerial appointments from elected members of his party. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party is to govern and the minority is to criticise—so that there is ample time allocated for debate on Government measures in Parliament. While party control is exercised by national and local organisations outside Parliament, within the latter it is maintained by the respective party Whips.

Parliamentary Procedure—The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, which govern its procedure and which are administered by Mr Speaker in the exercise of his control of the House. Mr Speaker's rulings on interpretation of the Standing Orders are followed in a similar manner to judicial decisions in the ordinary Courts of law. The main means by which Parliament does its work is through the system of debate and committees. The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Parliamentary Functions and Control—The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by its power to pass a resolution of no confidence in the Government, or to reject a proposal which the Government considers so necessary that it is made a matter of confidence, and thus force the Government to resign.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorised by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorises or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament. The functions of Parliament are, of course, the passing of legislation and taking action to make available finances or funds as required for State expenditure, while it also controls the Government. Legislation can be initiated by any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in power as a result of policy taken in Cabinet, sometimes at the instigation of those Government Departments which will be responsible for their administration when the Bills become law. The chief exceptions are private Bills, which are designed for the particular interest or benefit of a person or body of persons, whether incorporated or not, and local Bills which relate largely to matters of local (as distinct from central) government business. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time it is given a second reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. It may then be referred to one of the Select Committees, for consideration in the closest detail, before being considered by the whole House sitting in Committee. During these stages members have opportunities to suggest amendments which may be incorporated in the Bill if the majority so decide. The Bill is then reported to the House, and later read a third time; debate rarely occurs at these stages. The final stage is to send the Bill to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent and, unless provision is made for commencement on another date, it then becomes law. Bills providing for receipt of moneys, such as the Finance Bill, and expenditure of moneys, such as the Appropriation Bill, are introduced only by a Minister of the Crown, normally the Minister of Finance. No Bill involving an appropriation of public moneys or affecting the rights of the Crown can be passed without the recommendation of the Crown, which is given by Message from the Governor-General.

Duration of Parliaments—Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931-35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately 20 months. The three-year limit was re-enacted in the Electoral Act 1956, this being one of the reserved provisions referred to earlier. A referendum on 23 September 1967 favoured the continuation of terms of three years.

Number of Representatives—From the next election there will be 84 electorates (80 European and four Maori) returning members to the House of Representatives. The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than 42 and not less than 24, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of 40 members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at 41; in 1860, at 53; in 1862, at 57; in 1865, at 70; in 1867, at 72; in 1870, at 74; in 1875, at 84; in 1881, at 91; in 1887, at 70; and in 1900, at 76. Since 1867 there have been four Maori representatives, and provision for this number was retained in the Electoral Act 1956. In 1954 the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, which had remained unaltered since 1867, were changed by Proclamation so as to give a greater degree of equality of population among the four districts (in effect the Southern Maori Electoral District now includes a considerable area of the North Island). The Electoral Amendment Act 1965 fixed the number of European electorates in the South Island at 25 (an increase of one) and provided that the number of European electorates in the North Island shall be ascertained by the Representation Commission after each quinquennial census of population on the basis of the quota fixed for the South Island. In 1967 the Electoral Boundaries Commission considered the results of the 1966 census and fixed the number of electorates in the North Island at 55 (an increase of three).

Qualifications of Members—Under the Electoral Act 1956 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” later); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the Public Service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of $400 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Although women have had the vote since 1893, they were not eligible as parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919. Prior to 1936 a public servant was prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936. The present law is that if a public servant is elected to Parliament he vacates his office forthwith and he cannot resume employment in the Public Service within 12 months of ceasing to be a member of Parliament unless he had previously been a public servant for at least five years.

Salaries, etc.—Section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provides that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives,and that a Royal Commission shall be appointed for this purpose within three months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament. The 1967 Royal Commission has been set up but in view of existing economic conditions the time for submission of its report was extended until 30 April 1968.

In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1968) of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances, the Prime Minister's salary, as from 1 April 1968 was increased to $12,400 with a tax-free allowance of $3,500 for the expenses of his office and a Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives $12 per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The Deputy Prime Minister's salary is $9,150 with a tax-free expense allowance of $1,400. The salary of each other Minister holding a portfolio is $8,600 with a tax-free expense allowance of $1,300 and that of each Minister without portfolio $7,000 with $1,100 tax-free allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased by $450. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of $600 a year. This allowance, or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided, is subject to income tax. Ministers also receive an allowance of $12 per day when travelling on official business within New Zealand, and in addition are entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. For Parliamentary Under-Secretaries the rate of salary is $6,450, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers; an expense allowance of $1,100 is also payable. After the general election of November 1954 no appointments were made until 1960, when two Parliamentary Under-Secretaries were appointed. In 1967 there was only one Parliamentary Under-Secretary.

The basic salary paid to members of the House of Representatives is now $4,650 a year. Members are also paid an allowance to provide for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties ranging from $900 to $1,450 a year subject to the classification of their electorates by the Representation Commission into the five classes of (a) a wholly urban electorate, or (b) a substantially urban electorate, or (c) a partially urban and partially rural electorate, or (d) an ordinarily rural electorate, or (e) a predominantly rural electorate. An additional expense allowance of $300 a year is paid to the member for Southern Maori, and an allowance of $150 to the members representing the other three Maori Electorates. A sessional accommodation allowance is paid at the rate of $2.25 for each day and $6 for each night on which a member is in Wellington and attends the sittings of Parliament, or of a Select Committee of Parliament of which he is a member. The sessional accommodation allowance is not payable to any member representing a Wellington urban electorate. (For full details see Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1968.) In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of air and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of $14 a month, and certain other concessions regarding telegrams and telephone services. If a member is defeated at an election he continues to receive salary to the end of the month following the month in which the election took place. A similar payment is made in the case of the death of a member leaving a widow or dependent children.

Both the Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is $7,350 a year in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of $1,000 plus normal member's allowance a year and residential quarters in Parliament House. The salary of the Chairman of Committees is $5,950 a year. In addition, he receives the electoral and sessional allowances appropriate to his electorate, increased by the sum of $600, and is provided with sessional accommodation.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of $7,350 a year with an expense allowance of $1,300 a year. In addition, a secretary, an assistant secretary, and a typist are provided by the State, and an allowance of $1,100 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His stamp allowance is $35 per month. In addition, the Leader of the Opposition is entitled to an official residence on the same basis as a Minister, or to an allowance of $600 a year in lieu thereof. The Deputy Leader of the Opposition receives a salary of $5,200 a year in addition to his appropriate electorate allowance and the sessional accommodation allowance where this is payable.

The Chief Whip of each party receives a salary of $5,050 a year, and the Junior Whip of each party receives a salary of $4,850 a year, together with the appropriate expense allowance in each case in accordance with the classification of his electorate and where applicable accommodation allowance.

Former Prime Ministers receive an annual payment of $400 for each full year in office, with a maximum of $2,000 a year, after retirement, defeat at the polls, or when a member only. This is subject to a two-year minimum period having been served as Prime Minister.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947, as amended by the Superannuation Amendment Act 1955, consolidated in 1956 and amended in 1961, introduced a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme now provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after nine year's service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income, or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 10 percent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund by an equal amount. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired aged 50 years at the time of his death, or $260 a year, whichever is the greater.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY—After the election of a new Parliament, it is the responsibility of the leader of the party, which is most likely to secure and retain the support of the majority of members in the House, to form a Government. Although procedures for the selection of new Ministers have varied between the two principal parties, the Prime Minister has the final responsibility for allocating portfolios. A portfolio comprises a specific field of Government activity—for instance all matters relating to education will be allocated to one Minister who is henceforth known as the Minister of Education.

He may also have other portfolios and the supervision of one or more Government Departments in which the activities carried out, though important, either do not rank as portfolios or are subsidiary aspects of the field—in these cases the Minister's responsibility will extend to being in charge of the named Department. One or other of the appointed Ministers in this way is responsible for the direction of activities and executive acts of each of the Government Departments and offices, etc., embracing the entire range of State activities. Occasionally a Minister is appointed without portfolio.

Executive Council—In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council, The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

A point of interest is that the Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

At August 1968 the Executive Council consisted of 17 members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives a salary of $18,000, and an allowance of $11,000 a year for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet—There is a close relationship between the Executive Council and the Cabinet. There are however, significant differences in membership and functions.

The Council consists of all Ministers and is presided over by the Governor-General. Cabinet may or may not comprise all the Ministers, including a Minister without portfolio; the Governor-General is not a member. The Council is one of the instruments for giving the imprint of legal form to policy determined by Cabinet which had been recognised only by constitutional convention until legislative reference to Cabinet was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

Cabinet has been described as the directing body of national policy whose nature is more easily explained by analogy than by definition. It determines the policy to be submitted to Parliament. In it is vested the supreme control of national policy within the limits of Parliamentary approval. It co-ordinates and delineates the activities of the several Departments of State.

The juridical acts which are necessary to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others—the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown, a Statutory Commission and the like. The preliminary review of proposed policy or of current administrative developments, which takes place in the informal atmosphere of Cabinet meetings, implies both deliberative or selective and administrative procedures on the part of this body.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. As a result the Executive Council confirmation can proceed smoothly and expeditiously. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Certain questions are considered by committees of Cabinet, the membership of which includes those Ministers primarily concerned with the subject matters. Authority to determine some issues may be delegated to a Cabinet committee by Cabinet. In other cases a committee may be called upon to study a particular question and submit its recommendations to Cabinet for determination. Some Cabinet committees are established on a permanent basis for the consideration of matters arising in broad fields of Government policy. Examples are the Cabinet Economic Committee and the Cabinet Works Committee. Several of these committees are supported by inter-departmental committees of officials. Other committees are of a temporary nature; they are established to consider particular problems and after having studied the question in detail, normally with appropriate officials advising, the committee reports back to Cabinet with its recommendations; and after the final decision has been made by Cabinet, the committee's work is completed.

The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the servicing of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning. It is its purpose also to assist in the co-ordination and review of the work of the Departments of State.

Government Departments—The Minister as the political head of a Department of State may in fact have several Departments under his control. There are, however, some 40 different Departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these have a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the Department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the Department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, External Affairs, Printing Office, Law Drafting, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup—Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup—State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Labour, Marine; the defence and law and order subgroup—Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the publicity and research subgroup—Tourist and Publicity, Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Ministry of Transport, Post Office, and Railways; the developmental—Ministry of Works, Agriculture, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Mines, Electricity, Maori and Island Affairs, and Industries and Commerce; the commercial—Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, and State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Security Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular Department. Most Departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government Departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that it must give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank by the Minister of Finance, and to any resolution of Parliament in respect of Government monetary policy.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

JUDICIARY—The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court. Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are other Courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration concerned with awards and general orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS—The law on these matters is now contained in the Electoral Act 1956. Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, the boundaries of European electorates are revised. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time by Proclamation alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, and, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census. The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is defined in section 2 (1) of the Electoral Act 1956.

The term “European population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris:

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise:

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel:

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment:

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital:

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force:

  7. Persons detained pursuant to convictions in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new electoral districts for Europeans. The Commission is constituted by virtue of section 15 of the Electoral Act 1956 and comprises seven members. Four of these, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Director-General of the Post Office, are official members. Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government, and one to represent the Opposition. The seventh member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the Commission or a majority of them, to be the Chairman of the Commission. The Chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The European population of the South Island is divided by 25 and the quotient so obtained is the quota for the South Island. Then the European population of the North Island is divided by the quota for the South Island, and the quotient so obtained is the number of European electoral districts in the North Island. The quota for North Island is obtained by dividing the European population of that Island by the number of electoral districts in that Island. In applying the quota the Commission may make an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 5 percent of the quota to enable districts to be adjusted to meet considerations of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of one month is given thereafter in which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then become the new electoral districts.

In addition to determining new European electoral districts the Representation Commission is also charged with the responsibility of classifying them for the purpose of allowances as provided by the current Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order. Under this order provision is made for an allowance based on the size, topography, and transport facilities of the electorate, the nature of its roads, the distribution of its population, and all other considerations that the Commission deems relevant.

The Act provides that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

The Act provides that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the main and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new main rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

Provision is made for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas, who are or will be of, or over the age of, 21 years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE—Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893, every person 21 years of age or over (with certain obvious exceptions) has had the right to exercise one vote and one vote only in the election of members of the House of Representatives. Some of the more important provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 are now given.

Qualification for Registration as Elector—To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 21 years and must (a) be a British subject or Irish citizen, (b) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (c) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (d) except in special cases have resided continuously for three months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for three months or more in any other electoral district.

The Act defines what is meant by the term “ordinarily resident”. To be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, a person must be or have been actually resident in New Zealand with the intention of residing there indefinitely. If he is absent from New Zealand he must have had, even since he left New Zealand, an intention to return to reside there indefinitely, and (except in the case of a public servant or the wife or husband of a public servant) must not have been absent from New Zealand for more than three years. Broadly speaking, the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents, the test laid down being similar to the legal concept of domicile.

The following persons are disqualified from registration as electors: (a) Those in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force, (b) those detained pursuant to a conviction in any penal institution, and (c) those whose names are on the Corrupt Practices List for any district.

These qualifications and disqualifications apply alike to Maoris and Europeans.

Registration of Electors—A system of compulsory registration of electors has been in operation in respect of Europeans since 1924 and was introduced in respect of Maoris in 1948. Every person qualified to be registered as an elector of any district must, if he is in New Zealand, apply for registration within one month after the date on which he first becomes qualified to be registered as an elector. He must also apply for registration within three months after the issue of every Proclamation proclaiming the names and boundaries of electoral districts or within such later period as may be provided by Order in Council. Qualified electors who are outside New Zealand may apply for registration if they wish.

A European is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a Maori district and a Maori (other than a half-caste) is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a European district. A half-caste Maori may choose to be registered either for a Maori or European district, and special rules are laid down to govern a change from one to the other.

Voting at Elections—Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot, a method which was first introduced in New Zealand in 1870. Recognition of the fundamental character which the secret ballot has attained in New Zealand was given in the Electoral Act 1956, which included the section providing for this method of voting among the reserved sections which may be repealed only by a 75 percent majority vote of all the members of the House of Representatives or following a referendum.

In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election. The following classes of persons whose names are not on the roll are, however, entitled to vote:

  1. Those who have applied for registration between writ day and polling day and have satisfied the Registrar that they became qualified for registration not earlier than one month before writ day.

  2. Those who are qualified for registration and were at the last preceding election registered in that district or, where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  3. Those who are qualified for registration and have since the last election and before 6 p.m. on writ day applied for registration in that district, or where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  4. Servicemen outside New Zealand, if they are or will be 21 years of age or more on polling day and their place of residence before they left New Zealand is within the district.

Special Voters—A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post, in the following cases:

  1. If his name does not appear on the main roll, or any supplementary roll for the district, or has been wrongly deleted from the roll.

  2. If he will be outside New Zealand on polling day.

  3. If he is or will be absent from the district on polling day.

  4. If he will not be within 2 miles by the nearest practicable route of any polling place in the district during the hours of polling.

  5. If he will be travelling during the hours of polling under conditions which will preclude him from voting at a polling place in the district.

  6. If he is ill or infirm.

  7. If, in the case of a woman, she is precluded from attending at a polling place by reason of approaching or recent maternity.

  8. If he is a lighthouse keeper or a member of a lighthouse keeper's staff, or if she is the wife of a lighthouse keeper or of one of his staff.

  9. If he has a religious objection to voting on the day of the week on which polling day falls.

  10. If he satisfies the Returning Officer or Deputy Returning Officer that on any other ground he cannot vote at a polling place in the district without hardship or undue inconvenience.

These latter conditions replace the former classes of absentee, postal and declaration voters, including servicemen outside New Zealand.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT—In 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, local government assumed the form it still basically retains. The Counties Act of 1876 divided the country into 63 counties, with provision for administration by elective councils having powers considerably less than those enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. In the same year the Municipal Corporations Act provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs.

A description of the development of counties, boroughs, and town districts follows.

Counties—Counties are now constituted under the Counties Act 1956, which consolidated legislation relating to counties and road districts. In general, the county organisation makes provision for the primary needs of a scattered population within a large area. With increasing settlement the original 63 counties were gradually subdivided until in 1920 the maximum of 129 was reached, although the number of councils formed and actively functioning never exceeded 126. The number of counties has been reduced by amalgamations and mergers by the Local Government Commission. At October 1968 there were 108 counties constituted, of which 107 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely populated county in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force. The Local Government Commission operates under the Local Government Commission Act 1967.

County councils may, under the provisions of the Counties Act 1956, declare areas within counties to be county towns. To qualify, the areas concerned must have a population of at least 200, with an average density of not less than one person to the acre or not less than 60 houses with an average density of not less than one house to three acres. After the constitution of a county town the county council is required to appoint a county town committee of not less than three nor more than seven members, to advise it on the administration of the county town. Membership is restricted to electors having a ratepayer's or residential qualification in respect of property or an address within the county town, or members of the council for the riding in which the county town is sited.

The Counties Amendment Act 1968 contains provisions for county councils to declare an existing county town, or a borough or town district which is abolished and added to a county, to be a county borough. The minimum population stipulated for a county borough is 1,500.

Boroughs—Dealing with the needs of a concentrated population, the borough organisation is concerned with a wide range of functions of a purely local nature. With the growth and centralisation of population the number of boroughs, despite numerous amalgamations of adjacent boroughs, steadily increased until 1955 when the total was 146. In October 1968 the total was 139.

Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 for the constitution of a borough there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per acre. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population and the presence of interests which, from their purely local nature, cannot be satisfactorily met by the county organisation. In its early stages a town district usually remained subject to county control, although such control was practically confined to the main and county roads in the town district; in such circumstances it was known as a dependent town district. The Town Boards Amendment Act 1908 enabled town districts on reaching a population of more than 500 to become independent. On attaining its independence a town district becomes in all respects a separate entity, and, apart from its smaller population, is not essentially different from a borough. The constitution and powers of town districts have been brought into closer relationship to boroughs over the years, and independent town districts are now constituted under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Act required that the area should not be more than 2 square miles, within which no two points are more than 4 miles distant and with a density of population of not less than one person to the acre. No new dependent town districts can be constituted. The number of town districts in October 1968 was 16 (10 independent and 6 dependent).

General Powers—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards, there is in addition to the general Harbours Act a special Act for each board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

Number of Local Authorities—The number of local authorities actively functioning at 12 October 1968 was 677 made up as follows: County councils, 107, borough (including city) councils, 139; town councils (independent), 10; town councils (dependent), 6; road board, 1; regional authority, 1; river boards (2 boards also have the power of land-drainage boards), 8; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 3; land-drainage boards, 34; electric power boards, 39; water-supply boards, 2; urban drainage boards, 4; transport board, 1; local railway board, 1; electric power and gas boards, 2; independent milk boards, 15; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; underground water authorities, 3; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 171; independent fire boards, 62; independent harbour boards, 18; and hospital boards, 31. Borough and county councils also function as fire authorities in 190 cases, as harbour boards in 9 cases, and as county pest destruction boards in 42 cases. In addition, there were 21 district councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1954. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes, viz: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties, e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are composed of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose, e.g., electric power districts.

Local Government Commission—The Local Government Commission Act 1967, which replaced the Local Government Commission Act 1961, set up a revised Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908.

The Act provides that the Commission shall consist of a Chairman with knowledge of local Government, one member with a special knowledge of finance and economics, and another member with a special knowledge of administration.

The functions of the Commission are to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any locality will best provide for the needs and continued development of the locality, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment, and that districts shall be of such size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The Commission has a duty to prepare local government area schemes to cover the whole of New Zealand by 31 December 1972. These schemes are to come into force as final schemes after the hearing of objections to publicly notified provisional schemes. These schemes will have no immediate effect on the local authorities in the local government area, but will set the general pattern to which individual local schemes will be required to conform.

Franchise—Under the Local Election and Polls Act 1966, elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. On any proposal relating to loans or rates a rate paying or a freehold qualification is necessary. Details of the franchise as it affects each type of local district are now given.

Counties—Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses either of the following qualifications is entitled to be enrolled on the county electors roll:

  1. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within a riding of the county. One vote is allowed where the rateable value does not exceed $2,000, two votes where the value is greater than $2,000 but not in excess of $4,000 and three votes where the value exceeds $4,000.

  2. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and has had permanent residence of not less than three months in the riding of the county to which the roll relates.

Boroughs—Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses any of the following qualifications is entitled to enrolment:

  1. Freehold qualification—meaning the beneficial and duly registered ownership of a freehold estate in land of a capital value of not less than $50 situated in the borough, notwithstanding that any other person is the occupier thereof.

  2. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within the borough.

  3. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and who has had permanent residence during the last three months in the borough to which the roll relates.

Town Districts—The franchise is the same as for boroughs, except that for county electoral purposes in dependent town districts the county qualification is necessary.

Pest Destruction Districts—Where the rates of the district are based on the acreage and rateable value of land occupied by the ratepayer, the franchise is the same as that exercised for county council elections. Where the franchise is based on stock ownership, from one to five votes are allowed according to the number of stock units owned. In the case of county pest destruction districts, no separate elections are held as the county council is also the board.

Land Drainage Districts—Where the rates of the district are based on the acreage of land occupied by the ratepayer, the franchise is one vote where the area of rateable property does not exceed 50 acres, two votes where it exceeds 50 acres but does not exceed 100 acres and three votes where it exceeds 100 acres. Where the rates are based on rateable value of the land, the franchise is the same as that derived from a rating qualification in a county.

Other Districts—Road districts, river districts, water-supply districts, and the local railway district all have a franchise similar to that of counties except that the residential qualification applies to road districts only.

Districts composed of a grouping of districts of other types united for a common purpose have a franchise as for the component districts. Such districts are urban drainage districts, electric power districts, harbour districts, hospital districts, urban transport districts, and catchment districts. In some cases—e.g., the Auckland Metropolitan and Hutt Valley Drainage Boards—the members are appointed or elected by the territorial local authorities included in the district.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning—Regional Planning Authorities may be established under provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953. As provided in the Act the authorities consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. Every local authority within the region, other than the constituent councils, is entitled to be represented by at least one associate member. The Regional Planning Authority may also appoint any person who may be possessed of special knowledge, or representatives of any Department of State, to be associate members. Authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Northland and Marlborough.

Finance for administration purposes is provided for by way of a maximum rate of one-sixtieth of a cent in the dollar on the rateable capital value of those portions of the councils' territories inside the regional area. The Act also makes provision whereby any of the constituent councils may enter into and carry out agreements for the execution of combined works.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority. Every regional planning scheme is intended to be a guide to councils engaged in the preparation of district planning schemes and to public authorities and all persons in relation to conservation and development within the region. Regional schemes are required to be reviewed at intervals of not more than 10 years.

District Planning—Every district scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

While a district scheme is being prepared a council may refuse its consent to the carrying out of any development that would be in contravention of the scheme and falls within the definition of a “detrimental work”, but the owner or occupier affected may appeal against such a decision to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board. The Minister can require the council to exercise these powers where the development would or might adversely affect Government works or the public interest, and local authorities have similar rights in respect of their works. Any appeal proceedings lie against the Minister or the local authority concerned.

In the period before a district scheme becomes operative, any change of use of land that detracts or is likely to detract from the amenities of the neighbourhood is required to have the prior consent of the council. Where an application is made to the council for consent, the applicant and every person who claims to be affected by the proposed use has a right to be heard by the council and may appeal to the Appeal Board against the council's decision.

When completed and recommended by the council, copies of a district scheme are submitted to the Minister of Works and to adjoining councils and to local authorities within the area covered by the scheme for consideration, particularly in relation to their public works. When the Minister and each local authority is satisfied that all their respective public works have been properly provided for in the scheme and have certified accordingly, the district scheme is publicly notified for inspection for three months. Any owner or occupier of land affected may object to any provision of the scheme, and the Minister, other local authorities, professional, business, sporting or other such organisations, may also object to the scheme on grounds of public interest. In the event of an objection not being sustained by the council the objector may appeal to the Appeal Board whose decision is final.

Where any council has not an operative district scheme for its district by 1 January 1971, the Minister of Works is empowered to take such steps as he may consider necessary to have such a district scheme made operative as quickly as possible. The costs and expenses incurred by the Minister are recoverable from the local authority, or they may be deducted from any moneys payable to the local authority by the Crown.

When a district scheme has been finally approved and made operative the council and all local authorities having jurisdiction in the district are bound to observe, and enforce observance of, the requirements of the scheme. The provisions of an operative regional planning scheme are also obligatory, but a constituent council has a right of appeal to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board where a provision of a proposed or operative district scheme conflicts with the regional scheme; the Minister has, incidentally, a similar right of appeal so far as the regional scheme conflicts with the public interest.

Operative district schemes may be changed at any time, and must be reviewed when any part of the scheme has been operative for a period of five years. In preparing, recommending, and approving a change or a review of a district scheme the proposed change or review is publicly notified for inspection by owners and occupiers of property and simultaneously submitted to the Minister, to the Regional Planning Authority, and to the local authorities within the district for their consideration and objection where necessary in the light of their respective public works and other responsibilities.

Once a district scheme has been made operative it cannot be cancelled unless it is replaced at the same time by another operative district scheme. Furthermore, once a proposed change to an operative district scheme has been publicly notified for inspection and objection by owners and occupiers of property, no development work, subdivision, or change of use of land or buildings that would conflict with the proposed change may be carried out without permission by order of the Appeal Board.

Where a district scheme is operative the local authority may take, under the Public Works Act 1928, any land in its district if in accordance with the scheme it considers it is necessary or expedient to do so for the proper development or use of the land, or for the provision or preservation of amenities, or for the improvement of areas that are too closely subdivided or are occupied by decadent buildings.

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

POPULATION GROWTH—Throughout the main period of European settlement in New Zealand, which lasted from 1850 to 1880, the rate of population growth was very rapid. The 1858 Census recorded 115,462 inhabitants of whom one-half were Maoris. At the 1886 Census the population had reached 620,487, though the Maori population had in the meantime fallen from 56,049 to 43,927.

Thereafter, as the wave of immigration subsided, the rate of growth slowed down. The average annual increase has varied between 0.8 and 2.8 percent, with low rates during the depression periods of 1886-1891 and 1929-1936, and also during the two World Wars. In the 20 years from 1945 the annual rate of growth was over 2 percent a year. The lower birth rate since 1964 together with changes in migration flow has resulted in a lower rate of growth in recent years.

During the present century, natural increase has been the principal element in the growth of population; and in the following table the natural increase of non-Maoris is given.

PeriodBirthsDeathsNatural Increase
 (000)
1901-1905109.440.768.7
1906-1910127.846.081.7
1911-1915138.049.089.0
1916-1920137.060.476.6
1921-1925141.755.086.7
1926-1930137.159.877.3
1931-1935124.160.264.0
1936-1940139.769.969.8
1941-1945169.678.491.2
1946-1950219.280.5138.6
1951-1955235.887.6148.3
1956-1960266.296.2170.1
1961-1965278.5105.8172.6
1966-1968175.469.9105.5
Totals 1901-19682,399.6959.41,440.2

A comparable table for the Maori population is not available but the following table shows the inter-censal increases in the Maori population. Since the Maori birth rate has exceeded that of the population of European origin very considerably, while the death rate has fallen, the natural increase of Maoris has made an increasingly important contribution to the growth of the total population.

PeriodIncrease
 (000)
1901-19064.8
1906-19112.4
1911-19160.3
1916-19214.0
1921-19266.7
1926-193618.7
1936-194516.4
1945-195116.9
1951-195621.5
1956-196129.9
1961-196634.1
1967-196813.8
Total 1901-1968169.4

The other element in the population growth—the gains from external migration—is shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

Calendar YearsMigration Gain
*Excess of departures.
 (000)
1901-190545.4
1906-191041.0
1911-191535.6
1916-192014.9
1921-192550.1
1926-193024.6
1931-1935—9.9*
1936-194012.4
1941-19452.1
1946-195032.6
1951-195569.1
1956-196044.3
1961-196570.7
1966-19681.9
Total 1901-1968433.4

Most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands; in more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific islands, notably Western Samoa.

CENSUS STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, ....... and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing scheme the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Niue Island and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately. The Cook Islands are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

PRESENT POPULATION—The following table gives a summary of population. A 50-year time series is given in the Statistical Summary towards the back of this Yearbook.

TerritoryDateMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes population of the inhabited minor islands, i.e., Kermadec Islands, 9 (males); and Campbell Island 10 (males) but excludes overseas territories.
New Zealand*—Total31 December 19681,387,8031,388,4622,776,265
    (a)—Maoris (included above)31 December 1968111,041108,001219,042
    (b) Island territories:
          Tokelau Islands25 September 19688629701,832
          Niue Island30 September 19682,6112,6975,308
    (c) Cook Islands1 September 19669,7499,49819,247
    (d) Ross Dependency31 December 196824-24

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates are those of 1926-36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936-45, which included six years of international war.

Date of CensusTotal PopulationIntercensal Numerical IncreaseIntercensal Percentage IncreaseAverage Annual Percentage Increase

*Excludes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas; numbers of armed forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901, 2,500 (approx.); 1916, 44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; 1951, 1,894; 1956, 2,162; 1961, 2,559; and 1966, 1,936.

†Includes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

March 1901*815,85372,6469.81.9
April 1906936,304120,45114.82.8
April 19111,058,308122,00413.02.5
October 1916*1,149,22590,9178.61.5
April 19211,271,664122,43910.72.3
April 19261,408,139136,47510.72.1
March 19361,573,810165,67111.81.1
September 1945*1,702,298128,4888.20.8
September 19451,747,679173,86911.01.1
April 1951*1,939,472237,17413.92.4
April 19511,941,366193,68711.11.9
April 1956*2,174,062234,59012.12.3
April 19562,176,224234,85812.12.3
April 1961*2,414,984240,92211.12.1
April 19612,417,543241,31911.12.1
March 1966*2,676,919261,93510.82.1
March 19662,678,855261,31210.82.1

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1963-66 are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations Statistical Yearbook.)

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
Australia1.9
Canada1.9
Denmark0.8
France1.1
Germany, West1.2
India2.4
Ireland, Republic0.4
Japan1.0
Netherlands1.3
New Zealand1.8
Norway0.8
Pakistan2.1
Singapore2.5
South Africa2.4
Sweden0.9
Switzerland1.3
Thailand3.0
United Kingdom0.7
United States of America1.3
U.S.S.R.1.3
Western Samoa2.7

INTERCENSAL RECORDS—Intercensal statements of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration and are relatively accurate.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
19631,269,7011,258,1672,527,86853,2802.22,498,357
19641,296,7731,285,6342,582,40754,5392.22,550,114
19651,318,5731,310,3272,628,90046,4931.82,601,219
19661,343,8031,333,0062,676,80947,9091.82,647,199
19671,368,7671,358,3812,727,14850,3391.92,695,310
19681,378,7851,376,3072,755,09227,9441.02,737,036
Years Ended 31 December
19631,288,3501,278,5652,566,91551,0802.02,536,912
19641,312,9961,303,9742,616,97050,0552.02,589,150
19651,336,7311,327,1122,663,84346,8731.82,635,352
19661,360,9661,351,2842,712,25048,4071.82,682,968
19671,375,1221,371,9712,747,09334,8431.32,729,188
19681,387,8031,388,4622,776,26529,1721.12,756,242

The figures given in the preceding table are for total population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the Maori population.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
196391,76988,866180,6357,0494.1177,029
196495,25892,356187,6146,9793.9184,065
196598,77995,822194,6016,9873.7191,045
1966102,18799,149201,3366,7353.5197,905
1967105,434102,318207,7526,4163.2204,409
1968108,754105,611214,3656,6133.1211,059
Years Ended 31 December
196394,37191,431185,8027,1874.0182,294
196497,90194,904192,8057,0033.8189,296
1965101,32698,248199,5746,7693.5196,217
1966104,631101,422206,0536,4793.2202,798
1967107,863104,733212,5966,5433.2209,415
1968111,041108,001219,0426,4463.0215,908

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of future population growth, including Maoris, in New Zealand is given by the detailed projections for the period 1967-2000.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels, coupled with the difficulty of accurately forecasting the future course of the factors which are known to affect these components of population change. It should be understood, therefore, that these projections merely show the effect of the assumptions stated below the table on the future growth of the existing population. The assumptions, however, have been adopted only after careful studies of trends in the patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration and, in the light of available current information, are regarded as those most likely to produce realistic projections over the length of the projection period.

PROJECTED NEW ZEALAND POPULATION

As at 31 DecemberAssuming Net Annual Migration of
5,000 OutflowZero5,000 Inflow
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
 (000)
1967 (Base)1,3751,3722,7471,3751,3722,7471,3751,3722,747
19681,3921,3892,7811,3941,3912,7851,3971,3942,791
19691,4091,4072,8161,4151,4122,8271,4201,4162,836
19701,4281,4252,8531,4361,4332,8691,4441,4402,884
1971 1,4571,4542,9111,4681,4642,932
1972This assumption not carried past 19701,4801,4772,9571,4941,4902,984
19731,5041,5003,0041,5201,5163,036
19741,5281,5253,0531,5481,5433,091
19751,5541,5503,1041,5761,5703,146
19761,5801,5763,1561,6051,5993,204
19771,6071,6033,2101,6351,6293,264
19781,6341,6303,2641,6661,6593,325
19791,6631,6583,3211,6981,6903,388
19801,6921,6883,3801,7301,7223,452
19811,7231,7183,4411,7641,7553,519
19821,7531,7483,5011,7981,7893,587
19831,7851,7793,5641,8321,8233,655
19841,8161,8103,6261,8671,8573,724
19851,8481,8423,6901,9031,8923,795
18961,8811,8743,7551,9391,9283,867
19871,9131,9073,8201,9751,9633,938
19881,9461,9393,8852,0111,9994,010
19891,9791,9723,9512,0482,0354,083
19902,0122,0054,0172,0842,0724,156
19912,0462,0384,0842,1222,1084,230
19922,0802,0724,1522,1602,1464,306
19932,1142,1064,2202,1982,1834,381
19942,1492,1414,2902,2372,2224,459
19952,1852,1764,3612,2772,2614,538
19662,2222,2134,4352,3182,3014,619
19972,2602,2504,5102,3602,3424,702
19982,2992,2884,5872,4032,3844,787
19992,3392,3274,6662,4472,4284,875
2,0002,3802,3674,7472,4922,4724,964

Assumptions—The projections are linked to actual population numbers as at 31 December 1967. The assumptions on which the projections depend are as follows:

  1. The estimated 1967 specific age-of-mother and marital status birth-rates continue.

  2. Future age-specific mortality rates will continue in accordance with the New Zealand Life Tables, 1960-62.

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1880 to 1967 and projections through to 1990.

Figure 3.1. POPULATION

POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in Volume 1, Increase and Location of Population, of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population, excluding Maoris, of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census YearPopulation (Excluding Maoris)Percentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
1901388,626381,678770,30450.549.5
1906474,605411,390885,99553.646.4
1911561,281444,3041,005,58555.844.2
1916648,439447,7891,096,22859.240.8
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.839.2
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961.938.1
1936938,939552,5451,491,48463.037.0
19451,050,984552,5701,603,55465.534.5
19511,202,357621,4391,823,79665.934.1
19561,365,470671,4412,036,91167.033.0
19611,524,839723,0592,247,89867.832.2
19661,702,802772,9582,475,76068.831.2

The population of the North Island increased at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island between the 1961 and 1966 censuses. At the 1966 census the North Island population was 1,893,326, including 190,524 Maoris, and the South Island population 783,593, inclusive of 10,635 Maoris. The increase since the 1961 census was 208,541 for the North Island and 53,394 for the South Island.

The natural increase of population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1961-66 intercensal period was 152,942, and for the South Island the natural increase was 48,312. External migration has also added to the population and there has been population movement between the islands.

Statistical Areas—The boundaries of statistical areas are shown on the map inside the back cover. Northland comprises the northern counties from Mangonui to Otamatea; central Auckland, the counties from Rodney to Franklin (including islands in the Hauraki Gulf); East Coast, the area north of Wairoa; while South Auckland - Bay of Plenty comprises the remainder of the provincial district. Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, and Wellington statistical areas are the same as the provincial districts of the same names.

In the South Island the statistical areas coincide with the provincial district boundaries, except for the transfer of Amuri and Cheviot counties from Nelson to Canterbury, and the transfer of all that area of Grey county north of Grey River from Nelson to Westland.

In the following table the approximate areas and the populations as at the census of March 1966 and estimated at 1 April 1968 of the statistical areas are shown.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Miles)Population Census 22 March 1966Estimated Population 1 April 1968
Northland4,88093,51494,700
Central Auckland2,150613,671644,111
South Auckland—
    Bay of Plenty14,187389,334403,900
East Coast4,20046,98847,100
Hawke's Bay4,260124,960128,300
Taranaki3,750101,104101,200
Wellington10,870523,755537,100
    Totals North Island44,2971,893,3261,956,411
Marlborough4,22029,42830,200
Nelson6,91067,20868,300
Westland6,01024,35324,100
Canterbury16,769376,441385,981
Otago14,070183,477183,200
Southland11,460102,686106,900
    Totals South Island59,439783,593798,681
    Totals New Zealand103,7362,676,9192,755,092

Urban Areas—Urban areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. The present boundaries of urban areas have been in use since 1951.

For the 1961 Census, three new urban areas were defined at Whangarei, Tauranga, and Rotorua and comparable figures have been compiled for past years.

In the following table statistics of urban areas are given; 62.5 percent of the population lived in these areas in 1966.

Urban AreaTotal PopulationIncrease 1961-66
1951195619611966Estimates 1 April 1968Percentage
Whangarei15,43118,36921,79029,50331,60035.4
Auckland329,123381,063448,365548,293577,30022.3
Hamilton33,13740,64650,50563,30368,00025.3
Tauranga13,01018,72424,65931,60633,50028.2
Rotorua14,69319,00425,06833,22935,30032.6
Gisborne19,77422,62225,06527,80428,50010.9
Napier24,53827,50732,71638,30939,90017.1
Hastings23,79727,78732,49037,46639,10015.3
New Plymouth24,92328,29232,38735,28035,8008.9
Wanganui29,71732,10035,69438,17438,5006.9
Palmerston North32,90837,77543,18549,14050,90013.8
Hutt74,87886,05398,988114,628118,40015.8
Wellington133,414138,297150,544167,859173,20011.5
Nelson20,49722,50325,32127,61528,4009.1
Christchurch174,221193,367220,510247,248256,30012.1
Timaru22,85124,69426,42427,94628,4005.8
Dunedin95,45799,370105,003108,734109,8003.6
Invercargill31,61335,10741,08846,01647,80012.0
Totals1,113,9821,253,2801,439,8021,672,1531,740,80016.1

The next table gives the component parts of the five largest centres of population as estimated at 1 April 1968.

Urban AreaEstimated Population 1 April 1968
Auckland 
Auckland city151,800
East Coast Bays borough13,150
Takapuna city23,800
Devonport borough11,100
Northcote borough8,640
Birkenhead borough12,800
Henderson borough5,780
Glen Eden borough6,230
New Lynn borough10,150
Newmarket borough1,180
Mt. Albert borough25,700
Mt. Eden borough18,400
Mt. Roskill borough34,400
Onehunga borough16,050
One Tree Hill borough12,900
Ellerslie borough4,260
Mt. Wellington borough19,650
Howick borough9,890
Otahuhu borough10,000
Papatoetoe city21,400
Manukau city84,700
Papakura borough12,950
Remainder of urban area62,370
Total577,300
Hutt 
Lower Hutt city58,700
Upper Hutt city19,750
Petone borough10,200
Eastbourne borough4,610
Remainder of urban area25,140
Total118,400
Wellington 
Wellington city133,700
Tawa borough10,200
Porirua city24,900
Remainder of urban area4,400
Total173,200
Christchurch 
Christchurch city165,000
Riccarton borough7,220
Lyttelton borough3,510
Heathcote county7,420
Remainder of urban area73,150
Total256,300
Dunedin 
Dunedin city77,800
Port Chalmers borough3,040
St. Kilda borough6,720
Green Island borough5,990
Mosgiel borough8,100
Remainder of urban area8,150
Total109,800

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

BoroughEstimated Population 1 April 1968Approximate Area, in acres
North Island:
    Kaitaia3,1101,310
    Kaikohe3,1201,345
    Whangarei (city)29,60010,767
    Dargaville3,9102,800
    Helensville1,3101,315
    East Coast Bays13,1503,850
    Takapuna (city)23,8003,282
    Devonport11,1001,100
    Northcote8,6401,334
    Birkenhead12,8003,129
    Henderson5,7801,278
    Glen Eden6,2301,244
    New Lynn10,1501,393
    Auckland (city)151,80018,507
    Newmarket1,180182
    Mt. Albert25,7002,430
    Mt. Eden18,4001,477
    Mt. Roskill34,4004,602
    Onehunga16,0501,878
    One Tree Hill12,9002,430
    Ellerslie4,260745
    Mt. Wellington19,6504,075
    Howick9,8901,534
    Otahuhu10,0001,378
    Papatoetoe (city)21,4002,241
    Manukau (city)84,700153,573
    Papakura12,9503,410
    Pukekohe6,8003,471
    Waiuku1,8001,465
    Tuakau1,6901,091
    Huntly5,4201,941
    Cambridge6,0602,646
    Ngaruawahia3,7901,112
    Hamilton (city)67,70013,726
    Te Awamutu6,7801,762
    Otorohanga1,920560
    Te Kuiti4,8301,668
    Taumarunui6,0803,234
    Thames5,6802,712
    Paeroa3,1401,419
    Waihi3,1701,332
    Te Aroha3,2202,783
    Morrinsville4,5301,177
    Matamata3,890934
    Putaruru4,500975
    Mt. Maunganui7,2103,475
    Tauranga (city)25,5009,397
    Te Puke3,0901,311
    Rotorua (city)27,6006,590
    Taupo8,5303,570
    Whakatane9,0802,775
    Kawerau6,0101,818
    Murupara2,670710
    Opotiki2,560739
    Gisborne (city)25,6004,074
    Wairoa5,1901,603
    Napier (city)36,7006,018
    Hastings (city)28,1004,222
    Havelock North5,9901,270
    Waipawa1,8801,710
    Waipukurau3,6701,038
    Dannevirke5,7801,300
    Woodville1,5301,054
    Waitara4,8701,610
    New Plymouth (city)32,3005,722
    Inglewood2,000703
    Stratford5,4702,016
    Eltham2,3001,599
    Hawera8,2101,270
    Patea2,0201,420
    Ohakune1,4002,079
    Raetihi1,370958
    Wanganui (city)36,4007,406
    Taihape2,8801,923
    Marton4,7801,415
    Feilding9,3602,105
    Foxton2,830757
    Palmerston N. (city)49,20010,630
    Levin11,9502,167
    Otaki3,6601,639
    Porirua (city)24,9008,226
    Upper Hutt (city)19,7502,165
    Lower Hutt (city)58,70012,174
    Petone10,2002,580
    Eastbourne4,6103,146
    Tawa10,2001,208
    Wellington (city)133,70018,369
    Pahiatua2,590720
    Eketahuna740948
    Masterton17,9503,541
    Carterton3,6401,265
    Greytown1,7301,093
    Featherston1,920759
    Martinborough1,4601,070
        Totals, North Island cities and boroughs1,376,760431,974
South Island:
    Picton2,6101,052
    Blenheim13,9502,502
    Nelson (city)27,90011,717
    Richmond4,8702,600
    Motueka3,8402,523
    Westport5,230760
    Runanga1,6501,204
    Greymouth8,5902,594
    Brunner8005,700
    Kumara360842
    Hokitika3,310674
    Ross4203,800
    Rangiora4,270877
    Kaiapoi3,610786
    Riccarton7,220728
    Christchurch (city)165,00026,279
    Lyttelton3,5102,560
    Ashburton12,9502,604
    Geraldine1,870745
    Temuka3,190977
    Timaru (city)27,8005,825
    Waimate3,300771
    Oamaru13,3502,836
    Port Chalmers3,0401,012
    Dunedin (city)77,80015,473
    St. Kilda6,720616
    Green Island5,9901,818
    Mosgiel8,1001,291
    Milton2,200503
    Kaitangata1,1901,280
    Balclutha4,5701,258
    Tapanui850300
    Lawrence500615
    Roxburgh730515
    Naseby110188
    Alexandra3,1601,118
    Cromwell1,100972
    Arrowtown220330
    Queenstown1,7301,029
    Gore8,3802,338
    Mataura2,7201,272
    Winton1,810570
    Invercargill (city)45,30010,556
    Bluff3,3002,141
    Riverton1,250997
        Totals, South Island cities and boroughs500,370127,148
        Grand totals, all cities and boroughs1,877,130559,122

Town Districts—The population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b) — is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town DistrictEstimated Population 1 April 1968Approximate Area, in Acres
*Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a) Town Districts not forming parts of Counties
North Island:  
    Kawakawa1,230565
    Hikurangi1,110960
    Warkworth1,2401,427
    Ohura650815
    Manunui9401,251
    Manaia920510
    Waverley1,070499
    Hunterville590791
Totals, North Island7,7506,818
South Island:  
    Wyndham790680
    Otautau810490
Totals, South Island1,6001,170
Grand totals9,3507,988
(b) Town Districts forming parts of Counties*
North Island:  
    Russell (Bay of Islands)6101,066
    Ohaupo (Waipa)3601,281
    Kihikihi (Waipa)1,240523
    Patutahi (Cook)3001,275
    Kaponga (Eltham)480558
Totals, North Island2,9904,703
South Island:  
    Edendale (Southland)600696
Totals, South Island600696
Grand totals3,5905,399

County Towns—The following table lists those county towns with populations of 1,000 or more at the time of the 1966 census. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county towns are included in the administrative county populations given previously.

County TownEstimated Population 1 April 1968Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island
    Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1,120121
    Wellsford (Rodney)1,4701,368
    Glenfield (Waitemata)16,4504,642
    Kelston West (Waitemata)5,490974
    Green Bay (Waitemata)2,250471
    Titirangi (Waitemata)5,7402,299
    Orewa (Waitemata)1,440915
    Raglan (Raglan)1,010919
    Tokoroa (Matamata)12,4501,057
    Katikati (Tauranga)1,1302,046
    Ngongotaha (Rotorua)2,0601,242
    Mangakino (Taupo)1,820644
    Edgecumbe (Whakatane)1,270375
    Bulls (Rangitikei)1,820995
    Waikanae (Horowhenua)1,7102,418
    Shannon (Horowhenua)1,550844
    Paraparaumu (Hutt)7,7606,830
    Paekakariki (Hutt)1,9706,070
    Pukerua Bay (Hutt)1,2502,062
    Plimmerton-Paremata (Hutt)3,9102,651
    Wainuiomata (Hutt)15,00065,830
    Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)4,99013,618
South Island
    Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,600700
    Hornby (Paparua)6,7801,214
    Sockburn (Paparua)5,7502,673
    Halswell (Paparua)2,500504
    Fairfield (Taieri)1,120330

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised a total of 6,252 people as at 1 April 1968.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, with a population of 2,020, was the only one of any size.

Counties—The following table gives the population of individual counties at 1 April 1968, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts and county towns which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population 1 April 1968Approximate Area, in Square Miles
North Island:
    Mangonui6,860958
    Whangaroa2,000240
    Hokianga4,330613
    Bay of Islands12,710823
    Whangarei14,4501,033
    Hobson5,590745
    Otamatea6,330422
    Rodney7,220485
    Waitemata87,900600
    Great Barrier Is.270110
    Franklin18,100548
    Raglan9,900931
    Waikato15,600639
    Waipa15,450436
    Otorohanga8,120762
    Waitomo7,7501,303
    Taumarunui7,6101,873
    Coromandel3,020439
    Thames3,650419
    Hauraki Plains5,660233
    Ohinemuri4,140241
    Piako12,000451
    Matamata27,700987
    Tauranga14,700706
    Rotorua16,7501,035
    Taupo16,2502,797
    Whakatane15,4001,620
    Opotiki4,4601,211
    Waiapu5,4601,088
    Waikohu3,2601,022
    Cook10,0701,110
    Wairoa6,3801,595
    Hawke's Bay20,8001,871
    Waipawa3,750520
    Patangata3,290655
    Waipukurau1,310128
    Dannevirke4,220546
    Woodville1,630156
    Clifton2,210454
    Taranaki8,130227
    Inglewood3,130201
    Stratford5,550833
    Egmont6,150240
    Eltham3,290206
    Waimate West2,60083
    Hawera4,860191
    Patea3,210591
    Waimarino1,800829
    Waitotara2,940467
    Wanganui3,100459
    Rangitikei14,4001,732
    Kiwitea2,150359
    Pohangina1,040259
    Oroua4,630190
    Manawatu6,390267
    Kairanga5,500178
    Horowhenua11,900542
    Hutt44,700524
    Pahiatua2,470286
    Akitio1,000321
    Eketahuna1,630318
    Masterton4,220923
    Wairarapa South2,650440
    Featherston3,380954
        Totals, North Is. counties567,12043,425
South Island:
    Marlborough9,0102,563
    Awatere1,8001,497
    Kaikoura3,070905
    Golden Bay3,5201,011
    Waimea16,1002,900
    Buller3,6001,885
    Inangahua2,770942
    Grey4,1801,579
    Westland4,8104,410
    Amuri2,8801,658
    Cheviot1,510327
    Waipara2,970937
    Kowai2,240157
    Ashley560309
    Rangiora4,06096
    Eyre2,270175
    Oxford1,510318
    Malvern6,1801,926
    Paparua23,700172
    Waimairi56,50043
    Heathcote7,42012
    Mt. Herbert57066
    Akaroa1,550170
    Chatham Islands500372
    Wairewa720170
    Ellesmere7,190457
    Ashburton11,6002,350
    Geraldine4,580774
    Levels4,780260
    Mackenzie3,2502,853
    Waimate5,8601,383
    Waitaki10,6502,413
    Waihemo1,850339
    Waikouaiti4,230320
    Peninsula3,44040
    Taieri7,960901
    Bruce3,630519
    Clutha6,0301,049
    Tuapeka4,3301,384
    Maniototo2,7501,340
    Vincent4,3302,922
    Lake2,4603,871
    Southland27,8003,703
    Wallace12,6503,728
    Fiord1,6203,035
    Stewart Island320675
              Totals, South Island counties295,31058,916
              Grand totals, all counties862,430102,341

Most of those counties showing considerable gains of population are adjacent to large cities.

Population Growth and Urbanisation—With the growth in the efficiency of farming, with increased specialisation, and general development of the economy, urban centres have increased rapidly in size and population has tended to concentrate in them; employment opportunities have been provided in secondary and service industries for the expanding labour force. In 1874 two-thirds of the population lived in settlements of less than 500 persons, that is to say on farms or in hamlets. Under a changed classification in 1900, 54 percent were living in counties and the remainder in boroughs. It is a characteristic of most countries that agriculture's share of total population declines with more advanced economic development. By 1961 only one-quarter of the population lived in rural areas. The following table indicates the urban movement of the total population; the urban content has been taken as the population of the defined urban areas, as enumerated previously, plus that of all boroughs, town districts, townships, and (for 1961 and 1966) county towns with populations of 1,000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural
NumberPercentNumberPercent
1926888,58563.4512,41636.6
19511,345,29269.6588,30230.4
19561,535,95170.8633,66329.2
19611,779,75473.9629,66526.1
19662,064,57477.3607,53422.7

In recent years urbanisation has helped to absorb the increasing Maori population and likewise rapid expansion in the number of Maoris of working age has contributed to economic growth. The following table indicates the urban movement of the Maori population.

CensusCounties Including Town DistrictsCities and BoroughsExtra-county Islands and ShipsTotal
Numbers
192657,9375,51521863,670
193674,4197,73117682,326
194582,76215,75822498,744
195193,86321,582231115,676
1956104,54532,351255137,151
1961111,18855,681217167,086
1966100,659100,336164201,159
Percentages
192691.08.70.3100.0
193690.49.40.2100.0
194583.816.00.2100.0
195181.118.70.2100.0
195676.223.60.2100.0
196166.633.30.1100.0
196650.049.90.1100.0

In the process of urbanisation some cities and areas have grown more quickly than others. Thus the population of 18 principal urban areas rose from 739,243 in 1926 to 1,672,053 in 1966, more than doubling in this period. This tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres is associated with a drift of population from the south to the north and where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of Auckland, the rate of growth has been very rapid. In the process some towns in the north which were of negligible size in 1926 have now become of major importance. Thus Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 37,000, in 1966 comprised 157,641 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part, while in the earliest period the major impetus to development had come from the gold rushes and the settlement of open pastoral lands in the South Island. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities at both ends of the productive process, notably fertiliser industries and dairy factories. The more intensive farming of this subsequent period has also resulted in North Island supremacy in sheep raising, with a particular emphasis on the fat lamb market. (In 1886 there were 9.9 million sheep in the South Island and only 5.3 million in the North Island. In 1966 there were 31.8 million sheep in the North and 25.6 million in the South Island.) These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island.

In the larger cities a notable feature of the past 35 years has been a movement of population from the central or “inner” areas to the perimeter or “outer” areas as families in decayed areas have moved to State rental houses and as residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. In recent years there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Size of Centre (City Borough or Town District)Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
19261956196119661926195619611966
1,000-2,499634033297.53.02.31.7
2,500-4,999234739386.27.35.75.0
5,000-9,999111929315.96.28.28.2
10,000-24,9991219212013.313.715.012.1
25,000 or over411121924.132.432.540.9
                Totals11313613413757.062.663.767.9

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island.

SEX PROPORTIONS—The census of 22 March 1966 shows that males outnumber females by 10,567 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males at the last six censuses have been:

*Including armed forces abroad.
1936970
1956989
19451,044
1956*987
1945*991
1961990
1951991
1961*988
1951*989
1966992

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand, depending largely on educational and employment opportunities. The following figures give the number of females per 1,000 males at the Census of 1966.

Statistical areas
    Central Auckland1,019
    Otago1,014
    Hawke's Bay1,012
    Canterbury1,012
    Nelson1,004
    East Coast992
    Taranaki991
Urban areas
    Timaru1,103
    Hastings1,085
    Gisborne1,083
    New Plymouth1,081
    Nelson1,077
    Dunedin1,077
    Wanganui1,062
    Palmerston North1,059
    Hamilton1,058
    Wellington986
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty960
    Marlborough953
    Westland947
    Northland942
    Southland923
    Christchurch1,054
    Napier1,052
    Tauranga1,045
    Auckland1,032
    Rotorua1,019
    Invercargill1,019
    Wellington1,013
    Whangarei1,010
    Hutt971

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon intensive land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which cannot be closely settled, while the growth of mechanisation in farming tends to reduce the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations. There are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense populations could be supported—not the least of which are a lack of mineral resources, and distance from export markets.

Nevertheless, economic development is providing employment for a growing labour force. More extensive mechanisation, further advances in science and technology, and increases in productivity, wealth, and consumption have paved the way for further specialisation of production and more concentrated urbanisation.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical area basis from 1926 to 1966 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea, in Square MilesPersons per Square Mile
192619361945195119611966
Northland4,88011.213.213.615.417.719.2
Central Auckland2,150109.6123.4154.0177.3238.8285.4
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty14,18710.212.614.417.424.627.4
East Coast4,2008.08.89.09.911.111.2
Hawke's Bay4,26016.518.118.621.426.929.3
Taranaki3,75019.220.720.523.226.627.0
Wellington10,87025.929.132.135.943.648.2
Totals, North Island44,29720.223.025.929.738.042.7
Marlborough4,2204.54.54.95.46.67.0
Nelson6,9106.07.06.88.29.19.7
Westland6,0103.64.34.04.24.14.1
Canterbury16,76913.014.214.916.920.522.4
Otago14,07010.710.810.311.312.513.0
Southland11,4605.96.46.36.88.29.0
Totals, South Island59,4398.79.49.410.512.313.2
Totals, New Zealand103,73613.615.216.518.723.325.8

MAORI POPULATION—The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857-58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy. All persons with half or more of Maori blood are defined as Maoris.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. Among the causes of this were the susceptibility of the Maori to tuberculosis, measles, typhoid, and other diseases introduced by immigrants; the abandonment in some areas of healthy hilltop villages for low, often swampy sites; low birthrates coupled with high child-mortality rates; and a feeling of race-despair engendered by loss of land, defeat in war, and the general breakdown in health.

Since 1896, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a very rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race in recent years has been an outstanding demographic feature.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901.

YearMaori PopulationIntercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
*Includes members of armed forces overseas at census date.
   Percent
190145,5493,4368.21.6
190650,3094,76010.52.0
191152,7232,4144.81.0
191652,9972740.50.1
192156,9873,9907.51.6
192663,6706,68311.72.2
193682,32618,65629.32.6
194598,74416,41819.91.9
1945*100,04417,71821.52.1
1951115,67616,93217.12.9
1951*115,74015,69615.72.7
1956137,15121,47518.63.5
1956*137,34121,60118.73.5
1961167,08629,93521.84.0
1961*167,39030,04921.94.0
1966201,15934,07320.43.8
1966*201,47934,08920.43.8

Of the 201,159 Maoris at the 1966 census, 190,524 were in the North Island. Most Maoris used to live in rural communities. A marked change has, however, taken place during and since the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.0 percent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1966 census the comparative figure was 101,680 (50.5 percent); the largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 33,926 Maoris were enumerated in 1966.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, so that arrivals and departures have both been greatly swollen. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last 11 years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, tourists on cruising liners and members of the armed forces, etc., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
195842,85936,80779,66634,46429,79464,25815,408
195944,95538,69383,64839,91733,73973,6569,992
196047,89441,48389,37746,46739,69786,1643,213
196157,30648,932106,23856,42348,195104,6181,620
196272,50060,156132,65661,36752,457113,82418,832
196378,61365,259143,87271,86358,370130,23313,639
196489,87074,776164,64681,95667,206149,16215,484
1965104,42185,870190,29198,14780,153178,30011,991
1966121,10698,833219,939114,00093,918207,91812,021
1967136,275114,131250,406128,228107,743235,97114,435
1968136,760122,621259,381143,259124,212267,471— 8,090

New Zealand has a lower rate of net immigration than Australia, but New Zealand's rate of natural increase has been higher. In spite of popular assumptions to the contrary, the total population of New Zealand grew faster (40.7 percent) than that of Australia (40.2 percent) from 1951 to 1966. New Zealand, however, had a migration loss in 1967. Annual percentage increases are shown in the following table.

New ZealandAustralia
*Mainly because of movement of armed forces which are allowed for in the “total increase” but not in “net immigration” the New Zealand total increase sometimes differs slightly from the sum of the first two columns. This was most marked in 1950 with departures connected with the Korean War.
Calendar YearsNatural Increase RateNet Immigration RateTotal Increase Rate*Natural Increase RateNet Immigration RateTotal Increase Rate
19511.610.672.231.341.342.65
19521.681.082.741.411.102.48
19531.660.822.481.400.491.87
19541.700.372.101.350.772.10
19551.720.502.191.381.072.44
19561.700.462.051.351.012.35
19571.700.742.431.420.832.24
19581.780.552.351.420.672.09
19591.760.141.891.380.772.15
19601.780.091.861.400.892.27
19611.820.692.481.450.592.04
19621.750.602.331.360.591.95
19631.680.502.141.300.661.97
19641.540.552.051.170.902.07
19651.420.481.891.090.932.03
19661.360.511.871.030.751.78
19671.41-0.121.291.080.791.87

Classes of Arrivals and Departures—The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five March years, including through passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as permanent the commonly used international rule is applied—i.e., intended residence or absence of one year or more.

Class1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
* Persons who intend to spend less than one week in New Zealand in transit to other destinations.
Immigrants intending permanent residence34,23435,44635,29938,99930,660
New Zealand residents returning60,70872,81086,62498,536105,533
Visitors—
    Tourists47,97857,49865,03974,27589,953
    On business7,9078,2139,96910,00612,858
    Theatrical, entertaining, etc.1,4301,0831,0721,2612,159
    For educational purposes4563488291,8282,254
    On working holidays3,5735,99511,90518,2427,560
    Other, official, etc.7,6108,1187,7863,9744,629
    In transit*7507801,4163,2853,775
Through passengers, mainly on cruising liners39,71440,25355,26572,56184,839
Crews103,877106,907120,127131,420131,743
Totals308,237337,451395,331454,387475,963

The following table gives an analysis of departures.

Class1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
New Zealand residents departing—
    Permanently (i.e. over 12 months)14,90318,15918,58921,12828,472
    Temporarily62,16474,53688,14599,890104,094
Visitors departing72,09585,605101,184114,953134,905
Through passengers, mainly on cruising liners39,71440,25355,26572,56184,839
Crews102,427107,161119,198131,851134,249
Totals291,303325,714382,381440,383486,559

Ages—The following table gives the age-distribution of permanent arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1968.

Age, in YearsPermanent ArrivalsPermanent DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalsMalesFemalesTotals
0-143,8793,6517,5303,3313,0416,3721,158
15-243,3694,5587,9275,2065,26410,470- 2,543
25-343,7703,4957,2653,7222,6876,409856
35-441,8401,6043,4441,5801,1172,697747
45-591,2881,3772,6659258151,740925
60 and over7401,0891,8293294557841,045
Totals14,88615,77430,66015,09313,37928,4722,188

Origin—The following table shows for the last three years the birthplaces of immigrants intending permanent residence and of New Zealand residents departing permanently. ("Permanent" is defined as 12 months or more.)

Country of BirthImmigrants Intending Permanent ResidenceNew Zealand Residents Departing Permanently
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
Commonwealth Countries      
United Kingdom—
    England and Wales13,08914,37211,7322,9453,1894,482
    Scotland2,5452,8652,082550592835
    Northern Ireland369385233101125168
    Other or undefined741002162918
Australia5,5446,9564,0531,5081,9872,658
Canada516443325215175266
India25330526281108117
New Zealand6,4946,9547,08310,84812,28516,549
Pacific Islands—
    Cook Islands and Niue6217524778056140
    Western Samoa18413713492123151
    Fiji327311185107174154
    Other Pacific2932581999799112
Other806783670250253343
Totals, Commonwealth countries31,11534,62127,43716,89019,19525,993
Other Countries
Austria647857242560
China14613494403340
Denmark807863304838
Germany29835426190125124
Greece196187101153963
Hungary667021274243
Ireland, Republic of310399301123115161
Italy97114132202755
Indonesia626452353944
Netherlands912871711367425451
Switzerland111143119443877
United States of America762782502400478657
Yugoslavia2103101513043111
Others870794658454456555
Totals, other countries4,1844,3783,2231,6991,9332,479
Grand totals35,29938,99930,66018,58921,12828,472

Assisted Immigration—Various systems of assisted immigration have operated since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Assistance to immigrants was largely suspended between 1927 and 1947, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the 10 years ended 31 March 1946. In July 1947 a comprehensive free and assisted-passage scheme was introduced by the Government. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:

  1. The age limit for unmarried British immigrants was raised to 45 years and no contribution towards cost of travel was required.

  2. The free-passage scheme was extended to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children—later extended to up to four dependent children.

  3. The acceptance of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of 20 and 35 years. Dutch, Danish, Swiss, Austrian, and German nationals were selected.

At the end of 1958, it was decided to cut back assisted immigration by limiting male workers from the United Kingdom to skilled tradesmen, experienced farm workers, and experienced workers required in essential industries.

In March 1961 the Government announced a plan to bring to New Zealand in 1961-62 up to 5,000 assisted immigrants. Changed economic conditions later led to steps being taken to reduce the intake of assisted immigrants.

In August 1963 it was decided to increase assisted immigration from the United Kingdom to 4,500 for the next 12 months and then to reduce it to 3,500 a year. In 1965 and 1966 the annual target was raised to 4,000. In mid-1967, because of unfavourable economic conditions in New Zealand the Government instituted measures to reduce the recruitment of assisted migrants from the United Kingdom to approximately 1,500 for the year ended March 1968. Because of the large backlog of migrants already selected and awaiting transport to New Zealand, it was not possible to keep within this figure. In December 1967 Government decided on a target of 1,500 migrants for the year ended March 1969 and, to enable this figure to be met, imposed more restrictive criteria to age limits and occupations. At the same time recruitment from Denmark, Switzerland, Austria and Germany was terminated. For the year 1969-70 the target was raised to 3,000.

The numbers of assisted immigrants (excluding displaced persons and Hungarian refugees) arriving in the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchBritishDutchAustrianGermanDanishSwissBelgianSpanishMalteseGreekFrenchTotal
19584,070245446910645-----4,579
19594,34314136359231-----4,678
19602,3609025391322-----2,549
19612,217122--------2,231
19623,4748414--102----3,584
19634,283423327--10--137-4,532
19644,171-6165145--130-4,347
19654,300-912511213129-4,400
19663,963-197827--518-4,047
19674,020-9910361--1114,097
19682,732-24517---4-2,764

In the preciding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of “Immigrants intending permanent residence”.

Monetary and Economic Council Report No. 12 of November 1966, Increased Immigration and the New Zealand Economy is a useful study in regard to proposals for additional assisted immigrants.

Displaced Persons—Commencing with the year 1949-50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organisation. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949-50, 978 in 1950-51, and 2,663 in 1951-52.

Hungarian Refugees—Following the uprising in Hungary, the Government agreed to accept Hungarian refugees. The first draft arrived by air in December 1956 and a total of 1,117 reached New Zealand in the next two years.

Other Refugees—Apart from displaced persons. New Zealand has accepted and continues to accept refugees from Europe and the mainland of China. In 1958 it was decided to offer resettlement opportunities to 20 “hard core” refugee families from Europe who, because of handicapped persons in each family unit, were unacceptable elsewhere. These families arrived during 1959. In 1959 it was decided to accept a further 100 “hard core” families. This figure was subsequently increased to 200. New Zealand has continued to accept a steady flow of refugees including families sponsored by the Churches who also accepted responsibility for 50 orphan children from Hong Kong, Chinese refugee families, and White Russians (including 80 Old Believers who arrived during 1965 and are now settled in the Southland area).

IMMIGRATION—The legislation respecting immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Act 1964, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919. The Immigration Act is administered by the Department of Labour, while the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act is administered by the Department of Justice.

Under the Immigration Act all persons other than New Zealand citizens must be in possession of an entry permit before they may land in New Zealand.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants should first write to or call on the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, P.O. Box 6310, Wellington, New Zealand. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch, at Rarotonga by the High Commissioner, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, London, Los Angeles, New Delhi, New York, Ottawa, Paris, Rome, Saigon, San Francisco, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Persons born in the Cook Islands and the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. They are required to obtain formal exit permission from the High Commissioner or Administrator respectively if they wish to proceed to New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION—The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizens of all Commonwealth countries are recognised as British subjects.

New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent from a New Zealand-born father; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, as do alien wives and children of New Zealand citizens. Other aliens acquire it by naturalisation. To be eligible for New Zealand citizenship, an alien or a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or a minor) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period, (b) be of full age and capacity, (c) be of good character, (d) have a sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship, (e) intend to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is five years, for registration it is generally three years but can be reduced to one year.

A person who acquires New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation must take the oath of allegiance; a person who acquires it by registration may be required to take the oath. Ceremonies are held at which applicants, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance and are presented with their certificates of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. During the 1967-68 year there were 108 such ceremonies, at which 1,438 persons took the oath of allegiance.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage, or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact may be withdrawn.

The following table shows the numbers of persons, by country of birth, who were granted New Zealand citizenship during the latest two years.

Country of BirthYear Ended 31 March
19671968
NaturalisationRegistrationTotalNaturalisationRegistrationTotal
Austria99187815
China59431029198189
Denmark141125121729
Fiji-4040-7474
Germany152338182644
Greece4812181836
Hong Kong-2525-2424
Hungary362157573996
India366692143145
Indonesia61521222749
Italy4812131124
Netherlands160158318251211462
Poland241438432568
Rumania14620181331
South Africa3101362531
Switzerland151126211132
Tonga5111681119
United Kingdom-1951951277278
Western Samoa3223555569124
Yugoslavia321345392968
Other countries3110713862174236
Totals4668171,2837441,3302,074

Of the 1,330 Certificates of Registration granted in 1968, 589 were to alien wives of New Zealand citizens and 356 to minors of New Zealand citizens.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at any particular date does not constitute the total number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows, by country of nationality, the number of males and females on the register.

Country of Nationality1 April 19671 April 1968
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Afghanistan---12-12
Albania---11-11
Austria365133498377138515
Belgium553489563692
Bulgaria7768374781
Burma2052525429
Chile1552017623
China1,2639392,2021,1679022,069
Czechoslovakia652489602585
Denmark539276815550287837
Egypt76138614
Estonia232750212445
Finland92771699576171
France8510018590108198
Germany5124539655254761,001
Greece7648761,6407658731,638
Hungary437250687389219608
Indonesia552075702696
Israel87158917
Italy294185479413204617
Japan37711086483147
Korea1531820323
Latvia71691406664130
Lebanon262450272552
Lithuania242549242549
Nepal---9-9
Netherlands7,9225,70013,6227,9675,79513,762
Norway1035816110658164
Philippines10818221234
Poland519385904491368859
Rumania251944221537
South Africa68671357987166
Spain46854601171
Sweden61531146957126
Switzerland516281797540301841
Thailand67561236969138
Turkey131427161430
U.S.A.1,4268192,2451,4928652,357
U.S.S.R.80901708194175
Vietnam571976672289
Yugoslavia1,1555821,7371,1365851,721
Other countries583391423779
Stateless19153414923
Totals16,99411,82228,81617,21612,02529,241

Gains in numbers on the register for any nationality occur for several reasons—mainly, (a) immigrants of 16 years of age and over who arrive during the year, (b) registration (on reaching the age of 16) of children whose parents may have arrived in previous years but are still registered aliens.

Reductions in the numbers of registered aliens in the main come from naturalisations, deaths or departure overseas.

Five years residence in New Zealand is necessary before an alien can qualify for naturalisation.

STATISTICS OF THE POPULATION CENSUS—Publications resulting from the Census of Population and Dwellings are listed towards the back of this Yearbook.

Additional information from the 1966 Census will be included in the Latest Statistical Information near the end of this Yearbook.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1966 is summarised in the following tables.

Age (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedNot SpecifiedTotal
Males
16-1997,8771,666101-15199,705
2018,9982,220131-6021,292
21-2447,43228,058285306023776,102
25-2922,65660,9836638930623084,927
30-3410,96063,93573617551920476,529
35-399,62973,05587631686716884,911
40-448,04770,4209655691,20318181,385
45-496,35962,6398649381,33214072,272
50-545,81959,2737371,4681,35212968,778
55-595,03052,2506282,1421,2899961,438
60-644,02740,7104642,8671,0108049,158
65-693,08528,7832583,5926906036,468
70-742,03518,0841463,7984033124,497
75-791,50611,6131024,5452552418,045
80-848575,626443,9511142410,616
85-893961,927232,17130144,561
90 and over1213185719521,170
    Totals, 1966244,834581,5606,81927,3729,4351,834871,854
    Totals, 1961212,976527,8425,78827,2918,5151,545783,957
Females
16-1986,4219,149811234695,712
2013,1107,429811072420,661
21-2423,14548,5316491101283472,597
25-299,74670,7261,0493154622182,319
30-344,99565,7679555096202172,867
35-394,71271,2211,0709869711878,978
40-444,86469,4391,1702,0341,2612778,795
45-494,94162,3771,0433,6121,5202373,516
50-545,34655,4368325,9971,5882769,226
55-595,58144,0636138,5641,4583760,316
60-645,15131,94841011,3221,1006249,993
65-694,70422,43429714,7077744542,961
70-743,98013,67815715,6915152934,050
75-793,0817,1318714,8783022425,503
80-842,0222,8554010,6881061915,730
85-89963848135,3953297,260
90 and over33114011,747672,232
    Totals, 1966183,093583,1728,54896,57710,853473882,716
    Totals, 1961159,086526,9967,20287,6089,410282790,584

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status195619611966
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married27.720.827.220.128.120.7
Married66.666.267.566.766.866.1
Legally separated0.80.90.70.90.81.0
Widowed3.810.93.511.13.211.0
Divorced1.11.21.11.21.11.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

DEPENDENT CHILDREN—Married men, widowers, and widows were asked at the census in 1966 to state the number of their living children under 16 years (including stepchildren and children adopted by them). Married women, divorced and legally separated persons were not asked to supply the information as this would have created the risk of duplication of children counted.

The numbers of persons having dependent children, including Maoris, are now shown. The category “nil” includes those cases where members of the family were 16 years of age and over, as well as those cases where there were no children in the family.

Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years1961 Census1966 Census
Married MenWidowersWidowsMarried MenWidowersWidows
Nil204,73524,82380,574233,82024,89289,258
190,5241,1673,32393,2291,1123,322
299,9326011,790106,6696141,839
368,16632987073,9263411,015
435,45015545940,400169498
515,2478220317,40082247
66,935371148,03138114
73,16620503,8782355
81,60613211,9391035
9 and over1,3178151,5451415
Not specified7645618972377179
Totals527,84227,29187,608581,56027,37296,577

The numbers of dependent children in each of the three groups in 1966 were: dependent on married men, 883,239; dependent on widowers, 5,058; and dependent on widows, 14,771, a total of 903,068 dependent children out of a 1966 census total of 922,349 children under 16 years of age. The difference is accounted for mainly by the exclusion of children whose parents were legally separated; those whose parents were divorced and had not remarried; children who had lost both parents; and ex-nuptial children (the last two classes excluding cases of adoption).

Comparable numbers of dependent children in the three groups in 1961 were: dependent on married men, 802,711; dependent on widowers, 4,932; and dependent on widows, 13,716; a total of 821,359 out of a total of 840,443 children under 16 years.

Between the 1961 and 1966 censuses the total number of dependent children of married men increased from 802,711 to 883,239, a rise of 10.0 percent. The number of married men increased by 53,718 or 10.2 percent. Those recording “nil” dependent children increased by 14.2 percent, while those with dependent children increased by 7.7 percent.

Married men with two children recorded the largest numerical increase, rising from 99,932 to 106,669, this representing a 6.7 percent increase. The greatest percentage increase, however, was recorded by married men with seven children, this group increasing from 3,166 in 1961 to 3,878 in 1966, a rise of 712 or 22 percent.

The next table shows within each group, the average number of dependent children, firstly for all persons within the group, and then for persons with dependent children in that group.

Average Number of Dependent Children1956 Census1961 Census1966 Census
Married men—
    Per person1.421.521.52
    Per person with dependent children2.382.492.54
Widowers—
    Per person0.180.180.18
    Per person with dependent children2.092.042.10
Widows—
    Per person0.160.160.15
    Per person with dependent children2.012.002.07

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1961 and 1966 censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
1961 Census1966 Census19611966
Church of England (Anglican)835,434901,70134.633.7
Presbyterian539,459582,97622.321.8
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)364,098425,28015.115.9
Methodist173,838186,2607.27.0
Baptist40,88646,7481.71.7
Protestant (undefined)45,10046,0901.91.7
Ratana23,12627,5701.01.0
Latter Day Saints17,97825,5640.81.0
Brethren25,76423,1391.10.9
Christian (undefined)12,13021,5480.50.8
Salvation Army15,45417,7370.60.7
Congregational9,37712,1010.40.4
Church of Christ10,48510,3010.40.4
Seventh Day Adventist8,2209,5510.30.4
Jehovah's Witness5,9447,4550.20.3
Lutheran4,8175,7300.20.2
Ringatu5,3775,6050.20.2
Atheist3,3595,4740.10.2
Agnostic2,2884,9600.10.2
Hebrew4,0064,1040.20.2
Eastern Orthodox3,3283,6050.10.1
Hindu2,0743,5990.10.1
Undenominational1,5143,0690.10.1
Assemblies of God1,0602,0280.1
Undenominational Christian2,1701,9680.10.1
Apostolic Church1,3991,8410.10.1
Rationalist9561,6960.1
Christadelphian1,4981,6280.10.1
Christian Scientist3,7191,1610.2
No Religion (so returned)17,48632,7800.71.2
All other religious professions14,38623,4990.60.7
Object to state204,056210,8518.47.9
Not specified14,19819,3000.60.7
Totals2,414,9842,676,919100.0100.0

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. It is probable that the “not specified” group includes a number of persons objecting to the question.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table.

Age (Years)1961 Census1966 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19611966
0-4149,032143,041292,073156,954149,689306,64312.111.5
5-9133,880127,821261,701152,816146,441299,25710.811.2
10-14125,339119,829245,168136,498130,001266,49910.210.0
1521,16820,33341,50125,62124,32949,9501.71.9
16-1974,15670,562144,71899,70595,712195,4176.07.3
2018,69118,01336,70421,29220,66141,9531.51.6
21-2461,35260,007121,35976,10272,597148,6995.05.6
25-2973,60070,173143,77384,92782,319167,2466.06.2
30-3481,92375,976157,89976,52972,867149,3966.55.6
35-3981,02477,846158,87084,91178,978163,8896.66.1
40-4471,23272,764143,99681,38578,795160,1806.06.0
45-4971,20370,290141,49372,27273,516145,7885.95.4
50-5464,30761,836126,14368,77869,226138,0045.25.1
55-5953,42451,258104,68261,43860,316121,7544.34.5
60-6441,57344,68286,25549,15849,99399,1513.63.7
65-6931,39639,41370,80936,46842,96179,4292.93.0
70-7425,92532,56558,49024,49734,05058,5472.42.2
75-7919,05423,85542,90918,04525,50343,5481.81.6
80-8410,33614,09224,42810,61615,73026,3461.01.0
85-893,7315,4229,1534,5617,26011,8210.40.4
90 and over1,0301,8302,8601,1702,2323,4020.10.1
Totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919100.0100.0
Under 15 years408,251390,691798,942446,268426,131872,39933.132.7
15-64 years713,653693,7401,407,393802,118779,3091,581,42758.359.0
65 years and over91,472117,177208,64995,357127,736223,0938.68.3
Minors (under 21 years)522,266499,5991,021,865592,886566,8331,159,71942.343.5
Adults (21 years and over)691,110702,0091,393,119750,857766,3431,517,20057.756.5

RACIAL ORIGINS—The following table gives broad racial origins.

RaceCensus
195619611966
Non-Maori2,016,2872,216,8862,426,352
Maori137,151167,086201,159
Other Races—
    Pacific Islanders
        Cook Island Maori2,3204,4998,663
        Samoan3,7406,48111,842
        Niuean8481,7282,846
        Tongan9171,0431,389
        Other2785891,531
Sub-totals, Pacific Islands8,10314,34026,271
    Chinese6,6678,3339,982
    Indian3,0874,0276,655
    Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1,0551,0571,049
    Fijian4797461,323
    Other races1,2332,5094,128
Totals, other races20,62431,01249,408
Grand totals2,174,0622,414,9842,676,919

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population has remained at about 86 percent of the total population; for 1966 the proportion dropped to 85 percent, partly as a result of the growth of travel and tourism internationally.

The following table classifies persons by country of birth.

Country of BirthCensus
195619611966
New Zealand (excluding Cook Islands and Niue)1,863,3442,074,5092,279,994
United Kingdom206,181218,649244,601
Australia35,91635,41243,374
Netherlands12,54417,84420,461
Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland)8,4238,8108,448
Pacific Islands—
    Cook Islands and Niue2,7454,7887,852
    Fiji2,2733,0385,384
    Tonga7687771,005
    Western Samoa2,9954,4507,447
India4,4684,7535,368
China3,8834,1944,218
Other countries, and born at sea30,52237,76048,767
Totals2,174,0622,414,9842,676,919

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1956 Census1961 Census1966 Census
NumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified Cases
0-477,54525.672,68521.7103,06426.5
5-942,72214.164,46819.356,87714.6
10-148,8482.942,31312.761,35115.7
15-1910,8113.68,1472.438,95710.0
20-245,2361.710,3623.18,2122.1
25-2917,7905.94,3611.39,3802.4
30-3439,09412.918,3815.54,9871.3
35-3920,9286.932,8279.814,9363.8
40-4424,8688.220,5016.131,4568.1
45-4923,4107.719,3035.815,6553.9
50-5413,934 20,5646.217,3114.4
55 and over18,088 20,5916.127,3607.0
Not specified7,444 5,972 7,379...
Totals310,718100.0340,475100.0396,925100.0

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the continents at 1 July 1966 and some of the principal countries of the world at 1 July 1967 are shown in the following table. (Source: United Nations Population and Vital Statistics Report and Demographic Yearbook.)

Continents and CountriesAreaPopulation
*U.N. Estimate.
 sq. milesmillion
    Continents(000) 
Europe1,903449.0
Asia10,4801,867.0
U.S.S.R.8,650234.0
Africa11,670318.0
North America9,359299.0
Latin America6,870169.0
Oceania3,30417.8
Totals, world52,2363,353.8
Selected Countries
Europe—
    Belgium129.5
    Denmark174.8
    France21349.4
    Germany, West9659.7
    Germany, East4117.1
    Ireland, Republic of272.9
    Italy11652.0
    Netherlands1312.5
    Norway1253.8
    Spain19431.9
    Sweden1747.8
    Switzerland166.0
    United Kingdom9454.7
Oceania—
    Australia2,97511.5
    New Zealand1042.7
Asia—
    China3,769710.0*
    India1,267498.6
    Indonesia576107.8
    Japan14398.8
    Malaysia1289.7
    Pakistan365105.0
Africa—
    Congo90516.0
    Ghana927.9
    Malawi374.0
    Nigeria33958.6*
    Rhodesia1504.4
    South Africa47218.3
    United Arab Republic45730.1
    Zambia2883.8
North America—
    United States of America3,615196.9
    Canada3,85120.1
South America—
    Argentina1,07322.7
    Brazil3,28783.2

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning. In recent years the rate of natural increase in New Zealand has been higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 11 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural increase Rates per 1,000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
195860,63520,30140,3346,8611,2875,57417.6537.57
195961,86921,12840,7417,1301,3145,81617.4537.75
196062,85020,89241,9587,4151,3686,04717.6537.85
196165,47621,78243,6947,7701,3856,38518.0138.12
196265,12722,08143,0467,6641,2246,44017.3236.74
196364,67522,41642,2598,1271,1986,92916.6638.01
196462,45922,86139,5987,9551,1686,78715.2935.85
196560,17822,97637,2027,8551,2176,63814.1233.83
196660,18823,77836,4107,8481,2916,55713.5732.33
196761,16923,00738,1628,0841,2226,86213.9832.72
196862,28424,46437,8208,1981,3246,87413.7231.84

In the 10 years to 31 December 1968 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of population a total of 400,890.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural-increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are for 1967, are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
Mexico42.78.933.8
Taiwan28.55.523.0
Singapore25.85.420.4
Hong Kong24.65.119.5
Israel24.86.618.2
New Zealand22.48.414.0
Japan19.36.712.6
Spain21.18.712.4
Netherlands18.97.911.0
Canada18.07.310.7
Australia19.58.810.7
Ireland, Republic21.110.710.4
Norway18.09.28.8
Switzerland17.79.08.7
United States17.99.48.5
Italy18.19.78.4
United Kingdom17.511.26.3
Germany, West17.311.26.1
France16.810.86.0
Sweden15.410.15.3
Austria17.413.04.4
Belgium15.212.23.0

The following diagram shows birth and death rates and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

The period since the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1961, since which time there has been a sharp drop, which is an experience also affecting Australia, Canada and the United States, as is shown in the following table.

CountryBirth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
1961196219631964196519661967
New Zealand27.026.225.524.122.822.422.4
Australia22.822.121.620.619.619.219.5
Canada26.025.324.623.521.419.618.0
United Kingdom17.618.018.218.518.117.717.5
United States23.322.421.721.019.418.517.9

The decline of the birth rates over the period has been the subject of discussion by demographers, notably at the World Population Conference in 1965. This change in fertility pattern has coincided in time with increasing use of oral contraceptives; their greater effectiveness in birth control appears to have a significant influence on fertility, on at least a short-term basis. Demographers have emphasised the need for further research, stating that it is important to study demographic variables involved in the recent decline in the birth rate, including changes in age distribution, timing of marriage and birth, past success in achieving the desired family size, and changes in the desired number of children. In New Zealand, changes in the proportion of women in the child bearing age groups were not of a nature to have any significant effect on the downward trend in the birth rate.

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth may be registered within two months without fee at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth. After two months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. The Registrar-General may, however, register an unregistered birth irrespective of the time that may have elapsed.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
195860,6356,86126.5346.24
195961,8697,13026.5046.28
196062,8507,41526.4446.41
196165,4767,77026.9946.39
196265,1277,66426.2143.72
196364,6758,12725.4944.58
196462,4597,95524.1242.02
196560,1787,85522.8340.03
196660,1887,84822.4338.70
196761,1698,08422.4138.60
196862,2848,19822.5937.97

REFINED BIRTHRATE—“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the legitimate birthrate per 1,000 married women of 15-44 years of age, or the total birthrate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirthrate per 1,000 Women 15-44 Years"Crude" Birthrate
Married WomenTotal Women
1926176.992.121.23
1936155.179.018.07
1945186.5106.524.58
1951190.8123.025.62
1956191.7130.225.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966200.4112.222.43

The percentage of married women in the child-bearing ages was 70.0 in 1961 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birthrate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates for the non-Maori population during the latest 11 years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19571.8931.822
19581.9311.859
19591.9501.878
19601.9681.905
19612.0281.964
19621.9701.908
19631.8551.796
19641.7531.698
19651.6241.571
19661.5791.534
19671.5661.521
  1,054

It must be remembered that, in New Zealand, population growth has two important components—natural increase and net migration—and that the reproduction index takes into account only natural increase. Statistics of external migration in recent years are included in the section on “Population”.

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN—The extreme range since 1870 for all births has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Statistics for the latest six years are given in the following table.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births
MalesFemales
196333,28731,3881,060
196432,16930,2901,062
196531,10529,0731,070
196630,87929,3091,054
196731,09730,0721,034
196831,95530,3291,054

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (live births only) during the latest six years are shown in the following table.

YearTotal BirthsTotal CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsMultiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases

*Includes one case of quadruplets.

†Includes one case of quintuplets.

196364,67563,984681510.72
196462,45961,765684511.10
196560,17859,560600810.21
196660,18859,5885895*9.97
196761,16960,5655907*9.86
196862,28461,603666810.94

There were 60,565 confinements in 1967 resulting in live births; of these, 596 produced multiple living births and in a further 19 cases one of twins was still born, and one case of triplets two live and one still born. The ratio of multiple confinements with live births to total live confinements was 1:98. In six additional cases both twins were still born.

YearCases of TwinsCases of Triplets, Quads and QuinsTotal Multiple CasesRate per 1,000 confinements
Both Born AliveOne Born Alive, One Still BornBoth Still BornTotalAll Born AliveOne Born Alive, Two Still BornTwo Born Alive, One Still BornAll Still BornQuads, All AliveQuins, All AliveTotal
*The six cases of triplets in 1967 comprised of two cases where there were two males and one female; three cases, one male and two females; one case, one male, one female living and one female still born. The case of quadruplets comprised all females.
196368133117255-1---673111.3
196468424137215-----572611.6
19656002766337----1864110.6
19665892466194---1-562410.4
19675901966155*-1-1-762210.3
Average of five years6292586635-––-––––666910.8

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still born.

YearStill-birth Cases per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still Births)
Single CasesMultiple Cases
19631.246.15
19641.245.06
19651.145.15
19661.064.81
19671.164.18
Average of 5 years1.175.07

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1967 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2121-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-6465 and OverTotal Cases
*Including one case of quadruplets, 4 cases of triplets (one case where one child was still born) and 17 cases where one of the twins was still born.
Single Births
Under 212,2134,1031,3741734720422-7,938
21-242875,0687,9471,610330892166-15,364
25-29247048,3505,6791,565387732916316,830
30-341316043,1152,600712167501547,299
35-3917693611,6111,076356933033,607
40-44--5281654813031183851,143
45 and over---1319433492111
Totals2,5269,91318,34910,9676,3212,7849673321161752,292
Multiple Births
Under 21222881------59
21-2473271174-1---132
25-29-158782141-1--200
30-34--6393492---90
35-39--1930173-1-61
40-44----3431--11
45 and over-----------
Totals29751731488531921-553*
Grand Totals2,5559,98818,52211,1156,4062,8159763341171752,845*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1967 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Legitimate Cases
0123456-910-1415 and Over
*This number represents 52,292 single cases and 553 multiple cases.
Under 215,8011,89727227-----7,997
21-246,7995,6392,263571178406--15,496
25-293,7385,1714,4382,1558723562982-17,030
30-347891,2751,7271,55987452161034-7,389
35-3932538158669457338558013953,668
40-441011151561741521202508151,154
45 and over1111109141622162111
Totals17,56414,4899,4525,1892,6631,4381,7662721252,845*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1967.

Age of Mother, in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 217,99710,5751.32
21-2415,49628,4491.84
25-2917,03044,9952.64
30-347,38927,5553.73
35-393,66817,2544.70
40-441,1546,0795.27
45 and over1116756.08
Totals52,845135,5822.57

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1967) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1963, 2.83; 1964, 2.78; 1965, 2.70; 1966, 2.61; and 1967, 2.57.

FIRST BIRTHS—Statistics of legitimate first confinements indicate that approximately half occur within one year after marriage and over three-quarters within two years after marriage.

YearTotal Legitimate CasesTotal Legitimate First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within One Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion To Total First Cases
   percent percent percent
196358,32516,54128.368,25149.8812,83777.61
196455,63416,19529.188,07449.8512,34976.26
196553,04416,53831.188,14549.2512,41475.06
196652,68117,22232.698,33948.4212.68373.64
196752,84517,56433.248,28747.1812,62171.86

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964196519661967
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8549.2548.4247.18
126.7926.3030.5626.4225.8125.2224.68
210.2411.2811.5611.4212.2912.5613.76
36.167.885.955.075.566.176.89
43.967.183.302.822.673.163.16
5-95.497.365.053.563.543.723.61
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.880.750.72
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

FIRST CONFINEMENTS, BY AGE OF MOTHER

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964196519661967
Under 208.907.339.0819.6420.7022.6422.12
20-2440.3941.7947.7152.6751.4449.2649.62
25-2932.7929.5427.7918.2819.2520.3521.28
30-3413.1014.6110.396.005.394.824.49
35-393.795.363.922.572.512.201.85
40-440.991.341.020.810.680.700.58
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.030.030.06
    Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1965, 23.56; 1966, 23.45; and 1967 23.31 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 11 years, with the percentages, they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Statistics prior to 1962 concern non-Maoris only. The percentages in recent years are higher than those for Australia, Canada, United Kingdom and United States but lower than those for Sweden. Meaningful international comparisons can only be made with caution; some of the difficulties are discussed in a supplement to the January 1967 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

YearNumberPercentage of Total Live Births
19582,6895.00
19592,7925.10
19602,9115.25
19613,3325.77
19625,2428.05
19635,6988.81
19646,1899.91
19656,55410.89
19666,96011.56
19677,78312.72
19688,09413.00

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for census years are as follows. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15-44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birthrate per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961138,0183,33224.14
1966171,3226,96040.63

In 1967 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements was 7,720. Of these 7,657 cases were single births, 59 were twins, while there were two cases of twins in which one child was still born, and two cases of triplets. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 7,783. From the following table, it will be seen that of the 7,720 mothers, 4,075, or 52.78 percent, were under 21 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
111
12-
139
1453
15169
16418
17742
18871
19956
20856
21630
22469
23409
24-291,279
30-34459
35-39279
40-44110
45 and over10
    Total7,720

The Legitimation Act—The Legitimation Act 1939 stipulates that every ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

The numbers of legitimations registered in each of the latest five years were as follows: 1964, 1,091; 1965, 1,003; 1966, 1,042; 1967, 1,387; 1968, 1,310.

ADOPTIONS—The Adoption Act 1955 sets out the provisions regarding the adoption of children. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, as amended in 1961, contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a non-Maori child. The Adoption Act 1955 requires interim orders to be made in the first instance, and for these to remain in force for six months before adoption orders become effective.

The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the latest five years.

YearNumber
MalesFemalesTotal
19641,5061,3792,885
19651,5571,5313,088
19661,7471,7153,462
19671,8031,7103,513
19681,8541,9263,780

Of the 3,513 adoptions registered in 1967, 1,742 were children under the age of one year, 1,218 were aged one to four years, 286 were aged five to nine years, and 267 were aged 10 years or over. In 1968 the figures were 2,061, 1,229, 282 and 208 respectively.

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at the confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate of 1.10 per 100 births in 1966 is the lowest rate yet recorded.

The registrations of still births during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearMale Still BirthsFemale Still BirthsTotalMale Still Births per 1,000 Female Still BirthsPercentage of Still Births to—
Living BirthsAll Births
19634313938241,0971.271.26
19644203948141,0661.311.29
19653683507181,0511.191.18
19663543146681,1271.141.10
19673773587351,0531.201.19
19683793737521,0161.211.19

The rate of masculinity for still births in 1967 was 1,053 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,034 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptial births among stillborn infants was, in 1967, 16.46 and among infants born alive 12.72.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1967, 33 percent were first births, while of legitimate still births 33 percent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still births at first confinements than subsequent confinements. Of the total of 735 still births in 1967, 623 were non-Maori and 112 Maori; of the Maori total 60 were males and 52 females.

FOETAL DEATHS—The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

4 C—DEATHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of deaths is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Deaths of Maoris were recorded separately up to the end of 1961, but under the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1961 the procedure has been the same as for non-Maoris from 1 January 1962. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more of Maori blood and the term European or non-Maori covers all other persons.) Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, marital status, living issue of married persons, degree of Maori blood (if any), medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of the death of a married male, age of widow. Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within three days after the day of burial.

Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth.

It is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death of any deceased person to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, there are any suspicious circumstances.

Deaths of Members of the Forces While Overseas—The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register from 1940 onwards were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included.

NUMBERS AND RATES—New Zealand has had for many years a favourable death rate in its non-Maori population. Despite the ageing of population, the non-Maori crude death rate has remained low and this is undoubtedly due to the introduction of antibiotics and new medical techniques as well as to the expansion of health services. There has, for example, been for some years a low incidence of serious outbreaks of epidemic disease, a reduction in tuberculosis mortality, and a remarkably low non-Maori infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the crude non-Maori death rate in New Zealand was downward over a long period of years, reaching its lowest level during the early thirties. After that an upward trend was in evidence for some years, the figures recorded during the war years being the highest for a long time. Some of the increase over this period can be attributed to population changes in that numbers of the healthiest of the young male adult population were serving overseas, but on the other hand the strains of wartime did exact a toll on the elderly which was shown in the sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population over the latest 21 years.

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
194815,8121,47317,2859.1613.669.42
194916,0121,56617,5789.0914.179.39
195016,7151,36918,0849.3112.099.47
195117,5121,32418,8369.5611.379.67
195217,4131,48318,8969.2812.349.47
195317,0091,34518,3548.8410.848.96
195417,6671,20918,8768.989.419.01
195517,9531,27219,2258.959.958.99
195618,4031,29319,6969.009.369.02
195719,4111,45120,8629.2910.139.34
195819,0141,28720,3018.908.678.88
195919,8141,31421,1289.098.539.05
196019,5241,36820,8928.818.568.79
196120,3971,38521,7829.038.278.98
196220,8571,22422,0819.036.988.89
196321,2181,19822,4169.016.578.84
196421,6931,16822,8619.046.178.83
196521,7591,21722,9768.926.208.72
196622,4871,29123,7789.076.378.86
196721,7851,22223,0078.655.848.43
196823,1401,28424,4649.116.138.88

Maori crude death rates have dropped steadily over the 21-year period surveyed and have become lower than the non-Maori figures over recent years. Crude death rates do not reflect the true levels of mortality which exist in populations which have different age structures. The Maori population has a very much higher proportion of those at younger ages who do not contribute many deaths to the total and conversely relatively few persons at older ages where the rate of dying is high. The effect of this is to produce a very deflated crude rate.

Simple arithmetic can be employed to produce a figure for the Maori which compares directly with the non-Maori crude rate. By applying the Maori death rates at each age to the non-Maori population of this age it is possible to total these and arrive at the number of deaths which would have occurred in the non-Maori population had the Maori rates of dying applied. This figure divided by the total non-Maori population produces a Maori rate which is adjusted to the age structure of the non-Maori in that particular year and which is directly comparable with the non-Maori crude rate. The adjusted Maori rates computed on this system are entered in the following table for 1966 and show in a true comparison Maori mortality to be approximately twice that of the non-Maori. In addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the o races in each sex.

RaceAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationU Years5-14 Years15-24 Years25-44 Years45-64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori71.3144.182.410.122.536.3217.41,041.4
Non-Maori100.4 45.24.714.420.0131.4822.8
Females
Maori55.8140.466.48.18.034.2200.2814.4
Non-Maori80.9 33.03.14.912.469.9583.0
Both Sexes
Maori63.7144.474.59.115.335.2209.2935.2
Non-Maori90.7 39.23.99.816.3100.4685.0

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the respective crude rates for each sex separately for the latest 11 years in the total population.

YearDeaths per 1,000 of Mean PopulationMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
MalesFemalesTotal
19589.728.038.88123
19599.928.179.05123
19609.667.908.79124
19619.758.198.98120
19629.807.978.89124
19639.757.918.84124
19649.737.938.83124
19659.587.868.72123
19669.827.908.86125
19679.297.578.43123
19689.807.958.88123

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the last 12 years gives the following averages: March quarter, 4,622; June quarter, 5,468; September quarter, 6,405; and December quarter, 5,320.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1967 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were July, August, and June, with totals of 2,223, 2,188, and 2,070 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January) February had the least number of deaths, 1,646, followed by January with 1,681.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1967 are shown according to age in the following tables.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 16394631,102
1- 4141113254
5- 97834112
10-147131102
15-1917958237
20-2417757234
25-2913261193
30-3412968197
35-3920399302
40-44259195454
45-49456289745
50-547004311,131
55-591,0295481,577
60-641,2777302,007
65-691,4879382,425
70-741,4311,1662,597
75-791,6291,5273,156
80-841,3971,5822,979
85-899051,2802,185
90-94308496804
95-9970122192
100 and over81422
Totals12,70510,30223,007

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of Maori deaths which take place at various ages to the proportions of non-Maori deaths at various ages. Thus it follows that there is a considerable difference in the proportion of Maori deaths in the total of deaths at various ages, and whereas at preschool, school, adolescent, and early working ages the Maori contributes substantially to the total of all deaths, in old age the Maori percentage is almost insignificant. The following table illustrates these points for the year 1967.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 51,0523044.8324.8822.42
5-14179350.822.8716.36
15-24416551.914.5011.68
25-449701764.4514.4015.36
45-645,09836223.4029.626.63
65 and over14,07029064.5923.732.02
Totals21,7851,222100.00100.005.31

Considerable changes have taken place over the last 30 years in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated, viz, health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the birthrate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total
19351945195519651935194519551965
Under 11,1281,4491,3651,1748.258.197.105.11
1-44294053192683.142.291.661.17
5-91981871321111.451.060.690.48
10-141701501011071.240.850.530.47
15-192542151512011.861.220.790.87
20-243552671871882.601.510.970.82
25-293242821811862.371.600.940.81
30-343162431952092.311.371.010.91
35-393263632872842.392.051.491.24
40-444253963654823.112.241.902.10
44-495856385936514.283.613.082.83
50-548047618701,0515.884.304.524.57
55-591,0081,1441,0941,5047.386.475.696.55
60-641,1771,7631,4511,9378.619.977.558.43
65-691,3842,1352,1682,33910.1312.0711.2810.18
70-741,3742,3282,7452,69410.0613.1614.2811.73
75-791,3222,0843,0033,3379.6811.7815.6214.52
80 and over2,0852,8764,0186,25315.2616.2620.9027.21
Totals13,66417,68619,22522,976100.00100.00100.00100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there has been a tendency for the male rates at ages over 65 years to be static or show a slight increase. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in infancy and childhood and in the early adult life age groups in recent years despite the inclusion of Maori figures, which are considerably higher than the non-Maori. The female rate for the various age groups is now lower than the male rate in all instances. The increase in the death rate at successive age groups from 15 years onward is well exemplified.

YearUnder 1*1-45-1415-2425-3435-4445-5455-6465-7475 and Over

*Per 1,000 live births in this case.

†Non-Maori figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
19163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
19338.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18130.57
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
195131.691.870.751.821.953.157.5720.4647.52121.66
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
196620.561.180.531.511.472.737.6020.9051.59139.22
196720.551.130.501.551.582.788.1020.3846.31129.17
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
195123.091.590.540.891.302.275.6713.8532.80109.79
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
196614.641.070.360.510.801.994.6511.0029.18103.53
196715.400.950.230.520.801.874.9611.2026.8798.21
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
193132.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
195127.541.730.651.361.632.716.6717.0339.93115.26
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
196617.681.120.451.021.142.376.1115.9539.11117.84
196718.021.000.371.151.202.346.5215.7735.54110.45

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of non-Maori persons of each sex at 10-yearly intervals, since 1901 and during each of the latest six years is as follows:

YearMalesFemales
age (years)
190141.6437.68
191146.1742.37
192148.4546.97
193154.1455.48
194158.6559.60
195161.5865.25
196163.8067.32
196264.3568.77
196364.5868.75
196464.7469.29
196564.2469.28
196664.5769.89
196763.7569.40

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death of non-Maoris since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927-28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

The average age at death of Maoris in 1967 was 40.00 and 42.11 years for males and females respectively. The great disparity between Maori figures and those for non-Maoris quoted in the above table is of course due in the main to the small numbers of persons at older ages in the Maori population and the comparatively large numbers at younger ages. This factor combined with high death rates in infancy and childhood produces a low average age at death.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population have been constructed at various times since 1880. The most recent tables are based on the 1966 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1965-67.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident, as is the improvement in life expectancy once the first year of life is survived.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR NON-MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
068.6774.84
169.0274.91
268.1374.00
367.1973.06
466.2472.11
565.2871.15
1060.4266.24
1555.5761.33
2050.8956.46
2546.2651.60
3041.5646.75
4032.2337.16
5023.4128.09
6015.8219.68
709.8112.39
805.636.70
903.053.32
1001.601.71

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. However, over the 1960-62 to 1965-67 period higher rates of mortality have occurred for males for most ages beyond childhood, resulting from a higher prevalence of organic diseases (heart disease, cancer) and accidents. This has resulted in a decrease of life expectancy at most ages, while for females, life expectancy has increased, though at a reduced rate. The next table displays the life expectancy revealed by each life table compiled since 1880 for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

NON-MAORI LIFE EXPECTANCY SINCE 1880

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1880-9254.4444.5514.9557.2646.3916.39
1891-9555.2945.4715.0658.0947.1916.55
1896-190057.3746.3415.3359.9547.9116.54
1901-0558.0946.7415.4060.5548.2316.64
1906-1059.1747.2015.5161.7648.7716.77
1911-1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921-2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925-2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934-3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950-5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955-5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960-6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965-6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1967).

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH, SELECTED COUNTRIES

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
*Excluding full-blooded aborigines.
Australia*1960-6267.9274.18
Canada1960-6268.3574.17
Denmark1964-6570.274.7
England and Wales1963-6568.374.4
France1,96567.875.0
Netherlands1961-6571.175.9
New Zealand1965-6768.1974.30
Norway1961-6571.0375.97
Scotland1964-6566.6072.64
Sweden1961-6571.6075.70
United States of America1,96666.773.8
U.S.S.R.1965-6666.074.0

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown below. These expectations are taken from Maori Life Tables, 1965-67.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
061.4464.78
162.5665.41
261.8364.64
360.9663.77
460.0762.88
559.1661.95
1054.4357.10
2045.1347.48
3036.1538.12
4027.4929.10
5019.4321.03
6012.8915.09
708.3510.20
804.536.44

Life expectancy at birth for a Maori male increased by 2.39 years in the interval 1960-62 to 1965-67, with that for females increasing by 3.41 years. These increases are larger than those over the period 1955-57 to 1960-62, when they were 1.82 years for males and 2.69 years for females. This shows the continuing improvement in Maori life expectancy.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of the non-Maori population, but the differences are being gradually reduced. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 7.23 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.6 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1960-62, the differences were 10.12 years and 13.14 years respectively.

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The accuracy of death data even in medically certified deaths will be affected by two factors—the proportion of deaths in hospitals where diagnostic equipment is available and the proportion of deaths in which a post-mortem report is available for reference. In 1967, 62 percent of deaths of non-Maoris and 57 percent of deaths of Maori`s took place in a hospital, and in 35 percent of non-Maori and 36 percent of Maori deaths, a post-mortem was held. The Maori figure of post-mortems held is a little misleading as deaths from accident and violence form a much higher proportion of Maori deaths and in these circumstances a post-mortem is ordered to be held in almost every case. The lower proportion of other deaths followed by an autopsy in Maoris is due to the traditional resistance to interference with a body after death, as well as to the proportion of Maoris who live in rural areas where the services of a pathologist are not available to conduct post-mortem examinations.

The Seventh (1955) Revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has been in use in New Zealand since 1958. The assignment of the cause of death is to the underlying cause. This is defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. Both the terminal or immediate cause of death and the underlying cause are furnished on the death certificate, and the responsibility is on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate to indicate the train of events.

Total deaths and the rates per million of total population for the latest three years, classified according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes for Tabulation of Mortality, are contained in the following table. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table as there were no deaths from these causes in the years shown. Certain causes of death of special significance and interest are discussed later in this subsection. These are tuberculosis, cancer, heart disease, puerperal causes, and violence, while the causes of infant mortality are surveyed in considerable detail.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
19641965196619671964196519661967
Tuberculosis of respiratory system8075996231283723
Tuberculosis, other forms161112156455
Syphilis and its sequelae910974433
Typhoid fever1---––---
Dysentery, all forms31--1––--
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat1---––---
Whooping cough133-––11-
Meningococcal infections111513134655
Measles4115142425
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic8173814831283018
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,6743,8173,8413,8521,4141,4421,4321,411
Benign and unspecified neoplasms3038514212141915
Diabetes mellitus31326132731012199122114
Anaemias6368776224262923
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,7572,8753,0672,8251,0611,0861,1431,035
Non-meningococcal meningitis5240423020151611
Rheumatic fever9161264652
Chronic rheumatic heart disease20920719017480787164
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease6,6446,6467,0366,9442,5572,5102,6232,544
Other diseases of the heart862886913860332335340315
Hypertension with heart disease344365298319132138111117
Hypertension without mention of heart94107979836403636
Influenza149244917579186
Pneumonia1,3661,1781,2141,050526445453385
Bronchitis731689758692281260283253
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum14514411012256544145
Appendicitis161719196677
Intestinal obstruction and hernia12315013412247575045
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn10911913210642454939
Cirrhosis of liver7479727328302727
Nephritis and nephrosis14813913514657535053
Hyperplasia of prostate8873927434283427
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium201322148585
Congenital malformations269306314316104115117116
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis2922442562811129295103
Infections of the newborn3347374013181415
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy and immaturity unqualified3132912262081211108476
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined, and unknown causes12813914610349535438
All other diseases2,1382,1702,2012,191823820820803
Motor-vehicle accidents445551567620171208211227
All other accidents773804853820298304318300
Suicide and self-inflicted injury207242246274809192100
Homicide and operations of war363222381412814
Totals22,86122,97623,77823,0078,7998,6798,8638,430

In a variety of conditions and in external causes of death the mortality rate for Maoris is very much higher than the non-Maori experience. Much of this disparity is concealed, however, by crude rates which are calculated by dividing the total population into the number of deaths from any particular disease or circumstance. With two populations so very dissimilar in age structure as are the two races in New Zealand (at ages under five years non-Maoris are seven times more numerous than Maoris, but at ages 75 years and upward they are 81 times as numerous), it is necessary to resort to an adjustment of Maori rates so that the figures for any condition become directly comparable in any particular year. This has been done in the following table by firstly calculating age-specific rates for the Maori and then applying these to the non-Maori population, age group to age group. This computation provides an “expected” number of Maori deaths in each age group and these added together and then divided by the non-Maori population give an adjusted rate. In addition to the rates expressed per million of population the absolute numbers of deaths in the two races are furnished for the same 50 causes.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRates per Million of Population (Non-Maori: Adjusted Rate)
1966196719661967
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Tuberculosis of respiratory system752448143037519169
Tuberculosis, other forms5796245460
Syphilis and its sequelae7252313233
Dysentery, all forms--------
Whooping cough3---1---
Meningococcal infections9467412219
Measles237719319
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic711041729641623
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,6871543,7001521,4872,2461,4682,121
Benign and unspecified neoplasms of unspecified nature48340219461610
Diabetes mellitus3052229020123380115243
Anaemias74361130392415
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,989782,754711,2051,4711,0931,229
Non-meningococcal meningitis261620101158841
Rheumatic fever5715225 24
Chronic rheumatic heart disease16030126486545550570
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease6,8212156,7681762,7504,0262,6863,030
Other diseases of the heart84865788723421,2233131,184
Hypertension with heart disease2762230118111327120261
Hypertension without mention of heart92594437633737
Influenza4631521939619
Pneumonia1,11995947103451943376860
Bronchitis7035564250283902255711
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1073120243374847
Appendicitis154172632713
Intestinal obstruction and hernia1259117550854639
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn96368917391623558
Cirrhosis of liver68469427332743
Nephritis and nephrosis12213128184912651151
Hyperplasia of prostate90273136512916
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium17595724424
Congenital malformations2843028036115109111102
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis21838236458810994121
Infections of the newborn271033711291319
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy and immaturity unqualified193331753378946989
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill defined, and unknown causes13979765617339143
All other diseases2,0811202,0801118391,6008261,293
Motor-vehicle accidents5085955466205384220368
All other accidents7668775268309437298481
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2442263119814104109
Homicide and operations of war1663086201253
Totals22,4871,29121,7851,2229,06716,2808,64613,847

Age-specific rates and Maori age-adjusted rates have been published for a comprehensive list of diseases in Maori-European Standards of Health, one of a series of special reports issued by the Department of Health.

The comparatively poor state of health of the Maori is shown by the excess in the Maori adjusted rates for most diseases. As can be seen in the table, the absolute numbers of Maoris dying from any cause of death is small. This is because the Maori population has a high proportion of young people, and most diseases which cause death develop at the older ages.

The susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and communicable disease is well known. Again there is a Maori excess mortality in cancer and diabetes. The disparity is even more marked in acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease; in certain other forms of degenerative heart disease and hypertension; in both acute and chronic chest conditions, and in gastro-intestinal and kidney infections. Recent health surveys have indicated that an inclination towards overnutrition, combined with a racial predisposition to excess weight, may underlie the early development of degenerative conditions and the high incidence of metabolic disorders.

In addition to the greater susceptibility to disease processes, the Maori shows a much higher accident rate. Especially accident prone is the Maori child and young adult, while proportionately many more Maoris are involved in road fatalities.

Tuberculosis—While there has been a remarkable reduction in tuberculosis mortality in recent years due to the introduction of modern drug treatment, this disease is far from eradicated and still takes its toll of life.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths from tuberculosis in 1967 by race, sex, and age groups. The disease has almost entirely disappeared as a cause of death in non-Maori children and 91 percent of the deaths occurred at ages upward of 45 years. In the Maori the highest proportion of the total deaths from tuberculosis occurs in the ages between 35 and 54 years.

Of the 57 non-Maori deaths, 48 were due to respiratory tuberculosis and of the 20 Maori deaths, 14 were from a respiratory form.

Age, in YearsNon-MaoriMaoriTotal Population
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
Under 51-1-22123
5-14---------
15-241-1---1-1
25-341-1-11112
35-442-2426628
45-549-941513114
55-64437-334610
65-7413518---13518
75-841331621315419
85 and over-22----22
Totals441357101020542377
All ages, rates per 100,000 of mean population3.51.02.39.49.79.63.91.72.8

The fall in tuberculosis mortality became steep from 1945 onwards. The extent of this decline at various age levels in both numbers and rates is shown in the table which follows. All forms of tuberculosis are included and both sexes have been combined in the periods stated.

Age Groups, in YearsAnnual Average Number of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
1953-551956-581959-611962-641965-671953-551956-581959-611962-641965-67
Non-Maori
Under 5832223714859
5-14221--6421/21
15-24431111612312
25-444631131198456221714
45-648261392921212148895743
65 and over7861363536415307181175163
All ages22016192786911277423128
Maori
Under 517103417033548411234
5-14531--15083156-
15-249521136418177319
25-4428161187969515304202167
45-642520121592,1421,516860881470
65 and over14167654,5305,0662,1851,7201,397
All ages9870363423762491224186112

Over a period both the non-Maori and the Maori rates have dropped dramatically; there has been the greatest reduction at ages under 25 years, with the Maori record the more impressive. The more chronic forms of tuberculosis remain a problem in middle and old age.

Latest international statistics from the 1968 World Health Organisation Epidemiological and Vital Statistics Report give the following mortality rates per 100,000 population for tuberculosis of the respiratory system for selected countries; Netherlands, 1.2; New Zealand, 3.7; Denmark, 1.8; Canada, 3.2; Australia, 2.6; United States, 3.8; Norway, 3.3; Sweden, 3.8; England and Wales, 4.3. Many other countries have much higher rates.

Cancer—A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand was issued in 1966 by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. This report covers mortality from cancer from 1941 to 1965, and also surveys all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand. In addition to discussion of the total cancer picture in New Zealand, an analysis is made by specific sites broken down under the following subheadings: the age and sex of new cases registered, incidence, survival experience, treatment stage of disease at time of diagnosis, and period elapsing between first symptoms and diagnosis. Under each of these headings a comparison is made of the New Zealand figures with those available from registries in some other countries, while in the principal sites the New Zealand mortality is contrasted with that of some 24 other countries of the world.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant disease. This classification was introduced in New Zealand in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, cancer is a leading cause of death at all ages, even among children and adolescents.

In 1967 there were 3,852 deaths from cancer, of which 152 were Maoris. While the 1967 non-Maori crude cancer death rate of 146.8 was almost twice as high as the Maori crude rate of 72.6 (both per 100,000 of population), these figures are misleading as a measure of the incidence of malignant disease in the two races. When allowance is made for the comparatively few persons in the Maori population at older ages where cancer is most frequently diagnosed, it is seen that Maori cancer mortality is markedly higher than non-Maori cancer mortality. This fact is no indication at all that in general the Maori is more prone to cancer (in cancers of the intestines in both sexes and in two sites in the Maori female, the cervix and the lung, the incidence appears to be higher), but that there is more delay in reporting the symptoms of cancer by Maoris and that more cancer in Maoris goes untreated.

A summary for the latest 11 years in numbers and in rates, both crude and standardised, is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*
*Standard population used for standardised rates—England and Wales, 1901.
 MalesFemales
19571,752156.1103.21,461131.681.3
19581,743151.6101.51,554136.885.8
19591,811154.2103.41,528131.782.5
19601,724144.397.61,566132.581.3
19611,870153.2104.81,671138.485.9
19621,936154.7107.51,661134.383.2
19632,044160.0110.41,708135.084.1
19641,962150.3107.71,712132.479.2
19652,034153.0108.51,783135.384.3
19662,067153.5108.71,774132.782.4
19672,037148.9104.41,815133.482.3

Standardised rates are adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age constitution of the population. The standardised rate for males has risen from 102.1 in the five years 1957-61 to 108.1 in 1963-67. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as is discussed later, is attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The average standardised figure for females over 1957-61 was 83.4 and compares with 82.5 in 1963-67 indicating that there has been a slight fall in the death rates during the 10-year period.

A classification of cancer deaths according to age subdivisions, race, and sex is now given. Ninety-one percent of the deaths from cancer during 1967 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 56 percent were at ages 65 years and upwards.

Age Group, in YearsRaceMalesFemales
NumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesProportion of Total Deaths at AgesNumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesProportion of Total Deaths at Ages
*All ages crude rate.
Under 5Non-Maori1410.22.31713.13.8
 Maori29.91.2210.41.5
5-14Non-Maori217.916.4114.320.8
 Maori39.114.339.325.0
15-24Non-Maori2511.97.884.08.4
 Maori316.08.615.55.0
25-44Non-Maori8828.514.411639.332.8
 Maori1252.610.81148.716.4
45-64Non-Maori647262.719.8635253.634.8
 Maori28295.414.845514.926.5
65 and overNon-Maori1,1691,239.416.6949743.913.5
 Maori251,187.614.617916.413.9
All agesNon-Maori1,964155.6*16.41,736138.0*17.8
 Maori7368.7*10.57976.6*15.1

Maori rates specific to age are in general higher than the non-Maori equivalent, and especially is this so at ages between 45 and 64 years. These differences are concealed by the all ages or crude rate which is the lower in the Maori.

Cancer contributes substantially to the total of non-Maori deaths at all ages. At school ages of five to 14 years one non-Maori death in every six is due to cancer (mainly leukaemia and tumours of the brain), while in the non-Maori female from 25 to 64 years one death in three is a cancer death.

For Maoris the proportions of cancer to total deaths are very much lower than the proportions for non-Maoris, by reason that the competing risks from other diseases are so very much higher. Whereas in the non-Maori easily the highest numbers of cancer deaths occur at ages upwards of 65 years, the highest numbers in the Maori are at ages from 45 to 64 years. This is because of the lower expectation of life which results in few Maoris coming through to old age.

A summary of all cancer deaths occurring in New Zealand during 1967 by location of the disease is shown in the table which follows. Figures by site for Maoris have not been separated as the numbers are so small for most sites. Rates for Maoris tend to be higher in cancers involving the digestive tract, the respiratory organs, and the female genital organs.

CANCER DEATHS 1967

Site of DiseaseNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Buccal cavity and pharynx292352211719
Oesophagus6442106473139
Stomach23513436917299135
Intestine, except rectum191253444140186163
Rectum10186187746368
Larynx183211328
Lung, bronchus, and trachea5099460337269221
Breast43853893283142
Cervix uteri-9797-7136
Other and unspecified parts of uterus-5353-3919
Prostate196-196143-72
Skin553792402734
Bone and connective tissue20123215912
All other and unspecified sites436446882318328323
Leukaemia and aleukaemia8767154644956
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system9283175676164
Totals2,0371,8153,8521,4891,3341,411

There is considerable variation in the numbers and rates for different sites in both males and females. The site principally involved in the male is the lung and bronchus and one male cancer death in every four is of this site. Cancer of the stomach is very much more common in the male than the female but the position is reversed in cancer involving the intestines. The leading site in the female is the breast, which also contributes one-fifth to the total female cancer deaths.

The world-wide phenomenal increase over the last 30 years in cancer of the lung and bronchus (excluding trachea and pleura) is accepted as being associated with cigarette smoking and atmospheric pollution. The following table shows the increase in deaths from cancers of this site in each race and in each sex over the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Deaths from Cancer of Lung and BronchusCrude Rate per 100,000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale
19573453912732.93.816.410.0
1958330528430.74.910.65.5
19593505313331.94.916.64.0
196032852141129.54.717.214.0
19613867018534.06.221.16.1
19624225817536.35.019.15.8
196344868181237.85.819.513.4
19644597119937.95.919.99.7
196546957201338.14.720.313.6
19665226924642.05.623.36.0
196749278171639.06.216.015.5

The crude rates for the Maori conceal the true relative incidence of lung cancer. Adjusted to the non-Maori population structure, the Maori rates exceed the non-Maori rates, the greatest margin being in the female.

While cancer is undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence it is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. The following table shows the movement in the standardised death rates per 100,000 of population in selected sites averaged over four quinquennia from 1951. The standard population employed is that of England and Wales, 1901.

Site1951-551956-601961-651966-671951-551956-601961-651966-67
 MaleFemale
Buccal cavity and pharynx2.52.52.11.91.11.21.00.9
Oesophagus2.92.52.53.31.61.21.31.4
Stomach16.013.812.311.39.47.35.85.3
Large intestine9.28.59.19.611.310.310.510.8
Rectum5.35.85.85.33.73.84.03.8
Biliary passages and liver2.03.12.22.32.32.32.21.6
Pancreas4.81.15.65.13.22.83.13.4
Larynx1.51.10.91.10.30.20.10.2
Trachea, lung, bronchus16.520.624.927.52.32.83.43.8
Breast-0.10.20.217.616.218.018.0
Uterus, all parts----9.08.27.16.8
Ovary, Fallopian tube----5.46.16.05.6
Prostate9.59.09.18.7----
Kidney2.32.72.72.51.51.51.21.6
Bladder, urinary organs3.03.33.83.51.01.11.10.8
Skin (including melanoma)2.42.32.42.81.51.71.92.2
Brain, nervous system3.64.04.43.82.63.03.12.5
Lymphosarcoma and reticulosarcoma2.63.22.92.21.51.72.01.8
Hodgkin's disease1.41.41.62.10.90.91.11.1
Leukaemia and aleukaemia5.35.45.85.03.74.54.34.5
All sites98.6102.3107.8107.186.382.883.382.4

The upward trend in the total male cancer death toll can be ascribed chiefly to the steep rise in lung and bronchus cancer, already commented upon. The total female rate has shown a declining tendency in more recent years although this trend may change as a result of the rise in female lung cancer.

Stomach cancer is clearly on the decline in both sexes and this is in accordance with the experience in several other countries. Some changes in the conditions of living are thought to underlie this drop in incidence.

The large intestine, another leading site, shows a slight increase in the rates for both sexes. There is, however, a downward movement in the rates for the uterus.

Figure 4.1. PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH ANNUAL RATES PER 10.000 OF TOTAL MEAN POPULATION- RATIO SCALE

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH ANNUAL RATES PER 10.000 OF TOTAL MEAN POPULATION- RATIO SCALE

Heart Disease—Diseases of the heart are the leading killer in New Zealand, accounting for 38 percent of all male deaths and 33 percent of all female deaths in 1967. In accordance with the increasing numbers of the population in the older age groups, the total numbers of deaths from heart disease have steadily increased. However, when allowance is made for the general ageing of the population by employing standardised rates, it becomes evident that there has been an increase of 10 percent in the male rate of loss from heart conditions, but in the female sex there has been a slight fall in the rates for 1963-67 as against those in 1957-61.

A disease phenomenon of recent years has been the rapid increase in deaths assigned to coronary heart disease, and in 1967 no less than 27 percent of all deaths were due to this single disease entity. Comparing standardised rates for 1957-61 with those for the latest quinquennium of 1963-67 (non-Maoris only) the rise in the toll from male deaths assigned to coronary conditions has been 22 percent with a slightly lower increase in the female of 20 percent. It is a matter of conjecture as to whether the real incidence of coronary heart disease in the community has risen to this extent or whether it is due in part at least to increased recognition of the condition.

The numbers and death rates for heart disease excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations for the last 11 years are shown in the following table, males and females separately (non-Maoris only).

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of Population
19574,0062142,9341202,5401441,34760
19583,9582102,8871162,6441481,38461
19594,1542173,0881202,8121581,61567
19604,1722203,0551182,9831651,68170
19614,2892233,2231213,1751721,78574
19624,2542253,0731153,1241711,77671
19634,4722343,1791173,4281861,93576
19644,5762383,2041163,5611912,03778
19654,5172343,2711173,5181872,09379
19664,7492443,3561193,7881992,20383
19674,6592383,3241163,7501962,20381

Coronary heart disease is predominantly a disease of old age in both sexes, although in the male sex there are appreciable numbers of deaths which occur in middle age. There are marked differences in the mortality from the disease both between the sexes and between the two races at various age periods.

The following table averages both the numbers and the age-specific rates for coronary heart disease in both non-Maori and Maori over the latest five years 1963-67.

RaceAges 35 to 44 YearsAges 45 to 54 YearsAges 55 to 64 YearsAges 65 Years and Over
Average Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Males
Non-Maori976.240230.087883.82,221241.4
Maori66.81424.82777.941205.1
Females
Non-Maori191.3815.928226.71,709138.2
Maori33.8917.61657.026155.8

For non-Maoris at ages 35 to 44 years male coronary heart disease rates exceed female rates by 5 to 1, the ratio decreasing as age advances to a ratio of under 2 to 1 at ages 65 years and upwards.

The absolute numbers of Maori deaths from the disease are small but when related to the population at risk produce rates fairly similar to the non-Maori population in the male sex.

Maori women have a very much greater chance of dying from a coronary condition than non-Maori women, the risk being three times greater at ages 35 to 44 years, three times greater at ages 45 to 54, but twice as great at ages 55 to 64 years. Hypertensive forms of heart disease are also very much more common in Maori women in middle age while both sexes in the Maori have a higher mortality from rheumatic valvular heart disease.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—In the following table the rates per million of mean population are given for principal causes of death for selected countries for the latest available year in each case.

CountryYearRates per 1,000,000 of Population
Heart DiseaseVascular Lesions of Central Nervous SystemCancerPneumoniaAccidentalTotal Including Other
Japan1,9658741,7581,0862804077,148
Canada1,9652,7767991,3292615607,597
Netherlands1,9652,3239871,8301424387,975
Bulgaria1,9651,7671,6241,3175723628,167
South Africa1,9622,3969611,3475515978,800
Australia1,9653,2911,2011,3322975388,778
New Zealand1,9673,0401,0351,4113855278,430
Finland1,9653,3981,3451,5632625759,644
Norway1,9643,0591,4891,6855004779,520
United States of America1,9653,6721,0371,5363085589,433
Switzerland1,9642,6611,1481,8481656129,126
Denmark1,9643,2691,2562,2222455199,917
Czechoslovakia1,9642,4051,0102,0223045159,593
Italy1,9642,6631,3171,6173524539,586
Sweden1,9653,6401,2091,87651744010,111
Northern Ireland1,9653,8811,5491,70951135510,586
France1,9652,0721,3222,03623369411,045
West Germany1,9642,3401,7082,19524960310,812
England and Wales1,9653,7871,6362,22665039311,502
Belgium1,9642,6318952,30323156711,740
Scotland1,9654,1282,0162,29139447612,081
Austria1,9653,2551,8712,61634967512,994

INFANT MORTALITY—Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for the low rate of infant mortality in its non-Maori population, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures—the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organisations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

The trend in infant and peri-natal mortality in New Zealand up to the year 1961 and comparisons in causes with the rates of other countries who show improved figures on New Zealand's are contained in one of the Special Report Series issued by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health.

The infant-mortality rate of the non-Maori population of New Zealand is among the world's lowest, and recently has declined to a particularly low level. The Maori rate has shown a noticeable improvement in recent years. Infant-mortality figures are given in the next table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Live Births
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
19409903721,36230.2187.2236.78
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60
19551,0023631,36520.0962.5124.52
19601,0903301,42019.6644.5022.59
19659402341,17417.9729.7919.51
19668442201,06416.1328.0317.68
19678622401,10216.2429.6918.02

Male rates of infant loss are about 28 percent above female rates and this tends to counter-balance the male excess in births.

In the following table New Zealand's infant mortality rates, for both races combined, are shown in comparison with the rates for other countries. The figures are averaged over the latest five years for which figures are available and the data has been extracted from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1966.

It is interesting to observe that Sweden has the distinction of having the lowest infant death rate in the world. Swedish figures have been based on local definitions of foetal death, livebirth, and infant death which would result in the rates being a slight understatement in a comparison with New Zealand's. Differences in definitions and practices exist also in some other countries.

CountryQuinquenniumDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births
Sweden1961-6515
Netherlands1961-6516
Iceland1961-6517
New Zealand (non-Maori)1963-6717
Norway1960-6418
Australia1962-6619
Finland1961-6519
New Zealand (total population)1963-6719
Denmark1961-6520
England and Wales1962-6620
Switzerland1961-6520
Czechoslovakia1962-6623
Japan1961-6523
France1962-6624
Scotland1962-6624
United States1962-6625
Northern Ireland1962-6626
Canada1961-6526
Belgium1961-6526
China1961-6526
Republic of Ireland1962-6627
West Germany1961-6527
Cyprus1961-6529
Hong Kong1962-6629
South Africa1962-6630
Austria1962-6630
New Zealand (Maori)1963-6730
Bulgaria1961-6535
Greece1962-6637
Italy1961-6539
Hungary1961-6543
Poland1961-6549
Malaya1961-6555
Rumania1961-6556
Argentina1961-6560
Mexico1961-6567
Portugal1962-6670
Yugoslavia1961-6578
Guatemala1962-6692
Chile1961-65112

One out of every five infant deaths is a Maori infant death and the Maori rate of loss is nearly twice that of the non-Maori. The excess in the Maori rate is very largely due to infants who die between the end of the fourth week of life and the first birthday. This is illustrated in the following table showing numbers and rates by race and age for the year 1967.

RaceUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 DaysTotal Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsTotal Under 1 Year
Non-Maori31419872584278862
Maori374618101139240
All races351244906854171,102
Rates per 1,000 Live Births
Non-Maori5.913.731.3611.005.2416.24
Maori4.585.692.2212.4917.2029.69
All races5.743.991.4711.206.8218.02

The explanation of the higher rate for Maoris between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its generally inferior home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

The rates per 1,000 live births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last 11 years.

YearUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 Months
Non-MaoriMaori
19576.92.33.11.56.19.23.34.43.537.5
19586.81.83.02.05.810.83.54.23.532.4
19597.11.83.31.86.08.83.42.94.135.2
19607.52.23.21.65.29.82.62.62.327.2
19616.92.03.31.65.39.83.14.23.129.5
19626.22.03.01.25.66.63.42.52.523.8
19635.82.43.01.35.36.33.43.02.517.5
19646.62.32.11.35.27.71.61.61.817.3
19655.82.02.81.46.05.72.52.22.317.1
19665.91.82.01.45.16.52.02.41.515.5
19675.91.52.31.45.24.62.82.82.217.2

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates.

Figure 4.2. INFANT DEATHS UNDER 12 MONTHS AVERAGE RATE PER 1000 LIVE BIRTHS

INFANT DEATHS UNDER 12 MONTHS AVERAGE RATE PER 1000 LIVE BIRTHS

The next table shows the movement in the rates since 1922 in nine quinquennia and the year 1967.

PeriodNeonatal Mortality (Under 28 Days)Post-neonatal Mortality (28 Days and Under 12 Months)Infant Mortality (Under 1 Year)
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
1922-2626.4326.7014.70104.3041.13131.00
1927-3124.2625.6410.9086.9235.16112.56
1932-3622.2521.289.3876.8631.6398.14
1937-4121.9426.719.5186.1331.45112.84
1942-4619.7920.998.8871.6728.6792.66
1947-5116.7326.116.5348.4823.2674.59
1952-5614.2322.166.0244.0320.2566.19
1957-6113.9219.775.6832.2019.6051.97
1962-6612.0513.535.4318.2817.4831.81
196711.0012.495.2417.2016.2429.69

The sharp drop in rates in the post-war years reflects the general availability of antibiotics. Three conditions, prematurity, birth injury, and post-natal asphyxia, together cause about two-thirds of the total neonatal deaths. Factors which underlie the generally higher rates for Maoris are the higher proportion of Maori confinements outside of hospitals, more frequent child bearing, and a reluctance to seek and heed antenatal advice.

The Maori infant who survives the first month of life is especially susceptible to respiratory infections such as influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis, and to gastro-intestinal disorders. Environmental factors and circumstances associated with the Maori way of life underlie the onset of these diseases, such as unsatisfactory feeding associated with failure to seek and act upon skilled advice from Plunket and district nurses on matters such as feeding, and also poor housing and sanitary conditions.

Causes of Infant Mortality—In the following table are shown the absolute numbers and the rates per 1,000 live births of the principal causes of infant mortality over the last two years in non-Maori and Maori and in both races combined.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
1966196719661967
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis1281651.47.02.11.88.32.7
Congenital malformations2182243.72.93.63.73.63.7
Birth injury911031.42.41.51.62.11.7
Asphyxia and atelectasis1651782.82.42.82.83.52.9
Immaturity, unqualified86811.41.71.41.31.51.3
Other and undefined causes3763515.411.66.35.010.75.7
Total causes1,0641,10216.128.017.716.229.718.0

There has been a considerable saving of life in Maori babies in almost all the leading causes over the last 10 years.

CAUSES OF STILL BIRTH—A still-born child or late foetal death is defined in New Zealand as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. A certificate of the cause of death is required to be furnished for each still birth and also for cases of intermediate foetal deaths—i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy. The certificates of causes of still birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

The following table set down the causes of the still births registered during 1967.

Causes of Still BirthNumber of Cases
MalesFemalesTotal
Maternal Causes
Chronic disease in mother15318
Acute disease in mother369
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and childbirth6854122
Difficulties in labour261339
Other causes in mother131023
Totals12586211
    Foetal Causes
Placental and cord conditions8491175
Birth injury213
Congenital malformations of foetus5673129
Diseases of foetus and ill defined causes107110217
Totals249275524
Totals, all causes374361735

PERINATAL MORTALITY—Perinatal deaths comprise still births and deaths in the first week of life. Numbers and rates are shown in the following table. The still births and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for the first week of life is calculated per 1,000 live births. The rates have decreased steadily in recent years.

CauseNumberRate
19661967
19661967Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
Still births66873510.812.011.011.613.711.9
Deaths under 1 week5925959.711.09.89.610.39.7
    Perinatal deaths1,2601,33020.422.820.721.223.821.5

PUERPERAL CAUSES—Improvements in the standard of antenatal care and obstetrical skill, as well as advances in medical science, have reduced the numbers of deaths from septic abortion, puerperal sepsis, and toxaemia, and deaths from complications of childbirth are few. A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods, is given in the following table.

Cause of Death1941-431944-461947-491950-521953-551956-581959-611962-641965-67
Non-Maori
Puerperal sepsis39177412313
Eclampsia and other toxaemias59753833282410138
Septic abortion66422214981274
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality10612682533443402420
Total maternal mortality2702601491047277654535
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion204218127906369533831
Maori
Puerperal sepsis683321-11
Eclampsia and other toxaemias867532522
Septic abortion83-332-1-
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality243027202124151611
Total maternal mortality464737312929202014
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion384437282627201914
All Races
Puerperal sepsis452510733324
Eclampsia and other toxaemias678145383126151510
Septic abortion7445221712101284
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality130156109735567554031
Total maternal mortality316307186135101106856549
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion2422621641188996735745

The following table shows the progressive reduction that has been achieved in the rates of deaths due to puerperal causes.

YearRate per 1,000 Live Births
Non-MaoriMaoriTotal Population
19452.241.902.20
19462.054.772.33
19471.072.211.18
19481.261.821.32
19491.023.461.27
19500.902.351.05
19510.690.760.70
19520.712.560.91
19530.541.450.64
19540.511.580.63
19550.442.070.61
19560.401.780.55
19570.671.350.75
19580.411.310.51
19590.491.260.58
19600.340.670.38
19610.330.770.38
19620.171.170.29
19630.370.620.40
19640.260.750.32
19650.170.510.22
19660.320.640.37
19670.170.620.23

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 6 percent of the total deaths and again the Maori rate is higher than the non-Maori. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three latest years classified according to the Intermediate List of the 1955 Revision of the International Classification. In this table falls on board ship and from horseback are included as transport fatalities.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
196519661967196519661967
Motor-vehicle accidents551567620208211227
Other transport accidents544546201717
Accidental poisoning675835252213
Accidental falls321328356121122130
Accidents caused by machinery345344132016
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material24396291523
Accidents caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation102218487
Accidents caused by firearms162025679
Accidental drowning and submersion147183129566847
All other accidental causes131107106504039
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)29203711714
Totals1,3841,4421,478523537542

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1967 was 1,441 corresponding to a rate of 5.28 per 10,000 of population.

Drownings are a leading cause of accidental death in New Zealand. Included in the preceding table for 1967 are 16 deaths from drowning due to accidents with small boats and 3 deaths involving principally the larger type of boat.

Transport Accidents—In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles, the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. For 1967 there were 15 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 635. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearDeaths Due to AccidentRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
RailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraftRailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraft
1957352389220.160.011.740.10
1958361393230.16––1.720.10
195928134890.12––1.490.04
1960321340100.13––1.430.04
1961262393130.110.011.620.05
196227-408110.11-1.640.04
196316-416200.06-1.640.08
1964263428300.100.011.650.12
196514-551260.05-2.080.10
196613-567160.05-2.110.06
196515-620120.05-2.270.04

In recent years the wide use of aircraft in agricultural operations such as aerial topdressing has resulted in a number of deaths from aircraft accidents. Road accidents are further analysed in the section on Roads and Road Transport.

Non-transport Accidents—The 1955 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for the latest three years, according to this classification.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
196519661967196519661967
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)333346336125129123
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)374546141717
Mine and quarry5925239
Industrial place and premises322829121011
Place for recreation and sport12108543
Street and highway121312554
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)1278533
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)1018394383134
Other specified places105129136394850
Place not specified425660162122
Totals691726754261271276

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home.

Falls are the chief cause of home fatalities, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. This is clearly illustrated in a special report on domestic accidents issued by the Department of Health in 1960. Another important cause of death in the home is asphyxia from regurgitation of food and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes; this is the principal hazard of the first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed respiratory infections. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the vicinity of the home.

Twenty-five of the 46 accidental deaths on farms in 1967 were caused by farm machinery (usually tractors). Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). Later sections are devoted wholly to statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Suicide—There were 263 suicidal deaths of non-Maoris in 1967—180 males and 83 females—the death rate per 100,000 of population being 14.26 for males and 6.60 for females. For Maoris there were 11 suicidal deaths in 1967—all males, the death rate per 100,000 of population being 10.35.

Rates per 100,000 of population showing the age distributions, averaged over the years 1965, 1966, and 1967 are shown next for the total population.

Sex10/1415/1920/2425/2930/3435/3940/4445/4950/5455/5960/6465/6970/7475/7980+
Males0.72.911.57.415.118.720.327.830.427.233.020.939.137.531.6
Females0.33.15.34.05.47.38.410.916.318.115.814.019.413.06.7

These figures show the typical increase in the suicide rates with increasing age and the fall in the rates after the age of 75.

The next table presents the average, over three-yearly periods, of standardised non-Maori suicide rates per 100,000 of mean population. An average rate is given for 1966 and 1967.

Annual Average DuringMalesFemales
1924-2617.54.5
1927-2920.55.4
1930-3220.64.6
1933-3515.34.7
1936-3813.44.9
1939-4113.04.3
1942-4410.94.9
1945-4710.54.5
1948-5011.14.6
1951-5311.84.1
1954-5610.64.2
1957-5911.83.9
1960-6211.64.3
1963-6510.65.7
1966-6711.95.7

The following table provides an international comparison of suicide rates for various countries. The figures have been calculated from material in the United Nations Demographic Yearbooks.

CountryTrienniumRate per 100,000 of Population
Mexico1963-651.8
Republic of Ireland1963-652.1
Guatemala1962-642.8
Spain1961-635.0
Northern Ireland1963-655.4
Italy1962-645.4
Netherlands1963-656.5
Norway1962-647.7
Canada1963-658.2
Scotland1963-658.3
Bulgaria1963-658.8
New Zealand1963-658.9
U.S.A.1963-6511.0
Ceylon1961-6311.2
England and Wales1963-6511.6
Belgium1962-6413.9
Australia1963-6515.0
France1963-6515.1
Japan1963-6515.3
Switzerland1962-6417.3
West Germany1962-6418.4
Sweden1963-6519.1
Finland1963-6519.6
Denmark1962-6419.7
Austria1963-6522.4
Hungary1963-6528.4

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnised. Marriage by an officiating minister may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

In the case of a person under 21 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a Magistrate may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during the last 21 years are now given.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population
194817,7509.67
194917,3549.27
195017,0998.96
195116,9158.69
195217,0618.55
195317,2248.41
195417,5578.38
195517,7958.32
195617,5318.03
195717,6147.89
195818,3058.01
195918,3157.84
196018,9097.96
196119,4268.01
196219,5727.88
196319,8567.83
196420,7208.00
196521,7028.23
196622,9498.55
196723,5158.62
196824,0578.73

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1967 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Australia8.5
Austria7.7
Belgium7.0
Canada8.0
Denmark8.6
France6.9
Germany, East6.9
Germany, West8.0
Hungary9.4
Ireland, Republic6.1
Israel7.2
Italy7.3
Japan9.5
Mexico6.8
Netherlands9.1
New Zealand8.6
Norway7.3
Spain7.2
Sweden7.4
Switzerland7.4
United Kingdom8.0
United States9.7
Yugoslavia8.5

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest five years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
196317,79617,7977748001,2861,25939,712
196418,55118,5828137921,3561,34641,440
196519,53119,5807668441,4051,27843,404
196620,69020,6958879211,3721,33345,898
196721,23021,3698568621,4291,28447,030

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
SingleWidowedDivorcedSingleWidowedDivorced
percent
196389.623.906.4889.634.036.34
196489.533.926.5589.683.826.50
196590.003.536.4790.223.895.89
196690.153.875.9890.184.015.81
196790.283.646.0890.873.675.46

Divorce statistics at the end of this subsection show the numbers of decrees granted in recent years, the numbers varying from 1,400 to 2,100 a year. Widowed persons remarrying constituted 37 per 1,000 persons married in 1967.

The marital status of persons prior to marriage for each of the latest five years is next given.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
196316,882255659262348164653197436
196417,587251713253376184742165449
196518,586272673232370164762202441
196619,751290649251434202693197482
196720,351242637257408191761212456

During the years 1938-40 there were 95 male divorcees who remarried for every 100 female divorcees who remarried. In the period 1963-67 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938-40, but with a changed social outlook the position in 1965-67 was that 105 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period. In the latest year five brides in every 11 were under 21 years of age, the proportion for grooms being one in six.

Of the 47,030 persons married in 1967, 14,668 or 31.19 percent, were under 21 years of age; 17,882, or 38.02 percent, were returned as 21–24 years; 7,367, or 15.66 percent, as 25–29 years; 3,497, or 7.44 percent, as 30–39 years; and 3,616, or 7.69 percent, as 40 years of age or over. The following table relates to the year of 1967.

Age of Bridegroom, in yearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
16-2021-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445 and over
Under 213,261404303-1-3,699
21–245,8733,95539331111-10,264
25–291,5352,5009501433612-5,176
30–342275314661758236101,527
35–39561542181701115930798
40–44114693841139081518
45 and over62841711422151,0301,533
Total brides10,9697,6182,1916774954141,15123,515

The recent trend is for persons to marry at younger ages. The following table shows since 1950 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotals
*Periods prior to 1950 are for non-Maoris only.
Males
1950-545.0535.4231.2110.955.863.567.95100.00
1955-597.1836.6829.4411.214.812.977.71100.00
1960-6410.9541.9923.499.044.502.627.41100.00
196513.5243.9922.366.954.072.456.66100.00
196614.9743.8421.966.363.532.426.92100.00
196715.7343.6522.026.493.392.206.52100.00
Females
1950-5425.7838.6516.856.964.122.595.05100.00
1955-5932.9935.7113.766.113.652.495.29100.00
1960-6439.6335.1910.134.423.052.215.37100.00
196543.1934.669.353.552.211.995.05100.00
196645.5032.909.222.942.191.965.29100.00
196746.6432.409.322.882.111.764.89100.00

The average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females has decreased fairly steadily in recent years. The figures for each of the latest 11 years are as follows.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
195728.9725.48
195828.7625.30
195928.7025.26
196028.5625.11
196128.2924.90
196227.9324.61
196327.9324.63
196427.7424.45
196527.4324.24
196626.7623.65
196726.5323.45

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest five years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Years
196325.5942.9157.0022.5338.4049.71
196425.4141.7557.4822.3837.8250.61
196525.1742.3957.4822.2137.4651.11
196624.4642.2656.3021.5438.1549.93
196724.3041.6756.6721.5037.9050.20

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 21 to 24. The modal age for bridegrooms in 1967 was 22 years.

Marriage of Minors—Of every 1,000 men married in 1967, 157 were under 21 years of age, while in every 1,000 brides were under 21.

In 3,261 marriages in 1967 both parties were given as under 21 years of age, in 7,708 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 438 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years.

YearAge in YearsTotals
1617181920NumberRate per 100 Marriages
Bridegrooms
196381033236911,0822,20711.12
1964141294057501,1812,47911.96
1965281515038831,3702,93513.52
1966241685651,0581,6213,43614.97
1967201645591,1111,8453,69915.73
Brides
19634731,0201,6462,2562,4767,87139.64
19645061,1241,7332,4432,6618,46740.86
19655121,1552,0992,6982,9109,37443.19
19665781,2462,1563,2303,23210,44245.50
19675451,1992,2483,2453,73210,96945.64

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 23,515 marriages performed in 1967. Church of England clergymen officiated at 6146, Presbyterians at 5,599, Roman Catholics at 3,632, Methodists at 1,927, and clergymen of other churches at 1,870 while 4,341 marriages were solemnised by Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the seven latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
1961196219631964196519661967
Church of England25.0325.3624.5325.0625.7125.8926.14
Presbyterian24.6024.5524.2923.6823.6223.5423.81
Roman Catholic15.1114.8114.8714.9515.4515.3315.45
Methodist8.407.988.308.207.738.178.19
Others7.707.808.328.368.257.737.95
Before Registrars19.1619.5019.6919.7519.2419.3418.46
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1966, 33.7 percent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 21.8 percent Presbyterian, 15.9 percent Roman Catholic, 7.0 percent Methodist, and 21.6 percent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriages Act was 3,742 in January 1968 and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church858
Church of England682
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand604
Methodist Church of New Zealand348
Baptist187
Salvation Army180
Ratana Church of New Zealand145
Latter Day Saints90
Brethren89
Ringatu Church54
Associated Churches of Christ45
Seventh Day Adventist44
Congregational Union40
Jehovah's Witness40
Assemblies of God35
Apostolic Church26
Absolute Reformed Maori Church of Aotearoa21
Liberal Catholic Church21
Christian Revival Crusade14
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference14
Commonwealth Covenant Church13
Reformed Churches of New Zealand12
Elim Church9
Evangelistic Church of Christ9
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi9
Others153
Total3,742

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organisations.

DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE AND NULLITY—From 1 January 1965 the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963 has been the governing legislation. The Matrimonial Proceedings Amendment Act 1968 made some important changes in the legislation for grounds for divorce; the period of three years was reduced to two years for separation by agreement and decree of separation or separation order, and in cases living apart and unlikely to be reconciled the period of seven years was reduced to four years.

Divorce—A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of 15 grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than two years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than two years, and the parties living apart for four years and not likely to be reconciled. Only a very small percentage of divorces each year are concerned with the other 10 grounds not listed, as a subsequent table shows. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least two years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—Proceedings for the dissolution of a voidable marriage may be instituted by a person domiciled in New Zealand or a person whose spouse is domiciled in New Zealand on any of the following grounds, namely, that at the time of the marriage one of the parties was mentally defective, that the respondent was at that time suffering from communicable venereal disease, that the woman was then pregnant by some other man than the petitioner, or that some woman other than the petitioner was then pregnant by the respondent, or that the marriage has not been consummated because of the incapacity of either party or the respondent's wilful refusal. A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree.

Nullity—In certain circumstances a marriage is void, that is, it is of no effect whether or not proceedings in respect of it are taken in the Courts. A decree of nullity in respect or a void marriage may, however, be obtained if either party is domiciled or resident in New Zealand or the marriage was solemnised here. The grounds on which a marriage governed by New Zealand law is void are that at the time of the ceremony one of the parties was already married or did not give consent, that the parties were within the prohibited degree of relationship or that the marriage was not solemnised in due form. Any children of a void marriage are legitimate unless at the time of the conception of the child or at the time of the marriage (whichever was later) both parties knew the marriage was void.

Petitions filed and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearDissolution or Nullity of MarriageJudicial Separation
Petitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees AbsolutePetitions FiledDecrees for Separation
19571,9981,7191,4002110
19582,0841,8051,7511913
19591,9121,6481,639216
19602,0581,6271,64895
19612,2231,8241,733233
19622,1861,7901,755206
19632,1381,8421,905157
19642,2341,9161,894145
19652,4402,0501,81461
19662,3512,0992,064131
19672,5542,2632,047131

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1966 and 1967.

GroundsPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19661967196619671966196719661967
Separation by agreement for not less than three years512568607660430457493492
Separation by Court order or decree for not less than three years----27196669
Living apart for not less than seven years133153124117166129118125
Adultery417462276307316322189208
Desertion136128851101381188566
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.21158-198
Murder------1-
Insanity934146-2
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights11-1---1
Presumption of death--14--3-
Sodomy, etc.--22--2-
Nullity---1---1
Non-consummation11791186710
Bigamy--33-113
Rape--11----
Conviction--------
Incest--14--11
Pregnant to another man2----2--
Grievous bodily harm---1----
Totals1,2231,3231,1281,2311,0891,061975986

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year.

Over the five-year period 1963-67 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petition (82.4), was greater than the percentage granted on husbands' petitions (81.9). In six of the seven years 1961 to 1967 the numbers of decrees absolute granted on husbands' petitions were greater than those granted on wives' petitions; this is in direct contrast to the previous seven years, 1954-0, when the position was exactly reversed.

In 532 of the 2,047 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1967 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was one in 413 cases, two in 445 cases, three in 342 cases, and four or more in 315 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the latest five years.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsHusbands' Decrees Absolute GrantedWives' Decrees Absolute Granted
1963196419651966196719631964196519661967
Under 581807382935562715357
5–9269278236265266222270228262264
10–14205217178218215254173194191236
15–19145189178162188188162134173156
20–29178175203244217203168179239224
30 and over576280118824858605749
Totals9351,0019481,0891,061970893866975986

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1963, 3,356; 1964, 3,503; 1965, 3,478; 1966, 3,984; and 1967, 3,838.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems rising from unhappy and ill-adjusted family units. In 1959 an adviser in marriage guidance was appointed to the staff of the Justice Department, an advisory committee set up, and a training programme for voluntary marriage counsellors commenced with the help of voluntary advisers from professional groups.

There are now over 100 trained counsellors.

There are 22 Councils affiliated with the National Marriage Guidance Council and a full programme of counselling and educational work is followed over the year. Education work has been started in a number of post-primary schools, and courses for engaged couples are regular features of most councils. The marriage guidance service is freely available to those whose marriages need repair. There is a growing acceptance by the public of the importance of the service and a greater readiness of people in trouble to make use of the service.

Chapter 5. Section 5 PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

5 A—PUBLIC HEALTH

GENERAL—Since 1900, when the control and supervision of public health services was centralised in a Department of State, an efficient organisation has been built up throughout New Zealand covering all the traditional areas of environmental health.

In the period following the Second World War services have been extended into newer fields to include radiation protection, occupational health, air pollution, and health education. Departmental services are provided in all districts, however remote, and free public health information and advice are available to all.

The period 1900 to 1920 saw steady progress in the building up of public health services now that the essential basic structure had been created. Legislation was passed dealing with the sale of food and drugs, the registration of professional groups, and the control of quackery. Sanatoria were established, school medical services developed, and problems of maternal and infant health attacked. The first link between preventive and curative medicine was made in 1909 with the merging of the former Hospital and Charitable Aid Department with the new Department of Public Health.

In this period there was an increasing public interest taken in health matters, and, as a result, a number of voluntary health organisations were established with the objects of promoting better knowledge of infant welfare, first aid, and home nursing.

The influenza epidemic of 1918-19 brought to light a number of defects in the public health organisation, particularly the need for a simplification of legislation and the need for a clear definition of the duties of local authorities, hospitals boards, and the Department of Public Health. The result of this experience was the passing of the Health Act 1920, which established the Department of Health in its present form, returned to local authorities a measure of responsibility for environmental health, and encouraged them to employ appropriate staff. To meet new needs and changing public attitudes, the professional resources of the Department were strengthened. Health education activity was intensified, a Medical Research Council was sponsored, and the number of groups subject to professional registration was extended. New health districts were created, and the existing activities of the Department were expanded. Among the more important of the new activities of the Department was the establishment of a school dental service in 1920 and, in 1937, the institution of the Medical Research Council.

Developments since the Second World War included a more positive attack on tuberculosis marked by the passing of the Tuberculosis Act 1948, the establishment as a Government agency of the National Radiation Laboratory at Christchurch, and the creation of the National Health Institute in Wellington. At the end of 1947 the Mental Hospitals Department ceased to be a separate Government Department, and became the Division of Mental Health of the Department of Health.

The Health Act 1956 is the main legislation relating to public health.

A more detailed outline of the development of public health services in New Zealand up to 1939 will be found in the annual report of the Department of Health for that year, and the best general history may be found in Challenge for Health, by F. S. Maclean; New Zealand, Government Printer, 1964.

ORGANISATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES: Local Authorities—Part II of the Health Act 1956 lays definite obligations on local authorities in regard to public health. Each local authority must either appoint its own health inspectors or contribute to the salary of an inspector of the Department of Health. Each inspector must hold a certificate of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health before he can be appointed. A local authority's responsibility in health matters is wide. It must promote and conserve the public health within its district—a function which includes regular inspections of its district; abatement of nuisances as defined in the Health Act; provision of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; protection and purification of water supplies; closing and demolition of insanitary buildings; registration and regulation of various kinds of premises and the enforcement of certain minimum sanitary requirements for such premises and for residences. It may also make bylaws dealing with public health matters.

Department of Health—The Department is organised into the following Divisions: Public Health, Nursing, Hospitals (described in Section 5B), Clinical Services, Dental Health, and Mental Health (Section 5C).

New Zealand as a whole is divided into 19 health districts, each under the control of a medical officer of health, a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science.

The Department is required to ensure effective planning, execution, and co-ordination of measures necessary to promote public health. It administers all Acts relating to public health; it advises local authorities on public health; it must do whatever is possible to prevent, limit, or suppress disease; it promotes research into public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease; it conducts health publicity and organises and controls medical, dental, and nursing services paid for from public funds. With the authority of the Minister, a medical officer of health may exercise very wide powers in the event of an epidemic or serious outbreak of infectious disease, including the requisitioning of land and buildings, prohibition of public gatherings, and controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease. Certain diseases, mostly infectious, but including some non-communicable, must be notified by medical practitioners. Provisions relating to quarantine are included in the Health Act, and extensive power is given to make regulations relating to the conservation and promotion of public health.

The Health Act provides for a Board of Health. The Board, in addition to its traditional responsibilities in relation to local authorities and their sanitary works, now has the much wider function of giving the Minister authoritative advice on the broad aspects of public health policy and the relationship between the various health services.

In addition to the Health Act 1956, the following Acts are administered by the Department:

Burial and Cremation Act 1964

Dentists Act 1936

Dietitians Act 1950

Food and Drug Act 1947

Hospitals Act 1957

Human Tissue Act 1964

King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Act 1953

Medical Practitioners Act 1968

Medical Research Council Act 1950

Mental Health Act 1911

Narcotics Act 1965

Nurses and Midwives Act 1945

Occupational Therapy Act 1949

Opticians Act 1928

Physiotherapy Act 1949

Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964

Poisons Act 1960

Radiation Protection Act 1965

Social Security Act 1964 (Part II)

Tuberculosis Act 1948

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H. 31).

The net expenditure of the Department in the four latest years is given in the following table.

Item1964-651965-661966-671967-78
Vote: Health$(000)
    General health services4,5744,6514,9145,018
    Dental health3,3733,6334,0624,340
    Health education69687061
    Medical Research Council267323331578
    Homes for the aged1,266940896640
    Pensioners' housing: Local authorities9618838721,010
    Youth hostels24523615742
    Plunket Societies subsidies400412436459
    Intellectually Handicapped Children's Society Incorporated and other approved organisations7589141107
    King George V Memorial Children's Health Camps Board7573105113
    Miscellaneous grants and subsidies126824242
    Bursaries148153179172
                Totals11,57911,54412,20512,582
Vote: Health Benefits
    Maternity, medical, pharmaceutical, etc., benefits32,85835,37237,47039,314
Vote: Hospitals
    Mental hospitals13,57614,58417,12518,353
    Other departmental hospitals and institutions1,0451,123542637
    Public hospitals: Grants to hospital boards73,26783,81092,50494,935
    Private hospitals3,7164,3034,8395,216
                Totals91,604103,819115,010119,141
                Grand totals136,042150,735164,685171,037
                Less Departmental receipts1,1361,1561,165962
 134,905149,580163,520170,075

Information on hospitals is given in Sections 5B and 5C, while information on medical, hospital, and other related benefits, which are administered by the Department of Health, is given in Section 6A (Social Security).

PUBLIC HEALTH—The Division of Public Health is responsible for activities under the following headings: Communicable disease and health education, food and drugs (including medical advertisements, poisons, narcotics, nutrition), health protection (including maternal health and child health), environmental health (including food hygiene, plumbing, and drainage), burial and cremation, water supply and sewage disposal, air pollution (including clean air and chemical works), and occupational health.

The Director of the Division is assisted by a Deputy, four Assistant Directors (three medical practitioners and one public health engineer), a Principal Medical Officer, and a chemical inspector.

Notifiable Diseases—The control of disease is based on a system of notification which has long been in force. A list of cases in the latest year is given in Section 5B.

Venereal Diseases—Venereal diseases are only notifiable if the patient discontinues treatment before cure is effected. The Venereal Diseases Regulations 1964 give adequate powers for the examination and treatment of persons suspected of suffering from the diseases. Free treatment has been established in the larger cities and treatment is available to seamen at the main ports in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. Restrictions are also placed on the nature of the employment such persons may undertake if they are suffering from the diseases in a communicable form.

In the administration of the regulations, every precaution is taken to ensure that personal details are kept strictly confidential.

Tuberculosis Control—The Department's programme for control of tuberculosis is based on adequate case-finding and notification procedures, the proper treatment and surveillance of notified cases, investigation and control of contacts. This calls for close co-ordination of the staff and services of hospital boards (which are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis) and officers of the Department of Health who deal with the social and epidemiological aspects of the disease. The latter involves supervision of tuberculosis families, tracing of contacts, and the maintenance of tuberculosis statistics.

Mass miniature radiography is now an established and important feature of the Department's case-finding programme, and, during the years 1959 to 1966, 2,087,457 persons were X-rayed in the nine mass X-ray units then operated by the Department. This resulted in the discovery of 1,530 active cases.

B.C.G. vaccination is also undertaken by the Department and, in particular, is offered to the contacts of registered cases, secondary school children in the North Island and hospital workers possibly exposed to infection.

Over the past decade, there has been a steady decrease each year in new notifications particularly in the younger age groups together with a marked decrease in mortality.

Hydatids Eradication—The Hydatids Act 1959 provides positive methods of attack in the campaign for the eradication of hydatid disease. The Act is administered by the Department of Agriculture. Under it there has been set up a National Hydatids Council on which the Department of Health has representation.

Environmental Hygiene is concerned with the provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses. These matters are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Health acts in a general advisory capacity. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities. The Department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors and the running of specialist and refresher courses for health inspectors.

Air Pollution—The air pollution provisions of Part V of the Health Act have been enforced since 1958. The chief chemical inspector is resident in Wellington and deputies are in Auckland and Christchurch.

There are 26 classes of process requiring registration and they include, for the control of odours, supervision of rendering processes. Most registrable processes are governed by the requirement to adopt the best practicable means to control noxious discharges and emissions, but there are limiting standards for lead and acid gases. All new installations or extensions of these registrable processes require approval by the Department of Health.

Air pollution committees in Auckland and Christchurch have undertaken surveys to determine the extent of air pollution in these cities and the need for further action.

The Smoke Restriction Regulations 1964 were enacted with a view to giving local authorities stricter control of industrial smoke emissions.

Cemeteries—The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1964. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary. Crematoria have been established in Auckland (two), Wellington, Christchurch (two), Dunedin, Hastings, Wanganui, Nelson, Palmerston North, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Rotorua, Tauranga, and Timaru.

Food and Drugs—The Food and Drug Act 1947 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article is proved to be unfit for human consumption penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with the labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food and drugs. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors, and the samples are analysed in the Dominion Laboratory or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether or not it is standardised by regulation.

The definitions of “drug” establish two groups to which differing provisions apply. Anaesthetics, cosmetics, dentifrices, disinfectants, preservatives, and soaps and detergents are usually required to be notified as toxic substances under the Poisons Act (see later) and can, provided the labelling and other requirements of the Food and Drugs Regulations are complied with, be marketed without delay. Therapeutic drugs, that is those substances or mixtures, whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body, for altering nutrition or structure, or for modifying physiological processes or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are subject to a notification procedure under the Food and Drugs Act, and normally a delay of 90 days between complete notification and any advertising or distribution of trade information or stocks.

Narcotics—Under the Narcotics Act 1965 and the Narcotics Regulations 1966, the Director-General of Health is the competent authority for the purpose of the international conventions and for the oversight of the legitimate distribution and use of narcotics within the country. Written approval of the Minister of Health is required for the import or export of cannabis desomorphine, heroin, and ketobemidone, including their salts and preparations containing them. The import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of narcotics is strictly controlled. Balanced quantitative records of transactions and stock are generally required to be kept. There is an extensive system of notification to Medical Officers of Health of narcotics supplied and a system of control of habituated persons.

Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances is controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals used in agriculture or horticulture. Certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for these “Restricted Poisons” must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH—The objective of the occupational health programme is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children, etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with health hazards, many of them being administered by the two Departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government Departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964.

Occupational Disease—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Department a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the National Radiation Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the Department has developed and is developing industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Workers' Compensation Board in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

CHILD HEALTH—The Health Department is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of preschool and school children, and also for ensuring a satisfactory environment at school.

These services are under the direction of the Assistant Director of the Public Health Division, who is a medical practitioner, with a staff of full-time and part-time medical officers. The medical officer of health in charge of a health district is responsible, within the limits of the policy laid down and the instructions he receives, for the direction and control of all child health work in his district.

An effort is being made to have every child examined in infancy and before school entry. The examination of preschool children is carried out by medical officers of the division in Plunket rooms in conjunction with Plunket nurses, and at kindergartens, day nurseries, and other preschool centres assisted by public health nurses.

In keeping with modern thought, routine examinations by medical and nursing staff of specific age groups (except the testing of vision and hearing) has been replaced by continuous supervision of all children at school with examination when necessary. This supervision is effected largely by means of consultations between parents, teachers, nurses, and medical staff. These consultations are based on preschool records, questionnaires, and regular visits to the school by medical and nursing staff. The children found to be suffering from defects are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained from the private practitioner or the hospital.

Mentally backward children are given special attention, arrangements being made in conjunction with the Department of Education for their entry into a special school or other institution as may be necessary. In addition, physically handicapped children enrolled with the Correspondence School are examined. A consultative service is available for secondary school children.

Throughout the work in this field, officers try to secure the interest and co-operation of parents and family doctors, because only in this way can the work be made effective. With this object in view it is considered important that parents be present at the medical examination of their children, an opportunity of which the majority take advantage.

Prevention of Disease—The activities in this field of child health are not confined to the routine medical examination of school children. In addition, certain positive measures are taken to prevent disease and correct physical defects. The more important of these measures are:

  1. Poliomyelitis Vaccination—Immunisation against poliomyelitis has been carried out by the Division's staff since 1956. The vaccine used initially was an injectable type but in August 1961 an oral vaccine was introduced. A mass vaccination campaign was carried out in 1962. The protection of four doses of the oral vaccine is available to all infants and to all new settlers who have not received it in their countries of origin. Vaccination is available through general practitioners.

  2. Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, and Tetanus Immunisation—Protection against these diseases is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are three months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with the infant at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria and tetanus) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury.

  3. Health Education—Officers give advice whenever possible and give health education talks. They advocate the use of iodised salt and iodine rich foods to control goitre, and the consumption of milk to maintain nutrition standards.

  4. Health Camps are established to which children are admitted for convalescence or correction of malnutrition and emotional disturbances.

Health camps were originally established to cater for the needs of delicate and undernourished children in the age group of five to 12 years. Now children suffering from minor emotional, psychological, and behaviour problems are also helped by the change in their environment which a camp provides. The service selects the children to attend the camps (which are maintained by an independent organisation—the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation) and, as necessary, re-examines them before admission and after discharge. In the camps the children live under an orderly and disciplined routine, they eat plain, well cooked food, and they get plenty of rest, fresh air, and sunshine. In practically all cases a child who attends a health camp benefits both physically and mentally. The opportunity is taken to impart health education by practising healthful living. There are six permanent health camps in New Zealand.

For children with emotional or psychological disturbances and behaviour problems, child health clinics have been established in the larger centres and elsewhere. These are staffed by a team consisting of a pediatrician, psychiatrist, psychologist, play therapist, and social worker. Children are referred to these clinics through the family doctor.

MATERNAL WELFARE—Maternal welfare is the responsibility of an Assistant Director in the Public Health Division. Maternal and infant welfare work in New Zealand is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, the medical and nursing professions, and the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society).

The Assistant Director is a medical practitioner who, while not concerned with the particulars of day-to-day administration of maternity hospitals, is responsible for maternal welfare generally in its broadest sense. She keeps abreast of overseas and local developments and is regarded as a consultant on matters of national significance. For instance, in the event of an outbreak of infection affecting mothers or infants, she conducts and directs any necessary investigations as to causes and remedial measures required, in consultation with such other divisions as may be necessary.

The Assistant Director has the benefit of the advice of the Maternity Services Committee of the Board of Health, of which she is a member. This committee was formed to advise the Minister on matters relating to obstetric and maternal welfare generally.

The medical officers of health, through their staff of nurse inspectors, exercise a general supervision over the work of midwives and closely control the private hospitals throughout the country. All private hospitals are required to be licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957, and the Department of Health sees that standards regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed.

Except in an emergency, no persons other than registered medical practitioners and registered midwives are allowed to conduct confinements, and only registered midwives and registered maternity nurses are permitted to nurse women in childbirth. Approximately 99 percent of all confinements take place in the various types of maternity hospitals—a maternity annex to a public hospital, or a private maternity hospital.

Important contributions to maternal welfare are made by the Division of Nursing, which includes in its duties the supervision of the training of midwives and maternity nurses, and by the Hospitals Division, which approves plans for accommodation to be provided by the various types of maternity hospital. The work of these two Divisions is surveyed elsewhere in this section.

HEALTH EDUCATION—The aim is to work with the public and to encourage action that will improve personal, family, and community health. The Health Education Branch is under the control of an Assistant Director, Division of Public Health, who is a medical practitioner with training in health education, a small staff of writers, technicians, and clerks at Head Office, and lay health education officers who are seconded to district offices and are responsible to the Assistant Director through their medical officers of health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. All the health education officers are women and several hold the diploma in health education issued by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. All are given special training before taking up their appointments. Various media are used to make the teaching as attractive, as direct, and as acceptable as possible. Daily newspapers and national periodicals carry regular advertisements on health subjects. Radio broadcasts are given at least twice a week and leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics.

The Division also publishes the Department's official bulletin Health which has a circulation of over 75,000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publishes various aspects of the Department's work.

To assist field officers in their education work, visual aids, displays, and other publicity material is provided and in addition district offices are encouraged to produce their own.

Voluntary organisations, too, are assisted in their work by the supply of teaching aids and other materials and by assistance with their training programmes.

Each district office has a health education committee consisting of senior administrative and professional officers which plans and budgets local health programmes. A central committee at Head Office largely plans and budgets for overall national requirements.

DENTAL HEALTH—The Division of Dental Health, which was instituted in 1921, is concerned with the administration of the various dental activities of the Government, and in particular—(a) The National Dental Service, which comprises (i) the School Dental Service and (ii) the Adolescent Dental Service; (b) the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations; (c) the Dental Act 1963 and regulations; (d) dental bursaries; (e) dental research; (f) dental health education.

The Division of Dental Health has at its head a Director (a dental surgeon), and there is also a Deputy Director, two Assistant Directors, and a dental research officer. The service is organised in 16 units, each of which is controlled by a senior dental officer, who is directly responsible to the Director. These officers are: the principals of the schools for dental nurses at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the principal dental officers in charge of the 13 dental districts into which New Zealand is divided.

The School Dental Service staffed by 1,273 trained school dental nurses provided systematic treatment for 548,488 pre-school and primary school children in the year ended 31 March 1968. A further 156,522 children under 16 years of age received regular treatment from private dentists under the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Scheme, and from a limited number of salaried dental officers.

The School Dental Service—Briefly, the functions of the service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of preschool children) by affording them regular and systematic treatment at six-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier when possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the Adolescent Service.

Two years are devoted to the theoretical and practical training of school dental nurses. Approximately 525 student dental nurses are in training at the one time. The course is carefully graduated and is in the hands of a staff of dental surgeons and dental tutor sisters. Private dental practitioners are represented on the examining boards for the final examination. During the period of training, student dental nurses reside in hostels owned and controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a school dental nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the principal dental officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately 500 patients. She is visited at regular intervals by the principal dental officer and by a dental nurse inspector who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions when necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. The aim of the service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsavable, slightly more than three for every 100 saved by conservative treatment.

Orthodontic treatment is carried out principally in Wellington and Christchurch, where orthodontic units are established at the Children's Dental Clinics associated with the Schools for Dental Nurses.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents is provided by private practitioners as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the practitioners being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility or dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care up to within three months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment of adolescents, which has been available since 1946, is in effect a continuation of the treatment provided by the School Dental Service, and is continued until a patient has reached his sixteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at six-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960. Dentists are free to exercise their professional judgment, and, if in their opinion a case demands a form of treatment that is not provided for in the Schedule, there is provision, with certain limitations, for such treatment to be approved as a charge on social security funds.

Dental Health Education—The dental health education activities of the Department include the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, filmstrips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media.

Officers of the service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the School Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental officers and school dental nurses are expected to impress on their patients the necessity of maintaining a high standard of oral health. To further this end every opportunity is taken of distributing health educational literature, displaying posters, and devoting reasonable clinical time to instruction in oral hygiene. Opportunities to address meetings of various kinds are availed of whenever possible.

Dental Research—Dental research is directed by the Dental Research Committee of the Medical Research Council. The staff consisting of a director, three professional assistants, and three associated workers are primarily engaged in a long-term programme of research in dental problems.

In addition, a dental research officer is employed by the Department to undertake investigations of operational methods, materials, and equipment, etc., which have a direct bearing on the efficiency and effectiveness of the Division's programme.

Dental Bursaries—The Government grants bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are the equivalent of the bursary that would be payable under the University Bursary Regulations plus $200 a year. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a hospital board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding three years.

Fluoridation—The Division of Dental Health actively supports the fluoridation of public water supplies. At the present time approximately two-thirds of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water. The beneficial effects of this are already becoming evident. In towns which adopted this measure early the teeth of the children show a remarkable improvement and the need for dental treatment has become considerably less.

RADIATION PROTECTION—Under the Radiation Protection Act 1965 the protection of the population from radiation hazards is a responsibility of the Department of Health, and the Department established the National Radiation Laboratory (formerly the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory) to provide the administrative and technical services required, and in addition the educational programme, without which effective co-operation in any safety field is not likely to be achieved. An important feature of the Act was the setting up of the Radiological Advisory Council on whose advice the Minister of Health may take action on radiation problems concerning the welfare of the people. Further legislation by way of regulations followed in 1951 and these include the Radiation Protection Regulations and the Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations.

The National Radiation Laboratory is required to maintain the primary X-ray standard for New Zealand and also reference standards for the accurate measurement of radioactive substances used in clinical work. Control of radiation sources is effectively obtained by licensing operators at each place where ionising sources are used, and the Electrical (X-ray) Wiring Regulations 1944 provide for the compulsory registration of all X-ray plants in the country. The importation and use of radioactive materials is strictly controlled, and requests for such materials on overseas suppliers must be authorised by the laboratory, which acts as the procurement agency for most of the radio-isotopes required.

The laboratory operates a field service whereby trained physicists regularly visit all places where ionising sources are used. During these visits measurements are taken, protection problems discussed, and everything possible is done to ensure that persons associated with the ionising sources adopt safe working habits. Apart from the obvious groups, e.g., medical and dental users, the laboratory is also concerned with specialised equipment, such as mass X-ray units, X-ray apparatus used in schools, radar and television equipment, X-ray diffraction units, electron microscopes, research accelerators, etc. Good protection, of course, depends not only on careful working habits but also on material protection.

In recent years the Department of Health has undertaken responsibility for the monitoring of air, rainwater, and soil for the incidence of radioactive contamination from fall-out.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system. Physical medicine is the responsibility of a Deputy Director of the Hospitals Division who is a medical practitioner with special training and experience in the field. He is responsible for the general organisation and development of physiotherapy and occupational therapy services throughout the country.

The centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full hydrotherapy, physiotherapy, occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Admission of patients to the hospital is arranged with the Medical Superintendent, who also arranges for outpatient consultations. Physiotherapy for preventing and controlling deformity, has been developed considerably at Queen Elizabeth Hospital. Occupational therapy has been developed to teach people how to live with their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is also situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. In addition to treatment, post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for advice only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are now operating in Auckland, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Wellington, Hutt, and Nelson health districts. These have proved so successful that it is hoped to extend the service to other districts as qualified staff become available.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by education boards under the Department of Education, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

The Department offers annually a limited number of bursaries for training at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy which is governed by the Physiotherapy Board and administered by the Otago Hospital Board. Applicants for bursaries, if accepted for admission to the school by the Physiotherapy Council of Otago Hospital Board, are selected for award by the Physiotherapy Bursaries Selection Committee. A condition of bursary award is that on qualification the bursar will work for a period of two years in a hospital or institution as directed by the Department. The training period for physiotherapists is three years, of which about eight months in the third year is salaried service at a subsidiary training school.

The training school for occupational therapists is situated at Oakley Hospital, Auckland, and is administered by the Mental Health Division. The training period for occupational therapists is three years part of which is spent at the Auckland Hospital Board's general hospitals. Trainees are paid a salary while training, and have to agree to work in a departmental or public hospital for two years after qualification.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped civilians has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Basically, public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate rehabilitation service, with co-operation from Government and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

A Civilian Rehabilitation Centre has been established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, for the treatment and overall restoration of those injured in employment or road accidents. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are in course of development at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also being carried out at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, the Palmerston North Hospital, and in many of the psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals of the Mental Hospitals Division.

The Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League provides trade and vocational training for disabled civilians recommended by district and national selection panels. These panels consist of representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Security, and Health. For the more severely handicapped, whose productive potential is restricted, the Government has recently approved of a sheltered employment scheme. It is also being operated through the Disabled Servicemen's League and incorporates a pilot occupational workshop. For both the vocational training and sheltered employment schemes, a measure of Government assistance is provided.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee has been set up by Government. This Committee is currently advising Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

NURSING SERVICE—The Division of Nursing in the Department of Health is responsible for the maintenance of an adequate and efficient nursing service and the supervision of conditions for nursing staff.

The training of all nurses and midwives is governed by the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945, which is administered by the Nurses and Midwives Board. This Board through the Registrar supervises hospitals and nursing schools in all aspects of training, and also the examination and registration of nurses. The nurse inspector who makes a visit to a hospital carries out the dual purpose, therefore, of making reports both to the Director-General of Health through the Nursing Division, and to the Nurses and Midwives Board through the Registrar. This integration of work is a feature which has preserved good relationships in the hospitals, and has enabled the practical and theoretical training of nurses as well as their conditions to be maintained at a uniformly high standard.

The control of the public health nursing services is exercised from the Division, but the specialised infant-welfare and mothercraft work of the Plunket Society is under the control of that organisation; close co-operation with that Society is, however, maintained.

Another part of the work is the selection and placement of nurses in the various groups of Pacific islands for which the New Zealand Government is responsible. These nurses for hospital and public health work are seconded from the New Zealand service for periods of two years, pension rights being continuous. The supervision of this service is exercised by regular visits to the islands.

Close liaison exists between the nursing services organised for the armed services and the Division, while any organisation for emergency nursing is carried out by the Division.

Educational courses for all groups of registered nurses are organised. A post-graduate diploma programme is controlled by a committee of management on which the Department of Health, universities, teachers' colleges, and Hospital Boards Association are represented. Major areas of study include hospital and nursing school administration, public health nursing, and health education.

Each year up to 65 students take the diploma course of one academic year and, with few exceptions, they are specially selected and attend on bursaries from the Department of Health, hospital boards, and voluntary organisations. During recent years there has been an increasing number from overseas countries. The school has its own building and hostel. Shorter courses are arranged for public health nurses, ward and tutor sisters. Periodically refresher programmes are held for various categories of nursing personnel. The full-time instructors at the school also carry out supervision of hospitals, nursing schools, and public health nursing work, thus keeping up to date with the practical needs of the field.

MEDICAL STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the compilation of the statistics included in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. The Branch also prepares special statistics for the various Divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—Opened in 1954, the National Health Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the study of public health problems. It contains an Epidemiology Section and Public Health Laboratories.

The Epidemiology Section conducts field research into matters of public health interest. It is also responsible for the organisation of examinations for medical laboratory technicians.

The Public Health Laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health and hospital laboratories as well as for the other sections of the institute. The institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—Under the Medical Research Council Act 1950, as amended, the Medical Research Council of New Zealand was established as a corporate body with the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

This Council took over and developed the work of the departmental committee, bearing the same name, which had been in existence since 1938. At the end of 1966 research in the following fields was in progress: clinical medicine; dentistry; endocrinology; hydatids; virus; Island Territories research; microbiology; physiology; nutrition; obstetrics; surgery; pathology; human genetics; biochemistry; preventive and social medicine.

The Council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Cancer Society of New Zealand and medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, and Hawke's Bay.

The Council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $480,000 is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, and North Canterbury Hospital Boards.

The Council employs a staff of 60 full-time workers, and some 80 associated workers contribute to the activities of the Council. A further 50 workers are employed by the University of Otago and the University of Auckland under project grants from the Council.

The Council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the Council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the Deans of the Faculties of Medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. The Council may require the holder of a foreign diploma to attend a course and pass an examination in medicine and surgery. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the Council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A Medical Education Committee responsible to the Council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1968 was 4,345 and, of this number, approximately 3,334 were actively engaged in medical practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there is constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of private dental practitioners holding annual practising certificates at 1 September 1968 was 891 and in addition there were 143 dentists in Government, hospital, and university employment.

Nurses and Midwives—Under the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 is constituted the Nurses and Midwives Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (Chairman), the Director, Division of Mental Health, the Director, Division of Nursing (Registrar), two registered medical practitioners, a representative of the Hospital Boards Association of New Zealand, three registered nurses, one registered midwife, and one registered psychiatric nurse. Members other than official members are appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health, the nursing personnel being nominated by the New Zealand Registered Nurses Association. The Board controls training courses, conducts examinations, and effects registrations.

Provision is made in the Nurses Registration Regulations 1958 for a three-year course of instruction for nurses classified as general and maternity nurses. A similar training period is specified for male nurses, psychiatric nurses, and psychopaedic nurses.

Registration—The Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 requires that the following registers be kept by the Registrar: (a) Nurses, (b) Midwives and Maternity Nurses, (c) Male Nurses, (d) Psychiatric Nurses, (e) Nursing Aids, and (f) Psychopaedic Nurses.

Physiotherapists—Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board. The Board's functions are the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, the approval of physiotherapy training schools, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is three years. Full-time training is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, administered by the Otago Hospital Board, and eight months of the final year are spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration. Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of physiotherapy must hold an annual practising certificate.

Occupational Therapists—Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand. The training period is three years, and is undertaken at the School of Occupational Therapy, Auckland, and subsidiary training schools. All students are required to pass the State examination. There are 438 registered occupational therapists, of whom approximately 160 are in active practice.

Every person registered under the Act who is engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand must hold a current annual practising certificate.

Dietitians—Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board. The functions of the Board are (a) to advise and make recommendations to the Minister of Health in respect of any matter affecting the profession of dietetics, (b) to determine courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examinations, (c) to approve hospitals and other institutions as training schools, (d) to conduct examinations, and (e) to effect registration.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school.

Every practising dietitian must hold an annual practising certificate.

Opticians—The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes. The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 250 opticians registered, but not all are engaged in active practice.

Plumbers—The Plumbers and Gasfitters Board consists of 11 members—the Director-General of Health as Chairman, and representatives of the Department of Education, the Municipal and Counties Associations, the Gas Association, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), and a nominee of a Borough Council or Drainage Board.

The Board is concerned with the examination and registration of plumbers and gasfitters, and once registered they are required to have annual licences.

In New Zealand, except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing as defined in the Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964 must be performed only by registered plumbers. This restriction on the personal qualifications of plumbers is additional to specifications and standards of workmanship, etc., which have been prescribed for sanitary plumbing. Disciplinary action can be taken against a registered plumber who does unsatisfactory work.

Pharmaceutical Chemists—There are now 2,170 names on the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists in New Zealand. All registered pharmaceutical chemists, except those who notify the Registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by the Pharmacy Board constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1939.

The Board consists of 12 members, 11 being chemists, and one a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Nine members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmaceutical chemists who are proprietors or enrolled managers of pharmacies and two by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmaceutical chemist, either in the capacity of proprietor or enrolled manager.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Petone, at which the Diploma in Pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to serve 12 months' practical training before becoming eligible for registration as chemists. Of this practical training, 6 months may be served prior to graduation in periods of not less than 2 months.

Any chemist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a chemist or chemists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is chemist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership is subject to the consent of the Authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the Board. There are about 1,100 pharmacies in New Zealand.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from public funds. Among the more important of these organisations are the Plunket Society, the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations, and the New Zealand Epilepsy Association.

The Plunket Society—the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children—is concerned with the welfare of all babies. The society trains its own infant-welfare nurses, conducts infant-welfare clinics, and maintains Karitane hospitals throughout the country for premature babies or difficult feeders. In rural areas where there is no Plunket clinic, public health nurses do infant-welfare work.

The King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation maintains a chain of health camps for undernourished and emotionally upset children. The federation works in close co-operation with the Department of Health. It is the means whereby the voluntary nature of the various organisations is preserved, while ensuring that the available resources are utilised to the best advantage. Much of the finance for the federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health-stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance and first aid work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and subcentres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary-aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where these are required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of patients suffering from tuberculosis. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance of patients.

The New Zealand Epilepsy Association, with a Dominion Council and 11 Branches, helps epileptics and their families in every possible way. It issues pamphlets, gives lectures, shows films and fosters medical research. Social Workers are employed by Branches who can afford to do so. A residential Hostel, Park Lodge, for young men and women who have regular employment or who require short term accommodation for special reasons, is maintained in Auckland. The Association is affiliated to the International Bureau for Epilepsy.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR ACCOMMODATION AND WELFARE SERVICES: (Old People's Flats, Homes, Hospitals, Youth Hostels, and Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children)—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. Religious and welfare organisations at present provide approximately 5,200 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 1,010 old people's home beds, while approximately 4,250 of their hospital beds (40 percent) are required for care of the elderly sick, either on a short-stay or long-term basis.

For the elderly who are ambulant and able to care for themselves but have a housing need and whose resources are limited, local authorities are encouraged and assisted by Government to build specially designed flats. These flats enable many elderly people to retain their independence for longer than would otherwise be the case.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general, the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and Old People's Welfare Councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to certain conditions, religious or welfare organisations may be granted 100 percent of the approved capital cost of providing accommodation for old people. In addition, since April 1966, the policy has been widened to provide a 50 percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation. The administration of policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1966-67, subsidies amounting to $1,108,160 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 282 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1968, subsidies totalling $13,422,814 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 4,107 old people.

Local Authority Pensioner Housing—Since 1950 the Government has offered subsidies and low-interest loan finance to local authorities, towards flats for age beneficiaries or elderly people in comparable circumstances. Under present policy, a subsidy of up to 50 percent on eligible capital costs is offered, subject to a maximum of $1,850 per flat. For the balance of the cost, a State Advances loan is provided at 31/2 percent interest. In settlements of 50 or more pensioners' flats, wardens' residential accommodation may also qualify for subsidy and loan. Up to 31 March 1968, a total of $7,897,032 has been made available as subsidy and as a result suitable housing is being provided for 5,896 old people.

There is also a growing awareness of the elderly with housing problems, but whose resources disallow their eligibility for a flat under the subsidy policy. One local authority has already established flats for elderly folk in this category and others are planning schemes. The flats are financed with a contribution from the owner/occupier and a measure of Government loan.

Hostels for Young People—In June 1951, the Government decided that, subject to certain conditions, it would assist religious and welfare organisations to establish hostels for young people by granting subsidies of up to 50 percent of establishment costs. As from April 1966, the rate has been increased to 70 percent, with a limit of $2,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes in order to study or undertake employment and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Under a recent extension to the policy subsidies of up to 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels. The Department of Health is responsible for administering this policy.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $1,245,342 had been approved up to 31 March 1968, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1,221 young people.

Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by University Grants Committee.

Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children–In 1954 the Government approved the payment, under certain conditions, of a subsidy of up to 50 percent on the capital cost of approved buildings and furnishings acquired for the purpose of providing short-stay homes for intellectually handicapped children. In 1963 Government also extended the capital subsidy to include hostels built by the Intellectually Handicapped Children's Society for children who were attending Occupation Groups run by the Education Department. In 1966, the cost of land and professional fees (architect and quantity surveyor) were included in assessing subsidy on hostels and sheltered workshops with a maximum subsidy on hostels of $2,400 per bed. In addition, a maintenance subsidy of $1.20 per day is paid in respect of these children under 16 years of age. In 1968 Government also approved a capital subsidy of $400 per place for day care centres.

The administration of this policy is the responsibility of the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health.

The total amount expended on special subsidies for short-stay homes, hostels, and sheltered workshops during the year ended 31 March 1968 was $106,544. In addition, $44,808 was paid by way of maintenance subsidy during the same period.

PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION—New Zealand is fortunate in having excellent natural facilities for outdoor pursuits and sports. The climate is temperate and equable. The long coastline and the numerous rivers, lakes, and mountain ranges give full opportunity for yachting and boating, swimming and surfing, and mountaineering and tramping. Outdoor activities such as sea fishing, both by rod and by line, and freshwater fishing, and hunting and shooting introduced game birds and mammals are extremely popular and relatively inexpensive.

Most districts, including the larger cities, are well provided with playing fields for outdoor sports, but even so the available facilities are fully taxed and sometimes overtaxed.

Tennis, cricket, lawn bowls, softball, rowing, and athletics are among the most popular summer games and sports.

Rugby football is probably the leading winter sport, but very many people play hockey, association football, league football, outdoor and indoor basketball, indoor bowls, badminton, and table tennis. Golf is popular both winter and summer. Boxing and wrestling have a small following. Dancing in various forms is a popular indoor pastime.

To some extent participation in indoor sports is restricted by inadequate facilities, the position probably being less satisfactory than in respect of outdoor sports. Local authorities substantially assist improvement of facilities by providing or subsidising suitable buildings and amenities, or by directly assisting sports bodies.

While some sports, for instance rugby football, attract many spectators, the high proportion of persons who actually take part in various sports and games compared with those who merely watch them is a striking characteristic of New Zealand life. In many sports there is a close association between school activities and club activities.

The various sports are also generally organised for the purposes of administration, discipline, and player selection. The organisational structure normally ascends from the clubs at the base through district groupings to the national association or union, which is the ultimate controlling body within New Zealand. Promising players or performers have ample and equal opportunity on merit to represent first their clubs, then the district or provincial associations, and ultimately New Zealand, in competitive play.

In major sports, while each administers its own affairs, competitors to represent New Zealand at Olympic and Commonwealth Games are selected by an Olympic Council, made up of representatives of the various sports associations.

All water sports are extremely popular. All popular beaches are patrolled by surf lifesaving clubs in the summer months. The Department of Education each summer conducts “Learn to Swim” campaigns for school children. The New Zealand Swimming Association also conducts “Learn to Swim” classes for children and adults. The Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs, in association with the National Water Safety Council, its member organisations, and swimming and lifesaving organisations, conducts a national water safety campaign, which includes general instruction in resuscitation procedures. Over recent years these campaigns have been successful in reducing deaths by drowning.

The Cobham Outward Bound School was established in Queen Charlotte Sound, Marlborough, in 1962, and several thousand boys aged 16 to 20 years have completed its short courses which use the challenges of the outdoors to promote self-confidence and self-discipline.

Financial Assistance—Grants are made by the Government to national youth organisations. The purpose of the grants is to assist in the extension of sporting and recreational facilities and in promoting leadership training. Grants are not made where projects of these types can be carried out without financial assistance. Sporting and recreational organisations also receive some financial assistance from lottery profits when there has been a substantial degree of self help.

5 B—HOSPITALS AND MORBIDITY HOSPITALS

GENERAL—In recent years the provision by the State of free hospital services has come to occupy a prominent place in the welfare services of the country. In 1939 the fees paid by patients in public hospitals were replaced by the payment by the State to the hospital boards of hospital benefits for each patient. The burden of hospital fees was thus taken from the citizen as an individual, and the cost of public hospitals apportioned between the Government and local authorities. Since then local authority contributions through hospital rating have been abolished, and from 1 April 1958 the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. The Minister of Health is responsible for the provision of a comprehensive and integrated hospital service for the whole country. Private hospitals assist in the provision of hospital services and provide about one-sixth of the available beds. Since 1939 private hospitals have received payment from the Government in respect of hospital treatment supplied by them. This payment does not cover the full cost of treatment, and additional fees may be claimed from the patients. Private hospitals are required to be licensed by the Department of Health and are subject to regular inspection by the Department.

HISTORY—The Government in 1846 granted money for the erection of hospitals in each of the four centres—Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and New Plymouth—for the treatment of sick and destitute Europeans and free treatment for all Maoris. The foundation stone of the Wellington Hospital was laid in November 1846, whilst the Auckland Hospital was founded the following year. The first Dunedin Hospital was built in 1851, and Christchurch was first served by a hospital at Lyttelton known to have been operating in 1853. In 1854 control of public hospitals was vested in the six Provincial Councils of Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, but in 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, control reverted to the General Government.

Hospitals generally remained under Government control until 1885, when the first Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act was passed. By it New Zealand was divided into 38 hospital districts, each under the control of its own board. The number of districts gradually increased until by 1926 there were 47; amalgamations since that date have reduced the number to 31.

A Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform was appointed in May 1953 to inquire into and report on matters affecting the administrative control of public hospitals and other services provided by hospital boards and, after taking evidence, it made recommendations to the Government for the reform of the hospital system. A new Hospitals Act passed in 1957 broke new ground in the central principle of its operation. The Act came into force on 1 April 1958. It incorporated as a basic principle the main recommendation of the Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform that the Minister of Health on behalf of the Government should have the responsibility of ensuring the provision by hospital boards of hospital and associated services. The Government assumed complete financial responsibility for hospitals. Consonant with the new responsibilities the Minister was given wide powers of direction and regulation to ensure the establishment of a comprehensive and integrated hospital service for the whole country. Elected boards were retained to manage institutions and administer the services provided under the Act.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every three years for each hospital district, and has power to establish, control, and manage hospitals, relief institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, and institutions for children. In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres.

AUTHORITY OF MINISTER OF HEALTH—It is the duty of every hospital board to provide and maintain such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for the reception, relief, care, treatment, isolation, and removal to hospital or “other place” of persons who are suffering from infectious or other disease or from injury, and for maternity cases. The Minister is specifically charged with the function of ensuring the provision of these services and of co-ordinating, guiding, and supervising the activities of hospital boards.

A board must appoint such number of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, dental nurses, midwives, and other officers as the Minister may from time to time deem necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the board, whether within an institution under the control of the board or elsewhere within the district.

The Director-General is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

PATIENTS: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1968 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, and old people's homes) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General13,4074.910,897.54.0
Maternity2,8051.01,757.40.6
Total hospital beds16,2125.912,654.94.6
Non-hospital beds1,1260.4970.30.4
Totals17,3386.313,625.25.0

In addition to the 16,212 hospital beds in public institutions there were 3,375 (3,115 general and 260 maternity) in the 150 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratios of beds per 1,000 of population become 6.0 for general beds and 1.1 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.6 to 11.8. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1968 was 209, comprising 79 general hospitals (6 of which were also old people's homes), 2 homes for cripples, 7 non-acute hospitals, 5 convalescent hospitals, 92 maternity hospitals, a hospital for physical disorders (which is under the control of the Department of Health), 22 old people's homes, and 1 children's home.

The following statistics for the latest two years relate to all institutions:

 1966-671967-68
Number of beds of all descriptions for patients or inmates in all public institutions, including institutions under the control of the Department of Health17,27717,199
Number of such beds per 1,000 of population6.46.3
Average number occupied per 1,000 of population4.95.0
Number of persons who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year304,633318,154
Number per 1,000 of population who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year113.0116.1
Number of attendances by outpatients (including attendances for dental treatment) during the year2,910,6053,076,378
Number per 1,000 of population of attendances (including dental) outpatients1,079.31,122.1

The supplement to the Annual Report of the Director-General of Health on Hospital Statistics contains further detail on public institutions.

General Hospitals—In the following table the figures relate only to general hospitals under the control of hospital boards.

YearInpatients TreatedAverage Number of Occupied Beds per DayAverage Turnover of Patients Treated per Occupied BedAvailable BedOutpatient Attendances (Including Dental)
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
1962-63228,20691.29,330.03.723.312,3414.92,264,330904.8
1963-64238,29093.29,595.93.823.812,2564.82,328,808910.7
1964-65244,79293.89,733.93.724.312,4904.82,580,498990.7
1965-66251,31693.99,928.83.724.312,7764.82,634,880984.3
1966-67256,58595.110,004.43.724.812,9894.82,711,1221,005.3
1967-68269,09898.210,243.93.725.413,0214.72,763,2151,007 9

Private Hospitals—The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1968 was 150, providing 260 maternity, 33 psychiatric, and 3,082 beds for general cases.

STAFF—The numbers of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards in the latest four years were as follows.

Category of StaffAt 31 March
1965196619671968
*Includes part-time staff and duplication where persons provide medical services at more than one institution. At 31 March 1967 there were 735 medical officers employed whole time and it is estimated that the hours of 1,048 visiting officers were the equivalent of the services of 307 whole time officers.
Institutional medical1,648*1,719*1,853*1,890*
Other professional and technical2,2312,4972,7422,817
Nursing12,64613,29014,11214,370
Other treatment staff411444496592
Domestic and other institutional staff9,81210,03010,4949,769
Administrative staff614642665645
Domiciliary services7779481,0801,018
Farm and garden24232216
Other non-institutional258227201233
Totals28,42129,82031,66531,350

MATERNITY SERVICES: Beds—At 31 March 1968 available hospital-bed accommodation for maternity cases was 3,065 made up as follows:

Public Hospitals2,805
Private Hospitals260
Total3,065

The total number of confinements in maternity hospitals in 1967 was 60,475, of which 54,580 were in public maternity hospitals, 5,700 in private hospitals, and 195 in the Alexandra Home, Wellington. There were 8,585 admissions for ante-natal treatment. All these figures are inclusive of Maoris.

Domiciliary Midwifery Services—Public health nurses and hospital board district nurses carry out some pre-natal work and a limited amount of obstetrical work in back-country areas. In general, however, most of the population is within reach of a maternity hospital, and home deliveries are not encouraged. There remain, however, a few midwives who contract with the Department of Health to give home maternity service under the Social Security Act.

Ante-natal Services—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. The doctor's attendance, if desired, is supplemented by that of the midwife in charge of an ante-natal clinic. These free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the three St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses, employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses, employed by hospital boards.

FINANCE: Institutional Operating Expenditure—The average operating expenditure per occupied bed, relating to hospitals of all types and to general hospitals, is shown in the following table.

YearTreatmentInstitutional AdministrationHeat Light, Power, and WaterHousehold ExpensesBuildings and GroundsMiscellaneousTotal
All Institutions
 $$$$$$$
1962-631,511.4270.4281.21,307.4182.03.63,556.0
1963-641,924.4286.0300.61,130.0188.83.43,833.2
1964-652,157.2322.4312.41,218.6193.64.44,208.6
1965-662,560.4360.4326.41,249.4205.64.64,706.8
1966-672,803.6399.8342.41,342.6209.43.85,101.6
1967-682,935.7399.7341.51,233.7186.03.15,099.7
General Hospitals
1962-631,664.8308.8299.41,400.4188.23.23,864.8
1963-642,108.0325.2319.41,194.2196.63.24,146.6
1964-652,355.6362.6330.81,283.2203.03.64,538.8
1965-662,799.2405.6342.81,304.2215.84.05,071.6
1966-673,069.0454.2362.81,409.8219.84.05,519.6
1967-683,226.9464.9362.71,293.0185.42.85,535.7

Each of these averages includes the direct expenditure of each activity for labour, materials, and incidental expenses, but excludes overheads such as depreciation and interest on capital.

For 1967-68 the average daily expenditure for individual inpatients treated in hospitals classed as general hospitals was $15.17 and the average total expenditure for each inpatient was $210.80.

Receipts—The following table shows the moneys received by hospital boards from Government funds.

YearGrantsSocial Security BenefitsTotal
*In terms of the Social Security Amendment Act 1963, from 1 April 1964 benefits previously paid from the Social Security Fund are incorporated in grants, with the exception of Dental Benefits and Special Area Medical Services.
 $(000)
1962-6345,53614,68560,221
1963-6450,95815,08666,044
1964-6573,26769*73,335
1965-6683,80886*83,894
1966-6792,52084*92,604
1967-6894,92434*94,958

Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is as under.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
*Includes payments from Sinking Funds.
 $(000)
1962-6310,0233,32565,382
1963-6414,5516,62673,307
1964-6511,6586,38078,585
1965-6610,3767,63781,324
1966-679,0216,75483,591
1967-6813,5666,72490,433

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to a measure of control by the Minister of Health. Boards are required in the month of April each year to make an estimate of their payments for both capital and maintenance purposes and to have the estimates confirmed at a special meeting of the board. The Minister may, if he thinks it necessary so to do, require the board to amend the estimate submitted. He may also require a board by notice to limit expenditure of whatever kind he may specify. Payments for the four latest years are now given.

Item of Expenditure1964-651965-661966-671967-68
*Includes payments to Sinking Funds.
 $ (thousand)
Institutional operating expenses59,21367,56675,04277,434
Outdoor relief1328611494
Grants to private hospitals, etc.103102136134
Other grants10181918
Transport of patients701723865826
Domiciliary services1,0301,4331,6871,717
Administration1,5471,8071,9772,042
Superannuation442494570606
Other expenses1,2021,7151,8792,232
Interest on loans3,6953,9684,0844,301
Repayment of loans*5,8696,7016,3686,246
Capital works other than “loan”3,3953,1392,9083,108
Totals, excluding loans77,33987,75295,64998,758
Loan works9,7839,13911,35914,109
Totals87,12296,891107,008112,867

MORBIDITY

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES—The numbers of all notifiable diseases reported during the calendar year 1967 are shown in the following table; the total figures (including Maoris) are given month by month, with the totals for Maoris being shown in the last column.

DiseaseAll Cases
JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTotalsMaoris
Diphtheria---2-----1--31
Dysentery—
    Amoebic--1-1--1----3-
    Bacillary98231657917252717216558
Eclampsia1--417729525431
Enteric fever—
    Paratyphoid--------------
    Typhoid977-12-11--12916
Food poisoning5466012113140217752455
Hydatids3611422212412913
Leptospiral infections18171912169107244639302474
Meningococcal meningitis1796710131926181115615751
Ophthalmia neonatorum2113-1331-35233
Pemphigus neonatorum2331-13-1111171
Puerperal infections231113--331-188
Salmonella infections2710121712199211423172320413
Staphylococcal pneumonia and septicaemia of the newborn infant--1----1-1-  31
Tetanus22111211--3-141
Tuberculosis—
    Pulmonary696868739275717477768473900368
    Other forms1915121014814132019201818274
Undulant fever113-23124454307
Anchylostomiasis3----11-----5-
Leprosy--1-131---1-73
Lethargic encephalitis-------1--1-21
Malaria11222-1-2--1121
Trachoma--1---------11
Lead poisoning------1-----1-
Dengue----------1-1-
Infective hepatitis3853893752623563503864414874844924114,818623
Actinomycosis-----1-----12-
Poliomyelitis    No confirmed cases since 1962    
Totals5755445444725315185426147277247136577,1611,254

Notifications for some of the notifiable diseases for each of the latest five years are shown in the following table. Attention is drawn to the fact that these figures are not considered to be a complete coverage of the incidence of these diseases as medical practitioners frequently overlook the necessity of notifying the Medical Officer of Health.

Disease19631964196519661967
*Prior to 1 April 1965 notifiable as cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).
DiphtheriaAll cases41173
 Maori2-111
Typhoid and paratyphoid feverAll cases2245284029
 Maori1325243216
Pulmonary tuberculosisAll cases984848938942900
 Maori319300307333368
Meningococcal meningitis*All cases524778162157
 Maori1320215951
PoliomyelitisAll cases-----
 Maori-----
Puerperal infectionsAll cases4133262418
 Maori24788
TetanusAll cases2415171214
 Maori64621
HydatidsAll cases3829263729
 Maori171261513
Food poisoningAll cases435341221394245
 Maori452-255
Bacillary dysenteryAll cases4891,1231,977642165
 Maori96791017058
Undulant feverAll cases2918312630
 Maori33237
Infective hepatitisAll cases2,2932,2232,1873,3764,818
 Maori255283246389623

Poliomyelitis—The wide use of Sabin oral poliomyelitis vaccine has had dramatic results, no confirmed case of poliomyelitis having occurred since 1 April 1962.

Hydatids—The following table gives details of hydatid cases treated in hospitals. It can be seen that the number of new cases exceeds the notifications in the preceding table.

YearNumber of New Public Hospital CasesPublic Hospital Cases ReadmittedTotal Public Hospital CasesDeaths
1956805913914
195776691458
195875481233
195977671445
196078881669
196169681376
1962683510310
196359571164
196469401093
19653737742
19665041915

Tuberculosis—The Department of Health is continuing its efforts to reduce further both incidence and mortality. In fact the mortality per 100,000 of population has decreased from 21.1 in 1952 to 2.9 in 1967. The number of public health nurses available for tuberculosis case-finding work has been increased, and hospital clinics in the charge of chest specialists have been provided to give a wide geographical coverage. The responsibilities of the Department of Health in case finding and domiciliary care are co-ordinated with those of the hospital boards, which are responsible for diagnosis and treatment.

Medical officers of the Department of Health assist the public health nurses in the examination of contacts and arrange tuberculin tests and X-ray examinations. There are at present some 10 mass miniature X-ray units strategically sited throughout the country. In 1967 they carried out a total of 290,762 chest X-ray examinations, and found that 0.3 in every thousand examined required supervision and treatment for tuberculous disease. In addition to tuberculosis, many other conditions of lungs and heart were discovered and, where necessary, were referred to the individual's private doctor for further investigation and follow-up.

As a contribution to prophylaxis, BCG vaccination against tuberculosis, which was commenced on hospital staffs, contacts, and adolescents, is being maintained in these groups. During 1967 vaccinations were performed on 31,512 persons after preliminary Mantoux testing, and the results of this activity should become manifest in the years to come.

The Department of Health maintains a Tuberculosis Register, which classifies all notified cases, and a clearer conception of the type, form, and extent of the disease is being obtained. The number of cases on the Register (inclusive of Maoris) at 31 December 1967 was 7,039. The number of new cases notified in 1967 was 1,082 of which 635 were non-Maori and 447 Maori. Of the non-Maori cases, 529 were respiratory, 95 non-respiratory, and 11 were mixed forms, and in the Maori cases the figures were 361, 70 respectively, and 16 were mixed forms. Some of these cases may have since been proved non-tuberculous and subsequently deregistered.

The total number of non-Maori persons on the Register at the end of 1967 amounted to 17 per 10,000 of the non-Maori population and the Maori rate was 135 per 10,000 of the Maori population. The rate for the total population was 26 per 10,000.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. After tabulation in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases, this information is published annually in the Department of Health publication Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data. According to the census of non-psychiatric hospitals conducted by the Department of Health in 1966, patients in public hospitals comprised 81.1 percent of hospital patients.

Patients Treated—The following table shows the number of patients treated in public hospitals for the latest six years.

YearRemaining on 1 January from Previous YearAdmissionsDischargesDeathsTotal Number of Indoor PatientsRemaining on 31 December

*Includes 28 patients from Wilson Home, Auckland, not previously included.

†Provisional.

‡Includes 46 patients from Jubilee Home, Christchurch, not previously included.

§Includes 5 patients from Picton Hospital, not previously included.

‖Excludes 51 patients shown as remaining in Buchanan Ward, Greytown, on 31 December 1965.

19628,395*195,906185,77010,440204,3018,091
19638,137205,490194,32110,784213,6278,522
19648,527§215,181204,15810,883223,7088,667
19658,667221,772210,39411,267230,4398,778
19668,727228,087216,32211,626236,8148,866
19678,866234,524222,91211,300243,3909,178

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1966 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year5,5263,8429,368
1-4 years10,3087,46517,773
5-9 year10,1707,74017,910
10-14 years7,4055,46112,866
15-19 years8,81610,01918,835
20-24 years7,39910,27717,676
25-29 years5,1918,34313,534
30-34 years4,3456,51610,861
35-39 years4,6946,73511,429
40-44 years5,0476,56011,607
45-49 years5,2286,40411,632
50-54 years5,8515,99711,848
55-59 years6,6505,38512,035
60-64 years6,5874,84211,429
65-69 years5,9634,91910,882
70-74 years4,7274,6239,350
75-79 years4,2404,1658,405
80-84 years2,9403,0946,034
85 years and over2,0132,4614,474
Totals113,100114,848227,948

Although there is little overall difference in the totals of males and females, there is a well defined pattern when figures for each sex are compared, age group by age group. In all ages under 15 years there is a preponderance of males. This difference is common to most disease groups but is more marked in diseases of the digestive, genito-urinary, musculoskeletal, and respiratory systems, in congenital malformations, and in accidental injuries. For the ages between 15 and 54 years there are more females than males. This age group covers the child-bearing ages in women, and the higher proportion of female patients is a reflection of this fact. Apart from conditions associated with pregnancy, abortion, delivery, and the puerperium, female patients considerably outnumbered male patients in both malignant and non-malignant tumours, in diseases of the thyroid gland and the genito-urinary system and in symptomatic conditions. In the age groups from 55 years upwards the males once more predominate, except for 80 years and over, particularly in diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digesting systems.

Principal Diseases and Disabilities—The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases treated, in public hospitals in 1966. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is published annually in Part III—Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Medical Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1966

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Tuberculosis of respiratory system1,287574.4
Tuberculosis, other forms319103.1
Syphilis and its sequelae7322.7
Gonococcal infection and other venereal diseases116--
Infectious diseases commonly arising in intestinal tract251--
Other bacterial diseases540509.3
Spirochaetal diseases except syphilis71--
Diseases attributable to viruses2,126231.1
Malaria10--
Other infective or parasitic diseases458112.4
Cancer, malignant disease11,8872,49621.0
Benign neoplasm5,031180.4
Neoplasm of unspecified nature17774.0
Allergic disorders2,361652.8
Diseases of thyroid gland84991.1
Diabetes mellitus2,2721717.5
Diseases of other endocrine glands39051.3
Avitaminoses and other metabolic diseases594183.0
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs1,198766.3
Psychoses2,067793.8
Psychoneurotic disorders2,00010.1
Disorders of character, behaviour, and intelligence1,629201.2
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system4,4761,82240.7
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system977687.0
Other diseases of central nervous system2,7682298.3
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia49471.4
Inflammatory diseases of eye688--
Other diseases and conditions of eye3,960140.4
Diseases of ear and mastoid process2,82960.2
Rheumatic fever540101.9
Chronic rheumatic heart disease5996611.0
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease6,9041,67224.2
Other diseases of heart2,86969124.1
Hypertensive heart disease3455616.2
Other hypertensive disease903394.3
Diseases of arteries1,85630316.3
Diseases of veins and other diseases of circulatory system6,509791.2
Acute upper respiratory infections1,99450.3
Influenza35110.3
Pneumonia5,4085359.9
Bronchitis3,7233048.2
Other diseases of respiratory system13,7471401.0
Diseases of buccal cavity and oesophagus2,55490.4
Diseases of stomach and duodenum2,221944.2
Appendicitis5,953220.4
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,424561.0
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum5,1462003.9
Diseases of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas3,8751493.8
Nephritis and nephrosis7478010.7
Other diseases of urinary system3,549942.6
Diseases of male genital organs2,968993.3
Diseases of breast, ovary, Fallopian tube, and parametrium1,86810.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs8,2453
Complications of pregnancy3,6261
Abortion4,3971
Delivery without mention of complication255--
Delivery with specified complication1,19520.2
Complications of the puerperium62420.3
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,10870.2
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue2,494160.6
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever3,412872.5
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint4,406260.6
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system3,469120.3
Congenital malformations4,3352064.8
Birth injuries, asphyxia, and infections of newborn77210513.6
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy1,702965.6
Symptoms referable to systems or organs11,448690.6
Senility and ill defined diseases2,08830114.4
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk3,2321414.4
Fracture of upper limb3,826130.3
Fracture of lower limb5,4243306.1
Dislocation without fracture80310.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles93710.1
Head injury (excluding skull fracture)8,2541081.3
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis506418.1
Laceration and open wound of face, neck, and trunk1,29650.4
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2,912--
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,300--
Laceration and open wounds of multiple location18731.6
Superficial injury365--
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface1,74770.4
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice88120.2
Burns1,829241.3
Injury to nerves and spinal cord without bone injury299--
Effects of poisons3,545270.8
Effects of weather, exposure, and related conditions4648.7
Other and unspecified injuries and reactions1,213161.3
Special conditions and examinations without sickness1,755--
Admissions for convalescent care, plastic treatment, and fitting of prosthetic devices64--
Totals227,94811,6265.1

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay of patients in public hospitals is shown in the following table.

AVERAGE DURATION OF STAY IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, 1966

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsAverage Stay (Days)
Tuberculosis—all forms1,60667.2
Infective and parasitic diseases (except tuberculosis)3,64515.6
Malignant neoplasms11,88722.0
Non-malignant neoplasm5,2089.7
Allergic disorders2,36112.0
Diseases of thyroid gland84914.0
Diabetes mellitus2,27231.4
Diseases of other endocrine glands and metabolic diseases98420.1
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1,19817.9
Psychosis2,06728.3
Psychoneurotic, character, personality, and intelligence disorders3,62914.9
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous systems4,47660.7
Other diseases of central nervous system, nerves, and peripheral ganglia4,23946.9
Diseases of eye4,6489.7
Diseases of ear and mastoid process2,8298.5
Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease1,13937.2
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease6,90427.4
Hypertensive and other diseases of heart4,11727.8
Diseases of arteries1,85631.3
Diseases of veins and other diseases of circulatory system6,50912.7
Acute upper respiratory infections and influenza2,3455.8
Pneumonia5,40819.6
Bronchitis3,72320.7
Hypertrophy of tonsils and adenoids10,3563.6
Other diseases of respiratory system3,39113.3
Diseases of buccal cavity and oesophagus2,5544.0
Diseases of stomach and duodenum2,22117.8
Appendicitis5,9538.7
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,42410.3
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum5,14613.0
Diseases of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas3,87515.8
Diseases of urinary system4,29614.8
Diseases of male genital organs2,96813.4
Diseases of breast and female genital organs10,1137.3
Complications of pregnancy3,62610.8
Abortion4,3974.0
Delivery and complications of the puerperium2,07410.6
Diseases of skin and cellular tissue5,60212.8
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever3,41248.5
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of musculoskeletal system7,87518.5
Congenital malformations4,33516.9
Certain diseases of early infancy2,47417.4
Symptoms, senility, and ill defined conditions13,53618.2
Fractures12,48221.4
Head injury (except fracture)8,2544.5
Laceration and open wound5,6957.5
Burns1,82919.6
Effects of poisons3,5453.3
Other injuries and adverse reactions6,7978.8
Special admissions without sickness1,8196.7
            All conditions227,94816.7

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1966.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
    Railway850.218.31,5570.3
    Motor-vehicle traffic9,00121.712.3110,81520.7
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic2280.611.42,5880.5
    Other road vehicles1,7224.17.312,6352.4
    Water2180.513.32,9040.5
    Aircraft390.130.71,1970.2
Total transport11,29327.211.7131,69624.6
Non-transport—
    Accidental poisoning2,4515.92.66,4481.2
    Accidental falls9,47122.821.1199,83637.3
    Other accidents12,90931.19.8125,93723.5
Total non-transport24,83159.813.4332,22162.0
Complications due to non-therapeutic medical and surgical procedures370.16.0222
Therapeutic misadventure and late complications of therapeutic procedures2,2695.517.639,9967.5
Late effects of injury and poisoning9132.219.217,4883.3
Suicide and self-inflicted injury1,3523.36.68,9191.7
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons8041.95.84,6440.9
Injury resulting from operations of war631.8191
Grand totals41,505100.012.9535,377100.0

Most cases come under the heading “Non-transport—Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on. Of these most occurred in the home.

The second largest group is “Accidental falls”, which has an aggregate stay greater than any other group. This is due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprise the third largest group, and have the third largest aggregate stay. It is interesting to note that there were three times as many admissions to hospital and three times as many beds occupied by people injured in non-transport accidents as there were in motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 11C Roads and Road Transport.

Patients discharged from, or dying in, public hospitals in 1966 after treatment for accidents sustained in the home are given in the following table.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsDays Stay
Accidental poisoning by barbituric acid and derivatives185787
Accidental poisoning by aspirin and salicylates131226
Accidental poisoning by petroleum products263576
Accidental poisoning by industrial solvents187315
Accidental poisoning by corrosive aromatics, acids, and caustic alkalis224402
Accidental poisoning by other and unspecified liquid and solid substances1,2782,924
Accidental poisoning by gases and vapours16242
Accidental falls4,60499,571
Blow from falling object2412,341
Accident caused by machinery6966,831
Accident caused by cutting and piercing instruments1,2488,343
Accidental burns1,27326,773
Accident caused by foreign bodies6491,826
All other and unspecified accidents8938,772
Totals11,888159,929

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths has increased over the last 11 years. Examination of the following table shows the trend.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
*Provisional.
19579,57620,86245.9
19589,24820,30145.6
195910,02021,12847.4
19609,76820,89246.8
196110,28921,78247.2
196210,43622,08147.3
196310,78422,41648.1
196410,88322,86147.6
196511,26522,97649.0
196611,62623,77848.9
1967*11,29823,00749.1

5 C—MENTAL HEALTH

GENERAL—Mental hospitals are administered under the direction of the Minister of Health by the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health. Hospital boards have no jurisdiction over mental hospitals. There are 11 mental hospitals, four hospitals and training schools for the mentally retarded, and one hospital for functional nervous disorders.

The newer hospitals are built on the villa system with accommodation provided in pleasant detached units of about 50 beds each. Each villa is surrounded by lawns and gardens and is largely self-contained. There are facilities for recreation and entertainment in addition to provision for modern methods of therapy.

Nursing services are provided in the main by trained staff, both male and female. The training involves three-year courses leading to the State-registered qualifications of psychiatric nurse or psychopaedic (mental retardation) nurse. In addition to the nursing and medical staff, a wide range of ancillary staff is provided. The Division administers and staffs the Occupational Therapy Training School which provides occupational therapists for all hospitals in the country. In addition, the Division employs clinical psychologists, social workers, recreation officers, welfare officers, and, at the special hospitals and training schools for the mentally retarded, specially qualified training officers and instructors.

In recent years there have been some important and far-reaching changes in procedure for the admission and discharge of mental hospital patients. These changes are directed towards greater flexibility in the use of mental health services in psychiatric treatment, care, and rehabilitation. They allow for the informal admission of voluntary patients, mentally retarded persons, and minors. Persons who, by reason of mental infirmity arising from age or from deterioration or disease or injury to the brain, require care and treatment, can now be admitted merely on application accompanied by a letter of recommendation by a medical practitioner. The patient may be discharged at any time on application provided the medical superintendent is satisfied that the arrangements for the care of the patient after discharge are appropriate. Mentally retarded persons and minors can now be admitted informally in a similar way to that for the mentally infirm. Any mentally retarded person, with the approval of the medical superintendent, may attend the institution as a voluntary outpatient for training and occupational therapy.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, etiological factors, country of birth, domicile, race, and length of stay.

In 1967 the statistical system was enlarged to include, in addition to people treated as inpatients in mental hospitals people treated in the nine psychiatric inpatients units in public hospitals. This development provides more comprehensive data about the treatment of people with psychiatric disorders in the community but the greater coverage prevents strict comparability with statistical data published for past years.

At the end of 1967 there were 12,162 people on the registers of mental hospitals and 81 in psychiatric units of public hospitals, a total of 12,243. There were 9,821 registrations during the year (excluding transfers and changes of status) of which 7,903 or 80.5 percent, were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied mental hospital beds was 10,415, which was 2 more than for 1966. The average number of resident patients per 100,000 mean population has declined steadily over the last 25 years.

The average number on the mental hospital registers in 1967 was 3,696 for voluntary patients, and 8,400 for non-voluntary patients. For the previous year the figures were 3,342 for voluntary patients and 8,567 for non-voluntary patients.

In the following table the average number on the registers and the rates per 100,000 mean population are shown for certain years. It can be seen that in spite of the annual increases in the average number resident, the rates have decreased steadily.

YearResidentAbsent on LeaveTotal
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
Voluntary Patients
194229317.920.129518.0
194737620.950.338121.2
195248024.0110.649124.6
195766129.6783.573933.1
19621,47959.51646.61,64366.1
19632,02179.728011.02,30190.7
19642,37791.832712.62,704104.4
19652,707102.733912.93,046115.6
19662,953110.138914.53,342124.6
19673,201117.349518.13,696135.4
Formal and Forensic Patients
19427,633465.545727.98,090493.4
19478,063448.458632.68,649481.0
19528,590430.379639.99,386470.2
19579,189411.686738.810,056450.4
19628,788353.71,07143.19,859396.8
19638,466333.71,03140.79,497374.4
19648,112313.399038.39,102351.6
19657,785295.41,04739.78,832335.1
19667,460278.01,10741.38,567319.3
19677,214264.31,18643.58,400307.8
All Patients
19427,926483.445928.08,385511.4
19478,439469.359132.99,030502.2
19529,070454.380740.59,877494.8
19579,850441.294542.310,795483.5
196210,267413.21,23549.711,502462.9
196310,487413.41,31151.711,798465.1
196410,489405.11,31750.911,806456.0
196510,492398.11,38652.611,878450.7
196610,413388.11,49655.811,909443.9
196710,415381.61,68161.612,096443.2

NOTES—For 1962 and subsequent years, voluntary patient totals include informal patients. For 1967 figures include psychiatric inpatients in public hospitals.

FIRST ADMISSIONS—In 1967 there were 3,635 first admissions to mental hospitals, (1,831 male, 1,804 female), and 1,228 (413 male, 815 female) to psychiatric inpatient units; a total of 4,863. The number of voluntary patients (3,881) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (982) by nearly four to one.

The numbers and rates of first admissions, together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of voluntary patients in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearsVoluntary PatientsNon-voluntary PatientsAll Patients
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
*Average over five years.
Numbers
1935-39*115972124814629435965591,155
1940-44*1101262364705269965806521,232
1945-49*2352675025446071,1517798741,653
1950-54*3493847336257461,3719741,1302,104
1955-59*4895771,0666697311,4001,1581,3082,466
1960-64*1,2281,3722,6006025221,1241,8301,8943,724
19631,5181,6793,1975434089512,0612,0874,148
19641,4111,6313,0424973758721,9082,0063,914
19651,5021,5953,0975903969862,0921,9914,083
19661,4151,6043,0196684071,0752,0832,0114,094
19671,6452,2363,8815993839822,2442,6194,863
Rates per 100,000 of Mean Population
1935-39*14.212.413.359.558.959.273.771.372.5
1940-44*13.715.014.458.562.860.872.277.875.2
1945-49*26.229.627.961.167.564.587.397.192.4
1950-54*34.638.536.662.274.968.96.8113.4105.1
1955-59*43.451.747.559.665.862.7102.9117.5110.2
1960-64*97.6110.1103.848.442.645.5146.0152.7149.3
1963118.8132.7125.742.532.237.4161.3164.9163.1
1964108.1126.2117.138.129.033.6146.2155.2150.6
1965112.9121.1117.044.430.137.2157.3151.1154.2
1966105.1120.0112.549.630.440.1154.7150.4152.6
1967120.2164.3142.243.828.136.0164.0192.4178.2
YearsPercentage of First Admissions in Total AdmissionsPercentage of Voluntary Patients in First Admissions
*Average over five years.
1935-39*80.118.3
1940-44*76.719.0
1945-49*75.630.1
1950-54*74.034.7
1955-59*67.543.0
1960-64*61.169.8
196360.777.1
196455.477.7
196555.275.9
196653.473.7
196749.579.8

NOTES—For 1962 and subsequent years, voluntary patient totals include informal patients. For 1967 figures include psychiatric inpatients in public hospitals.

Diagnosis—The three leading diagnoses in 1967 were: depressive neurosis, 798 cases; schizophrenia and paranoid states, 640 cases; and depressive psychosis, 632 cases. These three diagnoses accounted for 42.4 percent of first admissions.

The number of voluntary, formal, and forensic patients, by short list diagnosis are now shown for 1967.

DiagnosisAll PatientsVoluntary PatientsFormal PatientsForensic Patients
Senile and presenile dementia3862721122
Alcoholic psychosis6436235
Other organic psychoses295228598
Schizophrenia and paranoid states64041618539
Depressive psychosis623586334
Other functional psychoses14994487
Depressive neurosis7987552617
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders40138597
Alcoholism3503092021
Other personality disorders41528525105
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children7965113
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition806587
Mental retardation3452892630
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)238965137
Totals4,8633,881580402

Numbers and rates of first admissions by diagnosis are shown in the following table.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196519661967196519661967
Psychoses      
Schizophrenic disorders506549612191205224
Manic-depressive reaction507402672192150246
Involutional melancholia475959182222
Paranoia and paranoid states27192810710
Senile psychosis456434364172162133
Presenile psychosis162122688
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis128145138485451
Alcoholic psychosis655464252023
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology755490282033
Puerperal psychosis263560101322
Other and unspecified psychoses40244815917
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction209186189796969
Hysterical reaction494183191530
Neurotic-depressive reaction596701798225261292
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders12390129463447
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality297346415112129152
Alcoholism331355350125132128
Mental deficiency363334345137124126
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders5778104222938
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy32154012615
Other defined conditions13815535
Observation120144238455487
All cases4,0834,0944,8631,5421,5261,782

Etiological Factors—Information about the causes of mental disorders for the first admissions in 1967 is shown in the following table. It should be noted that several factors can be reported for one case. For example, a person might be admitted because of a combination of old age and excessive use of alcohol.

Etiological FactorsIncidence in First Admissions
Organic syndrome594
Subnormal intelligence526
Epilepsy229
Other physical illness or impairment643
Alcohol721
Critical period in life1,447
Other factors including structure of personality and family relationships3,067

READMISSIONS—A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital. It includes people replaced from leave.

Diagnosis—In the following table the numbers and rates of readmissions are shown by diagnoses.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196519661967196519661967
Psychoses      
Schizophrenic disorders1,0011,0431,565378389573
Manic-depressive reaction7697441,097290277402
Involutional melancholia575877222228
Paranoia and paranoid states2612251049
Senile psychosis7173140272751
Presenile psychosis8616326
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis303436111313
Alcoholic psychosis645196241935
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology395795152135
Puerperal psychosis181525769
Other and unspecified psychoses1618406714
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction6597128253647
Hysterical reaction2121388814
Neurotic-depressive reaction447499708169186259
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders7470115282642
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality1872424217190154
Alcoholism511627738193234270
Mental deficiency1862394987089182
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders195310772039
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy2313609522
Other defined conditions665222
Observation4448111171841
All cases3,6824,0266,1411,3911,5012,250

DISCHARGES—There are three principal ways of being discharged from mental hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a mental hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained in a mental hospital. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 10,542 discharges in 1967. Of these 6,481 were outright discharges, 3,611 were discharges on leave, and 450 were discharged “not committed”.

The principal diagnoses were: schizophrenic disorders, 2,250 cases; neurotic-depressive reaction, 1,549 cases; manic-depressive reaction, 1,779 cases; and all forms of alcoholism, 1,258.

The following table shows the number of discharges for 1967 by diagnosis.

DiagnosisOutright DischargeLeaveNot CommittedTotal
Psychoses    
Schizophrenic disorders9761,258162,250
Manic-depressive reaction1,256512111,779
Involutional melancholia6571-136
Paranoia and paranoid states2519145
Senile psychosis81100-181
Presenile psychosis1110-21
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis2643271
Alcoholic psychosis82471130
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology82705157
Puerperal psychosis6024185
Other and unspecified psychoses4225370
Psychoneuroses    
Anxiety reaction280432325
Hysterical reaction83291113
Phobic reaction96-15
Obsessive-compulsion reaction207-27
Neurotic-depressive reaction1,175360141,549
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting circulation2--2
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting digestive system21-3
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting other systems155-20
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders143383184
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence    
Pathological personality without psychosis2487379400
Immature personality27115057478
Non-psychotic alcoholism957141301,128
Drug addiction3923567
Mental deficiency24646828742
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders972416137
Other Conditions    
Epilepsy (without psychosis)5932192
Other conditions797-86
Observation without need for further medical care5025174249
Totals6,4813,61145010,542

Duration of Stay—Almost half (49.4 percent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission, 29.5 percent left in the next two months, and a further 8.7 percent were discharged in the subsequent three months. The average stay for all discharges was 35 weeks.

DEATHS—In 1967 there were 836 deaths in mental hospitals and six in psychiatric units of public hospitals. In addition, 100 people died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile psychosis, 348 cases. Next came psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis, 114 cases; and schizophrenic disorders, 106 cases.

In 1967, 121 people died during the first month in hospital and a further 95 deaths occurred in people who had been in hospital one but under three months.

EXPENDITURE, ETC.—The total expenditure on public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last 11 financial years are shown in the next table. As from 1 April 1939 free maintenance and treatment of patients have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act 1964.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureNet Average Cost per Patient
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$
19586,9081946,714687
19597,3292087,121725
19607,9312247,707779
19618,7822268,556859
19629,8802069,674965
196310,99920810,7911,059
196412,10921211,8971,143
196513,78368613,0971,258
196614,77869214,0861,353
196717,33069916,6311,610
196818,55955618,0031,743

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. Expenditure for the last five financial years has amounted to $1,455,000 in 1963-64, $1,625,000 in 1964-65, $1,810,000 in 1965-66, $1,653,000 in 1966-67, and $2,137,000 in 1967-68.

5 D—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF POPULATION

GENERAL—Increasing interest is being shown in the heights and weights of New Zealanders—adults as well as children. Medical and health experts have formed the impression that the average heights of persons in New Zealand have increased significantly over the past 50 years. It is likely that weights have also increased; at any rate in the interests of continuing medical research it is important that statistical material be available on this and other factors. The statistics in this section have been assembled for future research purposes as much as for current interest.

CHILDREN—Surveys of heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand have been made from time to time, namely in 1913, 1926, 1934, and 1954; another is planned for 1969. Each successive survey has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages. A report on the 1954 survey was published in Parliamentary Paper H. 30 of 1956; 22,078 boys and 21,845 girls were selected on a nation-wide sample basis and examined. A summary table from the report is now given.

Age (Years)YearAverage HeightAverage Weight
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
  in.in.lblb
51,93443434242
 1,95444.3943.9745.6744.22
61,93445454645
 1,95446.7446.3850.5449.56
71,93447475049
 1,95449.0648.6656.1255.17
81,93449495554
 1,95451.2650.8062.0161.31
91,93451516160
 1,95453.2752.9269.0468.31
101,93453536665
 1,95455.3055.2476.0377.07
111,93454557273
 1,95457.1057.6282.6586.80
121,93457577882
 1,95459.2460.0392.0198.42
131,93459598894
 1,95461.7361.78103.67109.20
141,934616197101
 1,95464.1562.80117.46119.77
151,9346262103108
 1,95466.1463.45129.35124.90

It will be noted that for both boys and girls the average heights and weights had increased in 1954 compared with 1934. These increases applied fairly uniformly on a geographic basis, that is, for main urban areas, minor urban areas and rural areas; they also applied to both non-Maoris and Maoris. (Other evidence indicates that the increases were primarily due to earlier maturity rather than to changes in racial characteristics.)

In a comparison of Maoris and non-Maoris in 1954, the Maori boys and girls were found to be on average shorter than non-Maori boys and girls, the difference amounting to a little under an inch at most ages. In weight, however, Maoris were shown to be heavier than non-Maoris. At the younger ages the difference was negligible being less than half a pound, but from 9 years onwards the difference was marked—at 11 years it was 2 lb, at 12 years 3 lb for boys and 7 lb for girls, and at 15 years 6 lb for boys and nearly 11 lb for girls.

Comparisons with children of other Countries—In a study made in 1966 for the School of Physical Education at the University of Otago, Miss Kathryn McQuarrie showed that for Norwegian and Swedish children similar increases in heights and weights had been recorded, and that for Japanese children the increases were relatively greater. It is of interest to note that for Norwegian and Swedish boys and girls over a period of 50 years, there have been close correlations with the changes for New Zealand boys and girls, though in more recent years the New Zealand children have become relatively heavier.

In an article in the British Medical Journal of 24 October 1953 by E. M. B. Clements dealing with changes in the mean stature and weight of children aged 5 to 13 years in Britain over the period 1880 to 1947, it was shown that the average height increased by 2.5 to 3.5 inches and the average weight by 4 to 11 lb over the period; the greatest increases were in the lower income groups. This and other studies point to an earlier maturity among children as a result of improved nutrition and health. There is evidence that maximum height was not reached until 27 years of age a century ago, but it is accepted that this stage is reached now by boys of 18-19 years and girls of 16-17 years.

ADULTS: RNZAF Survey 1960—In 1960 a survey was made of the height, weight (stripped), and age of the officers and men of the Royal New Zealand Air Force in New Zealand, Fiji, and Singapore. There were about 4,200 personnel involved; they had all been judged by the medical officers as fit, without any concern for apparent overweight. To an extent the RNZAF personnel would have constituted a select sample.

The average height was found to be 5 ft 8 in.; for those over 40 years of age the average was between 5 ft 7 in. and 5 ft 8 in.; for those under 30 years of age the average was between 5 ft 8 in. and 5 ft 9 in.

The average weight in pounds related to height and age of the officers and men is shown in the following table.

Height (in.)Age Group (Years)
17-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445+
Weight (lb)
63131132137139140141142
64135136141143144145147
65139140145147148149152
66142144149151152153156
67146149153155156157161
68150153157159160161165
69153157160163164165169
70157161164167168169174
71161165168171172173178
72164169172175176177183
73168173176178179180187

A detailed analysis of the 528 persons in the age group 20-24 years gave the following statistics.

Height (in.)Number of PersonsWeight (lb)Number of Persons
6321207
64712513
654413020
664813528
676714044
6810214551
697915083
708215548
714716037
723516548
73917036
74517526
75118023
  18519
  19012
  195 and over33
Totals528Totals528

As a guide to medical examiners on height-weight relationships the following table is used by the New Zealand Army; it reflects the rather heavier build of Maoris.

Height20-24 Years25-29 Years30-34 Years35-39 Years40-45 Years
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
60128140132143137147141150145152
61132143137148141151145154148156
62136147141152145155148157151160
63140151145156148158151160154163
64143155148159151161155164157166
65146159151162155165158167160169
66150163155166158168160169163171
67154167158169161171163172166173
68158170161172164174166175168176
69162173165176168177169178170179
70165176168179171180172181173182
71168178172182174182175184176185
72172181176185178184179187180188
73176183179188181186182189183190
74179185182191183188184190185191
75182186184193185190186191186192

NOTE—All weights equal stripped weights, in pounds.

Likewise the following table used by the New Zealand Army sets out approximate height-weight relationships of New Zealand women; it does not provide any information on average height and average weight.

Height18-19 years20-24 years25-29 years30-39 years40-49 years
60104120121129135
61107122123131137
62110124125133139
63114126127135143
64118128130137145
65121130133140146
66125132136143147
67130135140146148
68135139145149151
69140143148152153
70144146153157158
71149151157163164
72154157162170171

NOTE—Clothing would add 6 lb to the above net weights.

Other Surveys of Military Personnel—A study of the medical examination records of 10,742 compulsory military trainees in 1950-52 was made by H. C. A. Somerset and included in a thesis “Some Investigations into Dimensions of Physique and their Relationship to Rorschach Responses” submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington. These trainees, all youths and mostly aged 18 years, showed an average height of 68.38 inches and an average weight of 142.5 pounds.

In 1965 a study “The Physiques of Royal New Zealand Air Force Men” was made by J. E. Lindsay Carter and Maurice L. Rendle. The personnel measured were 458 regular servicemen of the RNZAF aged 16 to 52 years and constituting a haphazard sample from all trades and ranks up to and included wing commander. The typical RNZAF male was described as 68.6 inches tall and weighing 153.5 pounds. This sample would include some older men who tend to be heavier.

A study of Maori somatology was made by Sir Peter Buck using as his subjects the remnants of the Maori Battalion after the First World War. According to Buck, the weight and height of the men was fairly representative of the race as a whole, the average being, if anything, rather on the low side. The average height of 424 men was found to be 67.3 inches and the average weight of 384 men was 163.9 pounds. (Sir Peter Buck's study covered a wide range of other physical characteristics and was published in the Journals of the Polynesian Society in 1922 and 1923).

Comparative Studies of Adults—Examinations of conscripts in Sweden have shown an increase in mean height of no less than 2.3 cm or nearly 1 inch (from 174.4 to 176.7 cm) from 1940 to 1960 (Official Statistics of Sweden).

In an article in the British Medical Journal of 24 October 1953 by E. M. B. Clements it is stated that there is no clear evidence to show that the mean height of men in Britain had increased since 1880.

Other studies by McCane, 1962, and Tanner, 1962, have led to the conclusion that during the past century the growth in height of the population of Western Europe has increased by approximately 1 centimetre each decade, with no signs of ceasing. (2.54 centimetres equal 1 inch).

A report in Newsweek of 29 July 1968 of studies at Vassar and Smith Colleges shows that between 1920 and 1968 the average height of 18-year-old boys increased from 69.0 in. to 70.2 in. and their average weight from 126.6 lb to 144.8 lb. For 18-year old girls the average height, increased from 62.4 in. to 64.4 in. and the average weight from 116.2 lb to 126.2 lb.

For purposes of comparison, some United States averages are given in the following table; they are based on a nationwide sample of 6,672 persons aged 17 to 79 years selected for the health examination survey conducted from October 1959 to December 1962 by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1966).

ItemAge Group (Years)
17-1918-2425-3435-4445-5455-6465-7475-79
Men
    Heightin.68.268.769.168.568.267.466.965.9
    Weightlb168160171172172166160150
Women
    Heightin.63.063.863.763.562.962.461.561.1
    Weightlb142129136144147152146138

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

6 A—SOCIAL SECURITY

DEVELOPMENT—Social security is a comprehensive plan of State assistance by a system of monetary benefits and free or subsidised medical and hospital provisions for the safeguarding of health. The principal objects of the legislation which came into operation on 1 April 1939 were (a) to substitute a system of extended monetary benefits on a contributory basis for the system of non-contributory civil pensions, e.g., old age, widows', and other pensions; (b) the inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits. The governing legislation is now the Social Security Act 1964.

Universal family benefits were introduced on 1 April 1946, since which date each mother has received a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property.

There is reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and with the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Under the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 the classes of benefits cover the following: age pensions and age benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits. The Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1956 provides for reciprocity between the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and New Zealand to cover age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits. Family benefits have been payable on a reciprocal basis since 1948.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Department, which is under the control of a Commission, administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Security, Part I of the Act dealing with monetary benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits, are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health.

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose officers is designated Secretary for War Pensions.

Since 1960, the War Pensions Branch of the Social Security Department has handled ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out was originally provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the fund was derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also made provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time. Social security tax and income tax were combined in the tax deduction tables prepared for the operation of the PAYE system from 1 April 1958. (An assessment for accounting purposes of the social security proportion was made until 31 March 1969, when this calculation was discontinued.)

On 1 April 1964 the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account in connection with a rearrangement of Government accounts.

From 1 April 1964 the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose; in addition, benefits were no longer paid to public hospitals for treatment of patients, but the cost of hospital administration was borne directly by general taxation.

Payments—Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last five financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
*Previously included benefits to public hospitals, which are no longer paid; relevant expenditure is now included in general expenditure of public hospitals from 1 April 1964.
Monetary benefits—$ (thousand)
    Superannuation54,39059,29762,57970,19376,374
    Age49,36151,01751,45755,10257,495
    Widows'9,55910,21510,48011,31611,995
    Orphans'103110116122127
    Family68,48065,92570,16366,81671,452
    Invalids'4,5884,8304,7865,0715,296
    Miners'166153137131118
    Unemployment3221971411412,176
    Sickness4,5093,9144,0764,5595,156
    Emergency2,0151,7851,7531,9222,237
    Supplementary assistance1,1771,3681,8002,1082,520
    Advances for repairs to homes4859648273
    Employment subsidy for disabled civilians55376
    Capitalisation of family benefit9,0858,8408,5967,5767,237
Total, monetary benefits203,808207,715216,151225,146242,262
Medical benefits—
    Medical8,6298,7648,7908,6848,848
    Hospital13,3573,166*3,719*4,1334,441
    Maternity3,6071,556*1,519*1,9532,047
    Pharmaceutical15,82717,73419,51421,07222,272
    Supplementary6,9645,3106,0816,3926,855
Total, medical benefits48,38436,530*39,62242,23444,462

During the year ended 31 March 1968, $147,944,080, or 61.0 percent of the total expenditure ($242,260,208) by the Social Security Department on monetary benefits including supplementary assistance, advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians, was paid without a means test, the remaining amount being subject to a means test.

The administration expenses of the Social Security Department for the year ended 31 March 1968 were $4,704,737 as compared with $4,363,794 the previous year.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68

*Previously included benefits to public hospitals, which are no longer paid; relevant expenditure is now included in general expenditure of public hospitals.

†Mainly on account of hospital benefits.

Maternity benefits—$ (thousand)
    Public hospital fees1,980****
    Private hospital fees397377387387379
    Medical practitioners' fees1,1641,1311,0931,5221,630
    Milage fees3937343334
    Obstetric nurses' fees54543
    Private hospital loans226-6-
Totals3,6071,556*1,519*1,953*2,047
Medical benefits—
    Milage fees313311287248230
    General medical services8,0788,1838,1948,1018,289
    Special arrangements204270309335329
    Purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers35
Totals8,6298,7648,7908,6848,848
Hospital benefits—
    Public hospitals—
        Inpatients9,734****
        Outpatients834****
    Private hospitals2,4112,6053,3243,7764,027
    Approved institutions196233251306355
    Private hospital loans1663011233231
    Grants towards operating costs of Karitane hospitals1627211928
Totals13,3573,166*3,719*4,132*4,441
Pharmaceutical benefits—
    Chemists15,34617,44319,19620,65521,765
    Medical practitioners123143173178180
    Institutions3592712
    Private hospitals122144237327
Totals15,82717,73419,51421,07222,272
Supplementary benefits—
    Radiological services1,114571*600*646*673*
    Laboratory services2,3612,062*2,377*2,689*3,143*
    Physiotherapy services197211215222222
    Specialist services (neuro-surgery)99735
    District nursing services593****
    Dental services2,3632,3932,8102,7412,683
    Domestic assistance2825302935
    Artificial-aids benefits2753*3*5*5*
    Other2335405689
Totals6,9645,310*6,081*6,392*6,855
Grand totals48,38436,53039,62242,23444,462
Recoveries112161218
Net totals48,37336,508*39,616*42,222*44,444

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet National Income at Factor CostExpenditure*
Medical BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Excluding capitalised family benefits.

†Benefits no longer paid to public hospitals.

Amount $(million)$
19571,773.433.439.076.2148.667.70
19581,870.334.240.480.4155.069.00
19591,923.237.452.086.8176.276.60
19602,074.9x39.863.6104.0207.488.40
19612,242.7x42.461.8113.2217.491.00
19622,315.9x45.966.9115.4228.293.47
19632,503.3x47.564.6118.6230.792.34
19642,740.7x48.468.5126.2243.195.32
19652,997.4x36.565.9132.8235.390.46
19663,229.7x39.670.2137.3247.093.31
19673,367.0x42.266.8150.7259.796.35
19683,452.544.471.4163.5279.3102.04
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income
1957 1.92.24.38.4...
1958 1.82.24.38.3...
1959 1.92.74.59.2...
1960 1.93.15.010.0...
1961 1.92.85.09.7...
1962 2.02.95.09.9...
1963 1.92.64.79.2...
1964 1.82.54.68.9...
1965 1.22.24.47.9...
1966 1.22.24.37.6...
1967 1.3x2.04.57.7...
1968 1.32.14.78.1...

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of persons in respect of whom social security cash benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1968 was 1,286,519, or 4,670 per 10,000 of population. For the previous year the corresponding figures were 1,238,675 and 4,542 respectively. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force at 31 March for the three latest years and the annual value at 31 March 1968 are as follows.

Class of Benefit or PensionNumber in Force at 31 MarchAnnual Value at 31 March 1968
196619671968
Social security benefits—
    Monetary—   $(000)
        Superannuation125,089130,473134,70177,600
        Age94,24992,89894,94858,277
        Widows'14,71215,09015,51212,675
        Orphans'316300301124
        Family376,593388,207401,27871,560
        Invalids'8,0457,8967,8425,472
        Miners'169149125104
        Unemployment1332304,424...
        Sickness5,2525,2925,976...
        Emergency3,2033,1834,166...
        Supplementary assistance9,69810,58112,6252,603
Totals637,459654,299681,898...

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS, ETC.—In addition to the various classes of benefits enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there were 903 pensions at 31 March 1968 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities”. This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

MONETARY BENEFITS—A summarised account of the changes in monetary benefits from the inception of the social security scheme to 1957 was given on pages 205-206 of the 1958 issue of the Yearbook. Since 1939 the original provisions have been considerably amended and enlarged to correct anomalies and to cover more comprehensively the needs of the people. In addition the rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living.

The rates payable in respect of age, invalids'. widows' (and mothers' allowances), and miners' benefits were increased by $26 a year, and sickness and unemployment benefits by 50c a week from 30 March 1960. Legislation also eliminated property from the means test, formerly applicable to age, invalids', orphans', and unemployment benefits, and increased the amount of income allowable before reduction of age, widows', and invalids' benefits from $208 to $312 a year, and the allowable income for sickness and unemployment benefits from $4 to $6 a week from 12 October 1960. From the same date provision was made for an allowable income of $104 a year before reduction in the rate of orphans' benefit which was formerly reducible by $2 for every complete $2 of an orphan's income.

Also from 12 October 1960 the amendment increased the rate payable in respect of a superannuation benefit by $26 a year and gave the Social Security Commission discretionary power to grant on application an additional $52 a year to single, widowed, separated, or divorced superannuation beneficiaries.

The amount of income allowable before reduction of a widow's benefit where the widow is supporting a dependent child or children was increased from $312 to $520 a year from 13 September 1961; the amount was raised further to $624 a year on 9 September 1964 and to $780 a year on 14 May 1969.

The rates of superannuation, age, widows' (and mothers' allowances), orphans', invalids', and miners' benefits were increased by $13 a year and sickness and unemployment benefits by 25c a week from 18 July 1962. Similar increases of 25c a week or $13 a year were made from 17 July 1963. Increases in the rates of benefits were made from 9 September 1964. The increases were 60c a week or $31.20 a year. An increase of 90c a week or $46.80 a year applied from 18 May 1966. From 25 January 1967 an increase of 25c a week or $13 a year applied. An increase of 50c a week or $26 a year applied from 12 June 1968.

On 14 May 1969 benefits were increased by $1.50 a week or $78 a year for married couples and by $1.00 a week or $52 a year for unmarried beneficiaries.

The income exemption for age, widows' and invalid benefits, which was increased to $416 a year from 1 January 1964, was further increased to $572 a year from 14 May 1969.

Age, invalids, sickness, and unemployment beneficiaries with dependent children may also receive family maintenance allowance which applied from 7 August 1968.

For the purpose of determining eligibility for benefit on grounds of residence, persons employed outside New Zealand will be deemed to be resident in New Zealand for the purposes of Part I of the principal Act, where liable for the payment of income tax on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included.

The receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widow's pension does not render a person ineligible to receive a social security benefit.

The Commission may, in its discretion, refuse to grant any benefit or terminate any benefit or reduce any benefit on moral grounds, or where the applicant or in the case of family benefit the father or mother of the child, is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand, or has defaulted in payment of income tax or has deprived himself of income or property to qualify for a higher rate of benefit than would otherwise have been the case.

SUMMARY OF RATES OF SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS—The list below gives a summary of the annual and weekly rates for monetary benefits as from 14 May 1969.

BenefitAnnual RateWeekly Rate
*According to circumstances, but in general, standard rates will be increased by $2 a week for beneficiary, $1 a week for his wife, and 50c a week for each dependent child.
Superannuation—$$
    Unmarried person68913.25
    Married person62412.00
Age—
    Unmarried person68913.25
    Married couple if both eligible (each)62412.00
    Married woman whose husband is not eligible62412.00
    Married man whose wife is not eligible1,24824.00
Widows'—
    Widow68913.25
    Additional mother's allowance where widow has—
        One dependent child4949.50
        Two dependent children54610.50
        Each additional dependent child521.00
Orphans' (each child)3516.75
Family (each child)781.50
Invalids'—
    Unmarried person, 20 years or over68913.25
    Unmarried person under 20 years58511.25
    Married man with wife included1,24824.00
    Married woman62412.00
Miners'—
    Unmarried person68913.25
    Married man with wife included1,24824.00
    Miner's widow62412.00
Sickness or Unemployment—
    Unmarried person under 20 years 10.25
    Unmarried person 20 years and over 13.25
    Married man with wife included 24.00
    Married woman 20 years and over 12.00
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
EmergencyAccording to circumstances
Emergency—Sufferers from tuberculosis*  

SUPERANNUATION BENEFITS—Every person over the age of 65 years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualification is entitled to a superannuation benefit without regard to financial circumstances. The superannuation benefit is, however, regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes but a special tax rebate is allowed for persons in receipt of superannuation benefit. The residential qualification is, in general, a period of residence in New Zealand of 20 years. In the case of a person who was ordinarily resident in New Zealand on 15 March 1938, the qualifying period is 10 years only. Allowances are made for occasional absences.

For the 10 years' requirement, residence is not deemed to be interrupted by absence—

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 10 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand both at the date of application and on the date from which residence is claimed.

A similar proviso for the 20 years' requirement applies—

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 20 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand both at the date of application and on the date from which residence is claimed.

Provision is made to disregard absence of a totally blind person for the purpose of vocational training or treatment of the eyes; absence for special medical or surgical treatment or vocational training if there were good and sufficient reasons for leaving New Zealand to obtain that special treatment or training; absence of a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand and engaged in trading to and from New Zealand; absence with the armed forces of any Commonwealth country or any attachment to such forces in connection with any war. In each case, however, the applicant for benefit must have remained ordinarily resident in New Zealand during the absence. Absence on missionary work may also be disregarded subject to certain conditions.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other cash benefit except a family benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person concurrently.

At the date of commencement on 1 April 1940, and for the remainder of the year, the rate of benefit was $20 a year, thereafter being increased by $5 a year. As from 1 October 1951, however, the amount payable for the balance of the year 1951-52 was raised from $75 to $150 a year, this amount increasing by $10 a year on 1 April of each succeeding year to $220 a year in 1958. From 1 April 1959 the rate increased to $312 a year, from 30 March 1960 to $416 a year, from 12 October 1960 to $442 a year for a married person and to $494 a year for an unmarried person. Subsequent increases have kept the benefit in line with age benefit rates.

Age Benefits—Every person who has attained the age of 60 years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to satisfying certain residential qualifications. The residential qualifications are the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits.

The basic rate of the benefit is $624 a year, subject to certain deductions on account of income. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:

Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is increased to $689, although reduced by $2 for every complete $2 of income in excess of $572 a year.

Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit the basic rate is reduced by $1 for every complete $2 of their combined incomes in excess of $572 a year. In cases where only one of them is entitled to the benefit the reduction is at the rate of $2 for every complete $2 of their total income (excluding a family benefit) in excess of $1,196 a year. A further provision allows of an extra payment not exceeding $624 a year, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit, except family benefit, under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple, plus benefit, of $1,820 a year.

For the above purposes, income is deemed not to include amounts received by way of war disablement pension or basic war widow's pension.

From 1 August 1955 age benefit has been payable, in the discretion of the Commission, to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to engage in regular employment.

Age beneficiaries may surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

Any deduction from the maximum rate of benefit because of excess income may be diminished by $13 for each year that an applicant, on having attained the age of 65 years, has deferred applying for a benefit between the ages of 60 and 65 years, provided that he was residentially qualified to receive the benefit during that period.

During 1967-68, 665 existing beneficiaries and new applicants received additional benefit for the first time on account of the deferment concession. The periods of deferment were: one year, 67; two years, 86; three years, 80; four years, 88; and five years, 344.

A special allowance of $52 a year may be paid to any person in receipt of an age benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War or in any of Her Majesty's forces in that war if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war.

Age beneficiaries with dependent children may be paid family maintenance allowance as a supplement to their benefit. In addition, family benefit is payable at $1.50 a week for each child.

The Commission may also, in its discretion, increase by an amount not exceeding $52 a year the rate of any benefit under Part I of the Act payable to any beneficiary who was one of the parents of a deceased member of any of Her Majesty's forces established in New Zealand whose death was attributable to service with the forces. Similar powers exist in respect of a parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand mercantile marine whose death was attributable to the Second World War. The provision also covers from 1 April 1949 the case of a deceased member of any force or of the mercantile marine of any part of the British Commonwealth other than New Zealand who was domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Second World War and whose death was directly attributable to that war. At 31 March 1968 there were 1,372 of these allowances in force, this representing a decrease of 89 from the figure of 1,461 for 1967.

Where an applicant for an age benefit is totally blind, the rate of the benefit, together with any benefits and allowances payable to or in respect of the wife or husband of the applicant, is not to be less than the total of benefits and allowances that would have been paid if the applicant had been eligible for an invalid's benefit.

The number of age benefits in force at 31 March 1968 was 94,948, an increase of 2,050 as compared with the figure at the end of March 1967. The 1968 total was inclusive of 6,531 husbands receiving benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right, and of 21 males receiving the additional allowance of $52 a year paid to veterans of the South African War.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of (a) persons who were granted age benefits during the calendar year 1967 (including transfer from widows' and invalids' benefits), and (b) total age beneficiaries at 31 December 1967.

Age, in YearsPersons Granted Age Benefits During 1967Total Age Beneficiaries at 31 December 1967
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
601,5102,7504,2609711,4882,459
614707301,2001,6883,0184,706
624105509601,8893,6735,562
635104109202,0163,8735,889
642204006202,3963,9056,301
    Totals, 60-643,1204,8407,9608,96015,95724,917
65-691,1303201,45010,40612,36822,774
70-742503706203,91510,19414,109
75 and over1801403209,75222,44632,198
Totals4,6805,67010,35033,03360,96593,998

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit, subject to residential qualifications.

  1. A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 15 years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under 16 years of age was not less than 15 years:

  2. A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of 50 years:

  3. A widow of not less than 50 years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of 40 years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 10 years and that not less than 15 years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under 50 years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit. The term “children” may include (in the discretion of the Commission) any child who is being maintained by the applicant and was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:

Any married woman who satisfies the Commission that she has been deserted by her husband and has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Destitute Persons Act 1910 may, in the Commission's discretion, be granted a widow's benefit as though she were a widow, provided that she would have been able to qualify for widow's benefit under the above-mentioned conditions if her husband had died on the date he deserted her. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of a maintenance order or otherwise, are required to be paid to the Department and any balance over and above the amount of the benefit is paid to the beneficiary. Benefits for deserted wives may be continued after divorce, in the discretion of the Commission.

Up to 31 March 1965 similar coverage of widow's benefit was extended to any married woman in respect of whose husband a reception order was in force under the Mental Health Act 1911 (whether or not he was detained in an institution under that Act) or whose husband was for the time being an inmate of an institution under that Act, whether as a voluntary inpatient or otherwise. From 1 April 1965 the nomenclature of benefit granted to the wife of a mental patient was changed from widow's benefit to “special benefit”. Special benefit is granted only where the applicant's husband has been an inmate continuously for a period of at least six months immediately preceding the date of application for benefit. Assistance during the first six months of the husband's hospitalisation is available (where eligible) by way of sickness benefit.

The rate of benefit payable to a widow is $6 a year plus a supplementary benefit (mother's allowance) of $494 a year in cases where there is one dependent child and $546 a year where there are two dependent children under 16 years of age. For each additional dependent child under 16 years the mother's allowance is increased by $52 a year.

Any income received, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widow's pension, is taken into account in computing the benefit payable. Where such income exceeds $572 the annual rate of benefit is reduced by $2 for every complete $2 of such excess, but in the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction is $780 a year. The maximum of income plus benefit in the case of a widow without dependent children is $1,261 a year and for a widow with one dependent child is $1,963 a year. This maximum is increased by $52 a year for each additional dependent child. A widow with dependent children will, of course, receive in addition the family benefit of $1.50 a week for each child.

Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' and “special” benefits in force at 31 March 1968.

StatusWith One Dependent ChildWith Two or More Dependent ChildrenWithout Dependent ChildrenTotal
Widows2,6553,0378,53414,226
Deserted wives2335923681,193
Totals2,8883,6298,90215,419
“Special” benefits17364093
Totals2,9053,6658,94215,512

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the date of his or her death. A stepchild or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organisations.

The maximum rate of an orphan's benefit is $351 a year reduced by $2 for each complete $2 of income received by or for the benefit of the orphan in excess of $104 a year. In any case where the amount of orphan's benefit falls below $78 a year application may be made for a family benefit $1.50 a week in lieu of orphan's benefit. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of 18 years.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1968 was 301 (in respect of 398 children).

Family Benefits—As from 1 April 1946 the father or mother of any child or children under 16 years of age may apply for a family benefit, irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were payable subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is $1.50 a week for each child, and in every case is paid to the mother of the children, unless in special circumstances the Commission considers that it should be paid to the father or to some other person for the benefit of the children.

If a beneficiary in receipt of an age or other monetary benefit is the parent of dependent children, payment in respect of the children is made by way of a separate family benefit.

The term “children” includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include—

  1. Any child who has attained the age of 16 years, unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time day pupil at a school or college, or is by reason of some physical or mental defect totally incapacitated from earning a living. In such cases the commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of 18 years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.

  3. Any child in respect of whom any other benefit or pension (other than a war pension or allowance in respect of his own disablement) is payable out of public moneys.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely—

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education nor in respect of any child residing in an institution under the care of the Division of Mental Health of the Department of Health. Family benefits are payable to children of a member of any of Her Majesty's naval, military, or air forces.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child of a marriage or a child who has commenced his first year of secondary education.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of new home properties or purchase of houses from the Crown, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of the family benefit in respect of one or more children from the age of one year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $2,000.

Details of family benefit capitalisation are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedNumber of Benefits ConcernedCapitalised Value of Benefits
   $(000)
196111,44221,17014,470
19629,73916,98811,919
19638,88414,93110,503
19648,13713,6049,756
19658,28814,07410,162
19667,48512,9869,250
19676,62111,2838,238
19686,55310,8117,901

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts at 31 March 1968 was 142,857 and the amount lodged during the year was $26,491,122. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1968 was 401,278 covering 1,006,365 children, compared with corresponding figures of 388,207 and 973,584 at 31 March 1967. Included in the total were 22 incapacitated children over the age of 16 years; and at the end of the 1967 school year there were 51,160 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The following table gives the number of family benefits in force at 31 March 1966 classified according to the number of children for whom the benefit is paid. (This classification is available only at five-yearly intervals.)

Number of Children in Each CaseNumber of Benefits at 31 March 1966
1107,602
2113,644
378,363
442,262
518,181
68,388
74,208
82,058
91,035
10 or over852
Total376,593

The average number of children in respect of whom benefit was paid was 2.25 per family in 1950-51, 2.30 in 1952-53, 2.33 in 1954-55, 2.36 in 1956-57, 2.39 in 1958-59, 2.45 in 1960-61, and 2.51 in 1965-66.

Invalids' Benefits—Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of 16 years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—

  1. Is totally blind; or

  2. Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:

  1. That he has fulfilled certain residential qualifications, these in the main being the same as for superannuation benefits described earlier unless the disability arose in New Zealand.

  2. That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalid's benefit.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate, if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment of the eyes.

The prescribed rates for invalids' benefits, together with the amounts of allowable income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, are as follows.

Class of PersonAnnual Rate of BenefitAnnual Income Allowed Without Reduction of Benefit
 $$
Unmarried person under 20 years585572
Married man624572
Wife624
Married woman6241,196
All other persons689572

Dependent children are provided for by way of family maintenance allowance. In addition family benefit is payable at $1.50 a week for each child.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by $2 for every complete $2 of income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widow's pension, in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings provided his total personal income from all sources including the benefit does not exceed $1,573 for an unmarried person and $1,508 for a married person.

Any person in receipt of an invalid's benefit who, on the attainment of age 60, becomes entitled to receive an age benefit is required to relinquish his invalid's benefit and is granted an age benefit in lieu thereof, but the aggregate amount payable for a blind beneficiary and his wife (if any) is not altered by this transfer.

Of 811 new benefits granted in 1967 the marital status was: single 415 (205 males, 210 females), married 266 (259 males, 7 females), widowed 35 (20 males, 15 females), and apart, separated, divorced 95 (48 males, 47 females). By far the greatest number were aged 50 years or over, 388, the numbers for other age groups being as follows: under 20 years, 163; 20–39 years, 128; and 40–49 years, 132.

Miners' Benefits—Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and totally incapacitated for work, The term “miner's phthisis” means pneumoconiosis or tuberculosis of the lungs. The necessary qualifications are—

  1. Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than a total period of two and a half years:

  2. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:

  3. That compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of the same disability is not being received.

The rates of miner's benefits are $624 a year (or $689 if unmarried), increased by $624 a year for a wife. Dependent children under 16 years are provided for by way of family benefit at the rate of $1.50 a week each.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife.

Provision is made for medical examination where necessary to determine whether the applicant is permanently incapacitated for work, or the extent of his incapacity.

An applicant whose claim has been declined on medical grounds has a right of appeal to a board consisting of three registered medical practitioners appointed by the Department.

A special provision is made for the payment of a reasonable contribution towards the funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of $624 a year, during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Payment of benefits is not affected by a period or periods of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate.

Unemployment Benefits—Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the age of 16 years who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:

  1. That he is unemployed:

  2. That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:

  3. That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:

  4. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:

  1. If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:

  2. If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:

  3. If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:

Unemployment benefits are payable usually in accordance with the following scale:

 Weekly Benefit
 $
Person under 20 years without dependants10.25
Married man with wife included24.00
Others13.25

Dependent children are provided for by way of family maintenance allowance. In addition, family benefit is payable at $ 1.50 a week for each child.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit of up to $12.00 a week only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife in excess of $11.00 a week.

The numbers of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1967 and 1968 were 2,012 and 37,043 respectively, 1,300 persons being granted a benefit in 1966-67 and 24,027 in 1967-68. At the end of March 1968, 4,424 benefits were in force, compared with 230 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 7,933 of the benefits granted during 1967-68 and in 1,341 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1968.

Sickness Benefits—Every person over the age of 16 years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time and who satisfies the Commission that he is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of $24.00 a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman shall be entitled to receive a sickness benefit of up to $12.00 a week, only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Subject to the foregoing remarks concerning amount of benefit, the rates of sickness benefits are as follows:

 Weekly Benefit
 $
Person under 20 years without dependants10.25
Married man with wife included24.00
Others13.25

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit of up to $10.25 a week in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Dependent children are provided for by way of family maintenance allowance. In addition, family benefit is payable at $1.50 a week for each child.

The rate of benefit computed as aforesaid is reduced by 10c for every complete 10c of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of $11 a week.

The numbers of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1967 and 1968 were 35,366 and 35,432 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits was 32,278 in 1966-67 and 32,295 in 1967-68.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1967 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
0–49,0212,59011,611
5–126,1632,8038,966
13–252,3603,2095,569
26–521,1656211,786
53–104336131467
Over 10412065185
Totals19,1659,41928,584

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data are obtained from an analysis of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1967.

Disease or InjuryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases1,0523464.9
Neoplasms4492592.5
Allergic, endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases5311712.5
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs76390.4
Mental, psychoneurotic, and personality disorders1,4428868.1
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs8332253.7
Diseases of the circulatory system2,0933028.4
Diseases of the respiratory system2,1985379.6
Diseases of the digestive system2,68156011.3
Diseases of the genito-urinary system4423372.7
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy..4,03414.1
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue6181412.7
Diseases of the bones and organs of movement1,3013885.9
Congenital malformations77280.4
Senility, and ill-defined conditions1,3035636.5
Accidents, poisonings, and violence4,06960316.3
Totals19,1659,419100.0

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit. The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission.

Payments of benefits for which tuberculosis sufferers may qualify are at the rates of $12.25 a week for a single person under 20 years of age without dependants, $15.25 a week for a single person 20 years and over, and $27.00 a week for a married couple. These rates are increased by 50c a week for each dependent child.

Family Maintenance Allowance—The family maintenance allowance, which was introduced from 7 August 1968, is a supplement to certain basic social security benefits. It is payable, in the discretion of the Social Security Commission, to beneficiaries who have dependent children and are receiving one of the following benefits—age, invalids, sickness, unemployment, or related emergency benefits. No allowance is payable for the first dependent child of a married couple.

The allowance is paid to a married couple at a rate not exceeding 75c a week for the second dependent child, increased by not more than $1 a week for each additional dependent child. A sole parent is paid at the rate of $9.50 a week for the first dependent child, increased by $1 a week for each additional dependent child. (This rate is the same as the mother's allowance paid in conjunction with widows benefit to beneficiaries who have dependent children.)

Supplementary Assistance—Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to social security beneficiaries and others who have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other resources, and are unable to help themselves. Welfare and other organisations have been encouraged to assist in bringing this source of help to the knowledge of persons who might qualify, and departmental literature has included information on the purpose of supplementary assistance. Continuing grants are made where the applicant's continuing commitments, e.g., food, fuel, rent, are in excess of the income received by the applicant, and lump sum grants may be made to meet some non-recurring expense. An analysis of these grants showing purpose and amounts of grants, is given in the parliamentary paper H. 9, 1968. More detailed analyses are given in earlier parliamentary papers.

In the 1967-68 year, 20,260 applications for assistance were granted, expenditure totalling $2,520,044, compared with 17,587 grants totalling $2,108,168 in 1966-67.

Domestic and Nursing Concession—Certain female social security beneficiaries or the wives of social security beneficiaries were allowed, in addition to the ordinary income exemption, to earn up to $156 a year in domestic or nursing service in private homes, hospitals, homes for the care of the aged, or charitable institutions approved by the Commission, without their benefits being reduced. This concession ceased on 14 May 1969.

During the year 1967-68, 250 applications were received for employment in private homes and 238 were granted, while at 31 March 1968 there were 439 concessions in force, compared with 458 at the end of March 1967. During the year 1967-68, 436 applications were received for employment in hospitals and institutions, and 423 were granted, while at 31 March 1968 there were 692 concessions in force.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit except New Zealand non-means-test superannuation benefit in respect of a person covered by this Act, residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids', or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the Commission shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia for a limited period, although the Commission may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1968 comprised 462 age benefits, 33 widows' benefits, 2 family benefits, 26 invalids' benefits, 8 sickness benefits and 11 unemployment benefits, a total of 542 compared with 554 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1956 brought into operation from 1 April 1956 an agreement providing for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

This principle is modified to the extent that the United Kingdom has agreed to continue to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions in New Zealand to former residents of the United Kingdom who are qualified under the United Kingdom scheme. In such cases, New Zealand will supplement such pensions where necessary to bring them up to the New Zealand rates.

United Kingdom Residents in New Zealand—In New Zealand the agreement applies to former residents of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Isle of Man who claim age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act. Permanent residence in New Zealand is a requirement for age, superannuation, widows', and invalids' benefits.

The agreement modifies the residential requirements of the Social Security Act and enables persons who formerly lived in the United Kingdom to be treated as if they resided in New Zealand during any period they lived in the United Kingdom. Though the normal qualifying age for a grant of age benefit in New Zealand is 60 years, no man claiming age benefit by virtue of the agreement is entitled to receive it till he reaches 65 years.

The United Kingdom continues to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions to persons in New Zealand who are qualified under the national insurance scheme and, in such cases, New Zealand, where necessary, supplements the national insurance pensions to bring them up to the rate of the appropriate New Zealand benefit. There is no supplementation in cases where the national insurance retirement or widow's pension is equal to, or greater than, the corresponding New Zealand social security benefit. Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1968 comprised 5,216 superannuation benefits, 3,417 age benefits, 252 widows' benefits, 16 family benefits, 108 invalids' benefits, 14 sickness benefits, and 15 unemployment benefits, a total of 9,039, compared with 8,345 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mother's and guardian's allowances, sickness and employment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The United Kingdom scheme is a contributory scheme, and payment of benefits is dependent upon the satisfaction of specified contributory conditions.

The agreement modifies the provisions of the National Insurance Act of the United Kingdom and enables persons who formerly lived in New Zealand to be treated for the purpose of satisfying the contribution conditions of that Act as if they had paid contributions under the national insurance scheme for each week during which they had been resident in New Zealand. The qualifying age for retirement pension under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age.

A married woman who was receiving age or superannuation benefit in New Zealand cannot qualify in her own right for a retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless she has, since the date of her marriage, paid at least 156 contributions under the legislation of the United Kingdom, or was treated under the New Zealand legislation as an unmarried woman. She may, however, qualify for a wife's allowance, provided that her husband has attained the age of 70 years or has retired from regular employment and attained the age of 65 years.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand who leave New Zealand wholly or mainly for a visit to the United Kingdom will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefit for the period of their absence. If they apply for, and receive, national insurance pensions while in the United Kingdom, the amount paid by the United Kingdom will be deducted from the arrears of social security benefit payable on their return.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading) :

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946— see later headings:

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health, and medical services not rendered by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a reasonable fee not exceeding 75c for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Milage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday or holiday, or between the hours of 8 m. and 8 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be a reasonable one not exceeding $1.25. For specialist services an amount not exceeding 75c for each attendance is likewise recoverable. Doctors may claim directly from the Department of Health and require the patient to pay the balance of his fee, or may require the patient to pay the whole fee and himself claim a refund from the Department of Health. There has been a steady swing towards the direct-claim system by doctors, and 85 percent now follow this practice.

The number of doctors providing general medical services in March 1968 was 1,860 and the number of “services” per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1968 was 4.0 (the same as the preceding year); the average population per general practitioner was 1,454.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Under these benefits, which came into operation on 5 May 1941, persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed for their use by medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1968 totalled 17,243,008, or 6.3 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $1.23, the cost per head of population being $8.17.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. The Act provides for the payment to the proprietors of private hospitals and to other approved institutions of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. In the case of private hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1 July 1939, and the rates from 1 August 1966, which vary for different classes of treatment, are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $5.90 a day, with a minimum of $11.80.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $4.00 a day.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients the Minister may from time to time authorise the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

In addition to the public hospitals and licensed private hospitals, there is another limited class of semi-public hospitals which, in accordance with the Act, has been approved for the purposes of hospital benefits. Special rates were determined for these classes of hospital, and such payments must be accepted in full satisfaction of the claim of the institution authorities.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any inpatient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which is concerned with the treatment of arthritis and cerebral palsy. Treatment is free except that a small charge is made in respect of single-room accommodation at Queen Mary Hospital when obtained at the request of the patient.

The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 provide for free treatment of outpatients at public hospitals. “Hospital treatment” in relation to an outpatient of any public hospital covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses (introduced 1 June 1947), hearing aids (1 November 1947), artificial limbs (1 April 1948), surgical footwear (1 December 1951), ileostomy and colostomy appliances (27 April 1955), urinals: men's (25 July 1955), women's (29 October 1959), and all medical, surgical, or other treatment afforded by the staff of the hospital; but does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear the conditions of supply provide for part payment by the patient. Inpatient treatment is provided free by public hospitals where the patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act.

Mental Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public mental hospitals has been without charge from 1 April 1939. A licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15 May 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1 October of that year. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims except in the case of a practitioner who is recognised as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable by the Department of Health, may recover additional fees from the patient. A medical practitioner may contract out of the maternity benefits provisions. In such cases the patient is responsible for all the fees.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:

  1. Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees of $5.90 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days. The licensee's contract permits a specified additional charge to the patient.

  2. Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive from the Department fees at the rate of $8 for the day or days of labour and $5.40 per day for each of the 14 days succeeding the birth of the child or $1.60 per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only. These amounts are in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—The benefits provided for comprise the following:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs:

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph:

  4. The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:

  5. The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the services that may be provided. This does not exclude examinations for medical certificates for the purposes of benefits under the Social Security Act or “sickness benefits” from a friendly society, or group examinations approved by the Director-General of Health.

The scale of fees payable in respect of services rendered by recognised radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Amendment No. 5, issued on 26 January 1960. In respect of recognised radiologists the amount of such fees is deducted from the amount charged to the patient, who is responsible for the balance, if any.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services came into operation on 1 April 1946, and comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and the provision of medical services incidental to any laboratory diagnostic service, except medical services of a kind that are not ordinarily performed by pathologists as such, and the provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of laboratory diagnostic services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

The schedule of fees payable from the Department covers fees payable to recognised pathologists. The fee is in full satisfaction in respect of the services provided.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists is covered by the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Department of Health fee of 50c

No physiotherapy treatment is recognised for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than six weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation except in the case of certain specified diseases, illness, etc., approved by the Director-General of Health, when the period of treatment on any one recommendation may be extended up to six months.

Home-nursing Services—Home-nursing services free of cost to the recipients were introduced by the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, which stipulate that no charge may be made for district nursing services provided by any Department of State, hospital board, or subsidised association elsewhere than in a hospital or other institution, but provision is made for payments to these organisations from the Department of Health.

Domestic Assistance—The provision of monetary assistance to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes, or whose objects include the provision of such assistance, is made by the Social Security (Domestic Assistance) Regulations 1944. Assistance in this connection (commenced 20 December 1944) is restricted by the regulations to the following classes:

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reason of accident, sickness, etc.:

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity:

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise:

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits commenced on 1 February 1947, and at present are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age.

The regulations provide that the services may be provided—

  1. By a registered dentist in a State dental clinic; or

  2. By a State dental nurse in a State dental clinic; or

  3. By a contracting dentist pursuant to a contract under these regulations; or

  4. By a contracting authority in the dental department of a public hospital or in a dental school, pursuant to a contract under these regulations.

A schedule to the regulations prescribes the nature of the benefits that may be provided and a scale of fees payable to contracting dentists and authorities in respect thereof.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than —10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—Individual electrical hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

  2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy these conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by hospital boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding $26 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding five years, the hospital board may pay half (or up to a maximum of $13) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of section 22 of the Workers' Compensation Act 1956:

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon:

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes an initial supply of not more than six pairs of limb socks for such limbs, plus a further supply of two limb socks a year, and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY—All pensions payable to or on account of members of the forces, the Mercantile Marine, and the Emergency Reserve Corps are governed by the War Pensions Act 1954.

ADMINISTRATION—The Secretary for War Pensions, who under the Act must be an officer of the Social Security Department, is charged with the administration of war pensions under the general direction and control of the Minister in Charge of War Pensions. The Act also provides for the appointment of a War Pensions Board (or boards), which has the responsibility of granting or declining claims for pensions and allowances. This board consists of not less than three and not more than four members, one of whom must be a registered medical practitioner and one a representative of returned servicemen. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board, also appointed under the Act. An appeal board consists of three members, two of whom must be registered medical practitioners, one of these being a representative of returned servicemen.

GROUNDS FOR PAYMENT OF WAR PENSIONS—Pensions in respect of the death or disablement of any member of the New Zealand forces are payable to the dependants of the member (in the case of death) and to the member and his dependants (in the case of disablement) in any of the following cases:

  1. Where death or disablement occurred while on service overseas as a member of the forces in connection with any war in which Her Majesty was then engaged, or in connection with any emergency, whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand under the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise.

  2. Where death or disablement is attributable to his service in New Zealand or overseas, e.g., in Malaysia.

  3. In any case where the condition which resulted in the death or disablement was aggravated by his service in New Zealand or overseas.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first two months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The Act also states that the boards are not to be bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but shall determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

WAR PENSIONS AND ALLOWANCES, AND WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES: SUMMARY OF RATES—The list below summarises the rates of war and economic pensions and allowances as from 1 April 1969.

    Class of Pensions, Allowance, etc.
Dependants of Deceased Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve Corps—Weekly Rate
Widow—$
    Basic rate9.80
    Mother's allowance (where one child)9.50
    Mother's allowance (where more than one child) each additional dependent child)1.00
    Economic pension13.25
Child— 
    Where both parents dead or if not under control of mother7.80
    Other children1.50
Widowed mother (wholly dependent or mother of two or more sons being deceased members of the forces)— 
    Basic rate9.80
    Economic pension13.25
Widowed mother (partially dependent) 
    Basic rate4.00
    Economic pension11.00
Other dependant9.80
Guardian of children of deceased member12.00
Totally Disabled Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve CorpsWeekly Rate
Member—$
    Basic disablement pension13.30
    Special increment for blindness, multiple or serious disabilities7.90
    Economic pension (if unmarried $13.25)12.00
    Attendant's allowance16.00
Wife12.00
Child1.50
Other dependant12.00
War Veteran's Allowance 
    Unmarried veteran ($689 a year)13.25
    Married male veteran ($1,248 a year)24.00
    Married female veteran ($624 a year)12.00
 Yearly Rate $
    Age supplement (maximum) payable to veteran or to his wife, or both, as each attains the age of 65 years78.00
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
Clothing AllowanceWeekly Rate
    Loss of—$
    Two limbs or parts1.25
Leg or part1.15
Arm or part0.85
    Use of mechanical appliance apart from artificial limb (maximum)0.85

The payment of $1.50 a week to each child may be made either by way of family benefit or, alternatively, by way of war pension. In addition family maintenance allowance may be paid in certain cases.

Economic pensions and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $11 a week or $572 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, $15 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband is taken into account.

Any sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source up to $2 a week may be disregarded in computing the rate of pension or war veteran's allowance.

Pensions payable for specific disabilities are assessed as a percentage of the full pension payable for total disablement. The following schedule sets out the relevant disabilities and percentages.

Nature of DisabilityPercent of Full Pension Payable
Total blindness100
Incurable insanity100
Very severe facial disfigurement100
Amputation of— 
    Leg through hip joint; leg through upper third of thigh (if without useful stump); arm (where an artificial arm cannot be fitted with retention of elbow joint function)100
    Leg through upper third of thigh (if with useful stump)90
Permanent loss of speech90
Amputation of leg through knee joint or middle or lower third of thigh85
Total deafness85
Amputation of arm (where an artificial arm can be fitted with retention of elbow joint function)80
Severe facial disfigurement80
Amputation of leg below knee75
Loss of— 
    One eye; four fingers50
    Three fingers; thumb40
    Two fingers25
    Index finger of either hand20

If a member, while in receipt of a permanent pension of an amount of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension that would be payable in respect of total disablement, dies from any cause not attributable to service as a member of the forces, a pension may be granted to his widow or dependent children as if death was attributable to service. This provision is also extended to include the widow or dependent children of a member who was not in receipt of such a pension, but who, in the opinion of the Board, could have been granted a permanent pension of not less than 70 percent of total disablement if he had not died.

Other grants and concessions which may be made include the following:

  1. A free pass on the New Zealand Railways rail and road services to members in receipt of full permanent pensions;

  2. A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand Railways to amputees and others suffering locomotive disabilities to a degree of over 50 percent for which they receive permanent pensions;

  3. Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities. Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, etc., are also supplied free and kept in good order and repair;

  4. Payment of an annual travelling allowance of up to $52 to totally disabled pensioners who are unfit to travel alone;

  5. Payment of up to $200 towards the cost of structural alterations with a $50 provision for furniture to provide special accommodation for a pensioner suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis;

  6. Reasonable accommodation and out-of-pocket expenses are allowed for war pensioners reporting for medical examination or treatment while a reasonable amount may be paid by way of compensation in respect of loss of earnings;

  7. Interest-free loans to certain seriously disabled pensioners to purchase motorcars; payment of loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities; gallantry awards to disablement pensioners; and funeral grants in respect of deceased ex-servicemen.

Pensions to Dependants (other than Wives or Children)—In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family. “A member of the family” includes a parent, grandparent, step-parent, grandchild, stepchild, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, and mother-in-law. “Child,” in relation to any member of the forces, means a child under the age of 16 years, and includes an adopted child and an ex-nuptial child (subject to certain conditions). The parents of a male member of the forces are included in the definition of dependant in every case, without proof of preservice dependency. Also, except in the case of the wife, widow, children under 16, and parents, the eligibility of dependants is based on the expectation of dependency on the member.

Economic Pensions—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

The personal earnings of a disablement pensioner may be disregarded in the assessment of an economic pension to an amount equivalent to that by which the disablement pension is less than the amount of pension for total disablement.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES—The object of war veterans' allowances was to make provision for members of the forces who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. The term “veteran” includes—

  1. Any male member of the New Zealand forces who has served as such in actual engagement with the enemy or, by reason of his period of overseas service and the arduous or dangerous nature of it, is considered a proper person for the grant of an allowance:

  2. Any female member who has served overseas as a member of the New Zealand forces:

  3. Any person who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in the South African War and has attained the age of 75 years.

  4. Any person who was a member of the forces of any Commonwealth country other than New Zealand and who—

  1. Served outside that country with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy during any war or emergency in which New Zealand forces served; or

  2. Served outside that country and by reason of the period of service and the arduous or dangerous nature of such service is considered a proper person for a grant of an allowance; or

  3. Was in actual engagement with the enemy.

A condition precedent to the granting of a war veteran's allowance to a member of the New Zealand forces (or to a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served as a member of the forces of a Commonwealth country other than New Zealand) is a minimum of five years' continuous residence in New Zealand immediately preceding the date of the claim. Continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate, increased by one month for each year in excess of five that the veteran has resided in New Zealand; any absences as a member of the Commonwealth forces are also disregarded. For any other person residence of at least 20 years preceding application for an allowance is required, although absences not exceeding two years in the aggregate during that period are permitted with a further allowance of six months' absence for every year of residence in excess of 20.

Whether or not a claimant for an allowance is unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical infirmity is a question of fact to be determined by the War Pensions Board. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pensions in the determination of the basic war veterans' allowances.

Where any veteran and his wife have attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each may be paid provided that the amount of the age supplement, together with income from other sources and any disablement pension, does not exceed $572 a year.

Where a veteran in receipt of an allowance dies leaving a widow in respect of whom an allowance is being paid, a War Pensions Board may, in its discretion, grant the widow a gratuity equivalent to $1,198.60 a year for two years or of such lesser amount as it thinks fit.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable under the 1954 Act where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—The 1954 Act provides for the payment of pensions and allowances in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

WAR SERVICEMEN'S DEPENDANTS' ALLOWANCE—An economic pension, a wife's pension, or a veteran's allowance may be increased by $1 a week by way of a war serviceman's dependant's allowance where the recipient is the parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand forces, the mercantile marine, or Her Majesty's forces established elsewhere than in New Zealand. Where the deceased was a member of the forces death must have been attributable to war service or, if a member of the mercantile marine, death must have been directly attributable to the Second World War. If the claim is in respect of the death of a member of the British mercantile marine or of forces other than the New Zealand forces, the member must have been domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the war in which he served.

Family Maintenance Allowance—The family maintenance allowance, which was introduced from 7 August 1968, is a supplement to certain war pensions. It is payable, in the discretion of the War Pensions Board, to pensioners who have dependent children and are receiving an economic pension or a wife's pension or a war veteran's allowance. The allowance is paid to a married couple at a rate not exceeding 75c a week for the second dependent child, increased by not more than $1 a week for each additional dependent child. A sole parent is paid at the rate of $9.50 a week for the first dependent child, increased by $1 a week for each additional dependent child (this rate is the same as the mother's allowance paid in conjunction with a war widow's pension paid to widows with dependent children).

SUPPLEMENTARY ASSISTANCE—Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to provide for similar cases to those set out under social security supplementary assistance. During the year ended 31 March 1968 there were 701 grants totalling $58,442, compared with 649 grants totalling $56,050 in the previous year.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war veteran's allowance or economic pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid. Bursaries are paid at the following rates:

Class of BursaryPer Year $
(a) Secondary school children60
(b) Full-time university students70
(c) Part-time university students20
(d) Part-time technical school children3

The rates payable under (a) and (b) are doubled in the case of an orphan child or a child whose father or mother is in receipt of an economic pension or a war veteran's allowance.

During 1967-68, 2,913 bursaries were granted, expenditure on this behalf being $189,342 for the year. The 1966-67 figures were 3,162 bursaries and $192,690.

WAR PENSIONS APPEAL BOARD—A claimant may appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board from a decision of a War Pensions Board within six months of the date on which the decision of the latter was communicated to him. Such an appeal can be made only in so far as it relates to—

  1. The rejection of any claim for a pension in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the forces on the ground that the death or disablement was not attributable to his service as a member of the forces or that the condition that resulted in his death or disablement was not aggravated by such service.

  2. The assessment of a pension granted to any member of the forces in so far as the assessment is based on medical grounds.

  3. The rejection of any claim for a war veteran's allowance on the ground that the applicant is not unfit for permanent employment.

The appeal board may confirm the decision of the War Pensions Board or may grant a pension, or, within the limits prescribed by the Act, may increase or reduce the amount of any pension. The number of appeals dealt with was 129 in 1967-68. Of these, 44 were upheld.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1968 the Department dealt with 2,896 applications for war pensions. Of these, 557 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, and war veteran's allowances. The total for the previous year was 2,891, of these, 757 were in respect of the applicants' own disability. In addition there was 129 claims received during the year in respect of disablement arising from service with peacetime armed forces, of which 53 were granted and 76 declined.

Summary of Disabilities for Which Pensions Granted 1939-68—The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1968.

Class of Disability or DiseaseType of ServiceTotalPercentage of Total
Overseas (1939-45)K ForceJ ForceNew Zealand
Infections and infestations2,0599271572,3153.7
Nervous system9,75043131,74811,55418.5
Eye, ear, and nose7,16694201,5088,78814.1
Circulatory and blood system2,6571021,0753,7446.0
Metabolism and endocrine system438211796201.0
Respiratory system3,77330541,2375,0948.2
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,4363191,8817,35711.8
Digestive system4,73239131,2366,0209.7
Generative system351111264790.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues8,283122302,04010,47516.8
Skin2,57230125523,1665.1
Areolar tissue502-29810.1
Tumours and neoplastic growth2262-572850.4
Malformations3041-1324370.7
Amputations (not including fingers and toes)5144-225400.9
Urinary tract647831618191.3
Debility445--1095540.9
Totals49,40351116512,24962,328100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end. of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914-18)Second World War (1939-45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
195815,69424,33020310,88121269 51,164
195915,38324,42319912,1572128911652,336
196014,89024,43020912,9612124912752,671
196114,33924,51819714,2511928916153,522
196213,84524,67620914,7491729817853,711
196313,10424,73720315,1851627817453,454
196412,55624,52118414,3501425821251,870
196511,94624,62916713,8941223829550,974
196611,38924,71619013,4881121837750,200
196710,67624,50820412,8451023538648,657
196810,16024,49723912,642720641947,990
Expenditure $(000)
19586,5895,134397,07810741418,875
19596,6645,443359,01711841821,201
19606,7805,676359,85511841922,388
19616,6395,7593511,41011841923,884
19626,5835,8762612,25011842224,780
19636,3786,4181812,72010841725,573
19646,7566,9672712,928101042926,731
19656,5867,1262213,3489943727,142
19666,5077,8292313,2999854827,728
19676,5718,0183313,6368955628,336
19686,3998,3104213,5218955828,352

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following: (a) travelling allowances of $1 a week paid to 1,308 pensioners at 31 March 1968, (b) clothing allowances, of which 1,281 were being paid at 31 March 1968 and the annual value of which for 1967-68 was $58,570; (c) gallantry awards of an annual value of $7,906. The following are not included: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security amounting to $118,437 in 1967-68 and $146,386 in 1966-67; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners for total and permanent disablement and locomotive disabilities for which a permanent pension of over 50 percent disablement has been granted, costing $41,732 in 1967-68 and $45,996 in the previous year; (c) loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities, expenditure under this heading being $394 in 1967-68; (d) funeral grants which cost $57,624 in 1967-68; and (e) 25 interest-free loans in 1967-68 totalling $17,550 towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners.

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Social Security Department which are given in Section 6A.

The numbers of First and Second World War and K Force pensions in force as at 31 March of each of the latest six years are given below.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
PermanentTemporaryWidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914-18
19638,5531221,3363,0494413,104
19648,0381221,2703,0913512,556
19657,5031331,1513,1302911,946
19667,0661221,0233,1542411,389
19676,5201068953,1411410,676
19686,098887813,1761710,160
Second World War, 1939-45
196317,3964,1268731,63370924,737
196417,6283,7798491,67658924,521
196517,5543,8419181,77953724,629
196617,6353,7899611,86746424,716
196717,6723,5559531,89543324,508
196817,6923,4659372,00439924,497
K Force
1963101972-3203
1964103772-2184
1965101585-3167
1966116628-4190
1967131618-4204
1968139869-5239

The number of children for whom payments were made in 1967-68 but who were not included in the preceding table totalled 735, being 32 in respect of First World War pensions, 699 for Second World War pensions, and 4 for K force pensions.

The next table shows the number of disability pensions in force at 31 March 1968, classified according to percentage of disablement.

Percentage of DisablementFirst World WarSecond World War 1939-1945K ForceTotal
PermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporary
*Includes “over 100 percent” disablement which is a special rate pension for total blindness or other serious disablement.
100*1,299191,5703211243,225
90-9975311232-1223
80-89245433711911707
70-7956813748173331,508
60-6933510455242381,053
50-5956414996370951,958
40-4983861,28138112132,531
Under 402,1741912,1931,827995116,363
Totals6,0988817,6923,4651398627,568

Details of economic pensions payable at 31 March 1968 are now given, together with the totals as at 31 March 1967.

Class of PensionFirst World War 1914-18Second World War 1939-45K Force
NumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual Value
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
Ex-members with permanent pensions1,1496881,17866474.0
Ex-members with temporary pensions9518510221.0
Widows2,3351,4191,43385510.6
Widowed mothers8425413210.5
Totals at 31 March 19683,5012,1163,0501,753116.1
Totals at 31 March 19673,6832,1252,8901,63194.5

REHABILITATION—The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments made provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen, and an extensive programme was promoted by the Rehabilitation Board, the National Rehabilitation Council, and the Rehabilitation Department. Under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953, regulations were made for the rehabilitation and protection of servicemen and dependants of servicemen who served overseas in connection with any emergency under the United Nations Charter or otherwise.

The Rehabilitation Board determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

On 1 April 1954 the Rehabilitation Department ceased to function as a separate Department and became a division of the Department of Internal Affairs, in the form of a board secretariat with regional representation at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. From 1 January 1960 the Rehabilitation Division became part of the Social Security Department.

Rehabilitation Assistance—All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K Force ceased on 31 March 1965.

Resettlement assistance, limited to housing and furniture loans, is available to servicemen with earlier service in the South-East Asia area, but men with service in the area from 1 April 1965 may be granted resettlement assistance on an extended scale. Housing loans for men with qualifying service after 1 April 1965 have an increased limit. Subsidised trade training and education assistance have also been made available. For those men who still qualify for resettlement assistance by way of furniture loans, the maximum limit has been increased to $400.

Closing dates for housing and furniture loans have been set at 31 March 1971 or five years from the date qualifying service ceased, whichever is the later. Application for subsidised trade training and education assistance must be lodged within two years of return to New Zealand.

No time limits have been fixed in respect of the availability of any rehabilitation assistance for (a) children of deceased and totally incapacitated ex-servicemen, or (b) ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be retarded or interrupted or become necessary from war disability. Appropriate forms of assistance for these groups will continue under such terms and conditions as may be considered appropriate by the Rehabilitation Board from time to time.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the year ended 31 March 1968, together with the totals to 31 March 1968, was as follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1968To 31 March 1968 From Outset
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance$(000) 30$(000) 3,807
Trade training—
    Payments to Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, etc.324,678
    Trade-training centres operated by Rehabilitation Board-11,721
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen6286
    Other expenditure-469
 3817,154
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans)2,24696,059
ItemYear Ended 31 March 1968To 31 March 1968 From Outset
Loans—$(000)$(000)
    Interest concessions1,37732,090
    Loans authorised2,367411,896
Reserve Fund contributions295,226
    Suspensory loans, etc.4311,407
 3,816460,619
Grants and other items1,323
Totals6,130578,962

6 C—SUPERANNUATION

GENERAL—Superannuation for all Government employees is provided for under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1956.

Local Government employees, and employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950 which also authorises certain schemes for members of the general public.

There are also a considerable number of private superannuation funds and some information about them is given at the end of this subsection.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948. Its revenues consist of contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Revenue Account and other funds, and interest earned on investments.

The Fund is administered by a board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director-General of Education, the Director-General of the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, five members appointed on the nomination of the various employee organisations, and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—Membership of the Superannuation Fund is now available for all employees of the State. These include employees of Departments of State under the control of the State Services Commission, and also those employed in the Education Service, the Railways Department, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the Armed Forces, the Police and Prisons Service, also for members of the Judicature (Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Arbitration), Maori Land Court Judges, Magistrates, and Members of Parliament. A contributor to the Fund who enters the service of the Government of Western Samoa or of the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation may, if the Board agrees continue to contribute to the Fund. In addition, the Fund has continued to be the vehicle for the superannuation scheme for the Cook Islands and Niue Public Services.

Compulsory membership also applies to any person, other than a married woman, who has become permanently employed in the Government service after 1 January 1964, and who is at least 17 and less than 25 years of age.

Contributions—Contributions range from 5 percent of salary for those under 30 years of age when they join the scheme, to 10 percent for those over 50 years of age. The rate of increase is in 1 percent steps for each five years of age. An alternative modified scheme within the framework of the standard scheme was introduced in 1955 under which contributors may elect to contribute only 60 percent of the standard contribution rates and receive only 60 percent of the standard benefits.

Benefits—Upon retirement a contributor entitled to a retiring allowance may elect to accept a refund of his contributions, or an allowance. If he chooses the latter he may vary the normal allowance by electing to (a) take an increased allowance to age 65, reducing thereafter, (b) surrender a portion of the allowance to provide after his death an annuity for his widow or other approved dependant, (c) surrender not more than one-quarter of his retiring allowance and to receive in lieu a lump sum payment equal to nine times the amount of the allowance surrendered.

Standard retiring allowances are computed at the rate of one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, to which is added an equal amount by way of employer subsidy. However the latter is not permitted to exceed one-third of the annual salary. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is taken to be the average of that received during the five years immediately preceding retirement, although in special cases (i.e., where the first computed portion of the retiring allowance is less than $300) the average salary received during the last three years may be used if it results in a more favourable computation.

Retiring allowances and other benefits are paid in advance in instalments every 28 days. No recovery is made should the beneficiary die during the benefit period.

When a married contributor dies, his widow may elect to receive a refund of his contributions or an allowance at half the rate of the allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired on the date of his death. The widow of a superannuitant may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half the rate of his retiring allowance, disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance for an approved dependant.

The amount of the widow's annuity cannot be less than $260 ($156 in the modified scheme). In addition, $78 per annum ($46.80 in the modified scheme) is paid for each child under 16 years of age (or 18 if still receiving full-time education) left by a deceased contributor or superannuitant. The widow's benefit is payable only during widowhood but is reinstated if after remarrying she again becomes a widow.

When a female contributor or superannuitant dies leaving a husband who can satisfy the Board that he was totally or partially dependent on her immediately before her death, a widower's annuity, calculated on a similar basis to the widow's benefit, may be paid.

Variation of General Conditions—As stated above, membership of the Fund is compulsory for the Police, members of the Prisons Service, and for the Armed Forces. Members of the Police and Prisons Service are obliged to retire at age 60 and to enable late entrants to obtain the equivalent of 40 years service for superannuation purposes, there are special provisions for the computation of their allowances. Where contributory service commenced after age 25, each year in the Police and Prisons Service is deemed to be one year and one-seventh. Where contributory service commenced after age 20 but before age 25, a lesser proportion is added. An increased rate of contributions is payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Contributions for members of the Armed Forces are the same percentage of salary as for the general State Services (i.e., excluding the Police and Prisons groups already mentioned) and their retiring allowances are computed in the normal manner. However, they may qualify for a retiring allowance after 20 years' service, irrespective of age, while for the general Service, qualifications range from 40 years' service to 65 years of age, in accordance with date of entry into the Fund.

Prior to the implementation in 1962 of equal pay for women in the State Services, female contributors could retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching 55 years of age. Those employed at 1 April 1962 may still do so but women who have joined the Fund since then have to satisfy the same retiring allowance qualifications as do males.

Members of the Judicature contribute at the rate of 7 percent of their salary. Their retiring allowances are based on a scale which varies according to length of service. The result of the formula is that after 10 years' service a pension equal to six twenty-fourths of the annual salary at date of retirement is payable, increasing by one twenty-fourth of that salary for each year over 10. The allowance, however, is not to exceed 16 twenty-fourths of that salary. A widow of a Judge is entitled to half her husband's retiring allowance subject to a minimum of 15 percent and a maximum of 25 percent of the husband's final salary.

Magistrates and Judges of the Maori Land Court contribute 8 percent of their salary. Their retiring allowances are based on one thirty-sixth of the annual salary at the date of retirement for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. The widow's benefit is calculated in the same way as for Judges' widows.

Members of all the groups mentioned above are entitled to a retiring allowance at any stage if they become substantially unfit for further duty. The allowances are based on the period of contributory service completed and are computed in the normal manner.

Members of Parliament contribute 10 percent of an ordinary member's salary. A member qualifies for a pension if he retires from Parliament having completed not less than nine years service as a member, or not less than eight years when he has served throughout the duration of not less than three sessions. The allowance is payable from age 50 onwards. The allowance is computed at the rate of one thirty-second part of an ordinary member's salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. The standard provisions for widows', widowers' and children's benefits apply.

Statistics—At 31 March 1968 there were 100,753 contributors, who paid $13,642,512 for the year into the Fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 26,551 and were entitled to $24,396,159 a year, made up as follows.

Class of PayeeNumberAnnual Allowances
MalesFemalesTotal
    $(000)
Retired for age or length of service13,6953,32417,01920,631
Retired for ill-health1,0291971,226657
Widows and dependent widowers17,0077,0083,007
Children6636351,298101
            Totals15,38811,16326,55124,396

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1968 amounted to $125,776,450. Total assets, which amounted to $126,690,145 included: Investments $121,586,600; interest due and accrued, $1,462,673; contributions in course of transmission, etc., $742,853; and cash in hand and at bank, $2,898,019.

The average effective interest earnings of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1968 was $5.01 percent.

The total revenue of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1968 was $41,073,152, including members' contributions $13,710,695, interest on investment and on contributions, $5,830,545, other items $1,108, and subsidy $19,530,804. The total amount expended during the year was $28,427,290, including retiring and other allowances $25,674,207, and refunds of contributions $2,753,083.

In the Parliamentary Superannuation Account revenue was $71,994 including contributions $34,295, subsidy $34,400, and interest $3,299. Expenditure on retiring and other allowances was $69,483 while refunds of contributions totalled $2,475.

The following statistics present a review of the operations of the Fund during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments, and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund
*Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
196482,6808,8673,75213,93718,13690,134
196586,73510,0654,14214,74320,02296,902
196692,20511,0404,59016,22021,690103,002
196795,77211,8435,17918,68923,161113,063
1968100,75313,7115,83119,53124,396125,776

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911 with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the public. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950 and its amendments.

The Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The Fund now provides four distinct services:

  1. Public Fund—It provides pension schemes for individual members of the general public and schemes for members of approved friendly societies, employees of firms, trade unions, etc.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—It administers superannuation schemes for employees of all local authorities and quasi-government organisations.

  3. Savings Superannuation Scheme for Farm Employees—It administers a superannuation scheme for farm employees.

  4. Local Authorities Investment Pool—It controls the investment pool into which local authorities may temporarily invest otherwise idle funds.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under the schemes and in most cases provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of contributions. However no State subsidy is payable in the farm employees scheme, while the trading quasi-government organisations in the local authorities schemes themselves meet the subsidy which is payable by the State in the case of local authorities.

The State meets all administration expenses.

Public Fund—Membership of the public part of the National Provident Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years.

There are two schemes offered and contributors may join one or both of them. The Level Premium Scheme permits a contributor to purchase a predetermined amount of pension from age 60 years by the payment of fixed, regular contributions, with the first $20 per week of pension attracting the State subsidy of 25 percent of contributions. After five years' membership contributors qualify for ancillary benefits in the form of incapacity allowances and widows' and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme enables members to purchase a pension by making contributions of any amount as and when they like. At the end of each 12-monthly period the total contributions made during that period are applied towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years. Only the first $1,000 of contributions in any twelve-monthly period attracts State subsidy while, as in the Level Premium Scheme, the subsidy is limited to the first $20 per week of pension purchased. There is a widow's benefit provided.

In both the schemes the contributor, when he reaches 60 years of age, may defer uplifting the pension (but to not later than age 65) and the pension ultimately payable increases 10 percent for each year of deferment. At the same time he may elect to contribute to a “Post-60 Scheme” and thus further increase the ultimate benefits.

When the pension becomes payable the following options are provided:

  1. Both schemes—Up to one-quarter of the pension may be surrendered in exchange for a lump sum equivalent to nine times the amount of annual pension forgone.

  2. Level Premium Scheme—The contributor may elect to receive a joint and survivorship pension with wife (husband). This means that the pension is immediately reduced but continues unchanged until the death of the surviving spouse.

  3. Annual Single Premium Scheme—The contributor may elect to surrender portion of his pension to provide an additional amount for his widow or an annuity for an approved dependant.

Local Authorities Superannuation—There are uniform superannuation conditions for the employees of all local authorities in New Zealand, although slight variations are made to suit the special needs of particular groups, e.g., nurses and firemen. The schemes embrace the staff of quasi-government organisations, e.g., producer boards, but again there are special variations when required (e.g., aircrew of the National Airways Corporation and of Air New Zealand). The schemes also cover teachers in private schools.

The standard benefits and contributions are substantially the same as those for the Government Superannuation Fund (see section on that fund). As there is provision for transfer to and from the Government Superannuation Scheme the result is that State and local authority employees have a wide range of transfer without loss of accrued superannuation rights.

By inter-Government agreement the National Provident Fund salary/service scheme is also the vehicle for superannuation for the Western Samoa Public Service, the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation, and the Bank of Western Samoa.

Savings Superannuation Scheme for Farm Employees—This scheme, which is employer-subsidised, was prepared with the co-operation of the Federated Farmers of New Zealand and is designed to meet the special needs of farm employees who are accustomed to serve more than one employer during their working lifetime. The basis of the scheme is contributions by the employees matched by the employer. They are accumulated with interest and bonus (with the State guaranteeing a minimum return of 4 percent) and used to purchase an annuity on retirement (normally between 60 and 65 years of age). At this stage the employee may take a quarter of the proceeds in a lump sum, or up to the whole proceeds if the money is needed for housing purposes. The scheme includes a benefit for widows while, unlike other schemes within the Fund, a withdrawing contributor receives interest, at the rate of 3 percent, on his personal contributions as they are refunded.

Investment Pool—Nearly 600 local authorities and other approved bodies are now paying money into the Fund for investment. Since the inauguration of the pool in 1955 the total amount invested in the Fund has been $655.0 million and the total amount withdrawn $566.4 million, leaving a balance of $88.6 million invested in the Fund as at 31 March 1968. The following table shows the various terms for which the money is invested in the Fund and the different classes of local authorities supporting the pool as at 31 March 1968.

Class of Local AuthorityAt Call6–12 MonthsOne Year and Under Two YearsTwo Years and Under Three YearsThree Years and Under Five YearsFive Years and OverSinking FundsTotal
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Cities and boroughs13,9391,0574,0371,0751,4153,8532,70228,078
Counties2,8872053936601,3488591,0877,439
Electric power boards2,4432175661004293,4201,6338,808
Fire boards27005707102102054065566
Harbour boards2,6841,6444400323,0802,52457410,978
Hospital boards2,5571,1181,9898504504654,72712,156
Sundry local authorities1,7791,4375842840481,8075736,512
Other approved bodies7,7266563811,2405163,56514,084
Totals34,2856,3918,4614,2627,31416,54711,36188,621

Just over a third of the pool is made up of money at call which cannot be expected to be retained by the Fund for very long and, as a result, a considerable portion must of necessity be invested in readily realisable short-term Government stocks. From the longer-term money has developed a “hard core” from which it has been possible for the Fund to augment substantially its normal investable income for lending to local authorities.

Investment of Funds—The following table shows the details of investment of all funds, i.e., including pool moneys.

Class of SecurityInvestments at 31 March
196619671968
 $ (thousand)
Government stock76,84469,87663,376
Local authority debentures88,008101,465118,555
Mortgages1,4531,5811,642
Company shares and debentures478478478
Western Samoan Government stock100100100
Totals166,883173,500184,151

Other Statistical Information—The numbers of contributors at 31 March 1968 were as follows.

FundMalesFemalesTotal
Annual single premium13,8111,68515,496
Level premium6,1424796,621
Farm employees6943697
Local authorities11,6914,04815,739
Totals32,3386,21538,553

Summarised statistics are set out for the last three years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196619671968
New contributors6,2526,5775,125
Total contributors at end of year33,45036,26638,553
Pensioners and other beneficiaries6,7016,9557,200
Income—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    Contributions5,9287,0667,219
    Interest4,3945,0525,468
    State subsidy1,3581,5851,602
Total income (including State subsidy)11,68013,70314,289
Outgo—   
    Pensions2,6512,7272,899
    Other benefits (includes capitalisation of retiring allowances)1,0751,3091,615
    Total outgo3,7264,0364,514
Funds at end of year82,68692,353102,433
Investment Pool at end of year87,01684,00088,621
Effective percentage rate—   
    Interest on Fund$4.78$4.95$5.02
    Pool profit$0.96$0.84$0.86

PRIVATE SUPERANNUATION FUNDS—Most large and many small employers have established their own staff superannuation funds. Certain taxation concessions are available to an employer and his employees in respect of their contributions to a superannuation fund provided the fund is approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, and it is probable that there are very few funds being administered which have not been approved. The totals of approved Funds as at 31 March in the years stated are as follows (as there is no information available on discontinuances, it is not possible to state the numbers in active operation).

19573,625
19583,844
19593,967
19604,201
19614,404
19624,702
19634,979
19645,197
19655,493
19665,860
19676,198
19686,472

Some funds, particularly those of larger organisations such as banks, oil companies, and insurance companies, provide for pensions on retirement. Although most funds provide for lump-sum payments on retirement, the relative proportions of persons covered by provisions for lump-sum payments or pensions is not known.

6D—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

LODGES AND MEMBERS—The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of OrderRegistrationsLodge Members
196519661967196519661967
*Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows23223022930,39730,24130,058
Independent Order of Oddfellows1791791806,5556,4246,410
National Independent Order of Oddfellows111343030
Ancient Order of Foresters1071041039,1248,9128,816
United Ancient Order of Druids13613613412,13411,89711,727
Independent Order of Rechabites4342412,2482,1992,119
Order of Sons of Temperance666328311307
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111555351
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society6968693,6793,7173,821
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia101010334317300
Isolated friendly societies737373437*424*414*
Working-men's clubs282828
Specially authorised societies464655
Totals93192493065,32564,52564,053

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, etc., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1967 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 735 “actuarial” lodges, with an aggregate membership of 64,053 at the end of the year, as compared with 738 lodges and 64,525 members for 1966. During the year 2,749 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 464 by clearance; 1,351 died, 521 left by clearance, and 1,813 by arrears, etc.

The various benefits under the social security scheme, particularly medical and hospital benefits (see Section 6A), have no doubt had a considerable effect on the membership of friendly societies; the number of members is now less than half the figure for 1938.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (735 in 1967) for which returns were received and tabulated by the Treasury.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS—In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

YearDeaths of MembersPer 1,000 Members at RiskDeaths of Members' WivesPer 1,000 Members at Risk
19631,35920.623004.55
19641,42521.693104.72
19651,33820.623024.66
19661,51022.992904.42
19671,35120.802894.45

The number of members sick during 1967 was 7,798 equal to 12.5 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1967 was 216,003 weeks, equal to 27 weeks four days per sick member and three weeks three days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1967 amounted to $28,642,493 made up as follows.

FundsAmountAssetsAmount
 $(000) $(000)
Sick and funeral funds16,784Investments at interest23,196
Surplus appropriation funds, etc.3,615Value of land and buildings5,251
Management funds, goods, etc.1,176Cash not bearing interest8
Distress, loan funds, etc.7,067Value of goods103
  Other assets47
  Owing by management funds37
Total28,642Total28,642

The net income from investments credited to the sick and funeral funds for 1967 amounted to $946,186 the average rate being $5.92 percent, as against $6.01 in 1966.

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last 10 years amounting to $10,960,000 or 62 percent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last 10 years amounting to $194.14 (77 percent).

YearTotal FundsAverage Capital per Member
 $(000)$
195717,682253.03
195818,280265.08
195919,049281.87
196019,980301.14
196120,985317.81
196221,964330.62
196323,045348.62
196423,759362.88
196525,580391.58
196627,133420.51
196728,642447.17

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

7 A—EDUCATION

GENERAL—The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity.

The Education Act 1964 provides for compulsory education, which is free and secular in State primary schools and predominantly free in State secondary schools, while the Universities Act 1961 provides for the advancement of university education.

The original Education Act of 1877, which was mainly concerned with the provision of State primary education, created the Department of Education and prescribed the constitution and functions of education boards and school committees. As far as the structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of State primary school administration, but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative functions of the three authorities. The general tendency over the first 50 years of the national system of education was for final power and responsibility to shift from the school committees to the education boards and from the education boards to the Department, but since 1930 this tendency has been arrested.

Secondary education, with the exception of that given in the district high schools (primary schools with a secondary department attached) was not brought within the province of Education Boards by the Act of 1877 (or subsequent legislation). Secondary schools, or, controlled and administered by their own boards of governors constituted by statute, or, more commonly, by Order in Council, and are in no way related to the Education Boards. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

The Department of Education is directly responsible for the curriculums in State primary and secondary schools, controls the inspectorate, and supervises the staffing of these schools and conducts the School Certificate Examination. It adminsiters the Correspondence School, the Technical Correspondence Institute, and State special schools. All schools are regularly visited by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. They also assess teaching efficiency for grading purposes in State schools.

The Department also distributes the funds voted annually by Parliament for education and administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings. Regional offices of the Department are situated in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

There are a number of private primary and secondary schools in New Zealand conducted either by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act. Private schools receive some financial assistance from the State, and are provided with certain professional services and school publications; they are subject to inspection by the Department of Education.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—A considerable amount of local and regional control remains. Statutory boards (i.e., education boards administering State primary schools and governing bodies of secondary schools) are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers, They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for maintenance of schools and new buildings of schools, and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee, elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district, which is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of the school committee form the electorate for electing the board members. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations.

Although the boards and the school committees have lost many of their original powers, they have continued to play an important part in the system. A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters. In the primary field in particular, the education boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school life facilities generally, and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department, the boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts.

Trends and Problems—In primary and secondary schools there have been problems arising from the dramatic increase in the school population during the post-war years. At a time when smaller classes were being planned for, the intake of pupils became greater than ever before and this slowed up the move to reduce the size of classes. Such reduction, however, is still regarded as a major educational objective.

Prominent among trends that have become discernible in recent years are the following: a more flexible school and class organisation; a fuller recognition of individual differences among children; study of subject-matter that has real meaning for children; free secondary education for all; and developments in the field of advanced technical education to meet needs arising from the expansion and diversification of industry.

THE SCHOOL SYSTEM—At the age of five years a child may enter, and at six years he must enter, either a State primary school or some other registered primary school, or, if living in an isolated area, must enrol with the primary department of the Education Department's Correspondence School. All State primary schools are coeducational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. This normally takes six years. The remaining two years of the primary course will be taken either in Forms I and II at the same primary school or, if there is one conveniently situated, at an intermediate school. The intermediate school is a centrally situated school which pupils enter from the surrounding primary schools (called in these circumstances “contributing schools”) after they have completed the primary-school course as far as Standard 4. Because the intermediate school comprises a fairly large number of pupils (usually between 300 and 700) who are mainly between the ages of 11 and 13 years it is possible to classify them into groups of approximately equal ability, provide a good range of optional courses, and utilise specialist teachers and advanced equipment to the full. As at this point in his school career the pupil's social and intellectual interests have developed, he is ready to take full advantage of the varied and enriched courses provided.

On completing a course in Form II, the child becomes entitled to free secondary education. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years. This means, in effect, that some period of secondary education is now compulsory for nearly all children. The only provision for exemption is inability to profit from the further period of education.

When a child leaves the primary stage he normally enters Form III of a secondary school. In some country areas a child enters the secondary department of a district high school or a Forms I–VI school.

School Certificates—The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is now regarded as the accepted test of a completed secondary education for the great bulk of the pupils who do not desire to proceed to university. The School Certificate Examination is taken at the end of the third or fourth year of the secondary course. The subjects of the examination are English and either three or four other subjects from a wide range. A pupil may, however, on the recommendation of the school Principal, sit the examination in five subjects in addition to English.

Higher School Certificates are awarded after a five years' course to pupils who have been awarded a School Certificate and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of two years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the Universities Entrance Board for admission to a University in New Zealand and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of one year. A Higher School Certificate may also be awarded after a four years' course to pupils who have obtained a credit pass or better in the Entrance Scholarship Examination of the Universities Entrance Board or have obtained, in addition to a qualification recognised by the Universities Entrance Board for admission to a University in New Zealand, an A or B pass in the Universities Bursaries Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

University Entrance—Prior to 1944 all pupils desiring to undertake a university course were required to sit and pass the University Entrance Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand. In 1944 a system of partial accrediting came into operation. Under this system pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' secondary school course. The University Entrance Examination is now conducted by the Universities Entrance Board, and pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the examination. The standard of the present entrance examination is somewhat higher than that maintained prior to the introduction of the accrediting system.

Pupils who have been accredited for, or who have passed, a University Entrance Examination, may without further secondary education receive a fees bursary entitling them to tuition fees for a recognised course at a university. The term of a fees bursary is normally the minimum period in which a student pursuing a full-time course of study in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. Where pupils have obtained a Higher School Certificate, they may receive a fees and allowances bursary. Also, a person who has obtained passes in the subjects or units comprising a full-time course in any year, may receive a fees and allowances bursary. A fees and allowances bursary is tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the student pursues a full-time course of study during each year of the bursary. The term of a fees and allowances bursary is similar to that of a fees bursary. Students who complete a bachelor's degree in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree may be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year are eligible for the award of a master' bursary. Further details of bursaries are set out later.

Between 14 and 16 percent of pupils leaving secondary school matriculate at the universities, but only about half of the number obtain a bachelor's degree between three and five years later. This pass rate is partly explained by the fact that a proportion of university students are part-time. The pressure on the universities to cater for part-time students has been partly a result of the national urge for equality of opportunity in education, but there are more full-time students today (about 70 percent) than in the past.

Special Groups—For children with various types of handicap there are numerous special educational services generally under the control of the education boards, and teacher conduct classes in the larger hospitals. The mentally backward are grouped in 216 special classes attached to ordinary schools throughout the country and for extreme cases there are 28 occupation centres in the main cities, and full-time or part-time occupation groups in 12 towns. In six of the largest cities there are 12 remedial clinics to assist children suffering from serious educational retardation (mainly in reading). Twelve reading advisers assist teachers in ordinary schools in coping with backward readers.

Two residential schools cater for the needs of the deaf and those partially deaf children who cannot profit from teaching in an ordinary primary school. In addition, 12 classes for severely deaf and three for partially deaf children are attached to ordinary schools. A national diagnostic and guidance service organised in association with the two schools for the deaf gives assistance to deaf babies and infants and their parents' and advises teachers in ordinary schools who have children with a hearing loss in their classes. Children with speech defects attend regularly one of 102 speech clinics.

In Dunedin there is a class for partially sighted children. In Christchurch there is a resource centre for blind and partially sighted children. Homai College, a residential school for blind children operated by the New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, is situated in Auckland, and caters for 166 blind children. Six schools have been organised as separate units for severely physically handicapped children including those who are cerebral palsied.

There are nine day classes for maladjusted children, and the Department of Education operates two residential schools for severely disturbed children. Other special schools and homes which take care of children with the more serious and deep-seated problems of maladjustment or delinquency, the schools for the deaf, and two special residential schools for the mentally backward, are administered by the Child Welfare Division, which, in educational matters, is under the control of the Minister of Education.

The psychological service of the Department of Education is established in 18 centres; it comprises 50 psychologists, who offer a comprehensive diagnostic and guidance service, and 19 organisers of special classes for mentally backward pupils. The Department provides education officers for special classes conducted by the Department of Justice in prisons for prisoners whose basic education is of a low standard.

Private Schools—In addition to the various State schools there are a number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. Some financial assistance is provided by the State. No Government free place is tenable at private schools*, but an academic bursary or a secondary school bursary (referred to later) may be tenable. Assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that over the last two decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

Pre-school Education—Children below the age of five years are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local free kindergarten associations, which are voluntary bodies formed for the purpose, or at play centres controlled by play centre associations.

The Government makes grants available to kindergarten students in training, and accepts responsibility for the cost of sites and buildings for training centres. The salaries of kindergarten teachers and full-time training centre staff are paid by the Department of Education, and grants are available towards the fees of part-time lecturers in the training centres. Subsidies of $2 of $1 on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, buildings, and initial equipment for free kindergartens are paid by the Government. In November 1968 there were 21,500 children enrolled at 278 free kindergartens.

Play centre associations receive from the Government annual maintenance and liaison grants in respect of play centres which meet a required standard of equipment, and a small establishment grant towards initial costs is paid to new centres. In May 1968 there were 420 recognised play centres for approximately 12,000 children.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS—The primary school system at the end of 1967 consisted of 2,270 State primary schools (of which 114 were Maori schools), 340 registered private primary schools (including eight Maori private church schools), and two lower departments of secondary schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met from public moneys. At the end of 1967 the total number of pupils in the two such departments of secondary schools was 100 with three teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes character training, English, arithmetic, geography and history, arts and crafts (including needlework), nature study, physical education (including swimming), health education, and music. Teachers are advised on the teaching of nature study, physical education, arts and crafts, reading, and music by itinerant specialists. Itinerant specialists are also available to teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metalwork instruction is given to boys at manual-training centres, and girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

*Except for Maori scholarship holders in the denominational secondary schools.

Textbooks are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands and Maori schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at End of YearPupils for First Four Weeks of Third Term
Average of Mean Weekly RollAverage AttendanceAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll
19622,212407,482395,917370,20993.5
19632,214415,501406,535380,00793.5
19642,239429,449417,850389,47993.2
19652,254441,581429,268400,76393.4
19662,265454,604442,665415,64793.8
19672,273468,021460,982432,03493.7

While the number of schools has not increased greatly, mainly owing to the consolidation of small rural schools, the total rolls have increased by 119,517 since 1957. The changes which have taken place in the size of schools may be seen from the following table.

Number of Public Schools19571967Increase (+) or Decrease (—)
Roll 70 and under948824— 124
Roll 71 to 350638711+ 73
Roll 351 and over378585+ 207
Totals1,9642,120+ 156

In each of the education districts are located inspectors of primary schools who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school inspectors at 31 March 1967 was 93, allocated as follows: Auckland, 24; South Auckland, 13; Hawke's Bay, 7; Taranaki, 4; Wanganui, 7; Wellington, 10; Nelson, 3; Canterbury, 13; Otago, 6; Southland, 5. In addition, there were six inspectors in the Head Office of the Department, and two inspectors in the Auckland office of the Department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II only of intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown. Maori schools are not included.

Age in Years1965: Total Pupils1966: Total Pupils1967Percentage of Total Pupils
BoysGirlsTotal196519661967
553,45657,10930,08928,86158,95013.213.613.5
653,45354,32429,59128,31157,90213.212.913.4
750,45653,57527,86126,36054,22112.412.812.5
849,05350,19727,66126,30153,96212.112.012.5
947,89549,25526,10824,88650,99411.811.711.8
1046,73148,50925,41624,21549,63111.511.611.5
1145,19646,58124,83923,23848,07711.211.111.1
1242,09344,12923,02321,00944,03210.410.510.1
1315,21714,8178,8856,19315,0783.83.53.4
141,4841,4267994861,2850.40.30.2
151361869973172
16 and over16015610287189
Totals405,310420,264224,473210,020434,493100.0100.0100.0

The next table gives the number of State primary schools other than Maori schools in each education district as at 30 September 1967, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll NumbersEducation DistrictTotal Number of Schools
AucklandSouth AucklandTaranakiWanganuiHawke's BayWellingtonNelsonCanterburyOtagoSouthland
*Includes one normal intermediate school.
1–81269
9–24191426312912452117214
25–3022578612323510101
31–7065784035443015885352500
71–1103148132118218261114211
111–150223077181451595132
151–190192584492810695
191–23015113768179673
231–27014102221011410671
271–31016744512593267
311–3501713325867162
351–390119335123109570
391–430171034416277474
431–470241955108432181
471–5101291368161350
511–5502282345312463
551–5901010443451243
591–630861228229
631–670103112623
671–7106233213
711–7506213113
751–7901348
791–8302136
831–8701113
871–91011
911–9502114
951–99011
991–1,03011
Normal schools2113119
Intermediate schools and departments33*14*46*7828*5*390
Totals387342123152181237673241681392,120

In addition, there were four State primary schools in the Chatham Islands and 36 special schools for handicapped children.

Primary Schools for Maoris—Some 83.6 percent of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in State primary schools controlled by education boards, 12.2 percent at Maori schools, and 4.2 percent at registered private schools (including those at Maori private schools). At 1 July 1967, there were 52,066 attending State primary schools controlled by education boards out of a total of 62,283 Maori children receiving primary education in New Zealand. In 1969 all Maori schools previously under the direct control of the Department of Education were transferred to the control of local education boards.

The language of instruction in the Maori schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, songs, legend, and history are taught. Health education is featured in every Maori school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 114 Maori schools at 1 July 1967 was 8,404 (including 814 non-Maori children).

In addition, 2,626 Maori children were on the rolls of registered private primary schools.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Maori schools during the latest five years.

YearNumber of Schools at end of YearRoll at 1 JulyAverage Attendance*Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll*Number of Teachers
MaoriEuropeanMalesFemales

*Average roll and attendance figures for first four weeks of third term.

†Includes junior assistants

196314210,18293010,16690.7210271
19641359,4778479,61991.3201250
19651288,7548598,67890.0193235
19661228,3108008,06086.5182269
19671147,5908148,11290.8191292

Four inspectors of schools attached to the Department of Education are engaged in the inspection of Maori schools, Maori private church schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 87 intermediate schools and 3 intermediate departments at the end of 1967 numbered 48,640. The progress that is being made with the establishment of this type of school may be gauged from the fact that 25 years earlier (1941) the number of pupils was 6,699. Of all children in Forms I and II of State primary schools at 1 July 1967, 50.5 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest three years were as follows.

Age, in Years196519661967
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10225364589265417682236399635
116,8137,66614,4797,3528,07415,4267,8908,60316,493
129,9749,25619,23010,83310,47121,30411,32710,51721,844
134,2582,8997,1574,1132,8977,0104,4113,0677,478
14452240692429228657366261627
15322658443882352257
16 and over5611448516
Totals21,75920,45742,21623,04022,12945,16924,27022,87047,140

The average roll at September 1967 was 47,275 and the average attendance for the same period was 44,768.

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years. The figures include Maori private church schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsRoll at End of YearAverage Attendance*Teachers
BoysGirlsTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Average attendance as at September.
196333728,85429,10457,95854,4772141,3531,567
196434129,09329,47858,57155,1482171,3861,603
196534028,96729,23258,19955,1722221,4321,654
196634028,31828,70457,02253,9482251,4461,671
196734227,88628,08855,97452,6572341,4271,661

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 274 at the end of 1967 with 48,266 pupils and 1,308 teachers (97 males and 1,211 females). The remaining private schools comprised 51 church schools of other denominations with 281 teachers and 6,270 pupils, and 12 undenominational schools with 72 teachers and 1,438 pupils.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first two years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools in existence during each of the latest five years.

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
196318084113377
196418282114378
196518678112376
196619471115380
196719471115380

District high schools are State primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Most State secondary schools are established under their own controlling authority, and district high schools are controlled by the education boards. Where a secondary school is established in place of a secondary department of a district high school, the education board of the district will usually control the new school for the first few years. Thereafter, the school will be placed under its own board.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to Department of Education. In 1967 there were 54 inspectors.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the latest five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included.

YearState Secondary SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsCorrespondence SchoolsTotal
1963110,5466,74423,045431140,766
1964113,9436,48523,864452144,744
1965125,5696,52525,073466157,633
1966130,3285,77625,585449162,138
1967136,4315,49126,232380168,534

The foregoing table does not include part-time students attending technical classes (53,342 in July 1967), students receiving part-time tuition from the Correspondence School (2,319 in July 1967), and students receiving part-time instruction from the Technical Correspondence Institute (12,639 in July 1967).

The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at the end of 1967 were: State secondary schools, 69,048 boys and 61,516 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, 2,543 and 2,679; endowed and registered secondary schools, 12,841 and 12,892; and full-time at Correspondence School, 141, and 239.

Duration of Stay at State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education in 1967, classified according to years of attendance.

Year of AttendanceState Secondary SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsPrivate SecondaryAll Schools
TotalsPercent
First1,10979701,2583.1
Second6,3733414817,19517.5
Third10,7515991,38112,73131.1
Fourth9,3422812,12011,74328.6
Fifth5,868381,4907,39618.0
Sixth and over58721127011.7
Totals34,0301,3405,65441,024100.0

Secondary Education for Maoris—At 1 July 1967, 14,383 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 12,649 pupils attending State secondary schools and Maori district high schools and 1,734 pupils attending private secondary schools.

Maori district high schools which are controlled by the Department of Education, provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils. There were seven of these schools in 1967 with 302 Maori pupils at 1 July.

Maori pupils receiving secondary education in private secondary schools at the end of 1967 included 1,137 pupils attending 10 Maori private secondary schools. Of this number, 160 pupils were holders of Maori post-primary scholarships, awarded by Government and tenable at a secondary school with approved boarding accommodation. A further 32 Maori post-primary scholarship holders were attending other private secondary schools and 120 were enrolled at State secondary schools.

Academic Boarding Bursaries—Bursaries of a maximum annual value of $130 may be granted to pupils of above-average ability who are obliged to live away from home in order to obtain tuition in all of the subjects of their chosen course of study for the School Certificate Examination. The bursary, limited to 400 awards each year, is tenable for up to three years subject to satisfactory reports on the pupils' progress.

Secondary School Boarding Bursaries—Bursaries, of a maximum annual value of $120 and tenable for a period of up to two years, may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a Sixth Form course at a secondary school (State or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under 18 years of age and must have either reached the required standard in the School Certificate Examination or have passed the University Entrance Examination or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical Boarding Bursaries—Bursaries of a maximum value of $130 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any secondary school a two years' course preparatory to a specialised course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building construction, commerce, or home science. The bursaries are tenable at secondary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of two years. Applicants must be under the age of 17 years at the commencement of the specialised course and must be obliged to live away from home in order to receive satisfactory instruction in the courses to be followed.

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving secondary schools during 1967 is contained in the next table. Of the totals, 15.6 percent of boys and 6.6 percent of girls intended to proceed to full-time university studies, while 3.8 percent of boys and 15.4 percent of girls stated their intention of entering the teaching profession. Clerical occupations (including typing) claimed 10.4 percent of boys and 24.9 percent of girls; shops and warehouses 6.1 percent and 10.7 percent; manual trades, 22.7 percent and 3.9 percent; farming, 15.5 percent and 1.3 percent; 0.4 percent and 6.6 percent intended to stay at home and take up domestic duties; various other occupations claimed 21.9 percent and 29.8 percent.

OccupationTotalsMaoris Included in Totals
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
University3,2741,3244213
Teachers' college8003,0883481
Professional cadetship736139425
Health services562,6883207
Office work—
    (a) Government or local authority7511,1455088
    (b) Industry and commerce1,4343,87240155
Shop and warehouse assistants1,2802,15370153
Skilled trades—
    (a) Government or local authority7627018517
    (b) With private employers3,98470724129
Farming (including those engaged at their own homes)3,25325240855
Factory operatives and clothing workers5801,142181308
Domestic work and at home931,33039475
Armed forces (not included elsewhere)534567625
Other occupations3,4102,111633361
Not known
Totals20,94720,0772,0441,972

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been undertaken wherever practicable. The extent of this consolidation will be evident from the fact that, whereas in 1934 there were 2,532 State primary (excluding intermediate) schools, the number in 1967, despite a considerable increase in the school population in the intervening period, was 2,030.

The problem of full intermediate-type education has remained, however, for a large proportion of Form I and II children in smaller country districts. To provide for these children another type of school—the area school—has been planned. The first of this new type of school was opened in 1969. Area schools may be established in districts where there are no district high schools, or in other centres where there is a district high school which is too small to be replaced by a Form I-VI school. The area school is a unified school providing education from primers to Form V for all children in the immediate vicinity and from Form I-V from contributing schools in a wider area.

Transport and Board—A natural consequence of consolidation was an increase in the numbers of pupils requiring some form of transport to enable them to attend the nearest school. In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now 17 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education. Financial aid towards the cost of fares is given in some cases where a suitable public passenger service is available. In addition, free passes on the railway to the nearest State or private school are granted to eligible children living near a railway line but at some distance from a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, district high schools, and private secondary schools.

In areas where there is no organised transport, capitation payments are made to parents for the conveyance of their children to school by car.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1967–68 was $4,563,271, as compared with $4,517,346 in 1966–67.

In certain cases, boarding allowances are granted to pupils living in areas where there are no available or convenient transport services to enable them to attend school. Boarding allowances are also granted to secondary pupils to allow them to take, in other centres, certain specified courses not available at their local school.

The expenditure on boarding allowances of pupils attending schools for the last four years is given in the table below.

 1964–651965–661966–671967–68
 $$$$
State primary and intermediate (other than Maori)12,89413,64115,78612,408
Private primary19,01820,54521,21417,013
State secondary242,362264,035289,496305,866
Maori14,95215,85210,43013,610
Private secondary145,700160,551166,864168,386
Totals434,926474,624503,790517,283

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1967, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the three preceding years are also shown.

Type of SchoolNumber of Pupils on RollTotal Pupils Transported to SchoolNumber Receiving Boarding Allowance
State primary schools443,75462,85389
State secondary schools (including district high schools)141,92237,7502,618
Private primary schools and lower departments of secondary schools54,9102,938153
Private secondary schools26,2322,5961,446
Totals, 1967664,818106,1374,306
Totals, 1966647,270105,1584,173
Totals, 1965629,517104,5044,206
Totals, 1964614,416104,7795,858

Correspondence School—Since 1922 correspondence classes have been conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness or other causes. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a State primary school can receive instruction by correspondence. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction in subjects involving practical work, such as needlework, woodwork, and the science subjects. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened and the work of the school facilitated by a number of teachers from the school visiting pupils in their homes in the first term each year and, in four areas, by round-the-year visiting by resident teachers. Residential schools are held in November each year to give pupils the opportunity of taking part in group activities and of intensive tutorial work in subjects not readily dealt with by correspondence. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small State primary schools and junior assistants in Maori schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government Departments, and others who are unable to attend classes at secondary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition, the school enrols teachers for the diploma in teaching courses.

In 1968 there were 6,610 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,094 being in the primary division, 478 full-time and 3,850 part-time students in the secondary division, and 1,187 students taking the Diploma in Teaching course. The staff of the school consists of the Principal, Deputy Principal, 142 teachers, 18 tutors, and 44 clerical personnel.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Yearbook.

EDUCATION BUILDINGS—The increases in school population coupled with development of new housing areas has led to a continued expansion of the school building programme. Figures for additional classrooms completed in recent years are shown below. The figures do not include classrooms to replace obsolete accommodation.

 PrimarySecondary
1960423463
1961388357
1962602457
1963521330
1964501305
1965500266
1966479264
1967528304

An important step in the building of new schools was the use of standard plans for both primary and secondary schools. In 1951 a Dominion Basic Plan for primary schools was introduced, while, in the secondary field, three standard designs were evolved; and a number of new schools were built to each of these plans over the period 1953 to 1956.

The year 1955 saw the application in New Zealand of the “block” principle in the planning of schools, giving improved teaching facilities and amenities at a lower cost. The first primary schools planned on the “block” principle opened in 1955, and the first secondary school in 1957. These planning principles were later developed further in two-storeyed secondary schools, the first group of which opened in 1960. Development is still proceeding with the design of new secondary schools in the light of changing needs.

Education boards are able to plan and build primary schools within specified limits or “white lines” defined on the one hand by a building code which lays down minimum requirements for each type of building, and on the other by the upper limit placed by the Government on the amount of money which it is prepared to allocate to any particular project. This provides for considerable flexibility in planning allied with cost control.

Further development has taken place in the design and provision of relocatable classrooms.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Class of Institution19631964196519661967
* Prior to 1963, technical schools providing advanced technical instruction.
Pre-school Education
Play centres5,7796,6108,95010,14311,802
Kindergartens18,02418,18018,82919,96420,886
Totals, pre-school23,80324,79027,77930,10732,688
Primary Education
State primary schools338,525346,908356,069367,392378,823
Maori (primary) schools11,11210,3249,6139,1108,404
Intermediate schools and departments36,39440,00542,21645,16948,640
Chatham Islands schools137117119125143
Correspondence classes964959952939943
Registered private primary schools56,34157,15457,24456,05054,910
Departmental special schools435427564471549
New Zealand Foundation for the Blind9092957199
Special classes5,9026,3846,9067,5788,387
Totals, primary449,900462,370473,785486,905500,898
Secondary Education
State secondary schools117,525121,573125,569130,328136,431
Secondary departments of district high schools7,4537,1366,5255,7765,491
Correspondence classes482493466449380
Registered private secondary schools23,60324,43925,07325,58526,232
Totals, secondary149,063153,641157,633162,138168,534
Technical Education
Technical institutes*     
    (a) Part-time students12,23812,91512,01112,16112,584
    (b) Full-time students7318729851,2111,344
Technical Correspondence Institute7,7109,06611,25713,24712,639
Secondary schools—     
    Part-time students48,91051,00056,40360,68260,314
Agricultural colleges—     
    Short courses391622399344493
Totals, technical69,98074,47581,05587,64587,374
Higher Education
Teachers colleges4,5364,6914,7905,0225,156
University institutions18,30319,64022,14524,30226,331
Totals, scholars and students715,585739,607767,187796,119820,981

The rise in enrolments at university institutions, due both to the increased number of post-war births and to the higher retention rates at secondary schools, continues. This is shown by the rise of internal students from 10,850 in 1957 to over 24,400 in 1967. At the same time there is now a minority of part-time students, thus producing a much heavier student load.

A statement by the Minister of Education (E. 2, 1967) on school and university enrolment projections for the years 1967–80 shows that further increases in the rolls at primary and secondary schools and at the universities must be expected in the period. With the assumed further rise in retention rates, secondary school enrolment is expected to increase substantially until 1977, when the total roll will be of the order of 240,000 (that is, one and a half times its present total). Between 1977 and 1980 secondary school rolls as a whole are expected to become stationary but enrolment at sixth form level alone will rise further. The school leaver projections suggest that in the next 14 years the proportion of all school leavers who are unqualified will decline from one-half to one-third, whereas the proportion qualified by Endorsed School Certificate or better will increase from approximately one-quarter to one-third of all school leavers. The enrolment of students at the universities, according to these projections, will increase from 22,400 in 1966 to between 42,100 and 51,800 by 1980, that is, it will approximately double during the 14-year period. University buildings in use in 1965 had an area of 2 million sq. ft; estimated requirements for 1980 are 8 million sq. ft for teaching, library, administration, and student union buildings.

The growth in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

Figure 7.1. SCHOOL POPULATION

SCHOOL POPULATION

Projected figures for student enrolments are given in the following table. The totals given are “middle figures”, and expected percentage variations on these are given in Parliamentary paper E. 2, 1967, School and University Enrolment Projections, which should be consulted for fuller explanations.

As at 1 JulyProjected Student Enrolments
State and Private SchoolsUniversities*
PrimarySecondary
*Academic year. Full-time and part-time internal students.
1968509,800172,50025,300
1969518,900179,40026,500
1970523,700185,60028,100
1971528,200191,30029,400
1972526,800200,60030,600
1973526,700209,50032,100
1974526,700217,90033,900
1975525,600228,10035,700
1976528,800233,90037,500
1977534,800238,30039,900
1978546,600237,80042,200
1979562,200236,00044,500
1980 233,40046,900

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS—The numbers of candidates who presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Department of Education and by the Trades Certification Board during the latest five years are given below.

Examination19631964196519661967
Teacher's Certificate417457387373280
School Certificate34,60635,85437,98038,41141,234
Technological10611113813311
Samoan Public Service45749857
Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants4567894526
New Zealand Certificates8461,0611,5332,0052,550
Technical Teacher's Certificate123137525056
Diploma in Teaching314428516532542
Totals36,91438,61340,75241,54944,699
Trades Certification11,05912,38613,41014,28015,701

Of the candidates in 1967 for School Certificate, 21,474, or 51.8 percent, gained a pass, while 302 persons were awarded Certificates of Attainment.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
19618,6494,670818
19629,5835,150880
196311,9576,427862
196413,4456,984873
196514,5557,2461,317
196615,3157,6301,398
196716,6518,3071,455

The universities conduct examinations in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, music, architecture, and divinity; for diplomas in journalism, in fine arts, in banking, in social science, and in physical education; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 26,313 entrants for the degree and professional examinations in 1967 compared with 24,302 in 1966.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the expenditure (after recoveries have been deducted) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest four years.

ItemExpenditure Year Ended 31 March
1965196619671968
*Includes senior technical education.
Expenditure on education—$(000)
    General7,6217,9078,6349,062
    Buildings, land, furniture, and equipment31,81033,34137,57840,031
    Primary education38,18141,99446,28450,690
    Secondary education24,03025,38427,71830,383
    Senior technical education1,9573,0814,0684,540
    University education11,14613,49715,68519,212
    Training of teachers7,3888,0628,8839,918
    Maori schools1,2131,2121,2761,322
    Education of the blind472371546610
    Special schools585614685749
    Child welfare2,5332,7413,0573,352
    Miscellaneous grants1,1211,2951,4431,714
    National Library Service9331,0101,3521,466
    Totals128,990140,509157,209173,049

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following figures show Government expenditure on education during the latest 12 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of National IncomeExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
* Provisional.
 $(000)percent$
195763,2723.628.84
195868,0723.730.30
195971,8583.731.26
196078,3363.733.40
1961063.936.47
196293,6584.038.34
1963102,8324.141.16
1964113,5744.144.54
1965128,9884.349.59
1966140,5094.453.08
1967157,2094.758.33
1968173,0495.1*63.22

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers—In 1967 there were nine teachers colleges (at North Shore, Auckland (2), Ardmore, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin), catering for students who desired to enter the teaching profession. At 1 July 1967 there were 7,037 students in training. This number includes 1,758 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 210 holders of primary teacher studentships (Division S) who are attached to teachers colleges while attending university as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and who are therefore an integral part of the teachers colleges. Included in the remainder were 4,228 “Division A” students undertaking training for primary teaching and 391 “Division C” students undertaking training for secondary teaching. From 1964, Endorsed School Certificate has been the minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A. Nearly all “Division C” students are university graduates at the time of admission.

The following table shows the number of students in these two groups in December 1963, and at 1 July in the years 1964, 1965, 1966, and 1967.

YearDivision ADivision CTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19631,0532,7721811864,192
19641,0712,8731732094,326
19659513,0431802094,383
19669643,2271582044,553
19679323,2961832084,619

The normal course of training for “Division A” students has been a period of two years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The two-year course is to be replaced progressively by a three-year course which was introduced at the Hamilton and Dunedin colleges in 1966, at Christchurch and Ardmore in 1967, and Auckland and Wellington in 1968. In addition, a primary teachers studentship scheme introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teacher training course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of the deaf.

For students of “Division C” the course is for one year. These students are university graduates or near graduates who train for service in secondary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach homecraft subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 191 homecraft trainees in the Auckland and Dunedin Teachers Colleges in 1967. A further 56 trainees were being trained in 1967 as manual training instructors. A new secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for three years of concurrent training at a university and at a teachers college and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at Christchurch Teachers College. There were 56 direct entrants to this course in 1968.

A special course for married women was introduced at Auckland in 1967. The 33 students enrolled for this course attend the College during mornings only and the course will be of three years' duration.

Secondary teachers' bursaries, although still awarded in some cases, have been largely replaced by secondary teacher studentships. To be eligible for one of these awards an applicant must have reached the age of 16 years on 31 December of the year of application, and must at the time of application have qualified for entrance to the university, or hold some equivalent or higher qualification approved by the Director-General of Education. Students are attached to the teachers college in the appropriate university centre, and a principal lecturer, appointed to each teachers college, supervises the work of the students and guides them during their university courses. Each student, on accepting the award, signs a bond that he will satisfy the stated conditions. One important condition is that if he does not achieve reasonable success in his university studies he will transfer to some other teacher training course at a teachers college and there complete his training as a teacher.

In 1967 a new scale of allowances was introduced. This will be implemented progressively until, in 1970, all students awarded a secondary teacher studentship will be paid on the new scale, namely, first year $420, second year $530, third year $640, fourth and fifth years $740. The students may also claim any university bursaries, boarding bursary, or supplementary allowances for which they are eligible under the University Bursaries Regulations 1966. The allowances for the year of post-graduate teacher-training are: With three-year bachelor's degree or three-year diplomas, $1,810; with master's degree without honours, or bachelor's degree with third class honours, $2,030; with honours degrees first and second class, $2,130.

In 1967, 785 secondary teacher studentships were awarded and of these 645 were taken up in 1968. In addition, 34 holders of secondary teachers' bursaries in 1967 qualified to transfer in 1968 to secondary teacher studentships.

There were 27 holders of secondary teachers' bursaries and 1,742 holders of secondary teacher studentships attending university institutions in 1968.

State Primary-school Teachers—The following table shows the number of teachers in State primary schools in the various education districts as at 30 September 1967, together with totals for 1966.

Head-TeachersSole TeachersAssistant TeachersSpecial TeachersProbationary AssistantsTotal Number of Teachers
Education District—      
    Auckland382252,740364193,602
    South Auckland321221,745183182,424
    Taranaki100213951176603
    Wanganui1223267717105953
    Hawke's Bay14533748191041,049
    Wellington200401,493232141,970
Nelson5216281642397
Canterbury258551,417282472,005
Otago1422564122137967
Southland11327461577683
Maori primary schools833718529334
Totals, 19671,91833310,7831851,76814,987
Totals, 19661,89934210,3561701,63714,404

The average number of pupils per teacher (including probationary assistants) in all public primary schools was 31.4 in 1933, 30.0 in 1940, 29.6 in 1966, and 29.5 in 1967; but the basis in recent years is September rolls and not average yearly attendance.

Secondary-school Teachers—The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the State schools providing secondary education. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

YearState Secondary SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesCombined
19623,2461,8432801233,5261,9665,492
19633,3181,9662511093,5692,0755,644
19643,4682,0642401033,7082,1675,875
19653,9132,424215904,1282,5146,642
19664,0552,503197834,2522,5866,838
19673,8892,363179914,0682,4546,522

The number of teachers employed in State schools providing secondary education rose from 908 male teachers and 630 female teachers in 1940 to 4,068 and 2,454 respectively in 1967. In the latter year there were also 1,145 teachers (592 male and 553 female) employed in private secondary schools.

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks were supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools from the beginning of 1959. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Regular exchanges of children's and young people's books are sent on a circulating basis to approximately 2,500 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 910,041 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1968.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931. A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

Audio-Visual Aids—The National Film Library, a branch of the Department of Education, lends films and gramophone records free of charge to schools. It also lends films free-of-charge to other organisations having some educational purpose. Films are also supplied to the education services in Western Samoa, and in the Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, Cook, and Chatham Islands. A branch of the library situated in Auckland supplies films to schools and organisations in the upper half of the North Island and another in Christchurch serves the South Island except Nelson and Marlborough. The rest of New Zealand is serviced from Wellington.

The Library contains more than 32,000 films with over 8,000 titles. Up to 7,500 reels of film are issued each week, and of these 80 percent go to schools or colleges. Approximately 2,700 schools and 2,800 other organisations having some educational purposes benefit from this service.

A number of filmstrips are produced each year by the Filmstrip Production Unit of the Education Department. These and selected productions from overseas are available to schools on free loan from filmstrip libraries in the offices of education boards. They can also be purchased by schools for a nominal sum from the National Film Library. More than 1,500 titles are available to primary and secondary schools. Up to 36,000 issues of filmstrips are made each year. Nearly all schools are equipped with filmstrip projectors.

A tape-copying service is also provided by the National Film Library for schools with tape recorders. Tapes submitted by the schools are transcribed from master tapes held by the National Film Library.

A gramophone record library of 2,540 titles and 5,069 records is available for use by schools and teachers colleges. Issues exceed 12,600 records a year.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published six times in the year while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Primary School Bulletins, dealing with topics of New Zealand history, geography, nature study, and family life in other countries, are published every year. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

New mathematics textbooks have been issued to all primary pupils in standards one to four and Forms I and II. Teachers of these classes have received manuals for the teaching of mathematics. This is part of a programme to replace the present series of arithmetic books used in all classes in primary schools with modern mathematics books.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

The Post-primary School Bulletin is published five times a year and issued free to all State and private secondary schools. It provides background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum particularly in social studies, science, and literature. Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language is published three times a year and issued free to secondary pupils studying Maori language.

The Education Gazette is published by the Department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

A number of publications are published for the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation to accompany the broadcasts to schools.

Vocational Guidance—There are vocational guidance centres at Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, Wellington, Lower Hutt, and Dunedin. Vocational guidance officers see young people, and often their parents, at the centres, as well as visiting the secondary schools throughout the country. In the secondary schools, careers advisers are appointed from among the teachers. They spend part of their time on careers work, in close contact with the vocational guidance officers who keep them informed by means of careers leaflets and bulletins with up-to-date particulars about qualifications, entry and training for some 700 occupations.

For the year ended 31 December 1967 interviews with young people at the centres numbered 19,400 and an additional 14,400 interviews were undertaken by vocational guidance officers in schools. “Careers courses” are organised by several centres during school holidays so that groups of pupils are enabled to see conditions and operations in particular occupations.

HIGHER EDUCATION: The University System—The system of higher education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of the Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibilities in respect of the development of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The Board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements for admission of candidates as barristers and solicitors of the Court.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties or arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provide courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering(mechanical, electrical, civil, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in public administration and social science. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The establishment of a veterinary faculty at Massey University in 1964 removed New Zealand's dependence on Australia for the training of veterinary surgeons. The University of Waikato offers courses in the School of Humanities and the School of Social Sciences, and in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education:Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for three to six years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full-time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $220 a year and is tenable with a fees and allowances bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships, together with the Taranaki Scholarships and certain privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, Post-graduate Scholarships and Post-Doctoral Fellowships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, the Shirtcliff Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, the Orford Studentship, and the National Research Scholarships. Many of the Post-graduate Scholarships and some of the Post-doctoral Fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

University Bursaries—The system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course is set out in the University Bursaries Regulations 1966, which were made following a full review of the scheme that had been in operation from 1912 to 1965. Bursaries available to students are fees bursaries, fees and allowances bursaries, and masters bursaries. There is provision for the award of supplementary allowances with a fees and allowances bursary to students who satisfy the scholastic or academic requirements. The supplementary allowances were paid for the first time in 1967. In general, fees and fees and allowances bursaries are tenable for the minimum period, not exceeding six years for medicine, or five years for other courses, in which a student following a full-time course in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. There is provision for these bursaries to be extended for an additional year in any case where, in the opinion of the Director-General of Education, the personal circumstances of the bursar warrant it. There is also provision for the extension of a bursary for a limited period to assist students undertaking a second recognised course of study.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university either by examination or accrediting, admitted ad eundum statum, or who, having been granted provisional admission, pass two units in any one year. These bursaries provide for payment of tuition fees during their term.

Fees and Allowances Bursaries are awarded to students who hold the Higher School Certificate and are tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the bursar undertakes a full-time course of study in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who in any year is credited with passes in the subjects or units comprising a full-time course may transfer from the fees bursary to a fees and allowances bursary.

A fees and allowances bursary entitles the holder to payment of tuition fees plus allowances of $80 in the first year of the bursary, $120 in the second year, $160 in the third year, and $200 in the fourth and any subsequent year of the bursary.

The holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of $250 a year.

Masters' Bursaries are awarded to students who have completed a bachelor's degree, in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree could be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year. They must, however, proceed in the next year or in the year following that year to take a full-time course leading to a master's degree. The holder of a master's bursary is entitled to tuition fees and an allowance of $300 and he may also, in the same way as a fees and allowances bursar, receive a boarding allowance of $250 a year if eligible. There is provision for the payment of fees only to students who are taking a Master's course by part-time study.

Supplementary Allowances are awarded to students who gain the required standard of passes in the university bursaries examination or in the entrance scholarship examination and who are holding a fees and allowances bursary. A supplementary allowance may also be awarded to a student who gains the requisite grade of pass in the subjects or units of a full-time university course.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to suspension and cancellation. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in the following year he is credited with a prescribed number of passes. Only one such suspension is allowed and subsequent failure results in the termination of the bursary.

Further details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available from vocational guidance centres and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

The Government offers for competition annually four bursaries to students wishing to attend the School of Social Science at the Victoria University of Wellington. Preference is given to candidates nominated by church or other organisations engaged in social work. These bursaries provide for full fees, a bursary allowance of $160, and a boarding allowance of $250 where appropriate.

The total number of University National, Entrance, Higher School Certificate, fees, and fees and allowances bursaries current in 1967 was 11,771.

Bursaries, scholarships, and fellowships are also awarded annually by other Government Departments and include medical, dental, physiotherapy, and dietetic bursaries (Department of Health), national research scholarships and national research fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), rehabilitation bursaries (Social Security Department), coal-mining bursaries (Mines Department). Study awards are made to selected public servants to enable them to undertake university study. The Department of Education has a system of studentships with generous allowances available for those intending ultimately to qualify as secondary teachers.

The following table gives the number of students, including those taking short courses at agricultural colleges, who received free university education during each of the latest five years.

YearJunior University, University National, and Taranaki ScholarshipsSenior University ScholarshipsUniversity National, Entrance, and H.S.C. Bursaries*Teachers' College StudentshipsOtherTotal
*Includes also fees, fees and allowances, and Masters' Bursaries awarded under University Bursaries Regulations.
1963220567,4181,0643,72112,479
1964239567,7481,0653,71412,822
1965266579,2601,1063,60914,298
19662966410,7191,1744,14816,401
19673437212,3191,3874,07418,195

Holders of rehabilitation bursaries numbered 84 in 1963, 43 in 1964, 54 in 1965, 59 in 1966, and 84 in 1967.

Students—In 1967 there were 24,431 students actually in attendance at the seven universities; 2,282 were graduates, 22,565 undergraduates (416 were enrolled in more than one course). In addition, there were 1,882 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 511 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest five years are given in the following table.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal*
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
*Does not include students taking horticulture courses at agricultural colleges.
196312,8114,18899930518,303
196413,5824,5621,08341319,640
196514,9375,3321,25262422,145
196616,3006,0771,27365224,302
196717,5716,8601,21966326,313

The following table gives particulars of students who were taking definite courses at universities, including agricultural college, during the latest three years. Additional information is published in Education Statistics of New Zealand available from the Department of Education, Wellington.

Course196519661967
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* Now shown under Chemical, Civil, etc.

† Physiotherapy first-year students only.

Agriculture and Agricultural Science-         
    Degree34183493711238338913402
    Diploma270427425722593391340
    Dairy Farming (diploma)25-2519-1918-18
    Dairy Technology (diploma)9149510461101207127
    Horticulture (degree)3664236134933942
    Horticulture (diploma)12334540195931536
    Sheep Farming (diploma)48-488118241243
    Certificate in Agriculture11-11---10157158
    Valuation and Farm Management (diploma)26-2646-4644-44
    Wool (diploma)811829229486591
Architecture -         
    Degree173317618741912053208
    Diploma4314426-2616117
    N.Z.I.A.10-106399-9
Arts4,2313,6737,9044,4194,4128,8314,8074,8299,636
Banking (diploma)5-51-11-1
Business Administration (diploma)12-128-815-15
Criminology (diploma)6174155-5
Commerce (including accountancy)2,7551482,9032,6841442,8282,7041422,846
Dentistry203620921862242226228
Diagnostic Radiology (diploma)1-12-23-3
Divinity839927067665570
Education (degree)3367188210
Education (diploma)252107359330205535358304662
Educational Psychology (diploma)1-151610111
Engineering (degree) -         
    Post graduate---61-61105-105
    First professional278-278--- *--- *
    Chemical542568148587693
    Civil2593262478-4784551456
    Electrical182-182269-269268-268
    Mechanical118-118169-169180-180
    Metallurgical32-323-3---
    Mining
Engineering (professional)---------
Fine Arts -         
    Diploma135131266148147295136127263
    Preliminary
Food Processing -         
    Food Technology376434-4561066
    Dairy Engineering (diploma)10-10---3-3
Home Science -         
    Degree-2929-4949-4949
    Diploma-181181-181181-183183
Intermediate courses -         
    Agriculture17612188179718617213185
    Agriculture (horticulture)
    Architecture125613114421461767183
    Dentistry611625315441344
    Engineering612161363526376683671
    Food Technology285333864443548
Intermediate course (cont.) -         
    Home Science-2525-1818-1717
    Medicine295523473066036627657333
    Optometry1-12-22-2
    Pharmacy1772411142520929
    Surveying33-3343-4388-88
    Veterinary Science8599489493821496
Law1,395741,4691,517891,6061,566991,665
Medical Science1-1213516
Medicine -         
    Degree525695945306959952977606
Microbiology (diploma)---1-12-2
Mining (diploma)---------
Music -         
    Degree57409763511146664130
    Diploma112257448
    Executant (diploma)8132191524251338
Optometry (diploma)19-19---17421
Pharmacy (degree)181028231437272047
Physical education (diploma)53961496311017371120191
Physiotherapy, certificate4576118537156469
Public administration (diploma)10-108-88-8
Public Health (diploma)6-68-86-6
Radiology (diploma)-66----88
Science2,6216493,2703,1578023,9593,3178424,159
Social Science (diploma)215262092919928
Speech Therapy (certificate)21113-18187675151
Surveying (diploma)431446737053-53
Town Planning (diploma)40-405225467168
Urban Valuation (diploma)48-4851-5149-49
Veterinary science602625161288136
Other -         
    Not stated9-92112224226
    Certificate of Proficiency11899217150115265200159359
    Cultural interest only53851385959118385795
            Totals16,3695,69522,06417,5526,75024,30218,7907,52326,313

The spread of these students over the universities in 1967 was: University of Auckland, 6,974; University of Waikato, 449; Victoria University of Wellington, 5,223; University of Canterbury, 5,507; University of Otago, 4,551; Massey University, 2,883; Lincoln College, 726.

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities in 1966 and 1967 are shown in the following table.

CourseHonoursMastersBachelors
196619671966196719661967
Agriculture----23
Agricultural Science11714175465
Agricultural Science (Hort.)--12818
Architecture45131916
Arts2022717198822890
Commerce221277167229
Dental Surgery21213748
Divinity---1118
Education----23
Engineering (Chemical)547413141310
Engineering (Civil)6384
Engineering (Electrical)4050
Engineering (Mechanical)2120
Engineering (Metallurgical)83
Food Technology1---107
Home Science----312
Laws112138135152
Medical Science----13
Medicine and Surgery----106107
Music42--137
Pharmacy----34
Science185187*4124433458
Totals4965801531751,9712,197

In addition in 1966 doctorates were completed in Science (1), Medicine (6), Philosophy (56), while in 1967 they were Science (2), Medicine (1), Philosophy (57).

Staff—The teaching staff of the universities and agricultural colleges in 1967 consisted of 1,663 persons on full-time appointments and 665 persons working part-time. On full-time appointments there were 224 professors, 571 senior lecturers, 605 lecturers, 206 junior lecturers, and 57 instructors and demonstrators engaged in teaching. Non-teaching staff numbered 1,696 full-time and 292 part-time workers.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—Technical education (in its broadest sense of vocational education) falls into two categories—that provided while the student is still a secondary school pupil and that available to those who have completed their secondary school education but who wish to undertake training either full-time or while employed.

The technical education of adolescents who have completed their secondary schooling but who wish to begin or extend the training for their chosen vocation other than at university is provided in a number of ways. In the four main centres, plus one provincial centre, there are technical institutes which are concerned solely with vocational training. In smaller centres tertiary education of this sort is provided at secondary schools on a part-time basis (very occasionally as full-time courses), often in the evening. The work of these two groups is supplemented by the Technical Correspondence Institute, which, as its name implies, restricts its activities to correspondence tuition for technical subjects. Its instruction is an important addition to that of the “live” classes in that it enables instruction to be given to people living in areas where numbers are insufficient to justify local classes and also to supplement day practical classes where numbers are insufficient for local evening theory classes.

A considerable element of the technical education concerns apprentices, who receive both practical and theoretical training. The practical training is given at either day classes, with the employers granting apprentices the equivalent of half a day a week to attend, or else at block courses where the employers release the apprentices usually for three weeks each year to attend concentrated full-time instruction up to Trade Certificate level. In both cases the employers pay the apprentices for the time spent at classes. The full-time block courses are usually at regional or national centres and there is a growing trend towards this type of practical instruction as more National Apprenticeship Committees press for block courses and as the numbers of apprentices in individual trades grow to the stage where they are sufficient for block courses in regional centres. This practical instruction is supplemented by instruction in theory at evening classes, where numbers are sufficient to justify local classes, or else by correspondence tuition from the Technical Correspondence Institute. The examinations for apprentices are administered by the Trades Certification Board.

An important section of technical education which is growing steadily is that available at the technician level. The term “technician” covers a wide field, but national New Zealand certificate courses have been devised for engineering, draughting, draughting (architectural), science, building, quantity surveying and commerce. In addition, at a lower level, there is a certificate in garage management and courses leading to certificates for radio technicians, engineering technicians, survey technicians, automotive engineering technicians and forest rangers. The courses for these qualifications, and other courses not on a certificate basis, are devised by the Technicians Certification Authority, which was established under the Technicians Certification Act 1958 to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations appropriate to the needs of persons in occupational groups. The instruction for the New Zealand certificate courses is given at part-time classes, or on a sandwich basis (i.e., regular intermittent periods in full-time classes), or by correspondence tuition from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in the case of science and workshop subjects by attendance at short practical courses, usually of one week per subject supplemented by attendance at block courses. In a few cases the stages can be taken at full-time courses in the technical institute, for the first two or three years only.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include commercial courses for girls, work study and electronic data processing courses, courses in journalism and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations, e.g., the New Zealand Society of Accountants, Chartered Institute of Secretaries, New Zealand Institute of Valuers, etc.

Besides the Technical Correspondence Institute, there are the following technical institutes: Auckland Technical Institute, Waikato Technical Institute (at Hamilton), Wellington Polytechnic, Christchurch Technical Institute, and Otago Polytechnic (at Dunedin). There is also a Central Institute of Technology at Petone; this is to move to a new site in a few years' time when it will become a purely national school offering courses for which there is not a sufficient regional demand to justify local courses.

In 1967 there were 181 centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students were provided and the numbers of students are shown in the following tables; the figures in brackets indicate the students attending technical institutes.

ClassDay Only or Day and EveningEveningSandwich and BlockTotal

*Includes 8,166 taking Technical Correspondence Institute courses.

†Includes 4,473 taking Technical Correspondence Institute courses.

 Part-time Students
Trade2,946 (786)17,804 (14,688)*13,923 (11,597)34,673 (27,071)
Professional and technical4,705 (4,618)11,054 (9,831)2,416 (1,834)18,175 (16,283)
Other (includes hobby classes)4,112 (1,831)45,028 (4,497)- (-)49,140 (6,328)
Sub-totals11,763 (7,235)73,886 (29,016)16,339 (13,431)101,988 (49,682)
 Full-time Students
All classes1,355 (1,216)  1,355 (1,216)
Totals13,118 (8,451)73,886 (29,016)16,339 (13,431)103,343 (50,898)

N.Z. Technical Correspondence Institute—The Technical Correspondence Institute was established in Wellington in 1946 as a school to provide correspondence instruction in vocational and technical subjects for apprentices and advanced students unable to attend technical schools or classes.

The expansion of the work of the institute has been remarkable. In 1946 it had a staff of two teachers and gave instruction in 12 technical subjects. Instruction is now given in 589 technical subjects. This work is mainly in three categories: first, the teaching of students through marking and commenting on their test papers, and the supervision of their studies; second, the preparation of new, and the revision of old, lessons for students' use; third, the preparation of textbooks on technical subjects. So far the institute has published 13 textbooks.

The main function of the Institute, is to provide technical education from apprentice up to advanced technician level for those who are unable to obtain such education through the usual institutions. In particular, the Institute meets many demands for technical education in the building, electrical, and engineering occupations, and also provides courses in agriculture and horticulture, dairy manufactures, management and commerce, mining and fire engineering, surveying, textiles, and valuation. As all students are employed in an industry or profession, their correspondence studies are supported by the practical experience.

The work of the Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching given in the other senior technical institutes, and instruction is given in many subjects not taught elsewhere. The Institute plays an important role in the education of many of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board. It also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the various examinations of the Technicians Certification Authority in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations.

The number of students on the roll at 1 August 1968 was 13,334. There is an establishment of 236 full-time tutors, besides the Principal, and some 60 administrative staff.

New Zealand Council for Technical Education—This Council was set up in 1958 following a conference of parties interested in technical education called by the Minister for the purpose of advising him on all matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce. It was envisaged that the Council would encourage close relations between those concerned with technical education, industry, and commerce, and to this end the Council was constituted with a wide membership representative of the following bodies: Department of Education; University Grants Committee; Associated Chambers of Commerce; Manufacturers' Federation; Employers' Federation; Federation of Labour; Institution of Engineers; State Services Commission; Technical Education Association. The Commissioner of Apprenticeship is a member of the Council, and there are other members representing regional and special interests.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOUR FORCE—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1966 included a question on the highest educational qualifications obtained. An analysis concerning persons in the labour force is set out in the following table; where persons have more than one qualification they have been included only once in the higher academic qualifications, for example, certificated teachers with a university degree are included in the university qualification group.

QualificationMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes electricians', plumbers', carpenters', joiners', radio and T.V. servicemen's, and motor mechanics'.

†Includes Intermediate grades of Technician Certification Authority examinations, Police, Fire Brigade and Armed Forces examinations, overseas trade examinations, etc.

‡Mainly the Proficiency Certificate or Junior Free Place (43,029 males, and 11,308 females) and other primary certificates including the Certificate of Competence (6,531 males and 1,470 females).

University—Numbers
    Doctorate89769966
    Master's degree4,0148484,862
    Bachelor's degree14,8762,65217,528
    Diploma3,3886834,071
    Other3,419813,500
Teacher's Certificate7,1649,92517,089
Secondary—   
    Higher School Certificate or equivalent, University Entrance Scholarship Examination5,5382,0287,566
    University Entrance25,2599,96835,227
    School Certificate33,87922,53856,417
    Other22,3438,53230,875
Professional and higher trade16,8959,13526,030
Trade certificate*8,13678,143
Other trade certificate7,4954987,993
Business college7959,37610,171
Other qualification50,47813,61264,090
No qualification541,019190,492731,511
Totals745,595280,4441,026,039

COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it by grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the Council has been supported in the main by State funds, supplemented by contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. The Council is under independent control and was given statutory recognition in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945.

In its research programme, the Council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications (46 research reports and 19 shorter studies in education) consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. The work done under the auspices of the Council has been carried out not only by its own permanent staff but also by part-time honorary investigators employed by universities, teachers' colleges, and so on.

In addition to its activities as a research organisation, the Council acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters. It also serves as the major source of supply for the educational and psychological tests that are used by schools, universities, governmental agencies, hospitals and business firms. It supports local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The Act provided for the constitution of a Board of Trustees of the Foundation consisting of a chairman appointed by the Governor-General; the Director-General of Education (deputy-chairman); the Secretary for Maori and Island Affairs; the officer for Maori Education or some other officer of the Department of Education appointed by the Director-General of Education; and four Trustees appointed by the Governor-General, one a Maori member of Parliament appointed on the nomination of the other Maori members of Parliament, one appointed on the nomination of the Maori Council of Tribal Executives, one appointed on the nomination of the Dominion Executive of the Maori Women's Welfare League, and one appointed on the nomination of the Minister of Maori Affairs. The Government made an initial grant of $250,000 and the Minister of Finance may approve further grants and also subsidies on contributions to the Foundation of money, land, and other property. By the end of 1968 the capital resources of the Foundation had risen to $1,882,000. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees is empowered to apply the income of the Foundation include the education and vocational training of Maoris; the granting of financial assistance or of equipment to schools and institutions at which Maoris are receiving education; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. Although the bulk of the Foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals, the major endeavours of the Foundation are being concentrated on fostering the greater participation of Maori parents and children in play centres and kindergartens. During the 1968 academic year assistance was granted to over 1,100 pupils and students. While over 270 grants were of comparatively small amounts for school clothing or equipment, the bulk of the grants were towards the cost of board and tuition of secondary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases Foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards. Seventy-five university students were being assisted in 196.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963.

The National Council consists of two members appointed by the Minister of Education, two appointed by the University Grants Committee (one from a list of names suggested by the universities, and one from a list of names suggested by the voluntary bodies actively engaged in adult education), the Chairman of the University Grants Committee, and the Director-General of Education (or their nominees) ex-officio. The Council has the power to co-opt one member.

Each university's adult education department is now financed from the block grants negotiated for the universities by the University Grants Committee. Although full responsibility and control of their adult education activities rests with the universities, each is advised by a committee representative of various community interests.

The adult education department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers. This staff contains general and specialist tutors, the latter catering for special interests such as music, drama, art, and home science. Two of the North Island universities also have tutors specialising in work among the Maori people. Some of the tutors are stationed in different parts of the university district and serve as area tutor-organisers. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering approximately 60). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses written for group study and discussion.

In addition to the adult education activities of the universities, a growing amount of adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of adult educational interests. The National Council is interested in the co-ordination of these wider developments and provides advice and assistance.

Voluntary Agencies:Workers' Educational Association—District Councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago and Southland and there is a branch in New Plymouth. Small administrative grants are received from the respective universities with which the Councils are associated, together with payment of tutors' fees for a limited number of courses approved by them. District Councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Educational Association which also publishes the WEA Review.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This is a national liaison committee of the Country Women's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers; it has regional committees at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin and over fifty district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

Community Centres—In 1938 a community centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationalists specially appointed to the staff of the Feilding Agricultural High School. Classes have been conducted in drama, child care, literature, art appreciation, and physical welfare, both at the centre and in outlying areas. In 1944 a community centre was opened in a suburb of Christchurch. Subsequently, experimental centres were opened in Westport, Wakari, Hawera, and in the coal-mining districts of the Buller. These centres received some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community centre schemes supported by voluntary effort.

PACIFIC ISLANDS EDUCATION—The Department of Education acts in liaison with the Departments of External Affairs and Maori and Island Affairs to assist other administrations including those in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Pitcairn Island, New Hebrides, and British Solomon Islands Protectorate with their educational problems.

As part of this assistance, the Department of Education assumes responsibility for filling in the vicinity of 200 education posts in the Pacific. Officers and teachers are inspected and their rights protected against their return to New Zealand. The Officer for Islands Education has a staff including three inspectors, three scholarships officers, and two textbook writers. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands, and supplies of modem textbooks and apparatus are sent regularly to some territories. Many publications have been produced.

In addition, a very important function of the Islands Education Division is to operate and supervise closely a scholarship system which in 1968 enabled 263 islands students to obtain in New Zealand schools, trade training centres, universities, Government departments and private firms more advanced education and training than would otherwise be available to them. During the term of their scholarship these students are fully maintained by the Departments of Maori and Island Affairs and External Affairs. In 1968, approximately 227 other students from Fiji and Tonga, the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands and New Hebrides were supervised and assisted in obtaining the benefits of a more varied or advanced education than they could gain in the islands. These totals include 69 island students who are training as teachers in the various courses of the New Zealand teachers colleges.

Each year significant numbers of officers from the Pacific come to New Zealand to undertake special training by means of in-service courses of a short-term duration. Islands Education officers make arrangements for the educational courses and work in with officers of other government departments for the arrangement of various other courses.

CHILD WELFARE—The Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education was established by the Child Welfare Act 1925 for the purpose of the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children. While this Act is the general statutory authority for the work of the Division, the Infants Act 1908, the Adoption Act 1955, and the Child Care Centre Regulations 1960 provide the legislative basis for other particular aspects of the work.

The Division is administered from a Head Office in Wellington. It employs 280 field officers in 29 district offices, 442 institution workers, and 261 clerical officers. Field staff duties include preventive work; investigation and reporting for the Children's Court; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and illegitimate birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Infants Act 1908; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Field officers receive assistance in many of these duties from 135 honorary child welfare officers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Facilities for institutional care and training include short- and long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children and residential special schools for the deaf, mentally retarded, and emotionally disturbed children. There are also small hostels for girls who have commenced work, but are not yet ready to live independently in the community.

While there is no specific statutory requirement that child welfare officers should engage in preventive work, the Division has always followed a policy of providing early assistance in an attempt to prevent children from becoming delinquent. Inquiries into the circumstances of infants in need of care and protection are accepted as one of the first steps in the prevention of later difficulties. The earlier that assistance can be given, the more likelihood there is of it being successful.

Children's Courts—Children's Courts are presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates who are authorised to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Very wide discretionary powers are given to Children's Courts. Wherever practicable the hearings are conducted in premises apart from the Magistrate's Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child for the purposes of the Act is a person up to 17 years of age.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After the Court has heard the complaint or the charge and considered the child welfare officer's report, the child —according to the needs of the case—may be committed to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare, or placed under the supervision of a child welfare officer for a period (usually one year or two years), or discharged with an admonition. Occasionally, orders for the payment of restitution may be made against either the child or parent, and fines also may be imposed.

Appearances before the Children's Courts in the three latest calendar years and the rates per 10,000 children aged 10 to 17 years are given in the following table:

Reason for AppearanceNumberRate
196519661967196519661967
*The discrepancy between the totals of this and the “Decisions” table is owing to the exclusion from this table of three cases in 1965 of applications by the manager of a private children's home for an agreement to be enforced.
For offences against special Acts, regulations, or bylaws504520534121212
For more serious offences4,2545,0895,647102121132
Subtotals4,7585,6096,181114133144
On “complaints” under the Child Welfare Act975951981  ...
Totals5,733*6,5607,162   

The decisions made in Children's Courts are shown in the summary below for the three latest calendar years.

Decision196519661967
Committed to the care of the Child Welfare Superintendent797790747
Placed under supervision of child welfare officers2,3872,5382,672
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine1,7462,1342,500
All other decisions8061,0981,243
Totals5,7366,5607,162

A new approach to the problem of delinquency was the establishment throughout New Zealand in 1959 of a Youth Aid Section of the New Zealand Police. The aim is to detect delinquency at an early stage and, by close co-operation between child welfare officers and specialist police officers, to deal with the less serious offenders without Court action. The police, after consultation with child welfare officers, decide whether or not there will be a prosecution. For those not being prosecuted appropriate action is taken, for example, in the form of a warning from the Police or continuing informal supervision by child welfare officers. During the year ended 31 December 1967, 4,511 cases were dealt with under this scheme without prosecution.

State Wards—Many of the children who are committed to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed immediately in foster homes and either at school or in employment. Those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Superintendent. Some few reside in private institutions and some are in boarding schools.

Of the total of 15,809 children under the control and supervision of the Child Welfare Superintendent and his officers at 31 December 1967, 4,269 were under the guardianship of the Superintendent and were placed as shown in the following summary.

—–NumberPercentage of Total
Residing in individual private homes (foster homes, employers' or relatives' homes)3,18475
In institutions administered by the Child Welfare Division (including those temporarily admitted)68916
In psychiatric hospitals1754
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)1373
In hospitals, convalescent homes, etc.19
In children's homes (including orphanages, etc.)631
Attending university or teachers' training colleges2
Totals4,269100

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Child Welfare Division administers several different types of institution. There are long-term training institutions for disturbed and delinquent adolescents. They are essentially open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Two other small institutions provide separately for girls and boys of primary school age who are so difficult or disturbed as to require special educational and social training. A small hostel for girls at Wellington provides for some who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel.

There are 11 girls' homes and boys' homes in the larger centres and a receiving home in Auckland which provide remand facilities, temporary care, and observation. Children not requiring institutional care but presenting behaviour and personality problems beyond the capacity of most ordinary foster parents are provided for in “Family Homes”. These are private houses owned by the Division and occupied rent-free by specially selected married couples who receive board payments and agree to care for children on a long-term basis as a condition of the tenancy. These homes are also used to provide transit accommodation in areas in which there is no receiving home, girls' or boys' home. Of the 43 homes now in operation, 12 are used as hostels for working adolescents.

Children Under Supervision—Children placed by the Courts under supervision of child welfare officers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the child welfare officer arranges placement elsewhere—e.g., in employment. Magistrates have the authority to order that part or all of the period of supervision be spent in an institution. Most children placed under supervision respond well; where they do not they may appear before the Court again and be committed to the care of the Superintendent. There were 3,139 children under supervision at 31 December 1967.

Preventive cases, numbering 4,922 at 31 December 1967, consist of children who, without any Court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by child welfare officers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

Welfare of Children—Child welfare officers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. In the year ended 31 December 1967, 10,600 cases were handled. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even two or three years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and Court action is the outcome of inquiries.

As provided for in the Child Welfare Act 1925, child welfare officers, on receiving from the Registrars notifications of illegitimate births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child.

Child welfare officers administer the provisions of the Infants Act 1908 by which children under six years of age living apart from their parents or guardians for more than seven consecutive days are required to be in licensed foster homes unless they are residing with close relatives and providing payment or reward is involved. At 31 December 1967, 591 such children were being supervised.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a child welfare officer must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child under 15 years, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the Court. The Court is required to obtain a child welfare officer's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least six months is normally required, during which the replacement is supervised by a child welfare officer, before a final order can be made.

The Division also has a measure of responsibility towards handicapped children generally, partly because of its role in assisting in the administration of residential schools for children who are deaf, mentally backward, or emotionally maladjusted. Child welfare officers, more especially in country areas, also assist in locating children who require special education, in advising parents or teachers concerning the facilities available, and in ensuring that the circumstances become known to appropriate agencies.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important function of the Division. Financial assistance is given by payments of $1.50 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 50 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of Child Care Centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.) have been in force since 1961.

The Division has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result, it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

7B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

The modern epoch is distinguished by application of science to problems of economic and human welfare . . . it is distinguished by a climate of human opinion, by some dominant views on the relation of man to the universe that foster science and its application.

(Simon Kuznets in Modern Economic Growth, Yale University, 1966.)

GENERAL—Economic growth and higher living standards depend on increased productivity and full development of national resources. In an age of technological advancement, progress depends in a large part on the application of the research. In past years production, in particular that in agriculture, has been promoted by scientific research.

More than three-quarters of the scientific research in New Zealand is financed from Government sources. The Government supports science as a cultural, educational, and intellectual activity through the schools, universities, museums, and other ways; and itself engages in scientific research for its social and economic values. Industry supports research which may be of short- or long-term benefit to its business and, together with private individuals, supports research for philanthropic reasons.

The importance of the social sciences (e.g., economics, education, sociology, political science, demography) in a world increasingly dominated by science and technology is often overlooked. In a period marked by a rapid advance of scientific and technological progress, most evident in the development industrialisation and the resulting changes in our culture and society, the social sciences ha al role to play in making it possible to recognise, understand, and counteract the and social problems brought about by these rapid changes.

The National Research Advisory Council realising that trained manpower can be a problem in any expansion of research activities is conducting a number of inquiries into the availability of trained professional and technical staff. New developments in instruments and equipment, such as computers, facilitate the work of the scientist, but the analysis and solving of problems essentially derive from the efforts of trained human minds.

The place of science in national development was discussed as part of a special article in the 1967 Yearbook.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—The establishment of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in 1926 arose largely from the need for an organisation to co-ordinate investigations into the problems of farming, and to provide research and technical assistance to developing secondary industries.

Today, by far the greatest part of finance for research is provided by the Government, and most of this is spent by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, through its 22 branches, in subsidies to eight grant-aided industrial research associations, and through special research grants to universities and other organisations.

Agricultural research still predominates, but expanding population and development of a broader-based economy have called for increasing industrial research, and there has been growing activity in the natural sciences and in scientific services for other Government departments and the general public.

Agricultural and Related Research—Scientific research has strongly influenced the long-continued trend towards more intensive farming, and the drive for intensification has in turn brought increasing sophistication to research.

The Soil Bureau has advanced from fundamental studies of soil genesis and the preparation of soil maps to examination of the balance of plant nutrients and the effect on this balance of man's use of the land.

Pasture improvement studies of the Grasslands and Plant Chemistry Divisions, and later of the Plant Physiology Division, at first concerned mainly with increasing plant yield per acre, are now seeking more knowledge of the plant substances that contribute to the successful performance of the grazing animal, so that future plant selection can be guided by the yield of these nutrient constituents.

In research by the Plant Diseases and Entomology Divisions into the control of pests and diseases, biological and ecological studies are seeking more sophisticated measures to replace the empirical chemical approach.

The current change in research emphasis is evident right through to the end product, of which an ever-increasing variety is being developed. In the breeding and selection of cereals and vegetables (Crop Research Division) and fruit (Fruit Research Division), account must be taken of storage and processing quality as well as field performance.

Competition of introduced noxious animals such as rabbits, hares, and deer with economic livestock for pasturage, and their effects on forests and vegetative cover, continue to be problems in intensive land use and conservation. As a basis for more effective control methods, Animal Ecology Division has intensified its study of these animals, and of bird species that damage farm and orchard crops.

Research to assist efficiency and progress of the tobacco and hop industries is carried out at two special stations in the Nelson district.

The Botany Division's study of all plant life provides basic information to several other divisions concerned with the role of plants in agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural production.

The increasing sophistication of research applied to agricultural production is nowhere more evident than in the extent to which the Applied Mathematics Division is now involved in the design of experiments so that they yield the maximum information, and in interpretation of the results. The volume of research statistics being handled by the division's computer service is rapidly increasing.

Research associations closely associated with the Department, and jointly financed by the Department and the respective industries, are carrying out work of importance to agricultural production in the following fields: Improvement of the milling and baking qualities of wheat, quality reports to merchants and millers, and technical advisory services to millers and bakers; the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers; wool manufacture; the physical, chemical, and biological properties of wool, and its handling, storage, transport, and marketing; basic and applied investigations to improve the quality of export meat; the production of milk in relation to the feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals and the manufacture of dairy products, and the building, design, and efficiency of dairy machinery.

Industrial and Related Research—Because of the small scale of many of the units comprising a high proportion of secondary industry in New Zealand, it is even more necessary than in highly industrialised countries that Government should give some form of technical assistance. A number of branches of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carry out research and service work for industry; and the National Research Advisory Council has recommended expansion of mineral exploration and development, building research, the application of mathematical techniques to industrial problems, and liaison and advisory services to manufacturers.

The Chemistry Division laboratories carry out materials and equipment testing for other Government Departments and investigate the extraction and processing of natural products and minerals.

In the Geological Survey, emphasis on economic minerals has been increased since the establishment several years ago of an economic geology unit, and commercial interest in the development of several fields has been encouraged.

Assistance to industry by the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is principally in providing servicing equipment beyond the resources of small private enterprises and designing and developing installations and techniques especially for the small-scale units that predominate in local industry. From chemical studies of indigenous timber and by-products of the pulp and paper and fruit industries, several products of potential economic importance in domestic and export markets have been evolved.

Departmental geologists, geophysicists, physicists, and chemists played a large part in the development of electric power from geothermal steam in the volcanic centre of the North Island, and at Kawerau this work led to the direct use of geothermal steam in the pulp and paper industry. Continued geothermal exploration has revealed further extensive fields for geothermal power development.

Foundry and fuel technology and industrial measurement are the main field of work of the Auckland Industrial Development Division, but it gives technical assistance in many fields of manufacturing industry, and has made outstanding contributions in medical instrumentation.

The processing of farm and other primary products has become a special interest of the Food Chemistry Division, whose work can be expected to be of increasing value to industry.

A 3 MeV proton-electron accelerator at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences is being used on work concerned with the development of both primary and secondary industry, as well as the natural sciences. The Institute gives advice and assistance in the industrial use of isotopes.

Research associations concerned particularly with manufacturing industries carry out investigations and information liaison services in fellmongery, hide processing, tanning, and footwear manufacture; pottery, ceramics, and structural clay products; laundering, dry-cleaning, and dyeing; wool manufacturing; and the coal industry and its products.

Under a system of research contracts administered by the Department, the food industry may propose projects for investigation by the department of food science and biotechnology at Massey University.

Scientific Services—Continuous magnetic, ionospheric, and seismological observations are carried out by the Geophysics Division, as well as special projects on natural phenomena, and networks of geophysical and seismological stations are maintained from the Pacific to Antarctica. This Division also operates the official New Zealand time service.

Physical, geological, and biological studies in the oceans round New Zealand are carried out by the Oceanographic Institute, with recent emphasis on work likely to help development of mineral resources and the fishing industry.

Chemical work in the investigation of crime and toxicology, and chemical and bacteriological examination of food, drugs, and water supplies comprise a large part of Chemistry Division's services to other Departments.

Because of New Zealand's nearness to the Antarctic and its large dependency there, the work of the Antarctic Division as a co-ordinating agency for scientific studies and exploration in that area is of special importance. The International Geophysical Year 1957-58 had a considerable influence on research in the Ross Dependency, and since that time New Zealand has maintained a permanent scientific base in the Antarctic at Scott Base.

Scientific and industrial research must become of increasing importance to the country's development; and for the natural scientist New Zealand must continue to offer a fertile field of study of the range of interests it offers in such small compass.

AGRICULTURE—In the nineteenth century there was an increasing area being used for farming, and ploughing up much of the virgin soil and sowing it down in imported pastures enabled the number of stock to be increased continually. Very little was done to improve the grasslands once they were established. In the twentieth century, however, especially since 1920, there has also been a huge increase in stock carried—but with very little increase in the total area of land farmed. This achievement in the expansion of numbers of stock carried is fundamental to New Zealand's economy and this result Cockayne, the research pioneer, attributed to seven factors—the realisation that grass was a crop and that the grassland farmer was the most important crop-farmer in New Zealand; the development of agricultural instruction and research devoted mainly to grassland farming; the rise of topdressing to a major factor in grassland farming; research leading to the control of bush sickness; research leading to the development of superior strains of grasses and clovers and their use; better stock management; and drainage.

The general improvement in the productive capacity of the grass and clover plants, which form the basis of our swards, has been the work of the agrostologists and plant breeders, and if we add to their work that of a host of other research workers in closely related fields—animal and field husbandry, irrigation, drainage, plant chemistry, veterinary science, animal diseases, and so on—we have the answer to the phenomenal increase in stock carried over the past 30 years.

The establishment of the Plant Research Station at Palmerston North adjacent to Massey Agricultural College in 1929 marked a great step forward in the progress of grassland research. The seed certification scheme inaugurated in 1929-30 was an immediate result of far-reaching consequences. The extension of plant breeding was an associated development. Another broad field of research was that of fertility in relation to pasture growth and the grazing animal. In 1936 the research station became the Plant Research Bureau of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and has since become the Grassland Division.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE—Almost all research within the Department of Agriculture is now conducted by the Research Division, and the Plant Chemistry Division which has a staff of approximately 200 scientists and 300 technicians; the headquarters is at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, Hamilton.

A large proportion of resources is devoted to servicing activities for farmers and advisory personnel. Chief among these are veterinary diagnostic and soil testing services. The veterinary diagnostic service operates through local veterinarians who send specimens from diseased or dead animals to one of the five diagnostic centres strategically located throughout the country. Advice, following laboratory examinations, is relayed back to the farmers by the investigating veterinarian. In two soil-testing laboratories approximately 25,000 samples of soil from farms are analysed for pH and major elements to provide an estimate of the types and quantities of fertilisers required.

Research work is carried out at seven stations, at smaller experimental centres and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. Of the six larger stations and centres, two undertake a range of experimental work embracing plant and animal research; two specialise in research on animal production and animal health, while the other two concentrate on soil fertility and horticultural problems respectively. In addition there is a Field Research Section whose function is to investigate local problems throughout the country and to test out, where possible, the findings of research stations in different environments. Such work is under the control of a number of research workers located in different parts of the country and is carried out on experimental areas and farms. A Biometrics Unit provides statistical services for research workers.

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers to agricultural production, considerable work is being done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are very few, if any, soils or areas where it has not been possible to establish pastures satisfactorily with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and in some cases drainage. Problem areas such as sands, peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 3,000 ft) have been successfully and profitably improved, using specialised techniques and often specialised equipment.

From animal production research, targets have been set which are acting as a spur to producers. Six hundred pounds of butterfat or beef per acre; 300 lb of lamb and over 100 lb of wool—these are the levels of production which have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-utilised pastures. Studies made of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle are providing valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Animal health research is concerned with most of the important diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, tuberculosis, brucellosis, and hypomagnesaemia are all being investigated with the aim of finding more effective methods of prevention and control.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to find answers to existing and changing problems.

OTHER SCIENTIFIC ORGANISATIONS—The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand, the Cawthron Institute at Nelson, was established in 1920. The Institute was founded in Nelson as a result of a bequest of about $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the Institute has received increasing grants from the Government through the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. This grant now amounts to about half the annual income of the Institute.

Among the other organisations undertaking research are the various units funded by the Medical Research Council (these are mainly in Dunedin associated with the University of Otago), local medical research foundations, and the Cancer Society. There are also the various museums, the Carter Observatory, and a number of amateur and near amateur groups, particularly in astronomy.

A Department of Health Committee was formed in 1938 to promote Medical Research. This was incorporated and expanded by the Medical Research Council Act 1950. A new act was passed in 1966. The National Radiation Laboratory, Department of Health (formerly the Dominion X-Ray and Radium Laboratory) was established to provide the technical services required by the Radioactive Substances Act 1949. In 1954 the Department of Health established the National Health Institute as a centre for the study of public health problems.

Social Sciences—However, most of the research material published in the social sciences has been prepared by such organisations as the New Zealand Council for Educational Research, the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, the Agricultural Economics Research Unit, the Monetary and Economic Council, and the universities.

Since 1945 the New Zealand Council for Educational Research (which was initiated in 1933 largely by assistance from the Carnegie Corporation) has been supported in the main by State funds, supplemented by contributions from educational bodies and business organisations The Council which is under independent control, has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications (40 research reports and 18 shorter studies in education) consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. There are local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

The New Zealand Institute of Economic Research was founded in 1958 and is an independent non-profit making incorporated society. Its object is to increase knowledge of New Zealand's economic development through research, education, and the training of research workers. It conducts its research in co-operation with the universities and other agencies.

The Agricultural Economics Research Unit was established at Lincoln College in 1962 with an annual grant from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It also receives grants for particular projects from other sources. The unit has a long-term programme of research in the fields of agricultural marketing and agricultural production and the relationship between agriculture and the general economy.

In addition to these three organisations and the universities a number of Government Departments and agencies undertake research work for their own needs.

In the social sciences a number of Government Departments undertake some research activities for their own requirements including: Department of Education; Department of Justice; Department of Labour; Department of Statistics.

PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—About 80 percent of the money spent on scientific research in New Zealand comes directly from Government sources.

The expenditure by the various organisation groups is approximately:

Government departments68 percent
Universities10 percent
Industry10 percent
Research associations7 percent
Other organisations5 percent

Therefore the pattern of organisation in government for research plays a large part in the national research pattern.

The National Research Advisory Council was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science on—

  1. The promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand:

  2. The planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including—

    1. The determination of priorities among research activities of government departments, having regard to research done by other organisations:

    2. The provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers:

    3. The association of government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations:

    4. The collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals:

  3. The promotion of co-operation with the governments of or organisations in other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters:

  4. Any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any other above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The Council has nine members, six (including the Chairman) appointed by the Governor-General together with the Director-General of Agriculture, Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and Secretary to the Treasury. The Council is responsible to the Minister of Science who discusses reports or proposals with other Cabinet Ministers whose departments may be affected. The Council replaced the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research established in 1926.

At present, Government scientific activities are distributed amongst nine Government departments—the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Department of Agriculture, the New Zealand Forest Service, the Marine Department, the Department of Internal Affairs, the Department of Civil Aviation, the Department of Health, the Ministry of Works, and the Ministry of Defence (Navy).

Over 80 percent of the funds provided for science by the Government are administered by three departments—Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Department of Agriculture, and the New Zealand Forest Service. It is planned to introduce a science budget for all Government expenditure on scientific activities.

Research Expenditure—The following tables on research expenditure are based on figures published by the National Research Advisory Council.

ESTIMATED EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE

Department or AgencyGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
 $(000)
Scientific and Industrial Research7,0767,5207,903927984916
Agriculture2,6863,2363,7118612498
Civil Aviation (Meteorological Service)340381387---
Forest Service6596981,055563
Health569602931324338579
Seven other departments1,2971,4981,578395458540
Totals12,62713,93515,5651,7371,9102,136
Buildings (government)1,1021,1801,070   
                Totals, government13,72915,11516,6351,7371,9102,136
Department or AgencyNet Expenditure on SciencePercentage of Total Net Government Expenditure on Science (Excluding Buildings)
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
 $(000)Percent
Scientific and Industrial Research6,1496,5366,98756.454.452.1
Agriculture2,6003,1123,61324.025.826.9
Civil Aviation (Meteorological Service)3403813873.13.22.9
Forest Service6546921,0526.05.87.9
Health2452643522.22.22.6
Seven other departments9021,0401,0388.38.67.6
                Totals10,89012,02513,429100.0100.0100.0
Buildings (government)1,1021,1801,070.........
                Totals, government11,99213,20514,499.........
Universities1,6001,7802,100.........
Research associations1,1341,4401,444.........
Industry1,5711,6702,157.........
Other organisations7908461,093.........
                Grand totals17,08718,94121,293.........

APPROXIMATE EXPENDITURE BY EACH INDUSTRY GROUP (Excluding Buildings)

Type of Scientific WorkEstimated Expenditure (Excluding Buildings)Percentage of Total
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
 $(000)Percent
Agricultural production and processing6,4727,4848,44340.542.141.7
Forestry and forest products1,0161,2181,6496.46.98.2
Building research6607407804.14.23.9
Oceanography, limnology and fisheries8409828765.35.54.3
Geology and geophysics, including Antarctica and upper atmosphere1,0841,1721,3266.86.66.6
Scientific services (n.e.i.), including meteorology1,9602,0052,23012.211.311.0
Secondary industry2,5732,6803,10916.115.115.4
Medical research1,3801,4801,8108.68.38.9
Totals15,98517,76120,223100.0100.0100.0

GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT 1926-1966

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on SciencePercentage of Total Government ExpenditurePercentage of Gross National ProductPermanent Staff Employed
ProfessionalTechnical

*Second World War—satisfactory figures not available.

†Estimated.

 $(000)PercentPercent  
1926920.20 37-
19311000.36 50-
19361840.350.06682
1941*     
19461,0620.850.1322760
19513,1501.160.23550574
19564,6521.200.24573550
19617,8641.380.30668756
196613,7281.820.368201,010

In New Zealand the total expenditure on research in the social sciences is probably less than $200,000 a year (virtually all in the fields of economics and education) or less than 1 percent of the total scientific research expenditure.

Bibliography—Further information on New Zealand scientific services may be obtained from:

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Annual Reports, Parl. Paper, H.34.

Department of Agriculture: Annual Reports. Parliamentary Paper, H.29.

Medical Research Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper, H.31B.

National Research Advisory Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper, H.41.

D.S.I.R. Handbook, Wn., 1966.

National Research Advisory Council: Some Aspects of Technical Manpower in New Zealand, N.R.A.C. Publication 2, Wn, 1967.

Callaghan F. R. ed.: Science in New Zealand, Wn, Reed 1957.

Jansen, H. ed.: Directory of New Zealand Science, 4th Ed., 1962, Wn.

McBride, C. P. and de Joux, Christine: Scientific Research in New Zealand, Government Expenditure and Manpower, 1926-66, N.R.A.C. Publication 1, Wn., 1966.

Otago University Science Students' Association: Science Record (this contains the only published list of science research topics studied in all New Zealand Universities).

Chapter 8. Section 8 JUSTICE

Table of Contents

LAW OF NEW ZEALAND—The law applied in the Courts of New Zealand has three principal sources—the common law of England, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted prior to 1947, and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament.

The initial law of New Zealand when it became a British colony was the law of England as it existed on 14 January 1840—that is, the common law together with those statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date. Subsequent law consists of those enactments of the United Kingdom Parliament between 1840 and 1947 which extended expressly or by necessary implication to New Zealand, and the enactments of the New Zealand Legislature.

In interpreting the common law the Courts have been concerned to preserve uniformity with the common law as interpreted in England. This unity is ensured not only by the existence of the Privy Council as the final Court of appeal for New Zealand, but by the practice of the Judges of following English decisions even though they are in theory not bound by them.

The New Zealand Parliament is the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country, and there are no constitutional restrictions on the law which it can pass. Before the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 the powers of Parliament were limited in two respects. First, there was a somewhat uncertain and ill-defined incapacity to make laws having extra-territorial application, and, secondly, there was an incapacity to make laws conflicting with a statute of the United Kingdom Parliament extending to New Zealand. Since 1947, however, both these limitations have disappeared, although the United Kingdom Parliament still has the power to make laws extending to New Zealand at the request and with the consent of the New Zealand Legislature.

REVISION OF LAW—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility of bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other Departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. Formerly the Minister of Justice was assisted in carrying out this responsibility by the Law Revision Committee, an informal advisory body established in 1937. In December 1965, however, a Law Revision Commission was set up under the chairmanship of the Minister of Justice comprising members of the Government and Opposition parties in Parliament, the heads of the three principal legal Departments of State, and representatives of the practising legal profession and of the university law faculties. The principal functions of the Commission are to prepare programmes for the reform of the law, to indicate the order in which particular topics should be examined, to allocate the work, and to exercise a general oversight over law reform. In addition to the Commission there are four standing committees each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Commission or by the Minister and report thereon to the Minister of Justice.

COURTS—The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a President and two Judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional Judge or Judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal in any particular case where it is expedient. The Judges of the Court of Appeal are also Judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other Judges of that Court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters.

The Court of Appeal, unlike other Courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior Courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $1,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final Court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The Members of the Court are a Chief Justice and 15 other Judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional Judge or Judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the Judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of Judges, together with the provision that the salary of a Judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives. The Governor-General may suspend a Judge upon a like Address. In 1968 a separate Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was created. It consists of not more than four Judges of the Supreme Court assigned to the Administrative Division by the Chief Justice. The functions of the Division are to hear such appeals and other proceedings as are required by any enactment to be heard by the Division, and such applications or classes of applications for the writs of certiorari, prohibition or mandamus, or for declaratory judgments or orders or injunctions as the Chief Justice may refer to the Division. The Administrative Division has taken over the jurisdiction of the Land Valuation Court (now abolished) and is to hear appeals that formerly went to the Supreme Court from the Licensing Control Commission and Licensing Committees. It also hears appeals under the Broadcasting Authority Act 1968.

Magistrates' Courts are set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Court is exercised by Stipendiary Magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 45, there being 42 at present holding office. Justices of the Peace, however, still sit as a Magistrates' Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary Magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least seven years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several Courts with specialist functions. These include the Court of Arbitration, which makes awards governing pay and working conditions in industry, and also makes general wage orders; the Compensation Court, which determines claims under the Workers' Compensation Act; and the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 21 and 65 years of age and resident within 15 miles of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. Women have the right to exemption on request.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; Judges and Members of the Court of Arbitration; Judges and Commissioners of the Maori Land Court; Magistrates; Visiting Prison Justices and members of Parole Boards; Coroners; the Chairman of the Local Government Commission: the Chairman and Members of the Licensing Control Commission; Officers of Parliament; clergymen; nuns; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in Court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the Court or a Judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the Court or a Judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

The Grand Jury was abolished in New Zealand by the Crimes Act 1961.

LEGAL PROFESSION—At 31 December 1967 there were 2,575 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates. These members included 40 females.

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates' Courts have existed in New Zealand since 1846. The Courts may now hear all claims up to $2,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the Court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 11 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for which Judgment Entered
  $(000) $(000)$(000)
195779,0006,42646,4773,7303,152
195882,4936,36450,0943,6383,150
195980,8565,77251,3863,6122,942
196081,1856,29649,4992,9522,556
196192,3837,39454,2663,8483,434
1962108,6988,92460,5374,6844,102
1963112,6929,52066,6635,1924,472
1964115,9029,44469,0165,1544,554
1965112,81311,52669,6905,2444,644
1966118,97610,99167,8055,4874,934
1967128,51812,35173,5086,2575,425

The average amount claimed in each plaint was $81 in 1957 and $96 in 1967.

Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrates' Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount Recovered
     $(000)$(000)
19571,8171442064141,489709
19581,9311532424771,672936
19592,1361382404712,0341,172
19602,1621382484431,8621,010
19612,2011282784662,086871
19621,8911442864661,9021,037
19632,0081412564363,0351,865
19641,9671062413451,601889
19652,183982963192,1051,181
19662,555892963252,4191,370
19672,9521662734253,3731,850

Court of Appeal—During the five years 1963 to 1967 there were 217 civil appeals, of which 76 were allowed, and also 11 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 6 judgments for the plaintiffs and 5 for the defendants.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts—Since 1952, Magistrates have had jurisdiction, which was confirmed by the Summary Proceedings Act 1957, to deal with the majority of indictable offences. This Act gives a Magistrate jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. If the Magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of up to $400, or both. A Magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than three months.

Justices of the Peace now hear only a small number of summary cases where the statute creating the offence provides that one Justice or two or more Justices are to have power to deal with it, or where jurisdiction is expressly conferred on Justices in a particular case. The tendency is to have all but the most trivial criminal cases dealt with by Stipendiary Magistrates, although the extent to which this is practicable varies from district to district.

The following table shows the number of charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts in the latest 11 years. These figures and all the figures relating to Magistrates' Courts, Supreme Court, and prisons, include Maoris; Children's Court cases are excluded and will be found under the section relating to juvenile offences.

YearCharges Against MalesCharges Against FemalesAll Charges
TrafficOtherTotalTrafficOtherTotalTrafficOtherTotal
195761,69142,451104,1423,2172,4385,65564,90844,889109,797
195872,73240,774113,5064,2392,5656,80476,97143,339120,310
195969,09537,265106,3604,2132,4096,62273,30839,674112,982
196077,62839,433117,0615,2652,4707,73582,89341,903124,796
196185,39340,637126,0306,0002,9258,92591,39343,562134,955
196296,72044,272140,9926,8513,0679,918103,57147,339150,910
1963102,33244,769147,1017,2713,48810,759109,60348,257157,860
1964123,99444,946168,9409,6804,01413,694133,67448,960182,634
1965141,01845,678186,69610,8383,66814,506151,85649,346201,202
1966159,21048,134207,34413,0274,01717,044172,23752,151224,388
1967181,74752,668234,41517,9274,80922,736199,67457,477257,151

The great majority of these charges are, as may be expected, for comparatively minor offences, particularly against the traffic laws. Traffic offences alone accounted for more than three-quarters of the convictions in the Magistrates' Court in 1967; of the 237,264 convictions, 190,486 were for traffic offences, while 7,251 were for offences against the liquor laws, and 4,915 for drunkenness.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest five years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 21,268 charges against females in the 237,264 total charges and 19,287 females in the 201,961 distinct cases for 1967.

Type of Offence19631964196519661967

*Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

†Excludes offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge; failing to stop after accident involving injury.

‡Includes assaulting, etc., police, previously in another group

§Does not include trespass as in previous years.

¶Not offences; included only for administration purposes.

Common assault1,4011,5261,4341,8362,028
Sexual offences602695731751677
Other offences against the person2343239711,0351,199
Theft3,9044,0744,2995,1715,506
Wilful damage943846879§1,085§1,164§
Other offences against property (including forgery)6,4616,6586,8907,5149,318
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)5,1184,7864,5684,7034,915
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy4,0924,8763,8484,4814,512
Offences against good order1,6281,6031,3511,3161,093
Breach of probation486512563583631
Offences relating to dangerous drugs5863948170
Failing to pay maintenance1,6501,6961,9881,9172,117
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.....457485850
Breach of price control orders351195
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income3,6041,9018797371,146
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Acts4,9184,7846,3205,9077,062
Deserting merchant ships160151210203139
Other offences3,8665,0504,4824,3255,059
Sub-totals39,12839,54939,96542,14947,491
Minor traffic offences102,102125,255142,217160,433187,681
Application for prohibition order817654635703647
Applications for maintenance, separation order, etc.7748238199691,077
Application for affiliation order192209219292368
Totals143,013166,490183,855204,546237,264
Distinct Cases*119,871142,855156,662174,756201,961
Rate per 10,000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences160.9158.7157.3164.4181.7

The next table classifies the result of hearing in all cases heard in 1967.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

*Minor traffic offences accounted for 184,384 of the cases where fines were imposed.

†Mostly orders granted in response to applications—see preceding table.

Committed for trial or sentence223567373019876
Imprisonment6684,4931,0533021936,709
Detention in detention centre8761687393832
Periodic detention1281195-117
Detention in borstal institution, etc.701,3341058881,605
Released on probation3943,729454731104,760
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required2072571865415719
Fined*2,2954,526192,51087612,265212,472
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)1719523,7032378115,874
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)---1,976-1,976
Miscellaneous--7311,46362,200
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out6501,4069,4313,8621,86717,216
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act216612757541561,795
Totals4,99318,573209,0739,05915,453257,151
Distinct cases4,1309,114183,9248,30111,752217,221

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form so large a proportion of summary convictions that a further analysis is of interest. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed, but cases of reckless, dangerous, or careless driving have shown a steady increase.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest five years.

Offence19631964196519661967
*Excludes trailers.
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death4152788786
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury64157134131135
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death222--
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury22452
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury3625506490
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,1611,0559531,1251,324
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drug8147598478991,155
Driving, or in charge of, other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug514213
Exceeding speed limits28,05936,02940,86548,58654,035
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving, of motor vehicle16,26619,59123,99926,62529,242
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving, of other vehicle157135153231194
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles3,9314,5475,0626,1306,178
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles7,3217,8689,86011,51914,852
Offences relating to driver's licence6,1137,7429,67810,17712,094
Breaches of parking regulations25,20632,46034,74837,36049,392
Other traffic offences15,04916,88317,85219,80521,694
Totals104,227127,308144,289162,746190,486
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population41.0049.0054.5060.6669.79
Convictions per 1,000 motor vehicles*119.56136.54145.68156.44176.38

The previous table excludes the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1967 9 such cases were sent forward and there were 6 sentences, comprising 5 for careless, reckless, dangerous, or drunken driving causing death, and 1 for careless, reckless, dangerous or drunken driving causing injury.

Cancellation of drivers' licences by periods of cancellation are shown in the following table.

Period for which Licence Cancelled19631964196519661967
Under 3 months1,9052,3632,3792,6493,192
3 months and under 6 months1,3051,8342,5053,3764,166
6 months and under 1 year4045948801,2051,467
1 year and under 2 years1,3201,7342,0002,2462,496
2 years and under 3 years376347317413408
3 years and under 4 years7677558509051,093
4 years and under 5 years1017313794
5 years and over817912988135
Total cancellations6,1687,7239,09110,91913,051

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest five years.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19634,9551635,1183.880.132.04
19644,6281584,7863.550.121.84
19654,3921764,5683.300.131.73
19664,5251784,7033.360.131.75
19674,7152004,9153.450.151.80

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include cases of application for prohibition orders of which there were 647 in 1967, compared with 703 in 1966. The rates of convictions have fallen in the latest year, with convictions of females following the same trend as convictions of males.

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentence in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal Sentences
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMFTotal
(a) Total Cases
19631,0304753217219775124775
196479552415111865760168669
19651,05211752252277379955854
196696611352140304282542867
19671,00081487491911167858736
(b) Distinct Persons
1963416212501242529217309
1964349311941135222913242
1965398292291953328222304
1966371272071656126317280
1967410332462050229622318

Of the 443 distinct persons indicted during 1967, 266 were convicted and 142 acquitted, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 35 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotal
19632264315860775149125233309
1964140471184066995122124242
19651965781169854124132246304
19661735935744867108149419280
19672284341856736137137638318

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19631964196519661967
*Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder34253
Attempted murder1---4
Manslaughter*41181011
Traffic offences involving death or injury203586
Assaults and wounding3824402039
Sexual offences7150544857
Other offences against the person123151717
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering4450506652
Theft, receiving, and fraud6958646682
Other offences against property121418173
Forgery and uttering21246
Other offences3324461938
Totals309242304280318
Per 10,000 mean population1.220.931.151.041.17

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years were as follows.

Sentence19631964196519661967
*Abolished during 1963.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)2121333128
Ordered to come up for sentence21012815
Discharged32114
Fined5728563566
Imprisoned205164190188192
Corrective training3****
Detention centre4121-
Borstal training496149
Preventive detention107424
Totals309242304280318

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished. It was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act but was again abolished by the Crimes Act 1961. The only crime for which the death penalty may be imposed is treason. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

CRIMINAL APPEALS—The law relating to criminal appeals is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

Applications filed in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearApplication FiledSentence VariedAppeal Dismissed or Disallowed
1962971285
19631061393
1964781365
1965841074
1966881276
1967821666

OFFENCES BY WOMEN—Of the 257,151 criminal charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1967, 22,736 or 8.8 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase on the 1966 total which was 17,044.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19631964196519661967
Common assault3436312643
Drunkenness144142155158165
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.63431115060
Theft7408828471,0311,228
Fraud and false pretences238311321243454
Offensive conduct or language110133112168158
Vagrancy181182185298260

Women received into prison under sentence during 1967 numbered 209. The principal offences concerned were: cruelty to children, 3; burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 10; theft, 42; fraud and false pretences, 21; vagrancy, 58; failing to pay fine. 9; breach of probation, 23. The corresponding total in 1966 was 187, and the main offences were, cruelty to children, 3; burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 12; theft, 53; fraud and false pretences, 6; vagrancy, 65; failing to pay fine, 5; breach of probation, 12.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary Courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular Court, the Court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom and, where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other Court, it does not nit when that other Court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding Magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The Court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts during each of the latest 11 years. It is shown in two ways; i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19577,3068758,1813,7706464,416
19588,0841,0899,1734,3587455,103
19597,1588097,9673,5256404,165
19609,2971,06810,3654,8038065,609
19619,1041,35610,4604,6788675,545
19628,0921,3309,4223,7138974,610
19639,0001,41410,4144,1391,0475,186
19649,0991,66510,7644,5471,1955,742
19659,6542,00011,6544,7641,4536,217
196611,5122,45013,9625,5761,6567,232
196712,4762,63815,1145,9721,8417,813

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest five years are as follows.

Type of Offence19631964196519661967
*Includes forgery and uttering.
 Total Charges
Sexual offences138144161180137
Assaults112111138216277
Other offences against the person1417223723
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering2,5932,5002,7523,3063,864
Theft, receiving, and fraud3,1923,3333,4474,1984,707
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1,2171,0411,3161,6521,671
Wilful damage590488426396415
Other offences against property*65865811062
Offences against good order9401,1168721,2411,293
Indigent or delinquent child1,1811,5561,7221,7941,752
Other offences372372740832913
Totals10,41410,76411,65413,96215,114
 Distinct Cases
Sexual offences106117122136107
Assaults8996115181232
Other offences against the person1317213022
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering1,0211,0901,1421,4031,515
Theft, receiving, and fraud1,4281,4421,5211,7832,120
Unlawful conversion of vehicles359378414546537
Wilful damage257228219197222
Other offences against property*2223232634
Offences against good order618743599809849
Indigent or delinquent child1,0671,3871,5541,5881,600
Other offences206221487533575
Totals5,1865,7426,2177,2327,813

NOTE—Distinct cases figures are included in those for total charges.

The cases heard in the latest two years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
1966196719661967
*Includes periodic detention.
Dismissed or withdrawn940822544532
Admonished and discharged2,1252,6091,2871,559
Committed to care of Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education1,8281,849950879
Placed under supervision5,2045,8822,5352,771
Committed to an institution*1,142954297251
Fined1,4651,7511,1071,258
Otherwise dealt with1,2581,247512563
Total cases13,96215,1147,2327,813

PENAL, SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries an increasing emphasis is being placed on the reformation and rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who by reason of the nature of their offences or the character of their offending are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation since the reformed offender does not again break the laws.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the Courts in dealing with offenders outside a prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the Courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the Courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the Courts often content themselves with fining him. In the Supreme Court also, which deals with more serious offences, there has been a trend in recent years to make greater use of fines as a punishment.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The Court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of imprisonment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than one year or more than three years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the Courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some Courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time.

The probation method is widely used. The following figures show the numbers of persons placed on probation during each of the latest 11 years.

YearNumber Admitted to Probation
19571,749
19581,870
19591,804
19601,979
19611,944
19621,978
19632,162
19642,024
19652,456
19662,773
19673,033

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1967, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
1 Year15 Months18 Months2 Years3 Years
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Under 20523943-4447550759103171,580245
20-24187372-147251651850255182
25-295111--6111711116119934
30-395913-38652925217430
40-492751-2322031118211
50-598---2-713-201
60-6981--114-41173
70 and over3-------1-4-
Totals8661616-716120826101213242,627406

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation work centres have been set up in Auckland, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin and Invercargill. Some of these are available for offenders under 21 years, some for the 17-25 year age group and some for adults generally. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence he is required to attend at a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense various other means are available to the Courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the Court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the Courts may now impose are as follows—

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding two years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being three months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to one month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than seven years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving seven years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the Board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals. In particular short-term imprisonment is usually open to objection on several counts. The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967 accordingly provides that no Court is to sentence any person to imprisonment for a term of less than six months unless having regard to the nature of the offence and all the circumstances of the case the Court is of opinion that no other punishment than imprisonment is appropriate.

Since 1939, there has been a provision restricting in a similar manner the imprisonment for any term of offenders under the age of 21 years.

Classification—The key to successful prison work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the three main reception centres, Auckland Prison, Wellington Prison, and Christchurch Prison, and in Wi Tako Prison, an institution for those in prison for the first time.

Every man sentenced to imprisonment for a term of six months or more (or in some cases for shorter terms) comes before the classification board which can call upon a psychologist, psychiatrist, vocational guidance officer, probation officer, or any other/form of specialist service to assist in defining the offender's character and potential and advise upon the most hopeful form of treatment while he is in prison.

Measures Employed in Treatment:Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, there are courses on trade training.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are full-time teachers in Auckland Prison, Christchurch Prison, Waikeria and Waipiata Youth Centres, Arohata and Invercargill Borstal Institutions, and part-time teachers in many other institutions. It is their task to seek to improve the general education of those prisoners who have been unable to reach the level of Form II, and also to assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses through a Correspondence School. The interest shown in education is encouraging, since in many cases it fits a prisoner for better employment on his release and thereby helps to reduce the chances of his further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Group Therapy—Group discussions are part of the programme of every institution. These groups of about seven or eight inmates meet regularly with an officer under informal conditions to discuss their problems and attitudes.

The leadership of a group is not confined solely to professional psychologists. Most are led by selected custodial officers who undergo a brief training course beforehand and receive subsequent help and guidance from professional staff.

The primary aim of group discussion is to help inmates to come to a closer understanding of themselves and their problems. At the same time the groups also encourage inmates to form constructive relationships with officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the Superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a Visiting Justice or to the Court. A Visiting Justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the Superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the Court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a Superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, at Auckland and Christchurch for adult male inmates, and one in Wellington for female borstal inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community.

Release to Work—Under the Penal Institutions Amendment Act 1961, inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the Superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a Magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a Probation Officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing Court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present five parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and four Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for six years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate provisions) after the offender has served three and a half years of his sentence, and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

Until 1961 there was only one board, called the Prisons Board in 1910 when it was established, and known as the Parole Board after 1954, when the Criminal Justice Act amended its jurisdiction to conform with the changes then made in the penal law. The provision for separate boards for the review of borstal cases was made by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1961.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but not more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for three years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a Magistrate as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for three years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest five years were as follows:

YearBorstal Detention*Corrective TrainingImprisonment or Hard LabourHabitual Criminals or Preventive DetentionPersons on ParoleTotal

*Under jurisdiction of the Borstal Parole Boards from November 1961.

†Abolished during 1963.

19631,4361062060161,638
19641,237213491101,393
19651,28531487141,403
19661,439-187481,539
19671,641-154191,706

Of the cases coming before the Boards in 1965, there were 460 recommendations made for release on probation and one person on parole was favourably recommended for discharge.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is administered by the Crimes Compensation Tribunal, consisting of a Judge, or a person qualified to hold judicial office, as chairman and two other members. Compensation may be awarded in respect of any one or more of the following matters.

  1. Expenses actually and reasonably incurred as a result of the victim's injury or death.

  2. Pecuniary loss of the victim as a result of total or partial incapacity for work.

  3. Pecuniary loss to dependants as a result of the victim's death.

  4. Other pecuniary loss resulting from the victim's injury and any expenses which in the opinion of the Tribunal it is reasonable to incur.

  5. Pain and suffering of the victim.

The maximum amounts that may be paid in respect of (b) and (c) are the same as those payable under the Workers' Compensation Act. The maximum amount for other pecuniary loss and for expenses is $2,000 and the maximum for pain and suffering is $1,000.

In considering any application for compensation the Tribunal may take into account any behaviour by the victim which may have contributed to his injury. It is not the policy of the Act to permit double compensation, and the Tribunal is therefore directed to deduct any amount that may be received by the victim or his dependants in consequence of the injury, for example, social security benefits or worker's compensation. However, the proceeds of any accident insurance policy need not be taken into account.

The Act makes provision for recovery from the offender, where appropriate, of any compensation paid to his victim under the scheme. The Secretary for Justice has a discretion to apply to the Tribunal for an order requiring the offender to pay to the State the whole or any part of the compensation awarded to the victim or his dependants.

The following table shows the trend of operations under the Act.

Action19641965196619671968
Applications filed923233832
Cases in which an award made31892117
Amounts of awards$850$4,444$2,960$6,039$7,409

STATISTICS OF PRISONERS—There are 15 institutions serving as prisons or borstals in New Zealand, and 9 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than eight days may be detained at any police station, which is deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1967 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at January 19671,8321321,964
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)7,8235208,343
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)7,7295288,257
Persons in prison at 31 December 19671,9261242,050
Daily average number of prisoners1,9041062,010

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1967, 290 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a Court order, 19 were classed as mental defectives and transferred to mental hospitals, while 3,176 persons were not returned to prison after release for hearing of the charge, being acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1967.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft, and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther
Under 213910827683137653441,403
21-243089113178166271865
25-293545132034541214596
30-393853172182879238671
40-4925229118885181448
50-59131125226367210
60 and over92214-151860
Totals189330811,6053014141,3334,253
Maoris (included above)5813224498122803601,274

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1967.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and overOtherTotal

*Includes Detention in a Detention Centre.

†Includes Borstal Detention.

‡Sentenced to life imprisonment.

Under 21124182486595133-1,403
21-241722212991472141865
25-291121541971081951596
30-3915215025583238-671
40-491181221504495-448
50-59715466172--210
60 and over91721841-60
Totals7589001,474*1,002912624,253

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1967 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time of conviction.

SentenceAge in YearsTotal
15161718192030-3435-3945-49
Borstal training          
    Males27811211289732---486
    Females-171214129---64
Detention centre-4199965528---319
Preventive detention------1113

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1967 more than 77 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 39.2 percent of these had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve sentence imposed during the year 1967 for criminal offences was 4,854, but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 4,253 (4,044 males and 209 females). The corresponding figures for 1966 were 4,440 of which 3,891 were distinct persons (3,704 males and 187 females).

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to nature of sentence imposed for the five latest years.

Nature of Sentence19631964196519661967
Imprisonment2,8223,0052,8313,0113,381
Corrective training9----
Detention centre207205251289319
Borstal training443449435589550
Preventive detention86323
Totals3,4893,6653,5203,8914,253

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 11 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in JailProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19571,469441,5136.496.69
19581,636591,6957.067.32
19591,702441,7467.297.48
19601,770581,8287.457.69
19611,810561,8667.467.69
19621,704561,7606.857.07
19631,744601,8046.867.09
19641,685721,7576.496.76
19651,652501,7026.246.43
19661,897671,9647.077.32
19671,977762,0537.247.52

Statistics of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the latest 11 years, with the rates per 10,000 of mean population, are given in the next table.

YearNumberPer 10,000 of Mean Population
19573,03713.60
19583,05613.37
19592,95512.83
19603,05712.86
19613,20913.22
19623,55914.32
19633,48913.75
19643,66514.16
19653,52013.36
19663,89114.50
19674,25315.58

POLICE—The Police in New Zealand are maintained wholly by the Central Government. The law relating to the establishment and regulation of the police is contained in the Police Act 1958.

Organisation and Duties—A Commissioner with headquarters at Wellington, subject to the directions of the Minister in Charge of Police, has the general direction and control of the Police. His senior assistants at the national headquarters are his deputy who holds the rank of Assistant Commissioner, the national head of the Criminal Investigation Branch, and the Secretary for Police. The latter officer is a member of the public service seconded to the Police.

For operational purposes the country is divided into 16 police districts, each under the control of an Assistant Commissioner (in the case of Auckland), a Chief Superintendent, Superintendent or Chief Inspector. The Auckland District, which includes the largest metropolitan centre in New Zealand, is again divided into five divisions each under the control of a Superintendent or Chief Inspector.

Districts and divisions are divided into sub-districts under the charge of Chief Inspectors, Inspectors, senior sergeants, sergeants or constables, and cities and the larger towns, where regular beat duty is performed, are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants, and supplemented by mobile patrols.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences and Official Secrets Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers' Act, Secondhand Dealers' Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as Registrars and Bailiffs at Magistrates' Courts, Probation Officers, and Honorary Fishery Officers.

Recruiting—Male recruits for the Police, for entry as constables, must be between the ages of 19 and 35 years. Cadets must be between the ages of 17 years and 18 years 3 months. Male recruits and cadets must have a height of not less than 5 ft 81/2 in. The term of cadetship at the Police Training School is 19 months and on successful completion of the course and on attaining the age of 19 years, cadets are appointed constables; if they complete the course before reaching 19 years they are given further training at police stations until they reach the required age.

Female recruits, who enter as constables, must be between the ages of 20 and 33 years with a height of not less than 5 ft 5 in.

All candidates for entry into the Police must pass a departmental education pre-entry test and also a medical test. They must be of British nationality, of good character, smart, active, and intelligent. Selection is made only after exhaustive inquiries into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. On appointment, male and female constable recruits undergo a three months' course of training at the Police Training School, Trentham, where they receive training in their powers and responsibilities as police officers, fitting them to deal with the situations which may be faced on duty.

Examinations are required to be passed for promotion to sergeant and senior sergeant and to commissioned rank. Promotion through the ranks of those qualified by examination is governed principally by merit, seniority being a deciding factor only when equality in merit exists.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch. Detectives are attached to each of the 16 district headquarters and to some of the larger outlying police stations, and they undertake duty, as required, in the investigation and detection of serious crime throughout the country.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1968, inclusive of 67 women police, was 2,847 (2,501 Uniform Branch, 346 Criminal Investigation Branch). Details of the effective strength were—Commissioner, two assistant Commissioners, 10 Chief Superintendents, 17 Superintendents, 23 Chief Inspectors, 55 Inspectors, 161 senior sergeants, 410 sergeants, and 2,168 constables. In addition there were 147 police cadets, nine matrons, one district constable, and 209 public servants.

Women Police—At 31 March 1968 the women police consisted of one Inspector, two sergeants, and 64 constables, and these were stationed at Whangarei, Auckland, Rotorua, Hamilton, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Lower Hutt, Porirua, National headquarters (Wellington), Nelson, Christchurch, Timaru, Dunedin, and Invercargill.

Women police receive the same pay as the men, they are called upon to perform similar duties, and they are required to compete with the men for promotion.

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE

Table of Contents

DEFENCE POLICY—The principles which successive Governments have over the years accepted as providing the framework for the formation of defence policy, as well as the responsibilities and obligations which have been accepted in conformity with those principles, and the forces and equipment required to discharge them, are described in a series of White Papers on defence policy. The most recent of these have been published as parliamentary papers A. 19 in 1961 and A. 8 in 1966.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—There is a unified Department of Defence to provide the greatest possible degree of central control and co-ordination, while at the same time making provision for the three Armed Services to retain their separate identities within the Department. Formal legislative provision for the establishment of the unified Ministry of Defence is contained in the Defence Act 1964. The Ministry consists of the New Zealand Naval Forces, the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, and certain other civilians. The former Army, Navy, and Air Departments have been abolished. The Ministry is responsible, under the Minister of Defence, for the whole field of national defence. The Governor-General is Commander-in-Chief of New Zealand.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the Ministry and the principal civilian adviser to the Minister. The Secretary is responsible for co-ordinating the business of the Ministry as a whole and for the co-ordination of long-term financial planning and defence expenditure. He is not responsible for the command and efficient and economic administration of the Services but has the power to investigate and report to the Minister in matters of such administration. He is assisted by a Chief Deputy Secretary of Defence and by three assistant secretaries in the policy, financial and administrative fields and by a deputy secretary in each of the Services.

The Chief of Defence Staff is the principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the Services and reports to the Minister.

There is a Defence Council which consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the three Services. In addition, the Defence Council may from time to time co-opt officers of other Departments of State. Subject to the over-riding control of the Minister of Defence, the Defence Council is responsible for the administration and command of the Defence Forces. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of the Defence Staff, the Council is responsible for advising the Minister on important matters of defence policy. It is also specifically required constantly to examine the possibilities of integrating common functions in the Services. The Naval, Army, and Air Boards of the Defence Council have been constituted as subordinate bodies of the Defence Council. These Boards carry out such functions in respect of their respective Services as are delegated to them by the Defence Council.

The central core of the Ministry of Defence is provided by the Defence Office. Under the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff this is responsible for policy, finance, and general administration, and for the joint military machinery.

Co-operation With Other Countries—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand Defence Liaison Staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore. In addition the Head and Deputy Heads of the New Zealand Defence Staff, Washington, are accredited to the Canadian Service authorities as advisers to the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa. New Zealand officers are also employed in the SEATO Military Planning Office, Bangkok. The United Kingdom and Australia have Service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are Service attachés on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington. Several other countries have Service attachés accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

Defence Science—A Defence Research Organisation was established in 1948 to co-ordinate defence research in New Zealand and to assist the Services with specific scientific problems. The activities of the organisation are guided by the Defence Science Policy Committee, comprising defence and scientific representatives.

Machinery for Commonwealth co-operation in defence science is provided by the Commonwealth Defence Science Organisation based in London, with an executive committee consisting of the chief defence scientists of Commonwealth countries. In addition, a Commonwealth Defence Science Committee, on which New Zealand is represented, meets from time to time in London.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES—The principal statutes governing the armed services are as follows: The Defence Act 1964; the New Zealand Army Act 1950 and its amendments; the Military Manoeuvres Act 1915; the Navy Act 1954 and its amendments; the Naval Discipline Act (U.K.); the Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908; and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and its amendments.

Two other Acts of general application, are the National Military Service Act 1961 and the Courts-Martial Appeals Act 1953. The latter provides for the establishment of a special Court of Appeal for the Navy, Army, and Air Force, to which persons convicted by a court martial may appeal against conviction.

National Military Service Act 1961—This Act, as amended in 1968, provides that every male British subject ordinarily resident in New Zealand (normally one who has lived in New Zealand for a continuous period of not less than a year) becomes liable to serve in the Army upon reaching 19 years of age and must then register. Selection of those who will be called upon to serve is made by ballot based on birth dates in a given period. Those selected may then be required to serve in the Army for (a) a period of whole-time service in camp not exceeding 14 weeks; (b) three years' part-time service during which training may be required for a total of 60 days; (c) three years in the Reserve. The current annual intake averages 3,000 out of an estimated total number of some 15,000 persons fit and eligible for service. Provision is made in the Act for persons to apply for postponement of liability for service on grounds of hardship or for registration as conscientious objectors.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—During the year ended 31 March 1968 the sum of $87,111,174 was expended on defence. The total expenditure for the previous financial year was $88,588,800.

Expenditure in 1967-68 was made up as follows.

ItemAmount
*Does not include New Zealand pay and allowances, $3.2 million.
 $(m)
Pay and allowances45.8
Food and clothing4.3
Stores13.0
Repairs and maintenance2.7
Cost of forces South-East Asia5.1*
Administrative expenses4.0
Works maintenance2.7
Capital equipment7.5
Capital works2.2

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross National Product
*Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)PercentPercent
195953.187.12.3
196057.577.12.3
196158.776.72.2
196255.566.22.0
196356.166.01.9
196458.205.91.8
196573.946.82.1
196681.206.92.1
196788.587.02.2
196887.116.82.2

STRENGTH OF DEFENCE SERVICES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services over the last 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19582,9984,4004,76912,167
19593,0074,2304,54711,784
19602,9195,3424,51012,771
19612,8534,9054,39012,148
19622,8485,4344,50512,787
19632,8775,0494,05811,984
19643,0355,5594,33812,932
19652,9765,3744,39012,740
19662,9225,5494,38112,852
19672,9345,6204,37812,932
19682,9125,8404,48513,237

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Naval vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Naval ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Navy under the Navy Act 1954 and the Defence Act 1964 are carried out by the Defence Council by delegation to the Naval Board. The Naval Board consists of the Chairman (the Minister of Defence), Chief of the Naval Staff and First Naval Member (Rear-Admiral), Second Naval Member and Chief of Naval Personnel (Commodore), Third Naval Member and Chief of Naval Technical Services (Commodore), and the Deputy Secretary of Defence (Navy).

Role of the Royal New Zealand Navy—Through the collective defence arrangements made by New Zealand, e.g., under UN, SEATO, and ANZUS agreements, and within the Commonwealth, the Royal New Zealand Navy provides forces capable of integrating with the navies of friendly nations. These forces are also planned to provide a measure of defence for the home territories should the need arise.

One ship is permanently attached to the Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve and others could reinforce it at short notice. The normal peacetime duties are many and varied, and include single Service and joint exercises both in the New Zealand area and overseas, cruises to foreign ports and around New Zealand and its island territories; support for New Zealand Antarctic interests, surveying, fishery protection, and servicing weather stations. These are in addition to training both active service personnel and reserves for their wartime tasks.

State of the Navy—Her Majesty's New Zealand ships, as at 30 September 1968, were:

*On loan from Royal Navy.
Frigate (Leander class)Waikato Otago TaranakiAt least one frigate is deployed to the Far East Station. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed within the New Zealand Naval Station.
Frigates (Otago class) 
Frigate (Whitby class)Blackpool*
Survey shipLachlan 
Supply shipEndeavourAntarctic support and fleet replenishment.
Ocean minesweepersKiama InverellTraining and fishery protection.
Motor launchesTwelveFishery protection, training, survey work, harbour duties, RNZNVR Divisions.

Shore Establishments—Navy Office, Wellington, is the office of the New Zealand Naval Board and its associated naval and administrative staffs.

The Naval Base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore, Auckland, HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and training establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, and Dockyard.

The Dockyard (administered by a Captain Superintendent) includes the Naval Store Depot and the RNZN Armament Depot at Kauri Point. The Dockyard is capable of refitting ships up to light cruisers.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry training establishment for the Navy and is situated near HMNZS Philomel, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the wireless station for the New Zealand Naval Station and is situated at Waiouru in the centre of the North Island.

Personnel—Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young men through the following channels:

Artificer apprenticesAges 15 years to 17 years 6 months.
YouthsAges 16 years to 17 years 6 months.
Adult entriesAges 17 years 6 months to 25 years.

All new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

There are two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets on the General List. Candidates between the ages of 15 years and 16 years 6 months are eligible for selection as cadet midshipmen; these cadets carry out training at the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, before either proceeding to the United Kingdom for specialist technical training or returning to New Zealand to attend a university degree course at the University of Auckland, followed by technical specialist training. The degree course undertaken is dependent on the specialisations which are: B.A. or B.SC.—Seamen Specialisation; B.E. (Electrical or Marine Engineering)—Engineering Specialisation; B.COM.—Supply Specialisation.

To cater for the older age group, young men between the ages of 17 years and 19 years are eligible for selection as Midshipmen to attend a university degree course at the University of Auckland followed by professional technical training. On completion of their training they take up appointments as trained officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to officer rank.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the four main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Strength of the Navy—The strength of the Navy as at 31 August 1968 was as follows:

 OfficersRatingsTotal
Regular Forces (including WRNZNS)3282,5572,885
Active Reserves:   
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve99
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve113390503
                Totals122390512
Inactive (Supplementary) Reserves:   
    Royal New Zealand Fleet Reserve-2,1702,170
    Retired Officers and Pensioners373122495
Totals3732,2922,665

THE ARMY—The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained and organised under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950, the Defence Act 1964, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1966.

The New Zealand Army comprises the following Corps:

Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment.

New Zealand Special Air Service.

Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

New Zealand Army Legal Service.

Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.

Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps.

Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

New Zealand Cadet Corps.

Command and Administration—The command and administrative functions of the Army are carried out by the Army Board on the authority delegated to it by the Defence Council. The Army Board consists of the Minister of Defence as Chairman, the Chief of the General Staff, the Adjutant General, the Quartermaster General, the Deputy Secretary of Defence (Army), and an Associate Member (Territorial Force).

Organisation—The Army is organised, trained, and equipped so that, in the event of war, or other like emergency, it can undertake rapidly and efficiently the tasks required of it. Personnel in the Army are posted to the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, or the Army Reserve.

The major components of the Army are: (a) The Field Force; (b) The Static Support Force; (c) The Army Reserve; (d) The Cadet Corps.

The Field Force—This Force comprises the operational formations containing both Regular Force units and integrated Regular/Territorial force units. It is designed to provide an infantry brigade group with its own logistic support and reserves for overseas service. This force also provides a Regular Force contribution to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve and to other forces raised in times of peace to meet local emergencies overseas. The Field Force establishment totals approximately 3,250 Regular Force and 11,000 Territorial Force all ranks.

Static Support Force—This Force commands, administers, and equips the Army. For administrative reasons New Zealand is divided into three Military Districts with Headquarters at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and seven Army Areas with offices at Auckland, Hamilton, Linton, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Army Headquarters, which exercises overall command of the Army, is located at Wellington. The establishment strength of the Static Support Force is approximately 3,000 Regular Force all ranks.

Army Reserve—Contains Regular Force and Territorial Force Officers and soldiers who have completed their active engagement. In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by proclamation, transfer the Army Reserve or any specific portion of it to the Regular or Territorial Forces.

The Cadet Corps—The Cadet Corps comprises some 200 officers and 9,200 cadets in 38 secondary school cadet units. Service is voluntary and, subject to satisfying the standards and requirements laid down by the Army, any boys' secondary school may raise a unit.

Conditions of ServiceRegular Force—All officers and soldiers over 20 years of age are liable for overseas service with the exception of the Home Service Section. Enlistment in the Regular Force is voluntary. Engagements of officers are normally until retiring age for rank. Provisions for special short-term engagements, and for soldiers in the General Service Section are as follows:

Men: Minimum of three or more years up to an initial maximum of 12 years. Re-engagement may be for a minimum of two years or alternatively re-engagement to retiring age for rank is available. Reserve Service depends on the period of Active Service but is for a minimum of three years and may extend to retiring age for rank.

Women: Three years with re-engagement for one, two, or three years until retiring age.

Territorial Force—In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by Proclamation declare the Territorial Force liable for continuous service within New Zealand or overseas. In time of peace the Territorial Force is maintained at a planned strength of 11,000 by a selective National Service Scheme, which was commenced in 1962, and by voluntary enlistment. Following a period of 14 weeks full-time training National Servicemen are required to complete three years part-time service before being posted to the Army Reserve. National Servicemen may volunteer for further service on the active list on completion of their three years obligatory service.

Training—Regular Force—Officers are commissioned on graduation from the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia, the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, England, and from the Officer Cadet School, Portsea, Australia, except in the case of special entries and quarter-master officers who are commissioned from the ranks. Post-graduate and specialist training is received either in New Zealand or at overseas training establishment. Officers receive staff training at the RNZAF Command and Staff College or the Australian Staff College.

Regular soldiers are trained at Corps Schools or Depots and in Regular Force units in New Zealand. In certain cases specialist training is received at overseas training establishments.

Territorial Force—Officers and soldiers are required to carry out annually a minimum of 20 days' training of which a minimum of 14 days must be in annual camp.

Cadet Corps—Training covers a three-year cycle with emphasis placed on training in leadership, weapon handling, fieldcraft, and adventure type training. Some training in first aid, signals communication, and survival techniques is also given. Each unit is required to complete a minimum of 43 hours' training annually, including a five-day barracks week. Courses for officers and non-commissioned officers are conducted at training camps during school vacations.

Training Establishments—All units of the Army are responsible for a proportion of the training. However, a number of units, designated schools or depots are particularly provided to conduct formal courses of training in specialised fields for all ranks of the Regular Force and for officers and specialist non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force.

Most of these schools are situated at Waiouru and are administered by Waiouru Command. These schools are: Tactical School; Regular Force Depot; School of Army Administration; School of Artillery; School of Armour; School of Signals; School of Infantry; Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School; Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School; and the Regular Force Cadet School.

The Regular Force Depot provides basic and instructor courses for all arms of the Regular Force while the Regular Force Cadet School provides academic and basic recruit training for cadets between the ages of 151/2 and 18 years. Trade training of cadets is carried out at the appropriate Corps School.

The remaining Schools of Instruction are the School of Military Engineering at Linton, the Medical Corps Depot and the NZWRAC Depot at Burnham, and the Army Ordnance School at Trentham.

Rifle Clubs and Associations—Rifle clubs and associations (including the parent body, the National Rifle Association of New Zealand) must be formally recognised by the Army Board. There are 104 rifle clubs and 24 rifle associations in New Zealand.

Strength of the Army—The strength of the Army as at 31 August 1968 was as follows:

 OfficersSoldiersTotal
Regular Forces (including forces in Malaysia, Thailand, and South Vietnam); women6835,0235,706
Territorial Force74910,83511,584
Reserve of Officers995-995
Class A Reserve (Territorial Force)-3,4863,486
Class B Reserve (Regular Force)-1,8921,892
Cadet Corps2089,2539,461

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—By the Air Force Act 1937, the Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service, and its administration was vested in the Air Department. Until 1964 the Civil Aviation Administration also formed part of the Air Department, but in 1964 the Civil Aviation Act and the Defence Act established a separate Department of Civil Aviation and transferred the remainder of the Air Department to the Ministry of Defence. Provision is made in the Defence Act 1964, however, for the Civil Aviation authorities to be associated with discussions of issues where military and civil aviation interests are both concerned.

Command and Organisation—The RNZAF is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and the Defence Act 1964. The force consists of: (a) the Regular Air Force; (b) the Territorial Air Force; (c) the Air Force Reserve; (d) the Women's Royal New Zealand Air Force; (e) the Air Training Corps.

The command and administration of the RNZAF are carried out by the Defence Council, by delegation to the Air Board which consists of the Minister of Defence as Chairman; the Chief of the Air Staff; the Air Member for Personnel; the Air Member for Supply; and the Deputy Secretary of Defence (Air). RNZAF Headquarters is located in Wellington. There are six RNZAF bases in New Zealand. An RNZAF Operations Group, to which the Air Board has delegated responsibility for operational functions of the RNZAF, has its headquarters at RNZAF, Auckland. An RNZAF Training Group, with a headquarters at RNZAF Wigram, is delegated responsibility for all RNZAF training.

Role—The role of the RNZAF is to provide forces for the defence of New Zealand and her island territories, for the defence of sea and air communications, and for deployment overseas as necessary to support the United Nations and to meet obligations to, and defence arrangements with, the Commonwealth and allied countries. In order to meet these commitments the RNZAF is organised to provide an operational force immediately available in an emergency. In addition, the RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area.

Operational Units—Operating units of the RNZAF comprise a medium range transport squadron based with the RAF in Singapore. A maritime squadron, long range transport squadron and a battlefield support squadron are based at RNZAF Auckland, and a light bomber squadron, a day fighter ground attack squadron and a communications transport squadron are based at RNZAF Ohakea.

Technical Services—The Technical Branch of the RNZAF consists of the Aircraft, Armament, and Radio divisions. Technical direction of RNZAF Engineering Services is co-ordinated at RNZAF Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to squadrons and bases. A complete range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture is carried out at the Repair Depot, RNZAF Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry.

Equipment Services—Spares and equipment required by the RNZAF are provided through an equipment branch which is also responsible for the control and administration of catering, motor transport, and movements. Supply procedures and systems are patterned on the Royal Air Force and the United States Services, both of which are also the main sources of supply for technical spares and equipment.

Personnel:Regular Air Force, Officers—Candidates for commissions in the General Duties (Flying) Branch are drawn mainly from civil life. Candidates for other officer branches are mostly selected from the ranks, although some candidates with high educational and specialist qualifications are enlisted from civilian sources. After a probationary period of service they are initially granted short service commissions with the opportunity of qualifying for a permanent commission later. Applications from officers of other Commonwealth services who have retired, or are about to retire, are accepted from time to time.

Some officer cadets are enlisted and on completion of up to four years' military and university studies are granted permanent commissions in the General Duties, Technical, Administrative and Supply, or Education Branches. Normal retiring ages for officers holding permanent commissions in the General Duties and Education Branches are: Squadron Leaders and below 45 years, Wing Commanders 50 years, Group Captains and above 55 years. For other branches the equivalent retiring ages are 50, 50 and 55 years respectively. In special cases the retiring age of any officer may be extended up to the age of 55 years.

Airmen and Airwomen—Service for airmen in the Regular Air Force is mainly through initial engagements of up to eight years on the active list, according to trade, with a reserve liability of four years in each case. Twelve-year engagements are granted to men who are selected for apprentice training. From 1960 training has been provided by the Royal Australian Air Force apprentice school at Wagga, New South Wales. The RNZAF also trains its own apprentices in certain trades, under a scheme known as the New Zealand Certificate in Engineering Training Scheme. Trainees commence their service at RNZAF Woodbourne and take a four year course as fitters to the level of the New Zealand Certificate in Engineering. For airwomen, the initial term of service is normally three years with no reserve obligation. Opportunities exist for both airmen and airwomen to re-engage.

Non-regular Forces—The non-regular forces of the RNZAF consist of: (a) the Territorial Air Force: (b) the Active Reserve; (c) the General Reserve; and (d) the Air Training Corps. The Territorial Air Force is manned in specialist officer branches only. The Active Reserve is manned by personnel who either have reserve obligations following service in the Regular Air Force, or who volunteer on the expiry of those obligations. Not all Active Reserve personnel are required to carry out training annually but they are required to carry out such training as the Air Board determines is necessary. The General Reserve has no training obligations in time of peace. The Air Training Corps is essentially a disciplined youth movement which fosters an interest in the air and provides a valuable source of recruits for the Regular Air Force.

Training:Flying Training—The training of all aircrew is undertaken at the Flying Training Wing at RNZAF Wigram. New Zealand Navy and Army pilots are trained in support of joint and single service flying activities. Since 1962 some flying training has been carried out on behalf of the Royal Malaysian Air Force for both pilots and flying instructors.

Ground Training—Airmen Cadets take an education, general service, and basic training course for 12 months at the Airman Cadet School, RNZAF Woodbourne. During this period cadets enlisted in non-technical trades are trained to specialist level while those enlisted in technical trades complete training to a basic engineering level. Advanced trade training for airmen who enter as cadets as well as the training of adult ground trade recruits is conducted at various Trade Training Schools. Training for security police, provost ATC, and general service instructors is conducted at RNZAF Wigram where specialist courses in management and leadership for junior non-commissioned officers are also held. An increasing amount of training including transport, cooking, and physical training courses common to the three services are now conducted at Joint Service Schools.

Officer Training—The RNZAF conducts formal courses of officer training in New Zealand at three levels: indoctrination of officer cadets; junior command and staff training for flight lieutenants; and senior command and staff training for squadron leaders and wing commanders. In addition, selected RNZAF officers attend the Royal Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force Staff Colleges; the British Joint Services Staff College; the Air Warfare College of the Royal Air Force; and the Imperial Defence College in London. The RNZAF has exchange-of-personnel agreements with the Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, and the United States Air Force; up to 12 RNZAF officers are on exchange at any one time. Each year up to 10 officer cadets are recruited under a University Cadetship Scheme conducted in conjunction with the University of Canterbury. These Cadets read for bachelor degrees in science, arts, commerce, or engineering and during university vacations receive their military training. On completing the degree course, students are appointed to permanent commissions. Officer Cadet and University Cadet training is carried out at RNZAF Wigram, and the two levels of command and staff training are carried out at the Command and Staff School, RNZAF Auckland.

Strength of the Air Force—The strength of the RNZAF at 31 August 1968 was as follows: Regular Air Force 4,126; WRNZAF 309; TAF 101; Active Reserve 591; General Reserve 1,284; Air Training Corps 5,360 (school units 2,920 and 2,440 in town squadrons).

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS—A brief summary of forces raised and employed overseas up till 1959 in Japan; with the United Nations forces in Korea; in Cyprus; and in the former Federation of Malaya is given in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook. The following is a brief account of New Zealand's contributions to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, and of other elements of the New Zealand Armed Services serving overseas at the end of 1967.

Commonwealth Strategic Reserve: New Zealand agreed in 1955 to contribute forces to a Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve to be established in the South-East Asian area. That year an Army Special Air Service Squadron was formed and began anti-terrorist operations in Malaya in January 1956. The Squadron comprised 133 officers and men and operated as a sub-unit of the British Army's 22nd Special Air Service Regiment. It was replaced in late 1957 by a regular infantry battalion which has remained in Malaysia as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. Like its predecessors, the 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment has carried out operations against the terrorist remnants in the area in northern peninsular Malaysia bordering on Thailand. It was also engaged on operations against Indonesian infiltrators in both eastern and western Malaysia. From 1965 to 1966 an SAS detachment was deployed in the Borneo States of Malaysia. The Battalion has been reduced from its initial strength of 750 officers and men as a result of the deployment of personnel to Vietnam.

Regular contributions of air and naval units have also been made. From 1955 to 1958 No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, a day fighter ground attack squadron, was based in Singapore. It was replaced by No. 75 Squadron RNZAF, a light bomber squadron, which was withdrawn to New Zealand in early 1962. No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, equipped with Canberra light bombers, served in Singapore from late 1964 to 1966. No. 41 Squadron RNZAF, a medium range transport squadron, continues to be based in Singapore as part of the Strategic Reserve.

The naval contribution to the Reserve consists of one modern frigate. The frigates take this duty in turn and while so engaged form part of the Royal Navy's Far East Fleet. Each ship's absence from New Zealand is usually just under one year.

Thailand: As a result of the worsening situation in neighbouring Laos during early 1962, the Thai Government appealed to the New Zealand Government for assistance. On 22 May of that year a token force of four officers and 27 other ranks of the 1st Special Air Service Squadron left New Zealand for service in Thailand. The force operated with United States and Thailand units. It was withdrawn in September 1962.

As part of general efforts to improve communication facilities in Thailand, British, Australian, and New Zealand forces were engaged, between March 1964 and October 1965, in building an airfield in North-East Thailand. The New Zealand component of 33 men was provided by 2nd Plant Troop, 2nd Construction Squadron, Royal New Zealand Engineers. Elements of the RNZAF transport squadron based in Singapore as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve assisted in this project and in a United States programme for the improvement of logistic and communications facilities in North-East Thailand.

In January 1966 a specialist team of some 15 men of the Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers went to Thailand to provide capital and technical assistance under the Colombo Plan in the building of a road in North-East Thailand, from Borabu towards Buriram, a distance of 170 kilometres. In addition to providing the supervisors and instructers for the project, New Zealand provides much of the equipment for the building of the road. In October 1967 the strength of the team was increased to 21, and the attachment of two Ministry of Works overseers to the project was also approved.

South Vietnam: In June 1964, at the request of the Republic of South Vietnam, an Army engineer detachment was sent to South Vietnam to help in reconstruction and development projects. The team returned to New Zealand in June 1965. The following month, in response to a further request from the South Vietnamese Government, an artillery battery was sent to South Vietnam. In May 1967 this was joined by a reinforced infantry company drawn largely from the battalion in Malaysia. The Company, which serves with the Australian Task Force, was joined late in 1967 by a further reinforced infantry company from Malaysia, thus increasing the New Zealand forces in Vietnam to some 550 personnel. In May 1967 a Joint Services Medical Team was deployed to South Vietnam for operations with United States Agency for International Development.

United Nations Observers: At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand has provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir since 1951 and in Palestine since 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir has been four, except for the period of hostilities in mid-1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided nine officers. The number of observers in Palestine has varied between two and seven with five being the strength in 1967.

New Zealand continues to provide one military member of the Commonwealth Liaison Mission to the United Nations Command in South Korea.

Aid to Malaysia and Singapore—In addition to the direct military help being given by New Zealand forces in South-East Asia in maintaining security in the area, New Zealand has since early 1964 undertaken a programme of defence aid. Under this programme military equipment valued at approximately $923,720 had been given to Malaysia at 31 March 1968, and items worth $87,660 had been made available to the military forces of Singapore.

As part of the programme, 440 Malaysian trainees underwent training in New Zealand up to 31 March 1968, and ten New Zealand servicemen were on loan to the Malaysian Armed Forces. The training of Singaporean servicemen in New Zealand began in 1968.

Provision was made for the expenditure of a total of $300,000 on defence aid for the period 1 April 1967 to 31 March 1969.

STRENGTHS OF THE ARMED SERVICES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914-18—A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these 100,444 went overseas. This total comprised 98,950 troops serving with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in the European, Mediterranean, or Samoan areas; 550 nurses; and 944 others (including 211 British Army reservists, 541 naval personnel, and 192 Royal Flying Corps personnel). In addition, it was known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand and enlisted in British and Australian forces, while others (exact numbers unknown) are known to have joined Canadian and South African forces.

At Armistice date in November 1918 New Zealand had over 56,000 troops overseas, and a further 10,000 were ready to embark or in training.

The troops provided for overseas service represented nearly 10 percent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914 and over 40 percent of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45 years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian naval or military forces.

Second World War, 1939-45—Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—was 194,000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

A total of 104,988 Army personnel served overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and, of these, 99,343 (97,893 males and 1,450 females) left New Zealand on or before 15 August 1945, and 5,645 (5,491 males and 154 females) left New Zealand on or after 16 August 1945. (Some detailed tables are given on pages 269-271 of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilisation, there being 151,073 men in the armed forces at that me, representing approximately 43 percent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceAll ServicesTotalFemale Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
In New ZealandOverseas
1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806
19401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
19413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
19425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
19437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
194410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
194510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE—The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the armed forces in the wars, etc., listed. For the Second World War the figures shown for Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as “missing” refers to the number so classified at the end of the period quoted.

—–Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)Wounded and InjuredPrisoners of WarWounded and Taken Prisoner of WarInternedMissingTotal
*At 4 August 1919 this total comprised 16,688 deaths, 41,315 wounded and 1 missing.
South African War, 1899-1902228166----394
First World War, 1914-18 (up to 12 November 1918)—       
    1 N.Z.E.F.16,30241,262356--8458,004*
    Samoa2-----2
    Nurses13-----13
            Totals16,31741,262356--8458,019
Second World War, 1939-45 (up to 31 December 1946)—       
    Navy57317054-3-800
    Army6,79315,3246,6441,219-4630,026
    Air Force4,1492555203223-4,979
    Mercantile Marine110---123-233
            Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038
Jayforce (up to December 1948)11-----11
Korea (up to December 1954)—       
    Navy21----3
    Army37801---118
            Totals39811---121
Malaya (up to September 1960)—       
    Army1021----31
    Air Force52----7
            Totals1523----38
n Vietnam (up to September 1968)—       
    Army1166----77
            Totals1166----77

SUMMARY OF WARTIME ACTIVITIES OF ARMED FORCES—A condensed account of the wartime activities of the three armed services was given in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

PERSONS WITH OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE—Census statistics on overseas war service are now given.

Wars19611966
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Plus any with service in both World Wars.
Overseas service—      
Only in Korean War4,948344,9825,459225,481
Only in Second World War140,5495,447145,996139,0215,703144,724
Only in First World War45,8791,06446,94334,30078735,087
Only in South African War991141,0054504454
In Korean War and Second World War1,39751,4021,52971,536
In Second World War and First World War3,274623,3362,616472,663
In South African War and First World War47054751941195
In South African War and Second World War*44-4435-35
    Totals with overseas war service197,5526,631204,183183,6046,571190,175

Although the number of First World War veterans declined by 26 percent between the censuses of 1961 and 1966, there still remained 37,979 (37,144 men and 835 women). Of this figure, 27,765 served with the New Zealand Forces, and the remaining 10,214 served with the Australian, United Kingdom, Indian, and Other Commonwealth Forces, will include an unknown number of immigrants who have arrived in New Zealand since 1918.

The number of those with overseas service in New Zealand Forces in the Second World War declined from 122,939 (120,885 men and 2,054 women) to 117,631 (115,812 men and 1,819 women) between 1961 and 1966, the decline being accounted for by emigration as well as deaths.

PERSONS WITH WAR SERVICE IN NEW ZEALAND ONLY—In the following table the numbers of persons in New Zealand in 1961 mobilised for at least 28 days in home service only are given.

—–MalesFemalesTotal
Home service only, First World War9,1202179,337
Home service only, Second World War84,2788,27592,553
Home service, First World War and overseas service Second World War210-210
Home service Second World War and overseas service First World War7,754437,797

CIVIL DEFENCE—In 1959, a Ministry of Civil Defence was established within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, and three Regional Commissioners were appointed to implement Central Government policy within their regions. For civil defence purposes, the North Island was divided into two regions and the South Island formed a third region.

The Civil Defence Act 1962 put into legislative form the concept and machinery of a national civil defence scheme. It provided for the formation of National and Regional Civil Defence Committees, advisory planning committees, the appointment of a Secretary for Civil Defence, and a Director and Deputy Director of Civil Defence.

Various planning committees have been established and are responsible for formulating national civil defence plans for consideration by the National Civil Defence Committee prior to being submitted to the Minister of Civil Defence, who is given power under the Civil Defence Act to approve them as national plans.

The civil defence roles and responsibilities of Government Departments and other organisations have been defined in national plans which have been approved. They provide the basic principles for Government Action in Major Disaster, Communications, Traffic Control, Emergency Supplies, Medical Arrangements, Law and Order, Transport, Welfare, Evacuation, and Fire Fighting, in the event of a civil defence emergency.

The preparation of local civil defence plans and the establishment of an organisation to implement such plans, are the responsibility of local authorities. Every local authority must prepare a local civil defence plan by 31 December 1969 and submit it to the Regional Commissioner for approval. Central Government assists by conducting regional training courses, sending local authority civil defence officials for training at the civil defence training school in Australia, providing some stores including radio transceivers and subsidising on a $1 for $1 basis certain categories of civil defence expenditure. It also issues training manuals and standard forms for the various sections of civil defence. In each region a Training Officer has been appointed to assist local authorities with civil defence training programmes and exercises.

Civil Defence Police are recruited and trained by the New Zealand Police and at present their numbers total 3,105, the establishment being 3,500. Some 2,000 Civil Defence Traffic Officers have also been recruited and are being trained either by the Transport Department or the local authority, as is appropriate.

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, VALUATION, ETC.

10 A—GENERAL

LAND UTILISATION—The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories in the Pacific, but including the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,700 acres.

The broad grouping of land use in 1960 for farm and other purposes is shown in the following table:

 Acres (million)
Occupied farm land—  
    Improved grassland18.4 
    Tussock and other native grassland13.0 
Total grassland 31.4
    Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards1.4 
    Plantations0.9 
    Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.7 
    Standing bush2.7 
    Barren and unproductive land1.9 
Total other occupied farm land 12.6
Total occupied farm land 44.0
Land in cities and boroughs 0.4
National parks, reserves, and domains 5.1
State forest land 9.8
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc. 7.1
Total land 66.4

Tenure of Occupied Lands—The area of land in occupation as at 31 January 1960, classified according to tenure, was as follows:

 Acres
Crown land (including leases and licences)18,256,493
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)22,335,285
Leasehold3,427,119
Total occupied area44,018,897

Size of Holdings—Although approximately 31 percent of holdings surveyed in 1960 were less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represented only a little under 3 percent of the occupied land of New Zealand. A further 24 percent of the holdings ranged between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounted to less than 9 percent of the total. At the other end of the scale it was found that 64 percent of the occupied land was held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings was only a little under 9 percent of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 1,013 in 1960, accounted for 38 percent of the total area of occupied land.

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1949, 1952, 1957, and 1960 are given below. For these years, excepting 1960, statistics were collected for areas under 10 acres.

Area, in AcresNumber of HoldingsPercentage of Total
19491952195719601949195219571960
1- 911,46312,36311,765 13.1613.6913.90
10- 4913,61113,71610,39611,72115.6315.1912.2915.24
50- 9912,96213,46011,93212,35314.8914.9114.1016.06
100- 19917,25018,10417,94918,38419.8120.0521.2223.90
200- 31910,08410,30810,28910,68711.5811.4212.1613.89
320- 63910,65311,08311,18412,10912.2312.2713.2215.74
640- 9994,2154,3824,3574,6594.844.855.156.06
1,000- 4,9995,8275,8665,7456,0026.696.506.797.80
5,000- 9,9995385355315510.620.590.630.71
10,000-19,9992782762612640.320.310.310.34
20,000-49,9991441431411450.170.160.170.19
50,000 and over515254530.060.060.060.07
Totals87,07690,28884,60476,928100.00100.00100.00100.00

The total acreage of holdings in each group is given in the following table.

Area of Holdings, in Acres1949195219571960
 acres
1- 953,05356,40150,871 
10- 49344,548346,400265,188299,766
50- 99949,958989,287882,805918,596
100- 1992,417,3422,536,2302,521,2342,618,512
200- 3192,527,4012,584,8762,579,1612,692,109
320- 6394,823,0685,011,0735,061,4575,470,835
640- 9993,349,9843,470,2973,452,8093,683,904
1,000- 4,99911,377,53911,367,37011,125,37511,537,911
5,000- 9,9993,661,1383,670,1823,592,5873,755,107
10,000-19,9993,891,5863,870,9483,704,4433,839,876
20,000-49,9994,457,0354,404,0014,326,1514,330,396
50,000 and over4,864,8474,912,6384,989,2844,871,885
Totals42,717,49943,219,70342,551,36544,018,897

The following additional details not normally obtained in the annual farm production survey were collected under the special Census of Agriculture in 1960:

Holdings at 31 January 1960NumberPercentage of Total
Occupied by Maoris5,2276.79
Lying entirely idle and unused4,5915.97

A classification of all holdings in 1960 according to the status of the occupier showed the following position:

Holdings at 31 January 1960NumberPercentage of Total
Owner44,11957.35
Lessee13,57117.64
Manager3,6834.79
Partner3,9505.13
Shareworker2,1072.74
Part owner, part lessee9,49812.35
Totals76,928100.00

Condition of Occupied Land—In 1965, 43,497,659 aces were assessed as being occupied, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, and holdings of less than 10 acres in extent. The land in occupation in New Zealand at 31 January 1965 was classified according to condition and use as follows.

Use of LandAcresPercentage of Total

*Includes areas sown with crops.

†Includes unimproved land together with domestic orchards, residences, private gardens, and grounds.

Area in crop at 31 January1,044,7162.40
In fallow125,8000.29
In sown grasses and clovers*  
    Cut for hay, seed, or silage19,433,35744.68
    Not cut for hay, seed, or silage
In orchards (commercial only)16,5690.04
In market gardens and nurseries16,3420.04
In plantations1,034,9262.38
Total area in cultivation21,671,71049.82
Balance of land21,825,94950.18
Total area in occupation43,497,659100.00

Information collected in 1960 in conjunction with the World Census of Agriculture showed that 36 percent of the total area in occupation was stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs.

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of Section 14— Farming. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position at 31 January 1960.

Land DistrictPhormium (New Zealand Flax)Tussock and Naturally Established Native GrassesFern, Scrub, and Second GrowthStanding Native BushBarren and Unproductive LandTotal, Unimproved Occupied Land
 acres
North Auckland3,575107,539871,412263,17795,0231,340,726
South Auckland1,71762,3221,299,029687,679107,2062,157,953
Gisborne65116,171310,830178,13629,368634,570
Hawke's Bay55286,719341,21269,53842,198739,722
Taranaki614,295150,328193,13617,863365,683
Wellington7,923589,474672,635290,726126,6721,687,430
North Island13,3961,166,5203,645,4461,682,392418,3306,926,084
Marlborough5,8381,407,022278,281112,482225,5662,029,189
Nelson2,089200,676380,029190,72341,938815,455
Westland4,32343,758207,166214,841126,146596,234
Canterbury4,8973,931,458242,723113,033539,7954,831,906
Otago2,0315,054,486614,061250,702439,0496,360,329
Southland6,9561,231,629303,981147,45267,2011,757,219
South Island26,13411,869,0292,026,2411,029,2331,439,69516,390,332
New Zealand39,53013,035,5495,671,6872,711,6251,858,02523,316,416

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Practically all title to privately owned land and interests in land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system administered under the Land Transfer Act 1952. This system was introduced into New Zealand by the Land Transfer Act 1870. While that Act retained some of the provisions and innovations of the Land Transfer Act 1860 which it repealed and superseded, it was largely based on the revolutionary Torrens system of registration of title devised for South Australia.

Under this land transfer system, which with certain modifications has operated in New Zealand since 1870, the title to land is not secured or effected by the mere execution of deeds or documents. Registration of a valid title is the fundamental principle, and it is only by such registration that title to land or any interest therein may pass or be obtained. The District Land Registrar appointed in and for each of the land registration districts is responsible for the registration in his district, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

No instrument or dealing may be registered unless it is in accordance with statute or general law or if forbidden by positive law. An increasing number of statutes and regulation expressly impose upon the District Land Registrar the duty and responsibility of ensuring that no instrument is registered or no interests in land are acquired in contravention of the statutory provisions and requirements regulating the aggregation and subdivision of land, the alienation of Crown land, Maori land, or public reserves, the dedication or constitution of roads, streets, and access ways, and many other matters involving Government policy.

The land transfer system has proved so successful and has provided such a reliable record of dealings with land that over the last half century there has been an increasing tendency on the part of local authorities and other statutory bodies to use its facilities to give specific notice of obligations and restrictions attaching to land by virtue of their respective statutes. When national or district scheme or drainage, irrigation, water supply, or sewerage which result in improvement to land are undertaken today, statutory authority is customarily given to charge part of the cost against the land. These charges are recorded against the titles concerned. While entries of this nature on the register were not envisaged in the original land transfer system they do ensure that a prospective purchaser, by inspection of the Register, can acquaint himself with all matters affecting the property. The land transfer registration system is also used extensively to ensure that other statutory restrictions governing the acquisition and subdivision of land and dealings with land are not contravened.

Special procedures are necessary for the registration of dealings with Crown land and Maori land and these are contained in the Land Act 1948, the Maori Affairs Act 1953, and the various related Acts respectively.

The demand for land for housing development has resulted in adaptations to the system. The normal procedures relating to subdivision title and finance have been streamlined and, as in most forms of substantial purchase today, provision made for payment by instalment. The State-sponsored group building schemes, the Housing Act 1955, and the housing provisions in the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 have met this situation. Agreements for sale and purchase and occupation licences are registered today in great numbers in the same way as the traditional forms of dealing with land.

The Joint Family Homes Act introduced in 1950 provides for settlements of land as “joint family homes” and increasing use is made of this procedure year by year. (See Section 19.)

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 12 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
195722,948
195823,590
195925,521
196026,953
196129,337
196231,743
196328,764
196429,049
196535,258
196639,760
196742,692
196846,118

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchUrban PropertiesRural PropertiesAll Properties: Total Consideration
NumberAreaConsiderationFreeholdTotal Freehold and Leasehold
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberConsideration
  acres$(m) acres (000)$(m) $(m)$(m)
195842,18310,391179.37,7031,44092.28,390100.1279.4
195941,85410,283170.46,7961,07279.27,29984.8255.2
196045,12510,999189.77,2041,26389.27,73095.7285.5
196152,23316,000239.88,4031,710124.49,179135.8375.6
196249,35813,979233.47,7871,408117.28,455126.7360.1
196346,27715,108237.36,7821,13592.57,28999.1336.4
196451,94216,572299.17,2691,297111.07,894120.8419.9
196559,98318,207362.78,6421,589156.69,565173.5536.2
196661,58118,349394.09,2811,560185.39,927198.6592.6
196759,15115,237394.08,9141,592184.09,4195.2589.2
196855,82014,019390.57,5661,115141.28,105151.4541.8

The numbers of transfers shown in the table relate only to transfers of land on sale, i.e., they do not include transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, etc.

Regarding all land transfer statistics a word of caution is necessary. Very diverse types of property are included in the land transfer figures, and consequently the averages should not be taken for more than they purport to show, e.g., average consideration figures per acre for rural freehold properties should not be taken as representing average prices per acre for farm property.

In the case of town and suburban properties, however, the numbers involved are probably sufficient to smooth out changes from year to year in the proportions of different classes of property included in the total.

URBAN LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows urban land transfers by consideration group for March years. The land transfers are also broken down into freehold and leasehold transactions. The majority of both urban and rural transactions are freehold.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeasehold All Urban TransfersAverage Consideration
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal Consideration 
$ $(000)$ $(000)$ $(000)$
1966-67
Under 2,00015,15017,8681,17934626977715,49618,1361,170
2,000- 2,9995,81613,8472,381992362,3855,91514,0832,381
3,000- 3,9994,05313,7133,383913093,4004,14414,0223,384
4,000- 9,99921,631149,6666,9194873,3076,79022,118152,9736,916
10,000- 19,9999,484121,66012,8282002,67113,3569,684124,33112,839
20,000- 49,9991,44239,69227,526541,48727,5381,49641,17927,526
50,000-199,99926020,35478,2861198989,92427121,34378,758
200,000 and over257,485299,4172414207,100277,900292,579
All Transfers57,861384,2856,6421,2909,6837,50659,151393,9686,660
1967-68
Under 2,00014,15916,8671,19142835482714,58717,2211,181
2,000- 2,9995,27312,6482,3991162762,3795,38912,9242,398
3,000- 3,9993,92713,2653,378822793,3974,00913,5433,378
4,000- 9,99919,738137,6966,9765773,9306,81120,315141,6266,972
10,000- 19,9999,350120,35012,8722102,75213,1039,560123,10112,877
20,000- 49,9991,52842,29727,681752,08427,7851,60344,38027,686
50,000-199,99931325,40281,157191,63586,05133227,03781,437
200,000 and over209,440471,99351,180236,0252510,620424,799
All Transfers54,308377,9646,9601,51212,4898,26055,820390,4546,995

In general, transactions included in the under $2,000 group would involve vacant sections, although many building sections are now priced above this level.

Urban land transfers involving consideration between $2,000 and $19,999 would be, in the main, residential properties, although the group would include a considerable number of building sections, particularly in the main urban areas.

The $4,000-$9,999 group would include a very large number of the residential properties that changed hands.

The range of transactions involving $20,000 or above would represent mainly commercial and industrial properties, although increasing numbers of residential properties will be included near the lower end of the range.

The following table shows urban land transfers by land registration districts.

Land Registration District1966-671967-68
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsideration
  acres$(000) acres$(000)
North Auckland19,9325,208148,12519,5295,044153,209
South Auckland8,0962,47546,7127,3731,98043,219
Gisborne6842123,5515071712,788
Hawke's Bay2,14553312,4732,05050611,579
Taranaki1,4093527,6541,2152856,576
Wellington10,6202,44883,85310,1922,22484,631
Marlborough5921823,0445502013,151
Nelson1,2993387,2971,4233917,073
Westland3821101,10634779998
Canterbury8,2151,79548,5737,3971,68847,404
Otago3,93996321,2973,59190220,355
Southland1,83862310,2831,6465519,472
Totals59,15115,237393,96855,82014,019390,454

Rural Land Transfers—The following analysis shows for 1967-68, transfers of country freehold properties classified by size groups.

Size Group (Acres)NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration Per Acre
  acres$(000)$
Under 303,79128,55433,3491,167.94
30-4947318,9235,886311.08
50-9993968,23921,007307.84
100-14970184,78420,034236.29
150-249660126,31020,087159.03
250-499547190,65419,753103.61
500 and over455597,35421,06335.26
All Transfers7,5661,114,818141,180126.64

The next table gives average consideration per acre by size group and weighted average price per acre of rural freehold land transfers for the latest five years. (The weighted average price is based on total acreages transferred during the period April 1953—March 1966.)

Size Groups (Acres)1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
 $$$$$
Under 30983.021,114.041,169.941,231.991,164.94
30-49274.62300.54369.30355.85311.08
50-99223.26234.20265.30303.43307.84
100-249135.00155.63178.61187.25190.06
250-49980.2495.00102.98103.68103.61
500 and over26.6432.9239.9636.6935.26
Weighted overall average price per acre84.2097.02109.70112.23110.25

Further particulars relating to transfers of country freehold properties are contained in the next table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAverage Value per TransactionAverage Value per Acre
 $$
195510,10051.54
195610,50860.42
195710,81059.88
195811,97264.06
195911,66073.94
196012,37670.60
196114,79872.72
196215,04483.18
196313,63481.44
196415,26885.54
196518,11698.54
196619,960118.76
196720,643115.60
196818,660126.64

Differences exist in average consideration, average value per transaction, and average acreage per transaction in sales of rural freehold property in the North Island and in the South Island. The following table shows the figures for the two Islands for the year ended 31 March 1968. It will be noted that the average consideration per acre for properties of below 150 acres in extent was lower in the South Island than in the North Island.

ItemSize Group (Acres)Total Acreage
Under 3030-4950-99100-149150-249250-499500 and over
Average consideration per acre by size group—
North Island 1,215.19318.44330.27248.94158.4094.0037.57139.54
South Island$1,045.02286.55225.84178.68161.20127.1931.3692.22
New Zealand$1,167.94311.08307.84236.29159.03103.6135.26126.64
Average value per transaction by size group—
North Island$9,52612,75924,27630,04730,20132,73046,24819,436.8
South Island$7,14311,40715,75921,81731,24744,44146,38116,584.4
New Zealand$8,79712,44522,37128,57930,43636,11246,29218,659.8
Average area per transaction by size group—
North Islandacres840741211913481,231139.3
South Islandacres740701221943491,479168.8
New Zealandacres840731211913491,313147.3

In 1967-68 rural freehold land transfers in the North Island totalled 5,505, involving 766,822 acres of land and a total consideration of $107.0 million, as compared with the 1966-67 figure of 6,177 transfers, involving 1,053,122 acres and a total consideration of $131.3 million.

South Island rural freehold land transfers in 1967-68 numbered 2,061, involving 347,996 acres and a total consideration of $34.2 million as compared with the 1966-67 figures of 2,737 transfers, involving 538,621 acres, and a total consideration of $52.7 million.

The following table shows all rural land transfers, freehold and leasehold, by land registration districts for the year ended 31 March 1968.

Land Registration DistrictFreeholdLeaseholdTotal
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsideration
  Acres$(000) Acres$(000) Acres$(000)
Northland1,970191,85834,229498,5607162,019200,41834,945
South Auckland1,650230,23337,0789823,1582,2051,748253,39139,283
Gisborne24644,6932,3702323,59839426968,2912,764
Hawke's Bay31154,0216,563349,33076234563,3517,326
Taranaki41555,0828,9574021,0871,03945576,1689,997
Wellington913190,93617,8036322,5441,178976213,48018,981
Marlborough27038,5171,6384313,22562331351,7422,261
Nelson24532,5572,621259,68814627042,2452,767
Westland273,211183196,23899469,449282
Canterbury850157,73217,2075447,6911,211904205,42318,418
Otago34568,0715,6296942,8431,426414110,9147,055
Southland32447,9076,903224,70137834652,6087,281
Totals7,5661,114,818141,180539232,66110,1798,1051,347,478151,359

LEGISLATION CONCERNING LAND DEVELOPMENT, SETTLEMENT, AND SALE OF LAND—Legislation governing this aspect is found in the Land Act 1948, the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and the Marginal Lands Act 1950. The Land Act provides for the administration, development, and disposal of Crown-lands and authorises the purchase and development of private land for settlement purposes. The Land Settlement Promotion Act provides for the closer settlement of farm land by preventing the undue aggregation of land and providing for the acquisition of farm land that is, or when subdivided will be, capable of substantially increased production. The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance where it is not available through normal lending channels. It also provides help in amalgamation of uneconomic units either by financing farmers into additional land or by purchase of land and allocation to adjoining holdings.

Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952—Part I of the Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production. Land cannot be taken from any person owning less than the equivalent of two economic farms, and provision is also made for the retention of land for the owner's children. The owner may object to a Land Valuation Committee or the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court to the taking of land. The Court may also be called in to assess compensation for land taken if the owner does not accept the Crown's offer.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land and, with certain exceptions, to leases of farm land for terms of three years or more. The consent of the Land Valuation Court is required to such transactions unless the purchaser or lessee files a declaration with the District Land Registrar within one month of the date of the transaction to the effect that he owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and that he has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents, without the consent of the Land Valuation Court or Committee, the purchase of farm laud by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are less than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction.

Marginal Lands Act 1950—The administration of the Act is the responsibility of the Minister of Lands and is carried out by the Department of Lands and Survey. Actual control is vested in the Marginal Lands Board. To assist it in the administration of the Act the Board has appointed Marginal Lands Committees in each land district. Each committee consists of three members—the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district, who is chairman, an officer of the Department of Agriculture, and one other person selected from a panel of farmers appointed for each committee. The farming members are selected for their experience in the farming or management of marginal lands.

The Board is empowered to make loans for the purchase of additional land, refinance, development—in fact for any purpose having for its object the successful development and farming of a property regarded as suitable for a loan.

It is the policy of the Board not to compete with existing lending institutions and before it will make an advance the applicant must satisfy the Board that finance cannot be obtained through normal business channels. The Board will not normally provide finance for the improvement of a property unless it is capable of being developed into an economic unit. The policy is to assist competent men not only to make their holdings economic but also help farmers already substantially established to bring into production additional land which could not be developed from their private resources or out of revenue.

The scheme is achieving its objective of increasing production from marginal country. Many farmers on difficult and unattractive properties have, with Marginal Lands Board assistance and with application and energy established and maintained profitable production. Many have completed their development programmes and, as a result, have been able to convert their current account mortgages to instalment mortgages, repaying the advances over a term of years, while others have repaid their advances in full.

An estimate of the area of grassing undertaken with Marginal Lands Act finance is 176,000 acres with increases in carrying capacity estimated at 410,000 sheep, 18,000 run cattle, and 17,000 dairy cows.

For the year ended 31 March 1968 the Board granted 63 loans totalling $1,735,654. In all, from the inception of the marginal lands scheme, 1,433 loans have been approved, amounting to $18,896,583.

The rates of interest payable on advances are:

Current account first mortgage51/2 percent.
Current account second and subsequent mortgages6 percent.
Instalment mortgage, first6 percent, reducible to 51/2 percent.
Instalment mortgage, second and subsequent mortgages61/2 percent, reducible to 5 percent.

WATER AND SOIL CONSERVATION—The National Water and Soil Conservation Authority has been constituted under the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 to promote a national policy in respect of natural water and soil conservation and to make better provisions for the conservation, allocation, use, and quality of natural water. These functions are apportioned between the Authority and three councils, namely, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, the Pollution Advisory Council, and the new Water Allocation Council and these four bodies comprise the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation. Matters of national policy, however, are retained by the Authority.

In 1941 the adverse effects of flooding and soil erosion precipitated the passage of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act. Thirteen catchment boards and three catchment commissions have been established over three-quarters of New Zealand's area to implement

Council policy. Under the Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956 the Waikato Valley Authority was also established to serve the same purpose as the other catchment authorities but this Authority operated directly under the control of the Minister of Works. The remaining parts of the country were served by the Ministry of Works district organisations.

When the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 came into force in 1968 all 17 existing catchment authorities became regional water boards subject to the administration of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, with their functions extended to cover pollution control and the use and allocation of water. If an area outside catchment authority control is not to be incorporated into an existing authority's area, a new regional water board is to be formed.

This now means that the whole of New Zealand is to be administered in matters of pollution and water control under a common policy.

River Control—New Zealand has a generous and well distributed rainfall exceeding 45 in. over about 70 percent of the country, and has only a very small area with less than 25 in. In some districts, such as the West Coast of the South Island and the western central plateaus of the North Island, annual rainfall exceeds 100 in., with extremes over 200 in.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off, both on total annual flow and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding. Severe storms are likely to occur at any season of the year and extreme falls have been experienced of 12 in. to 20 in. in 24 hours in certain areas. It is therefore not surprising that flood control is a major problem in New Zealand, with total run-off and peak flood discharges being among the highest in the world.

With the passing of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 and the setting up of catchment boards with their specialist staff, great progress has been male with river control throughout the country. Action has naturally been focused first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, in the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers. Schemes range from channel clearing, training, and bank protection, with partial flood protection up to 5-10-year frequency, to complete protection with stopbanks up to floods of 100-year frequency. Such schemes may involve expenditure up to $5,000,000, and subsidies vary generally from $1 for $1 to $3 to $1 or more depending on the capacity of the property owners to meet their share of the cost.

The policy of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is to foster catchment control schemes wherever possible, i.e., the integration of river control works with soil conservation practices on the land areas in individual river catchments. In the case of two large river schemes and several smaller schemes planning has included the whole catchment. Farmers are becoming increasingly aware of the benefits of soil conservation work and comprehensive planning for other river catchments will follow.

There are many rivers in New Zealand where major control systems cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller individual works covering clearing, training works, bank protection, minor stopbanking, and the like are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Type and cost of works have to be related to the financial capacity of the area. Subsidies are generally $2 for $1 but may be up to $3 for $1. Continuity of control and maintenance is of greatest importance in river work and the Council therefore encourages the planning of comprehensive schemes where rating districts are established to ensure the meeting of capital charges and adequate future maintenance. A subsidy of $1 for $2 is available for maintenance.

Most of the major river-control works are carried out by catchment boards, the Waikato Valley Authority, or river boards, but smaller works are also carried on by Ministry of Works, counties, and drainage boards.

Drainage—The high rainfall and run-off factors indicated above have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys where river gradients are flat or in coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes and include floodgates and pumping stations. Particularly in the North Island, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem of development because the danger of excessive shrinkage with overdrainage necessitates careful control of the water level. These areas have been largely held and developed by the Lands and Survey Department.

Drainage work is generally more straightforward with quicker returns, and subsidies rarely exceed $1 for $1. Only community drains giving benefit to more than one owner qualify for subsidy. Drain maintenance is also subsidised to encourage a higher standard of maintenance, the subsidy usually being $1 for $2.

Drainage works are carried out primarily through catchment authorities, Waikato Valley Authority, and a large number of drainage boards, but are also carried out by the Ministry of Works on behalf of the Lands and Survey Department and by counties. It is emphasised that drainage works must be properly co-ordinated with river works.

Soil Conservation—Soil erosion and inadequate management of soil resources occur on the hill country and mountain lands, especially where farming has forced grass to take over the protective functions of vigorous native forest, scrub, fern, and swamp vegetation. The changes in the vegetation brought about by developing farm resources have been reflected in drastic changes in the soil in the hill country. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soils. The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbent combination of soil and vegetation while ensuring that optimum production is maintained or achieved from various alternative systems of land use. Successful techniques which have been developed include spelling, control of burning and of animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, the wider use of cattle, soil conservation, fencing, stock water ponds, gully-control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and spaced and close tree planting for stability.

To assist farmers directly to tackle their own problems subsidies are made on farmers' contributions. These range from $1 for $1 on tree planting for stability, wind breaks, and contouring practices, to $2 for $1 on gully control planting and structures or flood control dams. Subsidy for control of on-site erosion by oversowing and topdressing varies from $1 for $4 to $1 for $1.

Land Capability and Catchment Control—Experience has proved that the American system of land classification for soil conservation purposes is very satisfactory. In this system an inventory is made of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, and soil erosion. Along with a knowledge of vegetation and farming experience a land capability map is prepared classifying the land into classes according to the way in which the land in each class can be used. The required soil conservation practices are also determined for each class.

From this basic classification of the land in a catchment more detailed surveys of individual farms provide the data necessary for detailed conservation farming plans. These plans are then discussed with the farmer and fitted into his capacity for implementing them over a period of years. Great care is taken to support the necessary special soil conservation practices with accepted good farm management practices. The conservation treatment and farm management practice can then be dovetailed with the river control and drainage plans for the lower catchment to provide the ultimate plan for catchment control. Allied operations of importance are soil conservation forestry, fire prevention, and animal pest destruction.

Plans have now been developed in this country to integrate farming practices with the physical limitations of the land in order to assure permanent production consistent with stability and permanence of the land and conservation of the rain that falls.

Pollution—The Pollution Advisory Council was established under the Waters Pollution Act in 1953 when it had become clear that pollution would have to be restrained by legal means. Constituted to prevent or reduce the pollution of natural water on a national scale, the Council was aided by the enactment of the Water Pollution Regulations 1963 which defined water quality standards and prescribed that waste outfalls must have a permit. The task of the Council was assisted further by the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 which directed that the control and use of water should be co-ordinated on a national scale.

Allocation of Natural Water—The Water Allocation Council was set up to control and supervise the allocation of natural water. Clearly, the function of this Council is closely linked with that of the Pollution Advisory Council since an excessive use of water diverted from streams would restrict the amount of water available for waste disposal purposes. With this factor in mind it is essential, therefore, that the decisions and policies of the Pollution Advisory Council and Water Allocation Council be as closely integrated as possible.

Hydrology—In 1959 New Zealand began a new phase in comprehensive hydrological work, patterned substantially on the methods of the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey, an accepted leader in hydrological work. The effective use of new technologies on projects for the use and control of waters depends entirely upon the availability of accurate long-term data on river flow and other parts of the hydrological cycle.

There is now a regional system for collecting data comprehensively. It involves the subdivision of New Zealand into 89 regions, based on hydrological similarity, and is designed to avoid uneconomic fragmentation of work. For each region there is a representative catchment from which accurate run-off data are collected and published. Intensive observations of precipitation are made on these representative catchments. Flow measurement is carried out at many other stations to collect data for hydro-electric power development and for other purposes.

Since 1965 a programme of hydrological research on small catchments has been operating in accordance with a scheme developed as part of the International Hydrological Decade programme. This is the International Hydrological Decade Experimental Basin programme, and is designed to provide information to solve problems of land use.

The agency responsible for carrying out field and office activities is the Ministry of Works. It operates a Hydrological Survey Section with six principal district offices, and additional field parties throughout the country. The number of stations at which hydrological data were being collected, as at 1 January 1967, was: Experimental basins 6; representative basins 55.

Staffing and Finance—The Water and Soil Division of the Ministry of Works provides the technical and administrative services required by the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and the Water Allocation Council, while the Pollution Advisory Council is serviced by the Marine Department. Regional Water Boards administer the policies of the whole organisation locally. All servicing bodies have built up teams of specialist engineers, and soil conservators to ensure that investigations, planning, supervision, and execution of work are carried out in keeping with the high standards set.

An administrative charge of up to 0.0347c in the dollar on capital value over the district provides for the services of catchment authorities, but special rates struck on a classification according to the benefit accruing provide the local contribution for actual works.

Public Relations—The organisation is serviced by the Information Section of the Water and Soil Division of the Ministry of Works. This section provides for the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation, information and publicity services by way of publications, films, displays, and radio and television broadcasts.

Publications—A list of the soil conservation, hydrological, and other publications available may be obtained by writing to the Director of Water and Soil Conservation, Ministry of Works, P.O. Box 12-041, Wellington, New Zealand.

10 B—CROWN LAND

GENERAL—There are 15.0 million acres of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Crown land permanently set aside for national parks, reserves, and domains comprises 6.2 million acres. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 1.3 million acres of land for subdivision and settlement as individual farms. Unoccupied Crown land can be broadly defined as land vested in the Crown which is not for the time being set aside for any public purpose, held by any person in fee simple or on lease or licence, or under development by the Department of Lands and Survey.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories, is 66,390,700 acres. However, only a small proportion of this area remains unoccupied in the ownership of the Crown beyond the boundaries of national parks, reserves, domains and State forests. The following table illustrates this fact, and, further, shows that this small proportion is decreasing with time.

Category19551965
 (acres)
Occupied farm land43,355,86943,497,659
Land in cities and boroughs332,360387,026
National parks, reserves, and domains4,528,4056,192,009
State forests9,636,2629,884,360
Unoccupied (includes waste land such as mountain tops, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.)8,537,8046,429,646
Totals66,390,70066,390,700

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, and for the other categories in and near to the main centres, is considerable. Disposals are offset to a certain extent by purchases of private land or the interest of leases or licences of Crown or Maori land.

A further provision for the acquisition of land is contained in the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. This gives power to the Minister of Lands, under certain conditions, to take any farm land suitable for settlement where additional farm land is required for the settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming. This provision has not been operated however.

ADMINISTRATION—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands, who is the Permanent Head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the Valuer-General, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than two other persons appointed by the Governor-General.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more Land Settlement Committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and if necessary a ballot is conducted to decide the successful applicant, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding five years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1967-68:

TenureNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
  acres$(000)
Freehold47911,602445
Renewable leases8940,22828
Pastoral leases and licences860,1821
Deferred-payment licences81051,525163
Special leases (s 67, Land Act)5263,28014
Licences to occupy1,05016,941105
Leases of endowment and other lands873,18420
                Totals 1967-682,575246,942776
                Totals 1966-673,281298,9991,024

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1968:

TenureNumberAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment*
*Including improvement loading.
  Acres(000)$(000)$(000)
Renewable leases11,8573,8261,38825
Leases in perpetuity6,3241,2823071
Pastoral leases and licences5727,9582104
Special leases (s 67, Land Act)6101732534
Deferred-payment licences15,138926-2,411
Misc. leases and licences2,32412737-
Licences to occupy4,8493742201
Leases of endowment and other lands2,7843161192
                Totals 1967-6844,45814,9822,5342,448
                Totals 1966-6745,42915,0952,5732,346

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.Acres$(000)
Cash349812,387270
Deferred payments321382,2891,658
                Totals, 1967-686701194,6761,928
                Totals, 1966-677053139,9282,698

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the Annual Report of the Department of Lands and Survey, parliamentary paper C. 1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Land Settlement Board, constituted in 1941 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey, has had the responsibility of developing, for the settlement of ex-servicemen of the Second World War, both Crown land and undeveloped private land purchased or acquired for the purpose. Initially all land developed was offered exclusively to ex-servicemen eligible for rehabilitation farming assistance, but with the commitment to settle ex-servicemen largely fulfilled, a civilian land settlement policy was introduced in 1961. The few remaining ex-servicemen awaiting farms still receive preference at ballots, but as few are applying, the great bulk of farms offered by the Land Settlement Board go to civilians.

Development of land for settlement includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, and installation of water supplies. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process. This helps to meet the cost of development and to ensure that, when the farms are disposed of, the new settlers will not experience stock troubles or reversion.

The major development districts are Southland with 374,000 acres under development, Rotorua (243,000 acres), North Auckland (203,000 acres), Te Kuiti (125,000 acres), and Gisborne (82,000 acres).

The following table contains particulars of land acquired for development and settlement during the year ended 31 March 1968, and from the establishment of the Land Settlement Board in 1941 to 31 March 1968; also shown are those areas made available for settlement and the balance on hand at the latter date. The figures do not include particulars relating to ex-servicemen who have been assisted by way of rehabilitation loans to purchase established farms on their own account. Further information concerning the settlement of ex-servicemen on the land will be found in section 6B, Rehabilitation.

As the table shows, the bulk of the land has been purchased by voluntary negotiation or was formerly unoccupied Crown land which has been included in development blocks. All the land shown as acquired compulsorily was acquired between 1943 and 1953.

Nature of TransactionYear Ended 31 March 1968From Inception (1941) to 31 March 1968
AreaUnitsAreaUnits
*Tentative figures only. Final subdivision and utilisation is decided as development is approaching completion.
ACQUISITIONSacres acres 
(a) Purchased by voluntary negotiation7,287161,884,109..
(b) Compulsorily acquired (Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 and Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950)--281,472..
(c) Properties where ex-servicemen substituted under section 31 (3) (b), Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950--17,390..
(d) Crown land made available17,13913889,828..
                Totals, acquisitions24,426293,072,7995,867
DISPOSALS........
                I—To Grade “A” Ex-servicemen........
(a) Developed units (including substitutions)331..1,370,6603,529
(b) Unimproved units--2,0136
..331..1,372,6733,535
II—To Civilians........
(a) Developed units7,80219230,578541
(b) Unimproved units....47,559101
..7,80219278,137642
III—Sundry Disposals........
(a) Transferred to Maori and Island Affairs Department for settlement....12,37832
(b) Adjacent owners, reserves, workers' homes, unsuitable for settlement, etc.5,664..160,42923
..5,664..172,80755
Totals, disposals13,797191,823,6174,232
Land on hand for development in farm settlements--1,249,1821,635*
Maori land being developed with Crown land--10,735

NOTE—Areas include adjustments consequent on surveys.

RESERVES AND NATIONAL PARKS: History—Land has been set aside for public purposes from the early years of colonial administration in New Zealand. The New Zealand Act 1840 (Imperial) authorised the disposal of land “to any persons, bodies, public or corporate, for the public uses of our subjects there resident or any of them”. Royal Instructions of 1840 to Governor Hobson elaborated on this and provided that such lands were not to be granted conveyed or demised or occupied by any private person or for any private purpose. A subsequent Royal Instruction dated 1846 and the New Zealand Company's Colonisation Act 1847 (Imperial) authorised the vesting of reserves in trust for public purposes or uses.

Scenic and historic reserves are controlled by scenic and historic boards, by local authorities, or by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district. A large number of honorary rangers help in the supervision of these reserves. The legislation governing these and all other reserves is the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. Once land has been reserved for a specific purpose, either by notice in the New Zealand Gazette or by deposit of a subdivisional plan, the purpose of the reservation can be changed or the reservation revoked only by the Minister of Lands.

Subdivision of land into residential sections is controlled by the local authority under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 or the Counties Amendment Act 1961. Land is normally set aside as reserves, but the local authority may take a cash payment for reserve development. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made on subdivision for reserves and with subsequent administration of reserves. The Crown is not bound by this legislation, but in practice refers its subdivisions to local bodies for approval and makes generous provision for reserves.

It was in 1887 that the three mountain peaks of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro were given to the nation by Te Heuheu Tukino and associated chiefs as “a national park for the benefit of everybody”. The gift area formed the nucleus of New Zealand's first national park—Tongariro—in 1894. The second national park—Egmont—was constituted by special legislation in 1900.

The first general legislation on national parks was enacted in 1928—this provided a uniform means of setting up and administering new parks. Under this legislation two new parks were established—Arthur's Pass in 1929 and Abel Tasman in 1942. Interest in national parks increased after the Second World War and a review of the administration led to the passing of the National Parks Act 1952. This made the Minister of Lands responsible to Parliament for national parks and laid the foundations for an integrated system of parks. Fiordland (part of which was first reserved in 1905) became a national park and five new parks were constituted—Mount Cook (1953), Urewera (1954), Nelson Lakes (1956), Westland (1960), and Mount Aspiring (1964).

The National Parks Act established the National Parks Authority consisting of the Director-General of Lands (Chairman), the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of Department of Tourist and Publicity, three persons appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand and the Royal Society of New Zealand respectively, and one person appointed by the Minister of Lands to represent the national park boards. The National Parks Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the District is chairman. Each Board comprises not more than eight persons appointed by the Minister of Lands but in the case of Egmont and Tongariro special provisions exist regarding the appointment of members to the Boards. Each Board employs salaried rangers responsible for development, protection, and interpretation, and their work is supplemented by the voluntary help of about 250 honorary rangers appointed from those whose interests bring them into the parks frequently or who live nearby. A voluntary body, “Friends of the Urewera National Park”, has been formed to support the work of the Urewera National Park Board.

DESCRIPTION—Ten national parks have been constituted in New Zealand covering 5,070,673 acres or one-thirteenth of the country's land area. They are set aside as the law says “for the purpose of preserving in perpetuity as national parks, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public, areas of New Zealand that contain scenery of such distinctive quality or natural features so beautiful or unique that their preservation is in the national interest". The National Parks Act requires that parks be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; that, as far as possible, native flora and fauna is preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated; and that, subject to restrictions necessary to preserve native flora and fauna or for the general welfare of the parks, the public has freedom of entry and access. The only restricted area is the “special area” set aside to protect the habitat of the takahe (notornis)—128,000 acres out of the three-million acre Fiordland National Park.

Any form of development not provided for in the National Parks Act must be sanctioned by Act of Parliament. Permitted development includes the erection of houses for park rangers and huts for Government employees engaged in noxious animal destruction, the erection of huts by mountaineering, tramping, or other similar clubs, and the erection of ski tows and similar facilities. Appropriate commercial undertakings may operate in the parks under licence while boards controlling the parks may, with the consent of the Authority, establish camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses, or other buildings, and may help private enterprise in their establishment. “Wilderness areas” where development is restricted to access by foot track are provided for in the Act and a number have been set aside. Virtually all the finance for parks is provided by the Government, but donations by private individuals or organisations are encouraged and earn $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Three of the 10 national parks are in the North Island and seven in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (493,032 acres), surrounds Lake Waikaremoana and contains the largest remaining forest area in the North Island. Kiwi, kaka, and most other native birds are found and the area is rich in Maori history.

Tongariro National Park (166,561 acres), includes the three volcanoes—Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro—and is the ski-ing playground of the North Island.

Egmont National Park (82,476 acres), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains and preserves forests within a 6-mile radius. It varies from heavily forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice of the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (45,134 acres), contains coastal and elevated bush-clad country along the shores of Tasman Bay and includes off-shore islands and reefs. It has a broken coastline with many bays, coves, and beaches of golden sand.

Nelson Lakes National Park (141,127 acres), is centred on the twin lakes of Rotoiti and Rotoroa and is surrounded by mountainous country with extensive beech forests on the lower slopes.

Arthur's Pass National Park (243,081 acres), preserves an alpine and forested area straddling the Southern Alps.

Mount Cook and Westland National Parks (172,979 and 210,257 acres), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Westland includes forest and lake country and a small strip of sea coast as well as the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers. Mount Cook contains most of New Zealand's highest mountains, including the highest—Mount Cook (12,349 ft)—and includes the 18-mile-long Tasman Glacier.

Mount Aspiring National Park (492,313 acres), embraces the alpine region in the north-west Otago and south Westland extending from the Haast Pass to the Routeburn area at the head of Lake Wakatipu and including Mount Aspiring (9,957 ft).

Fiordland National Park (3,023,713 acres), one of the world's largest national parks, contains majestic scenery with fiords, mountains, forests, and lakes. It includes Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau while the road through the Homer Tunnel gives access to Milford Sound. The park is the only known habitat of the takahe (notornis) and the kakapo.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 922 with a total area of 629,773 acres, preserve native forest, and preserve access by the public to other scenic features such as the sea coast, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, limestone caves, thermal areas, and vantage points. Forest areas range from large tracts of remote forested land with considerable conservation value to small remnant areas in developed districts. Large scenic reserves have been set aside along main highways, but, in general, barren mountainous regions not included in national parks remain Crown land.

There are 17 reserves in excess of 5,000 acres and some are larger than the smallest national park, Abel Tasman. Some areas at present set aside as scenic reserves could, in future years, achieve national park status.

Scenic reserves over 5,000 acres are: Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, South Cape (Stewart Island), Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Tennyson Inlet, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuka Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), Pihanga, Waioeka Gorge, and John Coull Memorial Reserve (Wanganui River).

Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, as does the extent of their development. Some are well developed with cleared areas used for camping and picnics and have formed tracks. Facilities on those flanking highways are mainly the provision of off-road parking combined with picnic areas. Many reserves have no facilities as yet. Among the best known reserves not in the preceding list are Trounson Kauri Park in North Auckland, Huka Falls, near Taupo, Hongi's Track, and various thermal areas near Rotorua, Waitomo Caves, Ball's Clearing in Hawke's Bay, Pelorus Bridge and Hundalee in Marlborough, the Summit Road Scenic Reserves and Peel Forest in Canterbury, Punakaiki, and Lake Ianthe in Westland, and Forest Hill and Curio Bay in Southland.

In an endeavour to recreate the natural New Zealand scene in an area where exotic trees, noxious weeds, and engineering development have intruded, the Department of Lands and Survey has established a plant nursery at Taupo where native trees and shrubs are being propagated for beautification of reserves in the Taupo basin.

There is provision in the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 for land to be declared private scenic reserves—this land remains in private ownership, but receives the protection of the Act. There are 4,160 acres in 23 private scenic reserves and these include White Island, where grey faced and other petrels nest in large numbers, as well as about 3,000 pairs of gannets annually. The Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust area is a private scenic reserve near New Plymouth in native bush being planted with native trees as well as rhododendrons. One private reserve near Awaka provides, in an area of 1,360 acres, shelter for native birds. Other large private scenic reserves are Moncrieff, near Nelson, and Makarora on the Haast Pass Road.

Historic Reserves—Fifty-eight areas of historic interest totalling 3,341 acres are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not an historic reserve, in the strict sense.

Bird Sanctuaries and Allied Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some, similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. Such areas are reserved under the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. In all there are 42 reserves in this category with a total area of 450,996 acres; some of them are mainland areas, but most are off shore, outlying, and subantarctic islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park: Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

A committee convened by the Department of Lands and Survey has been set up as an advisory body for the administration of subantarctic reserves.

Generally, access to reserves of this type is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and bird life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in November 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is controlled by a Board of 10 members.

Nature Conservation Council—The Nature Conservation Council Act 1962 provides for the establishment of a Nature Conservation Council. This Council of independent members, expert in the field of conservation, has been set up to co-ordinate scientific and technical information on nature conservation, to inquire into the effect of proposed public works on any aspect of nature conservation and to act as an advisory body to Government on matters affecting nature conservation which is defined in the Act as “the preservation of the native flora and fauna and the natural features and natural beauty of New Zealand”.

Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries—The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains—Domains of which there are 910 covering 62,154 acres provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1968.

Type of ReservationNo.Acres
National parks105,070,673
Scenic reserves922629,773
Historic reserves583,341
Bird sanctuaries and allied reserves42450,996
Public domains91062,154

10 C—MAORI LANDS

GENERAL—Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.)

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes non-Maori land when bought or inherited by a person of less than half Maori blood, or is declared to be so by the Maori Land Court.

Since 1954, by virtue of various provisions in the Maori Affairs Act 1953, emphasis has been placed on the need for the improvement of existing Maori land titles by the elimination of small fractional interests and the reduction in the number of owners. The idea behind this is to clear the way for the better use of the land in an attempt to keep Maori freehold land in the possession of the Maori people.

In 1965 an analysis was made of Maori land in connection with the Committee of Inquiry into Laws Affecting Maori Land and the Powers of the Maori Land Court. The area of Maori land in the North Island (3,680,565 acres) is classified in the following table; (in the South Island there are only some 220,000 acres of Maori land).

ClassificationArea
 acres
Leased or under development by Board of Maori Affairs1,281,240
Under active incorporation537,868
Under inactive incorporation81,585
Farmed but not leased518,166
Unoccupied but suitable for development515,026
Unoccupied but probably suitable for forestry399,844
Unoccupied and probably of no use271,226
Maori reserved land75,610
Total3,680,565

With regard to Maori freehold land, the Court during 1967-68 approved of leases comprising 21,239 acres to non-Maoris and 10,263 acres to Maoris, the previous year's figures being 33,744 and 23,078 acres respectively. It confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 24,618 acres of freehold land to non-Maoris and 5,584 acres to Maoris in 1967-68, the corresponding 1966-67 figures being 32,938 and 6,147 acres respectively. During the year ended 31 March 1968 timber cutting rights were confirmed by the Court in respect of 22,251 acres. The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, among other things, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Maori owners.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Maori land development policy is directed to the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will assure them of a reasonable standard of living based on today's costs and standards; to secure them the best possible tenure for the lands they farm; to assist them to develop the land and to teach them modern methods of farming. The means at the Department's disposal have permitted the development of approximately 10,000 acres of new land annually. In the year ended 30 June 1967 there were 26 farms settled. Up to 30 June 1967 the Department had settled 2,336 Maori farmers on farms.

The estimated area of Maori land suitable for settlement is limited to 725,000 acres (210,000 acres under departmental control and 515,000 acres of idle land), on which about 500 Maori sheep farmers and 3,300 dairy farmers could be settled eventually.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS—The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori and Island Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member of the Executive Council representing the Maori race or, if there is no such member, any member of the Executive Council appointed by the Governor-General to be a member of the Board, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The functions of the Board include, among other things, the following:

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.

  2. The approval of investment and advances, and of certain expenditure from the Maori Trustee funds.

  3. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  4. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

MAORI LAND COURT—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee,comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki, and in Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has the responsibility for the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land, for the establishment of Maoris in business, and for housing purposes. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest two years.

ItemAs at 31 March
19671968
Assets—$(000)$(000)
    Cash248175
    Investments—
        Government securities5,5475,579
        Local authority debentures399397
        Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft3,7324,071
    Land, buildings, and miscellaneous458454
Totals10,38410,676
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors7,2977,395
    Reserves and Appropriation Account3,0813,275
    Sundry creditors, etc.66
Totals10,38410,676

10 D—SURVEYS AND MAPS

GENERAL—In earlier years surveys of land subdivisions for the purpose of issuing title comprised the major function of the Survey Division of the Lands and Survey Department, but now there is an increasing demand for engineering survey information on which to plan major construction works, and for topographical and cadastral information on which to plan the future development of the country. Mapping efforts are being concentrated on completing the topographical map coverage of the unmapped areas of the country as quickly as possible. Much work is being carried out on control surveys, especially in the investigation of electric power projects, and this is designed to fit into a system of national coverage of precise levelling.

Surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act 1952 are carried out by registered private surveyors and are examined and approved by the Lands and Survey Department.

Statutory authority for the surveyor to enter upon any land and to place survey marks thereon is contained in several Acts, and the wilful destruction of these marks is subject to a severe penalty.

All surface surveys are made in accordance with regulations laid down and are subject to field check (if thought necessary) and to office examination prior to approval and deposit.

The standard of length is the chain of 22 Imperial yards divided into 100 links, and all linear measurements have to be expressed in terms thereof, and areas in acres, roods, and perches, with decimals of a perch.

In the 1957 and earlier issues of the Yearbook there is described the survey system of minor triangulation adopted in 1876 to enable settlers to be given possession of definite pieces of land, with each section having for the purpose of record and title registration a complete identification by means of its number, the number of the block, and the name of the district.

A national series of completely contoured maps is being produced with the assistance of photogrammetrical plotting machines, and this programme is expected to be completed within the next few years.

STANDARD SURVEYS—In order to more adequately correlate and redefine old boundary marks for land-title purposes and to provide a permanent standard of reference for future surveys in cities and boroughs where land values are high, and on highways and on main arterial roads where modern road surfaces have eliminated survey marks, a precise survey is carried out, all intersections being referenced with permanent standard marks, normally iron tubes in concrete blocks protected by an iron cover.

These surveys are of two classes—(1) those in the cities and boroughs, being of standard of accuracy of 2 inches to the mile, the cost of which is borne partly by the local authority concerned and partly by the Department of Lands and Survey and (2) those carried out on highways and arterial roads to a lesser standard of accuracy, for the purpose of referencing survey marks lost or obliterated by road works and surfaces.

These standard traverses will in the future be correlated with precise levelling traverses, thus providing a standard level datum for engineering works.

PRECISE LEVELLING—Precise levelling is being extended continuously for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works. This type of levelling has been carried out in accordance with international standards of accuracy—namely, 0.012 feet or 0.144 inches per mile.

These levels are at mean sea-level datum determined from the tidal records of the principal tidal stations or of tide gauges established specially for that purpose. The traverses are referenced at approximately 25-mile intervals by fundamental bench marks and at approximately 1-mile intervals by standard bench marks.

This work is being further extended to meet the requirements of national drainage, irrigation, hydro-electric, and river-control development, where related and co-ordinated levels in terms of a fixed datum are essential.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING—Extensive use is made of aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development, investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The Department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes.

There is an increasing demand for topographical maps of all scales for land development, forestry, engineering, geological and soil survey, and other governmental purposes. New cartographic techniques have revolutionised the production of better and more varied scales and types of maps. In consequence it can now be claimed that New Zealand has a mapping organisation that compares more than favourably with overseas mapping agencies.

Mapping is also undertaken of islands and territory within the Ross Dependency, Antarctica. Information for these maps is based on aerial photography supplied by the United States, field work from New Zealand field parties, and maps prepared by other countries.

GEOGRAPHIC BOARD—The New Zealand Geographic Board, constituted under the provisions of the New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946, is the official place-names authority.

The main function of the board is to adjudicate on matters pertaining to place and feature names in New Zealand. The board has authority to assign new names for localities, geographical features, post offices, railway stations, etc., and to alter existing names subject to the right of appeal vested in the general public and to the rights of local authorities concerning names within the areas administered by such local authorities.

The board together with three co-opted members also acts as the Antarctic Place Names Committee. This committee is the official New Zealand authority for approval of names in the Antarctic. Its activities are confined mainly to the Ross Dependency but liaison is maintained with the place-name authorities of other countries.

The membership of the board comprises the Surveyor-General, two representatives of the Maori race, a representative of the New Zealand Geographical Society, a representative of the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and two members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Lands.

MAPS—Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition 395 private selling agents have been appointed throughout the country and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue of Maps published by the Department.

10 E—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government Department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Court Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value”.

“Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land.

The “capital value” is the sum of the “unimproved value” plus the value of “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than five years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

Equalisation of Values—The rating Act 1967, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government Departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—are entered on the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE SUPREME COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Amendment Act 1968 abolished the Land Valuation Court and transferred its jurisdiction to the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the Division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. Land valuation committees for particular localities operate under the general jurisdiction of the Division.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Division's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Division at less than the capital value, he may within 14 days after the sealing of the Division's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

The Rating Act 1967, Part VI, provides for rating relief for farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farm lands lower than the values for the same lands appearing on the district valuation rolls.

The Valuation of Land Act 1951 provides for the making of rates-postponment values and special rateable values of industrial or commercial land in residential or rural areas. This enables local authorities rating on the capital value or on the unimproved value, to grant relief for certain residences in industrial or commercial zones, certain farm lands with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development and also non-conforming industrial or commercial property.

Local authorities can rate on the annual (rental) values of properties within their areas, these values being assessed by the local authorities' own valuers. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a long period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
 $ (million)
1878199.1125.1
1885226.5 
1888222.3151.0
1891244.4151.7
1897277.2168.8
1902309.6189.7
1906395.4245.9
1907473.3299.4
1909543.0345.5
1911586.2368.1
1913681.1425.9
1915742.1461.4
1916778.3482.6
1917810.9502.2
1918842.8521.8
1919891.1552.0
1920940.2581.8
19211,037.2635.3
19221,089.0658.3
19231,106.8661.6
19241,137.0667.7
19251,174.7678.6
19261,206.5682.1
19271,236.5683.0
19281,262.9670.4
19291,301.8689.5
19301,329.1677.8
19311,335.6663.3
19321,325.7643.6
19331,307.4629.1
19341,300.7619.5
19351,275.2602.3
19361,271.6591.4
19371,264,5575.7
19381,272.7564.7
19391,305.8565.6
19401,321.0557.8
19411,346.2555.1
19421,363.8553.8
19431,368.4553.8
19441,377.6554.1
19451,394.7555.0
19461,420.9558.4
19471,492.8568.5
19481,592.1583.2
19491,778.5614.3
19501,971.8648.9
19512,225.5698.3
19522,629.8788.5
19533,064.7899.6
19543,405.5974.3
19554,136.61,158.2
19564,613.21,288.8
19574,992.71,395.1
19585,354.51,502.3
19595,664.51,610.6
19606,132.51,779.6
19616,497.41,905.7
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0

The table shows a continuous decrease in land values from 1929 to 1943. Probably the lowest point in real values was reached about 1934, and the decreases shown after that year merely indicate that the new valuations being made were still at levels lower than the existing pre-depression figures. After 1943 land values were stabilised through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown to 1950 mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties from 23 February 1950 was reflected in the 1951 general revaluations of boroughs and cities. County revaluations did not, however, reflect the transition to a free market basis until the 1952 revaluations, the effect of the higher basis having been postponed 12 months as provided for by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1950.

In the following table the gross values are analysed in more detail.

As at 31 MarchNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
$ (million)
Counties
19621,907.0544.6999.6379.02,906.6923.6
19631,989.5583.71,051.5402.13,040.9985.7
19642,112.9630.81,093.6414.73,206.51,045.5
19652,243.2662.61,155.6435.53,398.71,098.1
19662,223.7640.81,271.4494.43,495.11,135.2
19672,371.7682.81,456.3602.23,828.01,285.0
19682,597.8747.01,565.5652.14,163.31,399.1
Boroughs
19622,960.1864.41,056.2269.34,016.31,133.7
19633,205.0939.41,106.2283.64,311.31,223.0
19643,380.7996.41,150.4300.14,531.11,296.5
19653,795.31,186.61,242.4355.75,037.71,542.2
19664,286.21,366.81,285.4360.85,571.61,727.6
19674,622.71,495.61,365.5400.65,988.21,896.2
19685,012.81,673.11,436.1411.86,448.92,084.9
Independent Town Districts
196218.73.44.20.322.93.7
196317.03.14.30.321.43.4
196418.33.54.50.322.83.8
196519.23.83.60.322.84.1
196614.32.64.10.318.32.8
196715.62.84.30.219.93.1
196815.82.73.60.319.43.0
Grand Totals
19552,955.9810.41,180.7347.94,136.61,158.3
19573,500.6953.61,492.1441.54,992.71,395.1
19583,741.51,022.51,613.0479.75,354.51,502.3
19593,955.11,099.11,709.4511.55,664.51,610.6
19604,318.91,224.11,813.5555.66,132.51,779.6
19614,575.01,306.61,922.4599.16,497.41,905.7
19624,885.71,412.42,060.0648.76,945.72,061.1
19635,211.51,526.22,162.1686.07,373.62,212.1
19645,511.91,630.72,248.5715.17,760.42,345.8
19656,057.61,853.02,401.6791.58,459.22,644.5
19666,524.22,010.22,560.9855.59,085.02,865.5
19677,010.02,181.22,826.11,003.09,836.13,184.2
19687,626.42,422.83,005.21,064.210,631.63,487.0

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task, but by using the principle of valuation equalisation, mentioned, earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. These gross figures have been compiled, on the level of values as at 31 March 1966; they are recorded in a research paper issued by the Department and are shown in the following table.

Territorial AreasCapital ValueUnimproved Value
 $ (million)$ (million)
Counties4,260.31,466.7
Boroughs and cities6,218.32,105.3
Town districts18.62.9
Miscellaneous11.85.0
Totals10,509.03,579.9

A comparison of these totals with the gross values shown for the year ended 31 March 1966, given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying current movements in the property market.

RATEABLE VALUES—The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 31 March 1968. The value of improvements in urban areas is much higher than in rural areas.

Local Authority DistrictNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
$ (million)
Counties2,351.9702.51,443.6626.73,795.51,329.2
Boroughs4,454.81,514.01,268.8374.75,723.61,888.7
Town districts (independent)13.02.43.20.316.22.7
Totals6,819.72,218.92,715.61,001.79,535.33,220.6

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1968, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1968.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUnimproved ValueValue of Improvements
 Percentage Distribution
Counties99.131.439.841.339.1
Boroughs0.868.260.058.660.7
Town districts (independent)––0.30.20.10.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Report on Local Authority Statistics, where similar data are also given for dependent town districts and for road districts.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. There were 413 classified as rural valuers, 421 as urban valuers, and 52 as both rural and urban valuers at 31 March 1968.

Chapter 11. Section 11 TRANSPORT

11 A—SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT—The trend today is for fewer harbours to cater for overseas vessels, and for each port to be equipped with modern facilities to obtain a better turnround of ships. An Exports and Shipping Council was set up in 1965 to promote economy and efficiency in the handling of New Zealand's exports and to speed up the turnround of ships by streamlining procedures. A Transport Commission has inquired into port development, into carriage of goods to ports and cargo movements; a report New Zealand Ports was published in 1967. A Transport Advisory Council, chaired by the Minister of Transport, has as its purpose the co-ordination and development of transport generally.

Streamlining primarily involves a reduction in the number of calls made by overseas ships at New Zealand ports, and such activities arise partly from the need to offset increases in the freight bill following rises in freight rates. (Outward freight on exports exceeds $90 million and inward freight on imports exceeds $70 million.) Planning is now taking place for prospective developments in the wider use of containers and other forms of unit loading in keeping with world-wide advances in cargo handling. There is a cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Department and affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

In recent years most harbour boards have undertaken extensive port development. New Zealand's first loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) was authorised in 1963 for port development. It involved $5.08 million which was loaned to the harbour boards of Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei.

Among major port improvements in recent years have been: a new wharf at Whangarei for the Marsden Point oil refinery; new overseas passenger terminal buildings at Auckland and Wellington; facilities for roll-on roll-off vessels at Wellington, Picton, Auckland, Lyttelton, and Otago; the installation of all-weather mechanical loaders at Bluff and Timaru; extensions to the port of Tauranga to serve the growing timber, woodpulp, and paper industries of the Bay of Plenty area. The major ports are now making provision for containerised cargo.

A New Zealand Ports Authority has been set up by the Government to produce a national ports plan in the interests of higher port efficiency; its approval will be required for future large development projects by harbour boards.

Additional information to that contained in this section on port, cargo, and shipping statistics may be found in the Report on Transport Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics.

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels is illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  tons (000) tons (000) tons (000)
19582,97711,88012,7354,79315,71216,673
19592,87512,70010,9994,97313,87417,672
19603,12413,54910,2494,97813,37318,527
19613,65216,17710,2475,03613,89921,213
19623,60316,45710,6545,46714,25721,924
19633,76416,43311,0766,18914,84022,622
19643,56815,69010,6537,02214,22122,711
19653,45215,4869,7667,21313,21822,699
19663,60516,7839,4278,06313,03224,845
19673,33115,6219,1568,79112,48724,412
19683,49716,5388,7048,63212,20125,242

Up to and including 1963, overseas ships made an increasing number of calls at ports while on the New Zealand coast. Since 1964 there has been some reduction in calls as the recommendation of the Export and Shipping Council have been adopted. For instance, calls by ships to load under 1,000 tons of cargo were cut back from 366 in 1962 to 82 in 1966. The average number of coastal calls by each overseas ship was 3.7 in 1963; 3.3 in 1964; 3.2 in 1965; 3.2 in 1966; and 3.2 in 1967. Movements of coastal vessels declined from 1953to 1962 when the rail-road ferry Aramoana came into operation. The Aramoana displaced other coastal vessels but its daily return trips between Wellington and Picton added to the number of calls at ports. The second rail-road ferry, Aranui, was brought into service in June 1966 and had a similar effect. In 1967 and 1968 two roll-on roll-off freighters specialising in containerised cargo began operation between Auckland and South Island ports; they displaced a number of traditional vessels. In 1966 the ships sailing between Wellington and Lyttelton provided a roll-on service but this was reduced by the loss of the Wahine in April 1968; extra sailings were made by other vessels to meet cargo and passenger demands.

The following table shows for the three latest years the total entrances of shipping at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited. The figures given in this section include all registered merchant vessels trading at New Zealand ports: thus they exclude naval vessels when engaged in their normal duties, private launches, lighters engaged in loading or unloading vessels in roadsteads, trawlers, other fishing vessels, and pleasure craft.

Port196519661967
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Houhora71,065212,861112,081
Awanui9712,473455,373414,998
Mangonui313,783504,546355,832
Whangaroa513,077301,99381,394
Bay of Islands87192,51257189,84749153,211
Whangarei9972,188,0519072,440,2427632,231,257
Auckland2,6684,504,7952,6344,850,7102,4794,622,483
Onehunga24096,134280107,764289112,359
Raglan4815,4124915,6214918,437
Thames141,946577,933618,491
Coromandel883,9471155,2421115,077
Tauranga325860,5133711,037,0334591,261,689
Ohope2610,125145,651--
Tokomaru Bay72,33831,002--
Tolaga Bay41,32341,097--
Gisborne212182,312182138,366170111,612
Napier4541,215,9684521,376,1914131,258,919
Taranaki285880,162275903,985238801,411
Wanganui14863,27515674,63512859,978
Wellington2,3614,585,5092,3405,112,0442,3405,328,146
Picton619956,2287771,185,7709631,477,293
Wairau393,862----
Nelson796371,170700421,337655445,837
Motueka20023,15314615,91812312,383
Tarakohe224127,724216126,740201118,296
Westport161116,646166128,320146115,401
Greymouth11696,90610478,9219579,537
Jackson Bay157,018146,446115,707
Kaiapoi1248,7291067,750444,221
Lyttelton1,1403,116,5941,1313,420,3241,1083,166,628
Timaru329723,308318711,972301674,434
Oamaru11653,12711047,41310844,307
Otago5021,299,3885111,352,4314681,210,679
Deep Cove2731,0362554,32433113,891
Bluff514898,103514961,893443914,412
Half-moon Bay14641,75115243,64414441,757
Totals13,21822,699,46313,03224,845,33912,48724,412,158

In the case of Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, Bluff, and Half-moon Bay the figures are inflated by the recording of inter-island ferry services.

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for the three latest years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port196519661967
Number of CallsTonnage of VesselsNumber of CallsTonnage of VesselsNumber of CallsTonnage of Vessels
Bay of Islands34189,13137186,58627148,254
Whangarei1381,299,0251511,426,9711161,296,656
Auckland8994,153,6829594,483,6648654,146,712
Onehunga93,362134,922114,113
Raglan--13852770
Tauranga270841,1293031,009 9083491,218,317
Gisborne26131,4122296,6221669,831
Napier2451,038,9922671,173,2792411,090,223
Taranaki158775,196164798,544144681,134
Wanganui276813842768
Wellington5092,250,4975202,492,4924982,443,104
Picton18127,01423139,7061891,387
Nelson73227,57864261,17474284,936
Westport113,559126,50182,655
Greymouth11,239--1385
Jackson Bay----11,239
Lyttelton4551,917,0514642,098 0384241,793,834
Timaru144638,238135624,826111554,399
Oamaru36,27935,28122,346
Otago2631,069,3002701,125,838237966,836
Deep Cove99,222613,2541143,636
Bluff185803,533190834,394173779,155
Totals3,45215,486,2073,60516,782,7693,33115,620,690

The inward overseas tonnages of ships in the preceding table are converted to percentages for the major ports in the next table.

Port19631964196519661967
 percent
Whangarei1.65.88.48.58.3
Auckland25.126.226.826.726.5
Tauranga5.65.75.46.07.8
Napier7.37.16.77.07.0
Taranaki5.85.55.04.84.4
Wellington18.115.614.614.915.6
Other North Island2.31.92.11.71.4
    North Island65.867.869.069.671.1
Lyttelton13.211.912.412.511.5
Timaru4.44.44.13.73.5
Otago8.27.76.96.76.2
Bluff5.75.85.25.05.0
Other South Island2.72.42.42.52.7
    South Island34.232.231.030.428.9

OVERSEAS SHIPPING: Ports of Arrival and Departure—The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the latest three years.

PortEntered as First CallCleared as Last Call
196519661967196519661967
 net tonnage of vessels
Whangarei1,143,4281,189,9261,140,8371,100,7381,203,7101,120,565
Auckland2,663,2862,782,9092,578,2721,902,3902,034,8851,900,864
Onehunga1,4802,9631,1731,8744,1842,486
Raglan-385770-385385
Tauranga157,135233,728381,686515,189636,161726,731
Gisborne8,435-8,4186,9414,5554,837
Napier81,778161,115142,830218,054373,154253,031
Taranaki127,181139,51158,404175,204245,040190,261
Wanganui770-385385-385
Wellington808,534904,4821,001,619614,327639,769747,557
Picton12,88622,7199,00644,73045,91522,778
Nelson58,48444,81057,32315,14714,31044,107
Greymouth1,908-385477220385
Lyttleton344,112429,045299,790253,340296,740310,051
Timaru66,33933,39223,331121,43084,18164,844
Otago63,30257,64862,282323,123287,861292,466
Deep Cove1,992--7,060--
Bluff83,402125,83671,054244,732229,837204,647
Totals5,624,4526,128,4695,837,5655,545,1416,100,9075,886,380

As will be seen, in 1967, 61 percent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first port of entry, and 45 percent used one of these two ports as the final departure point. Most of the tonnage at Whangarei comprises overseas oil tankers, whose calls are practically limited to that port.

Passengers—The overseas passenger traffic is concentrated principally at Auckland and Wellington. Small numbers of overseas passengers, however, arrive at and leave from the other ports. The following table gives the numbers of passengers arriving at and departing from each port for the latest five years.

PortPassengers Arriving from OverseasPassengers Departing for Overseas
Year Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 March
1963196419651966196719631964196519661967
Auckland23,88526,84525,67129,00031,50721,95422,93823,53426,47328,250
Napier362929158816551145100155
Wellington21,45515,41315,22415,22522,06412,72510,16310,79010,20214,257
Lyttelton334297309134290290221212230207
Dunedin1722171485398848882
Invercargill 62331236 11511447113
Other364222557395340569138361916443
Totals46,09142,89041,84044,79554,33335,75633,72435,24038,05643,507

Entrances and Clearances of Overseas Vessels—The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the last 11 years (recorded at the first port of arrival and final port of departure only), and distinguishes those entered and cleared “with cargo” from those “in ballast”.

YearWith CargoIn Ballast*Total
VesselsNet TonnageVesselsNet TonnageVesselsNet Tonnage
*“In ballast” means (a) inwards—“having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand”, such as cruise ships and vessels to load exports; (b) outwards—“having no cargo loaded in New Zealand”, such as cruise ships, empty tankers, and phosphate ships.
Entered
19577953,503,875101436,0648963,939,939
19587943,445,543135608,2259294,053,768
19597503,355,648133671,4778834,027,125
19608183,800,255154700,6379724,500,892
19618654,150,015173803,9141,0384,953,929
19628504,054,820141734,0129914,788,832
19638834,145,525146764,3131,0294,909,838
19649014,592,275169848,9541,0705,441,229
19658974,637,483171986,9691,0685,624,452
19669154,981,3262031,147,1431,1186,128,469
19677884,179,5662441,657,9991,0325,837,565
Cleared
19575492,488,5063461,451,3508953,939,856
19585542,495,8083571,478,4849113,974,292
19595772,506,593261,608,1369034,114,729
19606102,643,6823611,764,7439614,408,425
19616512,999,0253801,924,3971,0314,923,422
19626803,064,1903201,821,2391,0004,885,429
19637303,043,6653041,832,1201,0344,875,785
19647333,385,2943191,973,1471,0525,358,441
19657433,280,3893252,264,7521,0685,545,141
19667373,294,9183812,805,9891,1186,100,907
19677303,149,4293272,736,9511,0575,886,380

Direction of Overseas Shipping—Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries are given in the following table.

Country19661967
EnteredClearedEnteredCleared
No.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net Tonnage
Australia4041,573,8074151,478,8173851,747,2633711,486,770
Bahrain215,640439,953322,635325,104
Belgium15,615----315,011
Canada16104,958626,89218115,2981062,241
Fiji44192,98259296,89262335,31063364,616
France944,13730152,182313,5991478,003
French Polynesia947,98820136,960545,85018149,617
Germany, West1683,7631153,6951778,6321570,958
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1369,4591477,045949,701950,901
Hong Kong1339,615921,5911544,8401127,339
India531,356211,111750,058313,607
Iran674,42020267,9486129,55218262,489
Japan106371,668131483,902139509,051171644,445
Kuwait35671,43322411,23332628,55218358,011
Malaysia1070,7071059,292535,487424,175
Nauru44260,66043246,11926173,57827169,950
Netherlands Antilles320,93416,938214,171214,180
South Africa1026,874723,7731036,151732,818
Tonga53,514430,1081135,248618,466
United Kingdom1551,227,3011421,247,078110761,584120882,751
United States107619,96470405,68690516,09262382,171
Other countries105571,67498623,69277494,913102752,757
Totals1,1186,128,4691,1186,100,9071,0325,837,5651,0575,886,380

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tons direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the last 11 years.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons (000)
19572,2535,1691741,9641,61111,345
19582,2594,8651482,0181,66511,104
19592,1804,4951281,9301,91310,772
19602,2835,0591101,9961,93311,490
19612,4335,7041582,1641,98312,600
19622,4645,1571162,2312,04512,130
19632,8825,6971092,5502,12013,467
19643,8387,1871033,5042,59317,328
19654,9457,181854,6882,57419,558
19665,5427,942745,2142,67721,523
19675,4076,887525,1052,92720,431

Since the opening of the oil refinery at Whangarei on 30 May 1964 the pattern of the statistics for coastal shipping has been substantially altered. Oil is now brought to New Zealand mostly in crude form to Whangarei, and the oil products amounting to some 2 million tons annually are distributed as outward coastal cargo from Whangarei and as inward coastal cargo at the other major ports which previously received the oil products direct from overseas.

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1967. Loadings of bunker fuels amounting to 276,511 tons are not included.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
Houhora2,653----2,653
Awanui8,978----8,978
Mangonui5,455----5,455
Whangaroa855----855
Bay of Islands5,339707--21,52627,572
Whangarei147,3682,894,546-2,364,636123,6175,530,167
Auckland1,256,2061,690,40827,26579,830625,1813,706,155
Onehunga137,487769-159,8865,623303,765
Raglan14,9181,025-1,290-17,233
Thames---11,425-11,425
Tauranga348,072199,897-20,911942,1631,511,043
Gisborne27,1002,092-16,51411,18656,892
Napier249,613241,141-11,418203,914706,086
Taranaki171,495214,647-3,939171,809561,890
Wanganui82,5921,296-1,286-85,174
Wellington1,167,372772,52518,502790,471232,3832,999,755
Picton509,145--495,06714,8971,019,109
Nelson120,27631,69634666,68489,866309,214
Motueka4,726-917,276-12,184
Tarakohe26,755--182,252-209,007
Westport1,9475,010-202,1952209,154
Greymouth4,192--131,697-135,889
Jackson Bay---5,4085775,985
Kaiapoi4,665--4,762-9,427
Lyttelton594,072513,7511,268347,436173,3771,631,172
Timaru93,54138,05726982,18580,897295,218
Oamaru4,7301,292-30,519-36,541
Otago231,319157,3914,53652,61182,378532,771
Deep Cove31,0816,211---37,292
Bluff152,085114,159-34,259147,791448,294
Half-moon Bay3,331--1,391-4,722
Totals5,407,3686,886,62052,2775,105,3482,927,18720,431,077

Transhipments—Developments in shipping and other transport services have led to a decline in the volume of cargo transhipped, the tonnage handled during 1967 being the lowest ever recorded. Transhipments during 1967 totalled 52,277 tons, of which 18,502 tons (35 percent) were handled at Wellington, and 27,265 tons (52 percent) were handled at Auckland. Wellington continues to handle the bulk of the overseas to coastal trade, but Auckland's position in relation to the Pacific Islands makes this the natural port for the transhipment of overseas cargo to this area.

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnages of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1967. Transhipments are included.

PortFresh FruitGrainGypsum, Plaster of ParisIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, Kerosene
manifest tons
Bay of Islands-----707-
Whangarei--9,7674,0063,767103,737-
Auckland64,70752,31151,612216,71078,141298,693174,340
Tauranga-12,838-16,2351,533109,504-
Gisborne---1,054---
Napier--5815,4421,717189,7951,902
Taranaki35-8,037-182,8929,067
Wellington9,9538,90330783,94335,1143,229147,423
Nelson--6,0903,6052,0474,166-
Westport--4,592----
Lyttelton18,2855715,04749,11416,930104,43897,746
Timaru---2,2485,61722,834-
Otago361-3,97919,6525,83962,2304,228
Bluff--61914,5231,96578,2659
All other ports---4273,630--
Totals93,30974,11492,071434,996156,3001,160,490434,715
PortMotor Vehicles and PartsOil, Other MineralsSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Bay of Islands-----707
Whangarei262,768,866--4,3772,894,546
Auckland89,83519,779128,63562,137476,6751,713,575
Tauranga3---59,784199,897
Gisborne----1,0382,092
Napier81--4232,104241,141
Taranaki110---14,533214,647
Wellington150,12435,147834,434281,180789,765
Nelson11,544565733,80431,921
Westport----4185,010
Lyttelton19,8181,592122,501169,449514,978
Timaru3120-1307,44638,326
Otago3,156439295,47155,579160,963
Bluff830--75217,196114,159
All other ports5-2-6,52910,593
Totals275,5632,825,848129,332125,4701,130,1126,932,320

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 90 percent of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1967. Although pastoral products constitute the bulk of New Zealand's exports on a value basis, a number of other types of commodities constitute an important part of the total outward overseas cargo. The table shows the extent to which ports of loading participated in the handling of the major remaining items.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tons
Bay of Islands7,947-2,0549,8683321,24931
Whangarei24,510-8,88350150--
Auckland136,50323,864176,778104,36020,74218,83239,979
Onehunga5872215507-1-
Tauranga-3929,528--1,0021,088
Gisborne2,106--6,62833761,991
Napier1,8901263,33072,2029,7318,94648,714
Taranaki21,18770,53518,06846,2753,6944,1923,927
Wellington18,0409,94128,99376,70313,7807,54836,564
Picton---5,305-61623
Nelson912,0924012,64854880301
Lyttelton-1161,14861,8529,0048,00630,871
Timaru11,250-49,9004,3363,60916,752
Otago1121,29192634,4634,1043,36122,752
Bluff1594,17360395,4698,4849,01822,681
Totals212,604113,499270,927566,23074,74866,711226,274
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodWood PulpAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Bay of Islands-----4521,526
Whangarei---126-89,898123,617
Auckland5,2421393,8245,27655198,664634,754
Onehunga124--1,209-3,4375,623
Tauranga72-113,801676,89079,12840,615942,163
Gisborne-----11811,186
Napier23,21345-19,415-16,302203,914
Taranaki18--12-3,901171,809
Wellington1,0032,623981,850-35,961233,104
Picton6,770----2,13814,897
Nelson49,273505-27,873-5,74889,866
Lyttelton2,27114,46492200-45,384173,408
Timaru-1,393---3,65680,897
Otago1,239529-215-13,38682,378
Bluff-207-7-6,990147,791
All other ports---579--579
Totals89,22519,905117,815733,65279,679366,2432,937,512

Shipping Between New Zealand and Island Dependencies—In the tables of overseas shipping no account is taken of ships moving between the main islands of New Zealand and the island dependencies. Information on cargoes will be found in Section 38, N.Z. Territory Overseas.

SHIPPING ON INLAND WATERS—Although New Zealand is well supplied with rivers few can be used by shipping for other than short distances. There are no regular passenger or cargo services of any size on any of the rivers. The only inland-water shipping of consequence is the service on Lake Wakatipu operated with the Earnslaw. This vessel is the property of the New Zealand Railways. Passengers and cargo are carried from the rail head at Kingston to Queenstown and to other points on the shores of the lake. Farmers made use of this service for transporting livestock until the construction of a new road from Queenstown to Glenorchy. The next table shows the operations of this service during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassengersLivestockTimberOther GoodsRevenueExpenditure
 No.No.super. ft. (000)tons$$
196336,65111,9091403,61145,01471,002
196436,97812,2961623,57742,29469,552
196525,4323,2421394,15838,25469,648
196621,9438273044,14435,81671,526
196723,0073,5423313,65837,36073,016
196827,3527,6213262,65338,55481,577

REGISTRY OF OVERSEAS SHIPS—The following table shows the country of registry of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the latest six years.

Country of Registry196219631964196519661967
British Commonwealth—net tons (000)
    United Kingdom2,5162,5612,7042,6052,5442,625
    New Zealand422423472470463395
    Other British Commonwealth21413029354642
        With cargo2,7022,6092,7282,6182,5212,320
        In ballast450505477493532742
                Totals, British Commonwealth countries3,1523,1143,2053,1113,0533,062
                Percentage of total666359555052
Other—
    Italy499361128250302
    Japan159223343449534468
    Liberia1327168263452466
    Norway334428469500576364
    Netherlands398353343321375343
    Remaining countries684672852852888832
        With cargo1,3531,5371,8642,0192,4601,860
        In ballast284259372494615915
                Totals, other countries1,6371,7962,2362,5133,0752,775
                Percentage of total343741455048
Grand totals4,7894,9105,4415,6246,1285,837

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER—The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearSteam and Motor VesselsOther Vessels*Totals
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
*Includes sailing vessels, and barges, dredges, etc., not self-propelled.
1957490264,309134,669361,8211,487526266,130136,156
1958495271,179137,660361,8211,487531273,000139,147
1959490260,248131,409412,3381,898531262,586133,307
1960491243,008122,631422,4712,031533245,479124,662
1961503241,096120,992422,4712,031545243,567123,023
1962493250,399124,724402,6522,096533253,051126,820
1963496244,047120,603504,0513,505546248,098124,108
1964521251,032122,798534,1803,628574255,212126,426
1965534235,506114,309604,2733,699594239,779118,008
1966556238,149112,520654,3353,720621242,484116,240
1967581223,434102,984755,3734,689656228,807107,673

In the table which follows, the vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1967 are classified and listed for the various ports of registry.

Port of RegistrySteam VesselsMotor VesselsOther Vessels*
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
*Includes sailing vessels and barges, dredges, etc., not self-propelled.
Whangarei---91,4748459950
Auckland133,9861,77237471,65333,469484,8324,292
Napier181944983,0441,226---
Wellington1837,46016,1077361,88130,35216306251
Nelson---237,3263,004---
Lyttelton64,6951,774173,3481,5252195
Timaru---21,299516152
Otago22,4359951722,26011,0312274
Bluff29693681678531218585
Totals4250,36421,465539173,07081,519755,3734,689

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 435 vessels on the Auckland register being only 118 tons.

Of the 594 vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1965 only 135 were classified as employed in the coastal or foreign trade. A great number of vessels are employed exclusively within “restricted limits” or are pleasure craft.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES—The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the Mercantile Marine are conducted by the Marine Department, the regulations relating to these examinations being based upon those of the United Kingdom Board of Trade with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The Board of Trade recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: extra master, master, first mate, and second mate foreign-going ships, first- and second-class steam and motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Board of Trade. There are examinations for masters and mates for marine engineers in both the foreign-going and home trade.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Department carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and 815 certificates of survey were issued in 1967. The Department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 4,330 miles of coastline there are 273 navigational aids. These aids comprise 25 manned lighthouses, 117 automatic lights, 109 day beacons, 6 navigational buoys, three fog signals and 13 radio beacons, and represent a capital investment of $4 million approximately. Their maintenance and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Department and involves an expenditure of over $540,000 annually. Light dues collected from ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The “Xenon gas” light installed on Tiri Tiri Island, the main coastal approach light tower to Waitemata Harbour, is of 11 million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the world. Over half of the lighthouses are fitted with marine radio beacons.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The numbers of shipping casualties reported to the Marine Department during the year ended 31 December 1967 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMiscellaneous, Berthing, Machinery Breakdown, etc.CollisionFireFounderingStranding and GroundingTotal
Passenger1 1  2
Cargo2   35
Fishing822151340
Miscellaneous10416201565
Totals216193531112

11B—RAILWAYS

RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over more than 3,000 route miles links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand and carries a large share of the passenger and freight traffic to and from the towns and cities. Practically all the railway services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The Department also operates road services over more than 5,000 route miles of highways; a rail- and road-vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton; and an air-freight service across Cook Strait. A total staff of about 23,000 people is employed by the Department.

Recent years have witnessed notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

Major projects in the course of construction are a 15-mile railway link, including a 5 &1/2;-mile tunnel through the Kaimai Hills, to shorten the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty districts, and of a large new marshalling yard with associated servicing and repair depots at Te Rapa on the northern outskirts of Hamilton.

A World Bank loan of $30 million was made available in 1965 for a rolling stock re-equipment programme estimated to cost $50 million planned for completion by the end of 1969.

BRIEF HISTORY—In 1860 a contract was let by the provincial government of Canterbury for the construction of a railway from Lyttelton to Christchurch, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863.* A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867, and meanwhile, in 1865, the Auckland Provincial Council had begun construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

In 1870 the General Government established an Immigration and Public Works Department which had as one of its main objects the building of a system of railways to open up the country for settlement. By 31 March 1880, 1,182 route miles of State-owned railways were open for traffic, and by 31 March 1900 more than 2,100 route miles in 10 separate sections were in use. The 369-mile trunk line between Christchurch and Invercargill was complete in January 1879, but it was November 1908 before the 426-mile North Island main trunk railway between Auckland and Wellington was ready for traffic throughout.

More recently other main lines have been completed, to link most of the short isolated sections. The last link to be completed was that from Christchurch to Picton, in 1945. Since then, between 1950 and 1957, 63 miles of branch lines have been built in the North Island to serve the extensive man-made forests.

In 1957 the main highway between Blenheim and Nelson was deemed, for the purpose of calculating passenger fares and freight charges, to be a “notional railway” connected at Blenheim to the railway system.

Over the years since the railways were first built, vast improvements have been made and many sections reconstructed at considerable expense to ease gradients, shorten distances, and reduce curvature. Several of these major railway deviations involved the boring of long tunnels, such as those on the Wellington-Tawa deviation, opened in June 1937; the Turakina-Okoia deviation, opened in December 1947; and the Rimutaka deviation between Upper Hutt and Featherston, opened in November 1955.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route milage of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1968 was 3,118—1,623 miles in the North Island and 1,495 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 4 miles of railways owned by other Government Departments. Double line was provided over a total of 161 route miles, of which 129 miles were in the North Island. Several short uneconomic branch lines were closed in 1967-68.

A total of 68 route miles has been electrified since 1922 on the 1,500-volt direct-current, overhead contact system. The 8&1/2;-mile Otira - Arthur's Pass section of the South Island transalpine line, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923; the 6&1/2;-mile Christchurch-Lyttelton section in 1929; the 6&1/2;-mile Wellington-Johnsonville line in 1938; and the 24&1/2;-mile Wellington-Paekakariki line in 1940. The first section of the Wellington - Hutt Valley electrification was brought into operation in 1953, and the last stage of this project, covering 22 route miles, was completed in July 1955.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand have been constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the track and install signals.

*A special article in the 1963 issue of the Yearbook (pp. 1175-1195) outlined the first 100 years of railway development in New Zealand.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 3 ft 6 in. Steel rails for main lines weigh 91 lb per yard, but several secondary and branch lines have been laid with rails weighing 72 lb per yard. Much of the track, not yet renewed since these standards were adopted in 1950, is still laid with rails weighing 85, 70, and 55 lb per yard. About 70 miles of track are completely renewed each year. Timber sleepers, laid 2,400 to the mile, have traditionally been of Australian hardwood, but since 1960 substantial and increasing use has been made of treated radiata pine sleepers from New Zealand mills.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, more than 2,600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 55 miles. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 34 miles south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 5,720 ft (1.08 miles) long.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 318 ft above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty New Zealand railway viaducts altogether carry the rails more than 110 ft above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—At the close of March 1968, a total of 189 railway tunnels with an aggregate length of 53&1/2; miles were in use, 108 in the North Island and 81 in the South Island. The two longest tunnels are the Otira (5 miles 26 chains) on the Midland Line in the South Island, opened in 1923; and the Rimutaka (5 miles 37 chains) on the Wairarapa line in the North Island, opened in 1955. Excluding city tube railways, these stand fifteenth and twelfth respectively in a list of the world's longest railway tunnels. The Kaimai Tunnel, to be constructed on the Kaimai deviation, will be 5 miles 39 chains long.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in Subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Rail Ferry Service—Two ferries carrying rail and road vehicles, and passengers, are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana (4,160 tons) and Aranui (4,542 tons) are each designed to carry a maximum of 34 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a further 30 motorcars in an upper-deck garage. There is all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins in each vessel for about 500 passengers, but it is possible to carry up to 1,150 passengers per ship on special occasions. Regular sailings with the Aramoana began on 13 August 1962 and a two-ship timetable was introduced with the advent of the Aranui on 27 June 1966.

ROLLING STOCK—Information as to the rolling stock in use on the State railways as at 31 March 1968 is given in the following table.

*In addition, there are five small diesel-electric shunting locomotives in use in workshops and 103 diesel and petrol shunting tractors (under 200 h.p.), both road and rail, in use at stations and in depots.
Locomotives—
    Steam (tender)131
    Steam (tank)11
    Electric28
    Diesel-electric251
    Diesel-electric shunting70
    Other diesel shunting (200 h.p. or more)101
Total592*
Passenger vehicles—
    Sleepers18
    First class71
    Second class512
    Composite1
    Railcars49
    Electric multiple units128
    Total779
Wagons and Vans—Four WheeledBogie
    Horse boxes224
    Cattle852129
    Sheep2,1047
    Frozen and chilled meat609818
    Cool, ventilated1,413-
    Covered goods2,579611
    High side17,381158
    Low side900-
    Platform5701,444
    Bulk cement6963
    Coal hopper914-
    Vegetable-17
    Brake vans-415
    Heating vans-6
    Postal vans-6
    Other1,797526
Totals29,1904,224
 33,414

To the extent that local resources permit, locomotives and rolling stock are constructed in railway workshops. Additional requirements are met by importations from overseas.

Dieselisation of motive power began in 1949 with the purchase of four 25-ton diesel-mechanical shunting locomotives. The first diesel-electric locomotives for main-line services were imported in 1951-52.

Main-line diesel locomotives were used primarily in freight service at first, and by 1964-65 were handling almost two-thirds of this traffic, but diesel haulage of the Limited express trains in the North Island was accomplished in April 1963, and of other regular express trains between Auckland and Wellington (except for electric traction south of Paekakariki) in February 1965.

Steam locomotives in the North Island were completely replaced by diesel locomotives by the end of 1967, by which time diesel-electric locomotives were also able to run right through from Paekakariki to Wellington.

Eighteen 40-ton diesel-electric shunting locomotives were imported from England in 1959 for heavy shunting duty, and by 31 March 1968 another 52 had been built in railway workshops.

The first diesel railcars on New Zealand Railways were placed in service in 1936. At 31 March 1968 a fleet of 49 was in use on fast passenger services. Because the railcar services as a whole were losing approximately $500,000 a year the Government decided early in 1967 that the 35 twin-unit railcars should be phased out wherever possible in favour of road services, when they became due for replacement of engines and transmissions.

Multiple-unit electric coaches were first introduced on the Johnsonville line in 1938. By 1955 a fleet of 49 motor coaches and 79 trailer coaches was in use on Wellington suburban train services. A typical three-coach set comprising one 600 h.p. motor coach and two trailer coaches weighs 96 tons unladen, measures 188 ft 6 in. overall, and seats 200 passengers. This stock can accelerate rapidly from stops and operates up to 50 m.p.h. in normal service.

Standard main-line passenger cars are 56 ft in length, have reversible chair seats, and are steam heated and electrically lit. Some are pressure ventilated. Sleeping cars have wash basins, wall mirrors, reading lights, and plug-in sockets for electric razors in each two-berth cabin.

Wagon Stock—Of the total of 32,987 goods and livestock wagons in stock at 31 March 1968, more than half have been built since 1945. Typical of the modern wagons now in use are steel high-side open wagons with a capacity of 15 tons; long, covered wagons for express goods trains; and high-capacity, all-steel, insulated wagons for frozen-meat traffic. A special type of wagon was designed for the Murupara-Kawerau log traffic, and deliveries of a new type of 14-ton-capacity covered wagon for palletised goods traffic began in 1960. Other special types of wagons have been developed for the conveyance of packaged timber, for cement, flour, plaster, pitch, heated tallow, and sulphuric acid, all in bulk. In addition to the wagons owned by the Department another 238 privately owned wagons were also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table. Since 1949 steam power has been steadily replaced by diesel traction.

In these traffic figures, the weight of motive power is excluded—except in the case of diesel railcars and multiple-unit electric trains.

Types of Trains1965-661966-671967-68
Gross Ton-miles (Million)PercentGross Ton-miles (Million)PercentGross Ton-miles (Million)Percent
Passenger trains—      
    Steam locomotives111.214.695.812.584.412.4
    Diesel locomotives236.330.9251.732.9233.934.2
    Diesel railcars174.522.8174.022.8139.820.5
    Electric locomotives47.46.247.96.337.65.5
    Electric multiple unit195.225.5194.925.5187.527.4
            Totals, passenger764.6100.0764.3100.0683.2100.0
Mixed and goods trains—
    Steam1,133.728.6939.823.6724.819.1
    Diesel2,741.569.22,959.174.23,011.879.6
    Electric86.02.286.72.249.81.3
                Totals, mixed and goods3,961.2100.03,985.6100.03,786.4100.0
All trains—
    Steam locomotives1,244.926.31,035.621.8809.218.1
    Diesel locomotives2,977.863.03,210.867.63,245.772.6
    Diesel railcars174.53.7174.03.7139.83.1
    Electric locomotives133.42.8134.62.887.42.0
    Electric multiple unit195.24.2194.94.1187.54.2
                Grand totals, gross ton-miles4,725.8100.04,749.9100.04,469.6100.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
*Loss recovered from General Reserve.
  $(thousand) 
196372,88776,588-3,701*
196479,47778,3991,078
196585,31882,9482,370
196687,55284,1843,368
196788,75687,878878
196885,83284,6601,172

The chief items of expenditure for 1967-68 were: wages $52,236,570; locomotive fuel (including electricity), $2,523,967; stores and material, $12,754,390; depreciation and renewals, $7,224,725; miscellaneous, $9,920,632.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
 $ (thousand)
196362,75210,13466,8749,712-4,122+422
196467,64811,82867,94610,452-298+1,376
196572,78612,53171,93211,015+854+1,516
196674,75312,79973,22810,956+1,525+1,843
196775,02813,72875,15112,727-123+1,001
196871,65314,17971,88012,780-227+1,399

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e. omitting subsidiary service) are given below for the 1967-68 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
  $ (thousand) percent
North Island50,83147,450+3,38193.3
South Island20,82224,430-3,608117.3
Totals71,65371,880-227100.3

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department, is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1966-671967-681966-671967-68
 $ (thousand)
Lake Wakatipu steamer37387382
Advertising service213224197150
Departmental dwellings9281,0292,3181,854
Road services—
    Passenger and goods6,6706,7296,6606,906
Cook Strait rail ferry service4,1804,6303,2003,788
Miscellaneous1,7001,529279-
Totals13,72814,17912,72712,780

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods, Livestock, and ParcelsRefreshments and BookstallsTotal
$ (thousand)
19645,86460,3341,45067,648
19655,76065,5461,48072,786
19665,89767,3131,54374,753
19675,91567,4481,66575,028
19685,29464,7851,57471,653

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1967-68 represented an expenditure on railway travel of $1.93 per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to $26.18 per head.

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Refreshments and BookstallsTotal
*Includes superannuation subsidy.
$ (thousand)
196416,96215,82211,48420,3001,8521,52667,946
196517,29817,00012,22621,7982,0401,57071,932
196617,92317,17612,21122,1182,1341,66673,228
196719,01217,67112,10522,3832,2321,74875,151
196817,32917,18911,53521,6692,4541,70471,880

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment.

PASSENGER TRAFFIC—From 1958 to 1965 the number of journeys represented by railway passenger tickets sold remained over the 25 million mark, reaching a peak of 26,324,017 in 1961-62. The traffic had shown a steady upward trend since 1951-52, when the number of journeys was 21,292,556. This trend reflected the improvements in service made possible by completion of the suburban railway electrification at Wellington in 1955 and by the introduction of fast railcar services between 1955 and 1959. Since 1961-62 there has been a steady decline in passenger journey in face of competition from other forms of transport.

The annual number of suburban passenger journeys at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill attained a record total of 23,311,438 in 1961-62. Although suburban traffic at Wellington continued to increase after that year (until 1966-67), the opening of the Lyttelton road tunnel in February 1964 and other factors caused a decline in other districts, so that the total suburban journeys in 1967-68 were 20,122,133. This traffic produced revenue of $1,946,540, or 9.7c per journey.

In the same year, 1967-68, revenue from non-suburban rail passenger traffic was $3,122,508 representing an average of $1.51 in respect of each of 2,064,124 journeys. Since 1957 this traffic has fluctuated between 2,000,000 and 3,200,000 journeys a year. Prior to 1957 there had been a generally steady but tapering decline from the wartime peak of 15,733,306 non-suburban journeys in 1943-44. This decline was attributable to numerous factors; among them the reduction of troop movements, the increased use of private cars as post-war economic conditions improved, the curtailment of train services because of wartime and post-war coal and staff shortages, the development of air services, the transference of school-children traffic in country districts from train services to school buses, the elimination of passenger services on many branch lines and the discontinuance of numerous local passenger train and mixed train services in country areas. Much of the short-distance passenger traffic formerly carried by train in rural areas was taken over by road services operated by the Railways Department. The operations of the Department's Road Services Branch are outlined under another heading at the end of this section.

The following table shows rail passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Journey1964-651965-661966-671967-68
Non-suburban—
    Ordinary—    
        Standard fares1,706,6951,699,0521,657,1691,345,252
        Reduced fares310,943280,854269,074234,492
    Season791,250674,360588,010484,380
            Totals, non-suburban2,808,8882,654,2662,514,2532,064,124
Suburban—
    Ordinary4,185,6754,446,0294,617,3034,427,203
    Season18,142,68016,788,34016,591,70015,694,930
            Totals, suburban22,328,35521,234,36921,209,00320,122,133
            Grand totals25,137,24323,888,63523,723,25622,186,257

The following table shows the revenue received from passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Fare1964-651965-661966-671967-68
Non-suburban—    
    Ordinary—$(thousand)
        Standard fares3,2253,2973,3332,803
        Reduced fares265278246220
    Season101959399
    Miscellaneous247251237225
            Totals, non-suburban3,8383,9213,9093,347
Suburban    
    Ordinary545584607583
    Season1,3771,3921,3981,364
            Totals, suburban1,9221,9762,0051,947
                Grand totals5,7605,8975,9145,294

GOODS TRAFFIC—The volume of goods traffic carried by New Zealand Railways increased steadily year by year until 1930, but declined considerably during the depression until 1933. Since then there has been a steady upward trend, with only occasional and brief recessions reflecting fluctuations in economic activity.

The volume of revenue-earning goods and livestock traffic in 1967-68 decreased by 8.3 percent to 10,581,421 tons, mainly because of adverse economic conditions and industrial disputes. The decrease in tonnage resulted in a decrease in net ton-miles although the average hauls in each island were longer.

The following table shows the tonnage of goods and livestock between stations, net ton-miles, goods and mixed train-miles run, and goods and livestock revenue, together with associated significant averages. These figures exclude traffic carried wholly within station yards, and the revenue quoted excludes that derived from demurrage, cranage hire, engine hire, etc., and from parcels traffic. Non-revenue-earning traffic, such as coal and oil fuel to locomotive depots, is also excluded.

Year Ended 31 MarchTonnage Carried Between StationsTon-milesAverage Length of HaulGoods and Mixed Train-milesGross Revenue
TotalPer TonPer Train-milePer Ton-mile
 (000)(000)miles(000)$(000)$$c
196411,0771,303,0291179,08457,2485.176.304.39
196511,7131,406,8301199,54762,3485.326.534.43
196611,6451,473,1351269,64863,9885.496.634.34
196711,3401,483,8781319,61464,6365.706.724.36
196810,4561,405,1201348,73662,6305.997.174.46

The numbers of livestock carried by rail have declined in recent years following the complete removal in 1961 of restrictions on the road transport of livestock; figures for recent years are shown in the following table.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
Cattle and horses793,228723,224567,170476,917429,277
Calves585,885560,143506,624451,388477,641
Sheep5,885,7714,894,4363,724,1713,501,7272,983,490
Pigs400,186378,742318,446249,421203,970
            Totals7,665,0706,556,5455,116,4114,679,4534,094,378
Equivalent tonnage548,880483,554374,022329,407291,593

Parcels Traffic—Revenue from parcels traffic, for which tonnage figures are not recorded, amounted to $1,780,422 in 1964-65, $1,934,722 in 1965-66, $2,082,356 in 1966-67 and $2,015,452 in 1967-68.

Rail Ferry Traffic—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service since 13 August 1962 are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchReturn CrossingsPassenger JourneysMotor VehiclesFreight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnageDeadweight TonsManifest Tons

*Seven and one-half months only, from 13 August 1962.

†Two-ship service from 27 June 1966.

1963*246123,52021,474107,37048,92293,100
1964505186,13937,362186,810143,655267,738
1965571206,71245,592227,960180,650361,110
1966563211,52051,396256,980215,480432,142
1967810322,22460,690303,450294,933521,383
1968974339,12466,067330,335343,791581,542

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengersRefreshmentsMotor VehiclesOther GoodsTotal
*Seven and one-half months only, from 13 August 1962.
 $$$$$$
1963*305,56034,140305,586659,6441,304,930858,460
1964442,66259,482480,3001,717,2022,699,6461,629,526
1965442,59474,012534,1902,316,8043,367,6001,777,690
1966431,12479,476481,0402,793,0543,784,6941,960,180
1967553,324137,288619,9142,869,5744,180,1003,199,628
1968569,284154,484680,5963,225,4854,629,8493,788,347

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

Figure 11.1. GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1968 was 22,910. The staff is divided into two divisions— namely, the salaried division and the general division—and is further classed in a number of branches as shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrafficWay and WorksLocomotive RunningWorkshopsRoad ServicesOtherTotal
19647,2025,9323,5905,0191,4981,27424,515
19657,1255,6743,5934,9401,4991,27624,107
19667,0735,4923,5184,8221,5081,25923,672
19677,1365,2593,4584,7571,4991,27223,381
19686,8735,0913,4204,7791,5011,24622,910

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896 and revised at various times since, applies to railway employees. A Board is constituted to hear appeals of members against decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways and the other elected by the members of the Department. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1944 provided for the establishment of a tribunal of three members whose principal functions are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages for railway employees; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in regard to leave of absence, railway travel concessions, etc. This tribunal, known as the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, is deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The members, who must not be members of the railway employees' organisations, are appointed for a term of three years.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS—No passengers lost their lives in train accidents during the year ended 31 March 1968, 26 persons were killed and 182 injured in accidents associated with train working and movement of rolling stock. Comparative figures for the previous year were 22 killed and 317 injured. These figures do not include employees who were killed or injured whilst engaged in other duties, e.g. railway workshops.

Accidents at level crossings with roads resulted in the death of 16 people and injury to 50 others in 1967-68; in the previous year 10 were killed and 70 injured. An additional 47 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1967-68, bringing the total number of automatic alarms now in operation up to 603.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and sawmills. The most important are the 7-mile line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai, and the 4-mile line from Stirling to the State Mines at Kaitangata (South Otago). These lines carry substantial coal traffic in departmental wagons. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd. in the North Island operates a 6&1/2;-mile private line from Awakeri to their mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services whose origin dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the fit long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route milage over which licences were held rose from 260 to 5,992. Now the Railways Department runs more than 25 percent of the total vehicle milage of all licensed road passenger service operators in New Zealand (see Section 11C), and maintains in its fleet more than 25 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. During the year ended 31 March 1968, the Railways Department's Road Services Branch employed a staff of 1,501 on average.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paekakariki, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 221 vehicles at 31 March 1968, carried 12,226,000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $1,117,639. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 609 coaches, buses, and other vehicles, carried 9,170,000 passengers and earned a revenue of $4,362,805. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1968 covered 5,438 miles of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, together with the hire of vehicles to the Rail Ancillary Goods Service, produced a further $1,249,046 in 1967-68. Some 276 motor trucks and vans were maintained for the goods services. The Rail Ancillary Goods Services is operated by the Department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations since 1930.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Miles at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
*Route milage for which licences are held.
    (000)$ (000)$ (000)
193110160-3,188206218
193626066-3,242206190
19413,453288397,731936866
19464,50746415416,5882,1981,918
19515,99274930124,0914,2164,320
19565,84276335619,2715,1705,036
19615,75473533221,3705,6745,638
19665,85872937822,2976,3856,343
19675,87274838622,2406,6706,660
19685,89976237721,3966,7296,906

11 C—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are over 58,000 miles of roads and over 1 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1966 revealed that there were 34,906 road transport drivers, 13,533 persons engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads, 16,653 persons whose occupations involved carrying and cartage services, 22,206 persons occupied in the repair of motor vehicles, and 7,205 persons engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building.

Road transportation has become an integral part of the economy and grows along with it. Primary production, for example, relies heavily on road transport. An increasing amount must be spent on the roading system not only to maintain and increase national production but also, among other things, to prevent economic waste due to congestion on main traffic routes. Urban motorways are absorbing an increasing proportion of the available funds of the National Roads Board which has an impressive record of road improvements since 1954.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—Two noteworthy constructions have been the Auckland Harbour Bridge and the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel; tolls are charged to users to provide for upkeep and repay the loans raised for their construction. The Auckland Harbour Bridge, with its approaches, is nearly 2 miles long and was opened in 1959. The Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, which was opened in 1964, comprises 2&1/2; miles of motorway, of which 1&1/4; miles is actual tunnel.

Another major development has been the construction of the 130-mile Haast Pass Road in South Westland which was opened on 6 November 1965; construction extended over 19 years and involved an expenditure of $9 million. It connects Westland and Otago and opens up areas of scenic beauty.

Details of formed roads are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsCountiesRoad DistrictsTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
*All on county roads.
Miles
Paved5,21111,4285,69489122,432
Metal or gravel62428,7151,248665730,710
Unmetalled945,085-395,191
Totals: formed roads5,92952,17077*15758,333

The configuration of the country has presented problems in the construction of roads, while the numerous rivers and streams have called for many bridges. The following table shows the numbers and total lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system at 31 March 1967. Only bridges of 25ft or over in length have been taken into account. There is an average of slightly under 15 ft of bridging per mile of formed road.

Materials of Which Bridge ConstructedCities and BoroughsCountiesRoad DistrictsTown DistrictsTotals
No.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total Length
*Includes Bailey bridges erected as a temporary measure.
  ft ft ft ft ft
Concrete reinforced or stone33237,3503,231307,610--86853,571345,645
Steel girders and concrete deck*639,5181,415135,883--21521,480145,553
Timber with steel or concrete617,1151,869167,0152622551,934174,247
Timber877,2702,402197,568--21172,491204,955
Totals54361,2538,917808,076262141,0099,476870,400

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—Before the Auckland Harbour Bridge of four lanes was opened in 1959, it was expected that it would take 19 years for traffic to reach 8 million vehicles a year, but instead it took only five years. Extensions have now been made by way of two additional lanes on each side of the existing bridge making a total of eight traffic lanes.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
   (000)  
Cars6,9148,1419,47110,55911,433
Motor cycles, etc.283255240213233
Buses255265268268272
Trucks486523478444446
Non-revenue traffic112139146171201
Totals8,0509,32310,60311,65512,585

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel—There is an increasing volume of traffic using the Christchurch-Lyttelton road tunnel as shown in the following table.

Class of VehicleYear Ended 31 March
1965196619671968
Cars697,789771,737916,546964,659
Motor cycles, etc.76,47398,78199,73484,647
Buses12,34212,78014,14914,356
Trucks72,715112,776137,016154,512
Non-revenue traffic26,59331,08234,14434,154
                Totals885,9121,027,1561,201,5891,252,328

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State Highways. There are 7,180 miles of State highways.

By the National Roads Act a National Roads Board was established from 1 April 1954, and its functions are defined as follows:

  1. To administer the National Roads Fund in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

  2. To provide an advisory service in respect of the whole roading system of counties, boroughs, and town districts throughout New Zealand, and to report to the Government from time to time on the progress being made in providing a roading system adequate for needs arising from current developments in motor traffic.

  3. To advise the Government of any changes necessary in the legislation and regulations relating to the use of roads.

  4. To act as the final authority in disputes relating to road classifications.

  5. To advise the Government of changes necessary in the provision of finance for road construction and maintenance, particularly of changes considered advisable in the levying and collection of motor taxation, including exemptions therefrom.

  6. To assist and advise local authorities generally on roading matters and any special roading problems arising from development of industries, etc.

  7. To undertake at not more than five- or less than three-year intervals a comprehensive survey into the roading position in New Zealand, including standards, growth of traffic, traffic, adequacy, etc.

  8. To give effect to any special matter of roading policy communicated to it by the Government.

  9. To initiate and conduct research into roading problems in New Zealand.

  10. To collect information on roading developments in other countries and make this available to roading authorities in New Zealand.

  11. To undertake any other activity for the provision of a roading system adequate both for the needs of an efficient road transport system and for the benefit generally of motor-vehicle operators and the safety of the public in relation to motor traffic.

The composition of the National Roads Board is: (a) one member, to be appointed Chairman of the Board; (b) the person holding the appointment in the Ministry of Works as Director of Roading; (c) an officer of the Ministry of Works; (d) an officer of the Ministry of Transport; (e) two nominees of the New Zealand Counties Association (incorporated); (f) two nominees of the Municipal Association of New Zealand (incorporated); (g) a representative of commercial road users; and (h) a representative of private motorists.

District Roads Councils—New Zealand is divided into 21 roads districts, composed of local authorities grouped according to geographic situation and community interest.

For each roads district there is an advisory body, known as the District Roads Council, which is constituted to include the District Commissioner of Works, one representative of each constituent county and road district, one person to represent boroughs and independent town districts for each two members representing counties or roads districts but where the number of borough councils and town districts exceeds the number of county councils and road boards, the Board may appoint such additional persons as it thinks fit to represent borough councils and town districts, a representative of commercial road users, a representative of private motorists, and a nominee of the Secretary for Transport.

District Roads Councils function as advisory bodies, with the principal duties of recommending upon the maintenance and improvement programmes for State highways, and upon the yearly allocation of subsidies and grants from the National Roads Fund for local authority roading. They also make recommendations to the National Roads Board on standards and requirements for roads and highways in their particular districts, and on general matters affecting road users or road safety.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 14.80c per gallon is paid into the National Roads Fund; additional tax of 3.30c per gallon imposed on 4 May 1967 is credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account. An equivalent milage tax is payable for diesel-powered motor vehicles; this is apportioned to National Roads Fund and Consolidated Revenue Account on the same basis as for motor spirits tax. Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicles Regulations range from $4.83 (not above 2&1/2; tons) to $63 (11 tons), with $7 for each additional ton above 11. The fees for farmers' trucks range from $2.66 on a corresponding basis. Heavy traffic fees, less the cost of collection, are paid into the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest three March years.

Item1965-661966-671967-68
Receipts—$$$
    Petrol tax (net)48,588,43450,756,45250,475,197
    Milage tax2,595,8642,892,5183,167,446
    Fees and charges—   
        Registration and licence fees6,451,2087,358,182289,181
        Heavy traffic fees7,225,1447,224,7983,497,743
    Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account10,00010,0003,250,000
    Miscellaneous receipts—   
    Repayments of plant purchases24,27013,4485,378
    Repayments of advances to local authorities23,26812,9644,796
    Rents114,482142,502254,063
    Sales of land and buildings54,78815,75083,291
    Interest on plant purchases1,676648-
    Interest on advances to local authorities7243461,580
Transfer of bridging material14,5441,070-
Bailey bridging hire117,92019,74613,145
Interest on investments85,50039,50048,167
Miscellaneous1,3242,19222,628
Contribution from local authorities for work done by Ministry of Works26,56220,912600
Total receipts65,335,70868,511,02866,113,215
Expenditure—   
    Highways maintenance9,260,4309,469,56610,265,720
    Highways construction29,012,05826,368,17022,578,777
    Local authority roading subsidies and grants27,094,66028,939,63828,473,976
    Administration and general expenses—   
    Ministry of Works administration3,126,3263,271,9303,272,000
    Fees and travelling expenses14,40611,71615,273
    Miscellaneous expenses158,632251,404328,041
    Bridging expenses—   
    Bailey bridging, etc.34,54833,30828,883
    Unauthorised expenditure5,0183,3505,903
Total expenditure68,706,07868,349,08264,968,573
    Balance in Fund at end of year2,863,6603,025,6064,170,248

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable. There are 7,180 miles of State highways, of which 85 percent are now sealed.

Class of Expenditure1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
 $ (thousand)
Construction and improvement19,30719,15826,42423,82120,411
Renewal of bridges2,2302,2272,5882,5472,168
Maintenance, repairs, etc.8,7868,8579,2609,46910,265
Totals30,32330,24138,27235,83732,844

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor vehicles in each Island at 31 March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to New Zealand totals.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
North Island—Percentage of New Zealand Totals
    Maintenance expenditure66.2267.1666.7266.8364.38
    Motor vehicles68.2168.5668.6668.9869.22
South Island—
    Maintenance expenditure33.7832.8433.2833.1735.62
    Motor vehicles31.7931.4431.3431.0230.78

The following table shows the milage of State highways in the North and South Islands at 31 March 1968, together with a classification as to the type of construction or surface.

IslandLength of Highways
Sealed SurfaceGravel or Macadam SurfaceTotal
  miles 
North Island3,2935083,801
South Island2,7965833,379
Totals6,0891,0917,180

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works. In 1964 the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system. It determined that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. It reaffirmed the most important basic principles in designing a State highway system to be that the total milage of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system. It is estimated that an average increase of traffic of 5 percent a year can be expected on the State highways until 1974 at least.

The National Roads Board has the sole power of construction, maintenance, and control of all State highways. These powers may be delegated, for any State highway or portion thereof, to the local authority in whose district the road is situated. Any construction or maintenance work that is not delegated by the Board to a local authority is carried out by or through the agency of the Ministry of Works and the cost borne by the Fund. The Board may also delegate to the Ministry of Works its duties in connection with design, supervision, construction, or maintenance, or the administration of any specified State highway.

Highway Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total milage of motorways in use at 31 March 1968 was 55.80 miles. During 1967-68 8 motorway bridges, totalling 6,630 ft were completed. Additional lengths are under construction at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The figures quoted for motorways' milages and bridging are included in those shown under highways.

Activity During the Year Ended 31 March 1968—During the year ended 31 March 1968, 80 miles of new sealing on highways were completed, giving an aggregate of 6,089 miles sealed, or 85 percent of the total highway milage. In addition, improvements to existing sealed surfaces were effected on 584 miles of highways.

New bridging totalled 12,320 linear feet, compared with 7,871 linear feet in the previous year.

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the Board; the amount of subsidy is not less than 14 percent of the Board's revenue in the case of boroughs and independent town districts, and not less than 26 percent in the case of counties, dependent town districts, and road districts.

Within the above percentage allocations, the Board may make a grant to a local authority, having regard to its particular financial problems or special circumstances.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board makes generous grants for bridge replacement. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In eight years to March 1968 there have been 2,336 bridges completed.

For the year ended 31 March 1968 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 $ (thousand)
Municipalities7,1592,7579,916
County councils (including road boards)9,9026,97216,874
Totals17,0619,72926,790

Loan Assistance—In special circumstances the Board may advance money by way of loan to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of a subsidised work. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding 10 years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the repayment of the purchase money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced by the Main Highways Board, plant, etc., has been purchased to the value of $2,351,585. Repayments received during 1967-68 totalled $5,378.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for development road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farm lands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roading to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori and Island Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1968 was approximately $1,529,557.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1968.

National Roads Fund—$ (000)$ (000)
    State highways32,844 
    Subsidies, etc. - local roading28,451 
 —–61,295
Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) 1,530
Local authority funds—  
    Municipalities15,428 
    County councils, etc.14,33429,763
Total 92,588

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—From 1 July 1967 initial registration fees are: motor cars, from $16 to $50 according to engine capacity; motor cycles, $10; power cycles, $6; light trucks, $30; heavy trucks, $50; trailers, $10; tractors, $2; traction engines, $10; and any other motor vehicles, $20. Annual licence fees are as follows: Power cycles, $4; motor cycles, $6; motorcars and private station wagons, $10; traction engines, $3; trailers (not exceeding 2 tons laden weight), $6. Other fees include drivers' licences, $1; changes of ownership, $5; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, $6; any other motor vehicles, $10). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, were credited to the National Roads Fund until 30 June 1967; since 1 July 1967 they have been credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years are itemised below.

Type of VehicleLicensed as at 31 March
19641965196619671968
*From 1 July 1964 Government vehicles are classified according to type.
Cars630,490688,534724,582781,047807,962
Rental cars2,7772,9763,1003,0872,980
Private taxicabs146256187188146
Light goods service vehicles (i.e. gross laden weight 2 tons and under)58,43859,62664,70188,73291,099
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e. gross laden weight over 2 tons)79,88694,14798,69874,31073,576
Contract vehicles1,7612,4041,6591,4031,401
Omnibuses2,5582,6612,7342,7442,727
Public taxicabs2,6152,9503,1332,9152,898
Service coaches487520502466489
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees74,91080,05687,50876,95874,888
Government vehicles19,647****
Motor cycles31,03032,48231,73131,33730,068
Power cycles15,88117,63617,97118,29118,359
Totals, motor vehicles920,626984,2481,036,5061,081,4781,106,593
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees148,056163,879180,616189,735191,337
Dealers' cars3,2493,3983,1103,7603,670
Dealers' motor cycles14014110410191
Totals, all vehicles1,072,0711,151,6661,220,3361,275,0741,301,691

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, logging machinery, cranes, etc.

The rate of increase in the number of motor vehicles has exceeded the rate of increase in population. The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 12 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19575.23.4
19584.83.2
19594.83.2
19604.73.2
19614.63.1
19624.53.0
19634.32.9
19644.12.8
19653.82.7
19663.72.6
19673.52.5
19683.42.5

The countries with fewest persons per motor vehicle are, in order, United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, but the standard of vehicles is not uniform.

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles on public roads, for each year during the last 12 years.

Calendar YearConsumption of Motor Spirits
By Motor Vehicles on Public RoadsTotal Consumption
 million gallons
1956200.7244.6
1957207.0252.4
1958217.0263.7
1959218.5261.0
1960234.3280.4
1961245.4296.4
1962253.0298.7
1963273.0317.1
1964294.9339.7
1965312.7356.8
1966333.8373.8
1967339.9378.4

The following diagram illustrates the movement that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles.

Figure 11.2. MOTOR VEHICLES LICENSED AND MOTOR SPIRITS CONSUMPTION

MOTOR VEHICLES LICENSED AND MOTOR SPIRITS CONSUMPTION

The following table gives particulars of the numbers of motor vehicles newly registered during each of the last 11 financial years. It should be noted that if a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195841,1787,68217,95715,77182,588
195931,6447,75726,08515,70481,190
196030,9325,98024,29116,66777,870
196136,3856,64017,71129,18289,918
196240,4006,70520,72024,57792,402
196345,2606,62318,58621,09191,560
196462,3206,20719,95521,583110,065
196569,0718,07422,09123,034122,270
196670,3616,19422,51726,551125,623
196764,4646,04223,41430,540124,460
196854,9084,94716,79721,87098,522

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are available separately from total new registrations. Particulars (which exclude re-registrations) are as follows for the six latest years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
196343,3604,66513,00218,19479,221
196460,9124,35014,80517,12997,196
196567,4265,93416,16219,261108,783
196668,5304,78615,95922,743112,018
196762,9824,82717,79124,942110,542
196853,5083,86713,43919,05289,866

Road Transport—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better co-ordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles and harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load weigh 2&1/2; tons or less (6&1/2; tons or less for farmers' vehicles).

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carriers operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles, if these vehicles are over the laden weights prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 40 miles of rail. However, certain commodities (particularly some foodstuffs) can be carried without this restriction up to 50, 75, or 100 miles, and in some instances,such as livestock, there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from these exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to five years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Commissioner of Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public enquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 10,000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for each of the five latest years ended 31 March.

Road Goods Services1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
*Figure for capital invested now includes buildings, plant, etc. Figures for previous years comprised capital invested in vehicles only.
Revenue$ (000)90,000102,000114,000126,000139,600
Capital invested$ (000)62,00084,000*84,000*96,000*109,600*
Total vehicle-miles(000)259,000275,000288,500315,000325,000
Number of goods-service licences 6,6906,6996,7816,8656,824
Average revenue per vehicle-milec34.7137.2139.6240.2042.94
Average number of miles per vehicle 15,26815,78615,82516,46316,560

The second table shows traffic data, revenue, and number of vehicles used by the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four metropolitan transport districts, for each of the five latest years ended 31 March.

Road Passenger Services1962-631963-641964-65*1965-66*1966-67*
*Not fully comparable with preceding years as some operators transferred to goods service table.
Traffic statistics—
    Passengers carried(000)189,994201,029195,207183,009175,301
    Vehicle-miles(000)79,89983,13483,89879,54879,618
Total revenue$ (000)23,43924,35925,08524,03624,253
Total revenue, per milec29.3329.3029.8930.2130.46
Number of vehicles included 3,8754,1354,0763,5943,774

Statistics on bus services run by the New Zealand Railways (included above) are given separately in Section 11B.

The following table sets out statistics of taxicab services for the five latest March years.

Item1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
*Also includes private-hire taxicabs. At 31 March 1967, there were 2,889 cab authorities issued by transport licensing authorities.
Passengers carried(000)26,50027,00027,50028,00028,000
Milage run(000)91,00093,00094,00099,000102,700
Total revenue$ (000)10,80011,20012,00012,60013,600
Revenue per milec11.8712.0412.7712.7113.19
Number of vehicles* 3,0642,7613,2063,3203,103

Statistics of the rental vehicle industry are set out in the following table.

Item1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
Number of cars 2,5942,8243,0523,2493,471
Number of other vehicles 784816874938937
Milage run(000)36,00041,35042,60048,80051,800
Estimated total revenue$ (000)3,0003,8004,0004,8005,500
Revenue per milec8.689.229.619.7310.69

Economic Research—The Economic Research branch of the Ministry of Transport was established in 1963 and since its inception it has: (a) Carried out a survey on the general transport situation in New Zealand with its findings published in a bulletin Transport in New Zealand. (b) Conducted a survey into the demand for freight transport. (c) Collected and analysed statistical data for a new publication Car and Truck Operating Costs. (d) Analysed the financial and operating statistics of the licensed road transport industry with its findings published in Statistics of the Road Transport Industry. (e) Conducted studies into commodity transport, the economic cost of road accidents and other varied research work on transport economics.

In addition, investigations have been carried out for the Transport Commission and the National Development Conference.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. For the year ended 31 December 1967, 11,947 such accidents, resulting in 570 fatalities and in injuries to 17,409 other people were reported. Comparative figures for 1966 and 1965 were (1965 figures being given in parentheses): Number of accidents 12,484 (11,871); fatalities 549 (559); persons injured 18,194 (17,093). The increases must be related to the growing number of vehicles on the roads. Details of the number and nature of road accidents for the latest five calendar years, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport are as follows:

Nature of AccidentNumber of Accidents
19631964196519661967
Collisions—
    Between two or more motor vehicles4,4535,2075,6095,8935,529
    Between motor vehicle and bicycle1,2971,3031,2971,2231,142
    Between motor vehicle and pedestrian1,4901,4951,5861,6131,560
    Between motor vehicle and fixed object9259991,0171,003936
    Between motor vehicle and animal or horse vehicle6668716674
    Between motor vehicle and railway train3845414336
    Multiple and other collisions294360354316310
Totals, collisions8,5639,4779,97510,1579,587
Non-collisions—
    Drove off road3464085509951,047
    Went over bank372432431397397
    Overturned on roadway650808713742724
    Person fell from vehicle115171136148155
    Other2540664537
Totals, non-collisions1,5081,8591,8962,3272,360
Total accidents10,07111,33611,87112,48411,947

Particulars of fatal motor vehicle accidents included in the foregoing table are now given.

Nature of AccidentNumber of Fatal Accidents
19631964196519661967
Collisions, motor vehicle with—
    Pedestrian9394118109105
    Motor vehicle93103153158157
    Train66975
    Bicycle2626322925
    Horse vehicle or animal-1---
    Other6351625878
Otherwise7695120137131
Totals357376494498501

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly in Section 4C.

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1967 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
New Zealand57017,4095.320.9161.4637.9
Australia3,20179,5808.027.0198.0680.0
Great Britain7,319362,6595.413.7267.6676.9
United States of America53,0001,900,0005.326.8190.0960.3

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and Other Laws—Traffic on roads in ten cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways within all urban areas. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, tyre pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and a close liaison is maintained with the Police. Some senior traffic officers of the Ministry of Transport have the power to arrest without warrant persons incapable of proper control of vehicles.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for six months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than one year, or for three months where this number of points are received within two years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed limit on roads generally is 55 miles per hour. However, lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 45 mph for motor cycles with pillion passengers (but 30 mph for motor cyclists not wearing safety helmets): 50 mph for heavy passenger vehicles; and 40 mph for heavy goods vehicles and vehicles drawing trailers.

A general speed limit of 30 mph is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated districts. Zones with a speed limit of 40 mph may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited-speed zones may be established for which the maximum speed may vary from 55 mph to 30 mph depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the road must be inspected every six months to ensure that the standard of mechanical fitness is satisfactory. Generally speaking, light vehicles need a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Third-Party Insurance—Every motor vehicle operated on the road is required to be insured against the owner's (or his driver's) liability for damages as a result of injury or death arising from the negligent use of the vehicle. The transport legislation also provides indemnity in respect of victims killed or injured by the negligent use of uninsured or unidentified vehicles. The premium for third-party insurance is paid with the annual licence fee.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time. Great emphasis is placed on instruction in schools by uniformed road traffic instructors who visit all schools at least twice a year, and also lecture to teachers' colleges and other groups.

Road Safety Council—The New Zealand Road Safety Council also advises the Government on matters of road safety. Safety committees deal with local issues and make recommendations to the Council.

The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the four latest years ended 31 March. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher. Convictions in Magistrates' Courts for the calendar year 1966 were, for instance, 162,746.

Type of Offence1964-651965-661966-671967-68
(a) Road traffic offences—
    Intoxicated in charge264288286464
    Reckless or negligent driving36385582
    Driving in a dangerous manner299357353409
    Dangerous speed122213240325
    Careless or inconsiderate driving1,6932,3462,5633,049
    Exceeding 30 m.p.h.10,31013,85719,64323,277
    Overtaking offences1,0051,2881,6771,613
    Failing to keep left1,0421,4961,9352,655
    Failing to yield right of way7231,9061,1391,346
    Driver's licence offences3,3244,4105,2606,138
    Licensing and registration offences1,1871,6342,1592,833
    Lighting offences2,1332,7353,1623,602
    Defective brakes386389336449
    No warrant of fitness6,8286,7767,5239,074
    Loading offences176235302418
    Exceeding 55 m.p.h.2,7854,8096,9716,524
    L-plate offences698649465296
    Cycling offences9461,0551,2331,223
    Failing to dip180239256199
    Failing to give right of way to pedestrians131187213185
    Exceeding 40 m.p.h. with pillion passenger354344386382
    Crossing railway line10097174165
    Compulsory stop2,4532,0293,4715,079
    Parking13,43013,90914,49218,551
    Miscellaneous4,6546,4627,96910,237
(b) Heavy-motor-vehicle offences—
    Exceeding heavy-traffic licence1,1301,6681,7302,569
    Exceeding axle load2,0422,4702,8314,672
    No heavy-traffic licence8411,1191,1421,586
    Speeding487629844848
    Miscellaneous121295281375
(c) Transport licensing offences—
    Unlicensed goods service199101119126
    Breach of goods-service licence8099153114
    Unlicensed passenger service5323
    Breach of passenger-service licence5371
    No certificate of fitness455525662785
    No vehicle authority106133143127
    Drivers' hours breaches617311023
    Overloading190170176197
    Rental vehicle offences90746465
    Miscellaneous transport offences10911986326
(d) Miscellaneous offences under miscellaneous Acts and regulations101559340
Totals61,22675,38490,706110,432

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section covers the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and no account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

In recent years the use of the motor and trolley bus service has increased and electric tramways have been superseded. Electric tramways reached the peak of milage of track in use in 1929 when 170 miles of line were operated by local authorities. A steady decline took place until 1950 when 158 miles of track were in use; thereafter trams were rapidly replaced by motor and trolley buses. The last tramway system serving a city area was in Wellington, and this was terminated in May 1964. Wellington, however, still retains 31 chains of track for the only electric cable tram service now operating in New Zealand.

Details of revenue and expenditure are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Mile RunExpenditureExpenditure per Mile Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. “Other”)
 $ (000)$ (000)cc$ (000)$ (000)$ (000)c
Auckland
    19643,2303,2806.6141.442,8866993,58445.29
    19653,2453,2966.8740.922,9607063,66645.51
    19663,2663,3267.1641.623,0996933,79247.45
    19673,4103,4707.7544.073,1667013,86749.10
    19683,4833,5468.3646.333,1806863,86650.51
Gisborne
    196462648.0330.7153106330.18
    196555597.8429.7253116331.83
    196657617.8230.515586331.12
    196754588.7529.855786533.23
    196856599.4530.935786433.54
New Plymouth
    19641331374.4225.501461616230.17
    19651271304.4024.451471616330.56
    19661231274.4324.551501216231.42
    19671261304.9325.641511216332.16
    19681261295.4225.361461215831.01
Palmerston North
    196480835.3124.4573138625.29
    196584875.6524.9877149125.96
    196681835.4624.1481149527.39
    196779825.3824.1983159828.80
    196892947.0926.97961611131.88
Eastbourne$(000)$(000)cc$(000)$(000)$(000)c
    196415315912.5528.911203015127.49
    196516116813.5731.221293116029.63
    196615516313.7031.991213415530.40
    196715116013.5932.191223315430.94
    196815316314.0233.621203315431.66
Wellington
    19641,9572,0075.6144.192,0494582,50655.18
    19651,9672,0145.9444.502,0624152,47754.74
    19662,0232,0666.6046.242,1334292,56457.36
    19672,1262,1717.2349.082,2554132,66860.44
    19682,1912,2377.7651.842,3664082,77964.40
Christchurch
    19641,3001,3246.4229.541,3353091,64336.67
    19651,2791,3106.4928.501,3662781,64435.78
    19661,2711,3036.5428.921,3892391,62836.15
    19671,2671,3016.5928.751,4182751,69337.42
    19681,4481,4768.1832.191,4892821,77138.64
Timaru
    196472736.1127.88772310037.98
    196570725.8725.43842410837.96
    196674766.4426.15922411639.97
    196773766.5224.81902611637.91
    196867736.5628.62782310239.78
Dunedin
    19648358586.5041.198092481,05750.77
    19657978226.5241.317892581,04752.59
    19667597876.6341.538022501,05355.55
    19678328647.9245.788072301,03754.95
    19688128457.9645.128252301,05556.30
Invercargill
    19641111134.6021.561423217433.13
    19651161204.9922.891443217633.69
    19661191235.3723.711603019036.62
    19671201235.7024.811523218437.10
    19681191255.8727.041523218439.79
Totals, All Services
    19647,9328,0986.2537.767,6891,8379,52744.43
    19657,9038,0806.4737.417,8111,7849,59544.43
    19667,9298,1166.8038.208,0831,7349,81846.22
    19678,2388,4357.3540.078,3001,74410,04447.74
    19688,5488,7498.0542.308,5101,73110,24549.53

Details of vehicles, miles run and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of VehiclesNumber of Miles RunTotal Passengers CarriedPassengers per Mile Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses

*Includes tram and cable cars: 1963-64, 57; 1964-65, 2; 1965-66,2; 1966-67, 2; 1967-68, 2.

†Includes tram and cable car milage; 1963-64, 401,000; 1964-65, 66,000; 1965-66, 40,000; 1966-67, 38,000; 1967-68, 38,000.

Auckland  (000)(000)(000) 
    19641332353,3904,52448,8616.17
    19651332353,4734,58347,2395.86
    19661332353,4204,57045,6005.71
    19671332353,3214,55443,9795.58
    19681282353,1864,46941,6575.44
Gisborne
    1964-10-2087703.71
    1965-10-1997073.55
    1966-10-2027353.65
    1967-11-1946163.17
    1968-10-1925913.08
New Plymouth—  (000)(000)(000) 
    1964418824553,0185.61
    1965418754582,8965.43
    1966318604582,7845.38
    1967318584482,5595.06
    1968318314802,3324.57
Palmerston North
    1964-14-3401,5024.41
    1965-14-3491,4934.27
    1966-14-3461,4764.27
    1967-14-3391,4744.34
    1968-14-3501,2933.70
Eastbourne
    1964-21-5501,2162.21
    1965-21-5391,1852.20
    1966-21-5101,1322.22
    1967-19-4981,1132.23
    1968-19-4851,0932.25
Wellington
    1964144*1551,9032,63934,8957.68
    1965121*1452,3512,17433,0927.31
    1966121*1442,4662,00430,6686.86
    1967121*1352,4801,94429,4176.65
    1968121*1502,2872,02828,2276.54
Christchurch
    1964-168-4,48220,2634.52
    1965-166-4,59619,7094.29
    1966-166-4,50419,4324.31
    1967-166-4,52419,2434.25
    1968-166-4,58417,6993.86
Timaru
    1964-16-2621,1764.49
    1965-16-2841,2004.23
    1966-15-2911,1513.96
    1967-15-3051,1253.69
    1968-13-2551,0244.01
Dunedin
    196468451,26981412,8546.17
    196568411,19779312,2106.13
    196668431,06782811,4486.04
    1967684399389410,5065.57
    1968684396291210,1915.44
Invercargill
    1964-22-5262,4044.57
    1965-22-5232,3304.46
    1966-21-5202,2194.27
    1967-21-4972,0974.22
    1968-21-4642,0344.39
Totals: All Services  (000)(000)(000) 
    1964349*7046,64414,800126,9585.92
    1965326*6887,09614,498122,0625.65
    1966325*6877,01314,231116,6455.49
    1967325*6776,85214,197112,1285.33
    1968320*6896,46514,218106,1435.13

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table.

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19641965196619671968
Auckland—mchmchmchmchmch
    Trolley bus7047604614061405767
    Motor bus14723139481400140641510
Gisborne—
    Motor bus144014401440180180
New Plymouth—
    Trolley bus329329329329--
    Motor bus209209203920392368
Palmerston North—
    Motor bus550560560560560
Eastbourne—
    Motor bus160160160160160
Wellington—
    Trolley bus254033323256324324
    Motor bus58765651572758515911
    Tram or cable way959031031031031
Christchurch—
    Motor bus1530156015841614016268
Timaru—
    Motor bus203231123112311203
Dunedin—
    Trolley bus25202520252025202520
    Motor bus42354235423544354435
Invercargill—
    Motor bus266266266266266

11D—CIVIL AVIATION

GENERAL—New Zealand today ranks among the leading nations of the world in terms of use of air transport per head of population. A further significant increase in international air traffic, with some resultant effect on domestic air traffic, is taking place following the opening of the new International Airport at Auckland in November 1965, and the use of that airport and Christchurch by large jet aircraft. The main runway at Auckland International Airport is 8,500 ft long and the airport cost $20 million to construct.

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION—Aviation developed early in New Zealand. Richard William Pearse, of the Waitohi Valley near Timaru, designed and built a successful heavier-than-air machine which flew at least as early as 31 March 1904, thus almost forestalling the Wright Brothers. There were numerous other important New Zealand pioneers.

In the 1920's aviation activities spread, notably through the aero-club movement, and commercial air services came into being in the 1930's. Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in 1934, on the route Inchbonnie —Hokitika—Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 resulted in a network over most of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all then existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

In February 1953 a scheduled service between Christchurch and Oamaru via Ashburton and Timaru was commenced by South Island Airways Ltd., followed by a Christchurch to Nelson service during 1954. In April 1956 these services were taken over by a new company, Trans Island Airways Ltd. The Christchurch-Oamaru service ceased in June 1957 and the Christchurch-Nelson service ceased in March 1959. Bay of Plenty Airways Ltd. came into existence in July 1958, taking over the non-scheduled operations of Tauranga Air Services Ltd. Their Wellington service commenced in September 1959. The company ceased operations in November 1961.

South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd., which commenced operations in December 1960, using modified DC3 aircraft, provided services to smaller centres in both the North and South Island until the company became bankrupt and wound up in February 1966. Some of the SPANZ services were then continued by the National Airways Corporation and others by the Mount Cook and Southern Lakes Tourist Company Ltd.

Regular international air services did not begin before the Second World War despite a number of gallant pioneer flights. Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. (TEAL) was incorporated in New Zealand on 26 April 1940, following a formal inter-governmental agreement on air traffic rights across the Tasman Sea of 10 April 1940. The company's first operation commenced between Auckland and Sydney on 30 April 1940 with the flying boat Aotearoa.

In June 1950 the company took over the Auckland-Suva service from New Zealand National Airways Corporation. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. With the withdrawal of flying boats from Tasman routes, the Wellington-Sydney service was temporarily discontinued in June 1954 and a new service from Christchurch to Sydney using Douglas DC6 aircraft was commenced in the following month. The same type of aircraft were also employed on the Auckland-Fiji route from June 1954. The first Lockheed Electra turboprop aircraft was brought into use on the trans-Tasman service in December 1959, and by March 1960 all TEAL services between Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji, were being operated by the company's fleet of three Electras.

The Coral Route to Tahiti via Suva and Aitutaki was inaugurated in December 1951. In October 1952 Apia in Western Samoa was added to the route, and in August 1953 a service to Tonga was inaugurated. This Suva-Tonga service was discontinued in June 1957. TEAL changed from flying boats to land planes on its Coral Route services late in 1960; DC6s were used initially, but in March 1961 they were replaced by Lockheed Electras. The service was originally direct from Nandi in Fiji to Faa'a Airport at Papeete, Tahiti; an intermediate stop at Pago Pago, Eastern Samoa, was added in September 1961. The Tahiti extension was withdrawn in 1964.

It had become clear that the monopoly of the Tasman air traffic formerly reserved to TEAL could not be much longer maintained in New Zealand's interests and this fact, together with the spread of jet aircraft throughout the world, led to planning for the company to extend its services to the United States and elsewhere, for which purposes it would require large jet aircraft. In these new circumstances the Australian and New Zealand Governments agreed that New Zealand should purchase the Australian shareholding and thus become the sole owner of the company. In March 1961, an agreement to this effect was concluded and at the same time a bilateral air services agreement was negotiated between Australia and New Zealand whereby each country granted to the airline of the other rights to and beyond its territory. Subsequently, the New Zealand Government negotiated traffic rights for Air New Zealand in Honolulu, Los Angeles, Hong Kong, Tahiti, Noumea, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore in addition to the company's traditional rights in Fiji and the rights already obtained in Australia and American Samoa. (The change of name from TEAL to Air New Zealand was made on 1 April 1965.) At 1 April 1968, Air New Zealand's fleet comprised two Lockheed Electras and four Series 52 Douglas DC8s. Pure jet services to the United States, Singapore, and Hong Kong were inaugurated during 1965-66, prop-jet Electra services being confined to Wellington and Melbourne flights and some supplementary regional services. A route to Los Angeles via Tahiti was inaugurated in November 1967.

PRESENT POSITION—The major air transport services within New Zealand are provided by the National Airways Corporation which operates a network linking all major centres.

Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for learning to fly and for private flying and at most aerodromes, licensed air charter and air taxi services are provided by the smaller operators.

Agricultural aviation, in particular topdressing and spraying, forms a large and most important industry which plays a vital part in farming in New Zealand.

International air services are operated by New Zealand's own international airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., and other regular international air services are provided by BOAC, QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, and UTA French Airlines.

During the 1967-68 year the New Zealand Government re-negotiated transport agreements with Malaysia and Singapore, made necessary by the separation of Singapore from the Malaysian Federation.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968 became a Division of the Ministry of Transport. The principal functions of the Division are stated to be: (a) To promote and encourage the orderly and economic development of civil aviation: (b) To exercise such functions as may be necessary to ensure the safe operation of aircraft: (c) To initiate and carry out surveys into any aspect of civil aviation: (d) To provide for the investigation of accidents in which aircraft are involved.

The Director of the Civil Aviation Division has statutory powers of his own in regulatory matters. The Department embraces also the New Zealand Meteorological Service and the Chief Inspector of Accidents.

In May 1966 most international airlines, including Air New Zealand, entered into what is known as the Montreal Agreement which also has provisions concerning the liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. As a result of the number of different conventions covering the subject there are different limits of liability for the death of a passenger depending on the routes over which the passenger has arranged to travel. The limits may be either $6,000, $12,000, or $42,000.

The Carriage by Air Act 1967 governs the liabilities of domestic air carriers towards their passengers and consignors of goods. Briefly, it provides that an air carrier is liable for damage resulting from the death or personal injury of a passenger as a result of an accident unless the carrier can prove that it took all necessary measures to avoid the damage. The limit of liability is set at $42,000. This compares with the situation under the former law whereby the claimant had to prove the negligence of the air carrier and the maximum amount which could be claimed in damages was $10,000.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand and its island territories, and by delegation the facilities required for flying operation in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the Division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories, operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the Division whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The Division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes the New Zealand Aeronautical Information Publication and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications and crash-fire procedure.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—A summary statement of operating and capital costs and recoveries of the Civil Aviation Division for the year ended 31 March 1968 is now given.

ItemCostsRecoveries
Operating$(000)$(000)
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—
    (a) Regulatory and general1,455155
    (b) Airports10552
    (c) Airways4,7262,017
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories1973
Meteorological Services, New Zealand and South Pacific territories1,48731
                Totals7,9702,258
Capital  
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—
    (a) Regulatory and general20-
    (b) Airports609133
    (c) Airways1,06222
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories8-
Meteorological Services, New Zealand and South Pacific Territories84
Totals1,783154
Gran totals9,7532,412

AIR SERVICES LICENSING—The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a four-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward.

DOMESTIC AIR SERVICES—The major domestic air transport operator is the New Zealand National Airways Corporation which provides regular services to thirty-one centres throughout the North and South Islands. Secondary services are provided by smaller operators such as Mt. Cook Airlines, Golden Coast Airways, New Zealand Tourist Air Travel, and Rotorua Aero Club. In addition, air charter and air taxi services are provided from most major aerodromes by licensed aero clubs or small operators.

Air freight services are provided by Safe Air Ltd., which operates under contract to the New Zealand Railways and to New Zealand National Airways Corporation. Safe Air Ltd. also provides a regular passenger and freight service between Wellington and the Chatham Islands under a contract arrangement with the Government.

New Zealand National Airways Corporation provides scheduled services to and from the following towns and cities—Kaitaia, Kaikohe, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, Hamilton, Whakatane, Rotorua, Taupo, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier-Hastings, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Blenheim, Nelson, Westport, Hokitika, Christ-church, Timaru, Oamaru, Dunedin, Invercargill.

The Corporation's fleet consists of 3 Boeing 737s, 5 Vickers Viscounts 807s, 13 Fokker Friendships, 9 Douglas DC3s.

Statistics of operation of the National Airways Corporation for the four latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1964-651965-661966-671967-68
*Includes Bristol Freighter operations.
Route milage3,4593,4594,0524,052
Milage flown—
    (a) Revenue9,323,33910,278,742*11,258,137*11,231,261*
    (b) Non-revenue including training279,850331,585251,520221,915
Revenue passengers carried—
    Schedule992,3461,042,8031,148,2131,145,185
    Charter13,3559,81311,10210,595
Passenger-miles created (000)—
    Schedule338,809386,787437,288453,362
    Charter8,0095,1126,4354,702
Revenue passenger-miles (000)—
    Schedule246,424279,225307,541306,118
    Charter5,3383,2013,8263,199
Average passenger journey (miles)267268268267
Freight, excess, mail (lb) (000)—
    Schedule34,24336,36837,93237,528
    Charter3,1701,5431,3131,348
Excess baggage ton-miles227,227247,197271,087274,222
Freight ton-miles (000)—
    Schedule4,420*4,733*4,881*4,901*
    Charter277*182*213*224*
Mail ton-miles429,109435,696469,310644,769
Total revenue load factor69.8768.1266.7464.35
Revenue passenger load factor72.7372.1970.3367.52
Operating expenditure$13,325,344$15,187,878$17,479,414$18,669,565
Operating profit$684,024$648,408$689,996$376,764

The Corporation is charged under the National Airways Act 1945 “with establishing and operating national air transport services to meet the needs of the people of New Zealand”. The Corporation has therefore sought constantly to improve the standard and scope of its service whilst keeping fares at a low level. The Corporation has not therefore sought high profits. The expansion achieved during recent years is indicated by the increase in revenue passenger miles on scheduled services from 246 million in 1964-65 to 279 million in 1965-66 and to 307 million in 1966-67. A decrease to 306 million was experienced in 1967-68.

FLYING OPERATIONS—The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during the last 11 years. Statistics for the New Zealand Railways Freight Service, operated by Straits Air Freight Express Ltd. (now Safe Air Ltd.) are excluded.

Year Ended 31 MarchHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight lb (000)*Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Mail Ton-miles (000)

*Includes excess baggage.

†Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

195854,3097,107513,69420,8541,757130,2662,811277
195955,3567,481556,54521,3291,808146,3922,990279
196054,7767,614650,81222,4921,993169,9363,165313
196160,7968,539744,02530,0052,225189,5944,077355
196267,2559,602841,78330,7892,319214,1054,360375
196359,0228,914822,02329,0282,464211,8464,114397
196462,1809,327873,24628,1282,552228,2094,176423
196567,22910,302983,61231,9342,542262,2174,812431
196672,95911,1911,111,86334,2992,815296,5285,269453
196769,55911,0091,170,04734,9482,983310,9815,160470
196871,41511,6381,172,58534,6683,708310,6005,052646

Figure 11.3. DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICES

DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICES

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. The service was conducted by the RNZAF, operating Dakota aircraft, until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Straits Air Freight Express Ltd., which took over on 1 April 1951. The service is at present being maintained by five Bristol Freighter aircraft on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering. Some charter work has been undertaken in recent years.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for the last 11 years are as follows. The drop from the peak figures of 1961-62 can be attributed in part to the operation of the rail-road ferry G.m.v. Aramoana across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton from August 1962. There was further competition when the sister ship G.m.v. Aranui was introduced in 1966.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrips FlownHours FlownMiles FlownFreight lb (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Passengers
19587,4153,826554,68867,8572,2401,660
19598,5634,365642,66676,2802,5271,437
19609,5094,465628,11387,6122,5661,225
196111,8534,864635,078112,7712,6931,231
196213,7395,534765,022122,3603,0411,557
196312,3815,050660,924110,6252,650927
196410,5884,265560,13087,6562,067809
196511,3154,558591,79695,7642,239899
196613,1825,894778,501116,8702,9931,500
196710,9225,139677,00393,5352,549902
19688,5374,167557,84669,3542,170531

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 3,000,000 gallons a year. A technical qualification is now mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals except fertilisers. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear ended 31 March
19671968
Hours flown128,945108,204
Number of operators7372
Material distributed—  
    Fertiliser and lime (tons)937,079754,280
    Seed (tons)2,4211,422
    Spray (gallons)3,147,4893,048,315
    Animal poison (tons)4,2033,241
    Supplies (tons)519578
    Fencing (tons)2,1981,403
    Dusts (tons)15059
    Prills (tons)544477
    Miscellaneous (tons)1,2714,267

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services with jet aircraft to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles.

A minority financial interest is retained in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Wallis Island, and Nandi; and Fiji Airways Ltd. operating between Fiji, the British Solomons, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, and Nauru.

Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; and a further service over the latter routing with an additional stop at Pago Pago; British Overseas Airways Corporation—twice weekly from the United Kingdom (via intermediate points) to Sydney, Auckland, and beyond to Fiji; Union de Transport Ariens —weekly from Los Angeles via Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; and QANTAS— a full range of trans-Tasman services linking with regional and round-the-world services out of Sydney.

TOTAL TRAFFIC FOR OVERSEAS AIRLINES—Total traffic figures for overseas airlines operating to and from New Zealand, showing passenger movements, freight and mail separately, are given in the following tables for March years.

INTERNATIONAL PASSENGER MOVEMENTS YEARS ENDED 31 MARCH

RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
1966-671967-681966-671967-681966-671967-68

* Includes traffic beyond Australia.

† Coral Route not included.

Trans-Tasman*
    Auckland-Sydney53,30661,91250,21361,058103,519122,970
    Auckland-Melbourne8,5988,7808,4668,78917,06417,569
    Auckland-Brisbane7,8158,7798,29810,93516,11319,714
    Wellington-Sydney25,42925,95023,64625,67149,07551,621
    Wellington-Melbourne4,9535,3906,0266,98610,97912,376
    Wellington-Brisbane2,7022,4263,2043,1935,9065,619
    Christchurch-Sydney22,16928,03623,30830,30745,47758,343
    Christchurch-Melbourne7,3768,6559,04810,48916,42419,144
Totals132,348149,928132,209157,428264,557307,356
Pacific
    Long haul12,35317,17312,18518,93424,53836,107
    Short haul37,81834,31935,88234,11373,70068,432
Totals50,17151,49248,06753,04798,238104,539

INTERNATIONAL FREIGHT (KILOGRAMMES) YEARS ENDED 31 MARCH

RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
1966-671967-681966-671967-681966-671967-68

*Includes freight beyond Australia.

† Coral route not included.

Trans-Tasman*
    Auckland-Sydney727,499937,064621,3061,711,8241,348,8052,648,888
    Auckland-Melbourne86,217109,668112,995181,952199,212291,620
    Auckland-Brisbane39,56345,63033,448116,37473,011162,004
    Wellington-Sydney427,230430,367264,130323,620691,360753,987
    Wellington-Melbourne60,57558,66567,092103,770127,667162,435
    Wellington-Brisbane4,9494,80124,75626,08829,70530,889
    Christchurch-Sydney207,845263,276368,051770,086575,8961,033,362
    Christchurch-Melbourne36,93737,12970,00499,220106,941136,349
Totals1,590,8151,886,6001,561,7823,332,9343,152,5975,219,534
Pacific
    Long haul281,120476,275611,166932,530892,2861,408,805
    Short haul151,328169,370281,207477,483432,535646,853
Totals432,448645,645892,3731,410,0131,324,8212,055,658

NOTE—Excess Baggage not included.

INTERNATIONAL MAIL (KILOGRAMMES) YEARS ENDED 31 MARCH

RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
1966-671967-681966-671967-681966-671967-68

* Includes mail beyond Australia.

† Coral Route not included.

Trans-Tasman*
    Auckland-Sydney317,452343,523166,388152,773483,840496,296
    Auckland-Melbourne18,05416,34211,01311,49729,06727,839
    Auckland-Brisbane2,3994,5342,4923,2784,8917,812
    Wellington-Sydney171,293128,15299,161100,142270,454228,294
    Wellington-Melbourne6,0828,9577,4566,75013,53815,707
    Wellington-Brisbane2,4713,0954648132,9353,908
    Christchurch-Sydney37,72740,41035,47149,11773,19889,527
    Christchurch-Melbourne6,2536,0993,9183,17810,1719,277
Totals561,731551,112326,363327,548888,094878,660
Pacific
    Long haul124,103153,84151,43555,878175,538209,719
    Short haul45,87845,64856,94457,924102,822103,572
Totals169,981199,489108,379113,802278,360313,291

AIRPORT STATISTICS—The following table shows airport activities for the two latest years ended 31 March.

AirportAircraft Movements of Passenger PlanesFreighter Plane MovementsPassenger Arrivals and Departures
InternationalDomestic
1966-671967-681966-671967-681966-671967-681966-671967-68
*Those airports serviced by N.A.C., S.A.F.E. and Mount Cook Airlines not separately listed.
Auckland3,8594,70017,37817,9501,3031,247699,567747,074
Blenheim 15,0384,33411,6329,56974,01268,937
Christchurch1,0061,29017,98117,9643,3592,895516,979527,711
Dunedin-19,4369,432635670134,531132,438
Gisborne--3,8684,23842642447,69747,190
Hamilton-63,8464,16629325362,35362,731
Invercargill235,0065,04220824474,96470,889
Napier--4,6444,63448248968,13365,482
Nelson-110,6029,546654684126,753120,887
New Plymouth243,9414,72617229848,47555,648
Palmerston North--6,7516,78325520971,28771,139
Rotorua-26,1745,68822638,97640,031
Wellington1,4271,38133,66032,21913,67711,312708,554707,752
Other*7730,91827,878113360173,942185,314
Totals6,3037,396159,243154,60033,21128,6802,846,2232,903,223

AERO CLUBS—Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford-Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero-club movement largely owes its inception, although the first club was formed as early as 1921. The steady progress made by the movement was in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidising a limited number of light aeroplane clubs.

On 1 April 1955 a revised scheme of financial assistance to aero clubs was put into operation. This scheme was reviewed in 1957, in 1960 and again in 1961, the subsidy to aero clubs being gradually reduced. In March 1962 the Government ceased granting financial assistance. In the 33 years during which subsidies or other forms of financial assistance were provided, the aero club movement benefited to the extent of some $1,000,000.

In addition to the aero clubs there has been a steady increase in the number of commercial flight training organisations and the volume of flight training undertaken by them.

The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs and other flying organisations for the latest seven years.

Year Ended 31 MarchClubs* OperatingMembershipAircraft in UseHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
*Figures include the following number of organisations engaged on flight training activities other than Aero Clubs: 1963-64 (1); 1964-65 (3); 1965-66 (7); 1966-67 (12); 1967-68 (16).
1962393,4094,63611918,24744,9081,027
1963393,1895,14712117,98639,5571,113
1964403,5244,88412718,11139,9021,356
1965412,7385,26414923,25947,2301,306
1966412,4485,20216928,20358,5711,143
1967672,4816,54621740,80174,2381,667
1968702,4137,27423847,52983,7771,803

LICENCES—A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March in the five latest years is given below.

Type of LicenceAt 31 March
19641965196619671968
Flight Crew (ICAO) Type—
    Pilot licences—
        Student Pilot1,7411,8942,2382,9643,413
        Private Pilot1,6761,9181,9752,2872,843
        Commercial Pilot629666754804893
        Airline Transport Pilot204243267311335
    Pilot Licence Ratings—
        Instructor234268285376407
        Instrument319369445490537
        Compass1714212220
        Chemical178180167230246
        Towing148120176200261
    Navigator Licences—
        Flight Navigator5260708388
    Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft—
        Flight Radio Operator43322
        Flight Radio Telephone Operator Rating1,5981,7642,0342,4753,220
    Flight Engineer Licences—
        Flight Engineer2533535962
Other Licences, Certificates, etc.—
    Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences380403425407475
Aircraft—
    Certificates of Registration7698518891,0111,052
Aerodromes—
    Public Licences4448505250
    Private4342454947
    Authorised Places44678
    Government Civil2626232121
Air Service Certificates4656565455

Chapter 12. Section 12 COMMUNICATIONS

12 A—POST OFFICE

INTRODUCTORY—Post Office history in New Zealand began in 1831 when the Postmaster-General for New South Wales commissioned a resident of Kororareka in the Bay of Islands to make up and receive mails.

With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes.

By 1858 seventy-three post offices had been opened to provide communications services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent Department of State. The Post Office had previously operated under the control of the Customs Department.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate Department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines, the opening of morse telegraph offices, and the laying and maintaining of lines of communication under Cook Strait to connect the telegraph lines of the North and South Islands. This Act vested the control of communication by electric telegraph in the new Department.

During 1881 the first New Zealand telephone exchanges were opened at Christchurch and Auckland. An amendment to the Electric Telegraph Act of 1875 had been passed in September 1880 extending the power of the Government, through the Telegraph Department, to control all electric communications by telephone and making it unlawful for any but the approved authority to establish telephone lines without express permission.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated at the beginning of 1881. The Postmaster-General became Minister of Telegraphs, and the Post and Telegraph Department was created to replace the two previous authorities. Under the Post Office Act 1959, which came into operation on 1 January 1960, the name of the Department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

Through its control of telecommunications, the Post Office plays a vital role in linking New Zealand with the outside world. However, while the establishment of overseas cable services has been responsible for the greatly increased demand in such fields as telex and telephones, growth has not been at the expense of the oldest Post Office services, mail and savings, which continue to show steady growth.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1968 there were 1,440 post offices in New Zealand. In addition, there were 85 offices at which telephone business only was transacted.

The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters, Lettercards, and PostcardsAccounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, etc.ParcelsTotal Articles Posted
  million  
1964257.8268.47.7533.9
1965263.1280.08.3551.4
1966273.6291.87.9573.3
1967275.6292.68.2576.4
1968269.1292.07.1568.2

The average numbers of letters, etc., posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1968 were: letters, lettercards, and postcards, 97.7; accounts circulars, newspapers, packets, etc., 106; parcels, 2.6.

During the 1967-68 year, 1,112,243 lb of letters and 282,938 parcels were posted by inland air mails, and 442,613 lb of letters, 242,234 lb of newspapers and packets, etc., and 243,497 lb of parcels were posted by overseas air mail.

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural-mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. The growth of this scheme can be gauged from the following figures: 1921, 8,700; 1940, 32,382; 1955, 63,859; 1965, 75,591; 1966, 76,055; 1967, 76,204; and in March 1968, 77,609 boxholders.

AIR MAILS: Inland—On 16 March 1936 the first regular air-mail services linking up larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded. The present network extends from Kaitaia to Invercargill.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence is 4c for the first half-ounce and 2c each additional half-ounce.

The number of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand is now shown.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
196621,731,000218,460
196723,045,000237,462
196819,513,000282,938

Overseas:Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service is now operating daily via Sydney to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally one to two days.

New Zealand - Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There is a twice-weekly direct service from Auckland to Hong Kong and a weekly service to Singapore. Air mail to countries in the Far East are also dispatched to Sydney for re-forwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to San Francisco or Los Angeles.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand operated air services to Norfolk Island, Fiji, New Caledonia, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago to Apia, and from Nandi (Fiji) to Nukualofa (Tonga), Apia (Western Samoa), the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Nauru Island, and Wallis and Futuna Islands. Direct air mail services from New Zealand also operate to French Polynesia.

OVERSEAS PARCEL POST—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest five years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  lb$(000) lb
1964534,3324,808,9881,531213,5971,384,628
1965570,1625,131,4581,400238,0691,513,580
1966555,0884,995,7921,483263,4961,763,674
1967579,6625,216,9581,350310,1261,805,036
1968533,1644,740,2521,252365,4592,024,821

MONEY ORDER AND POSTAL NOTE SERVICES—Details of these services are now given.

Money Orders—New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, and Tonga. Money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is $200, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order.

For money orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of $80 for a single order. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia (and countries advised through Australia), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga, and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1967, 2,147,395 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of $58,547,499, and of that total 97,778 orders of a value of $1,428,704 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1967 numbered 34,046 with a value of $388,932.

Postal Notes—Postal notes in 25 denominations ranging from 10c to $2 and for $3, $4, and $5 are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1968, 2,662,076 postal notes valued at $4,170,762 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 1s., 1s. 6d., 2s. 6d., 3s., 5s., 10s., 15s., and 1 sterling. Poundage is payable. For all remittances in excess of 5s. per day a permit is required.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1968 the Post Office sold 2,953,161 British postal orders valued at $1,680,057, and paid 150,605 orders valued at $359,483.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SERVICES—Up to 31 March 1968 a total sum of $257,881,475 had been expended on telecommunication construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1967-68 was $17,611,981.

Details of telegraph and telephone services for each of the last five financial years are now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Paid Telegrams and Tolls Messages Forwarded During the YearRevenueTotal Value of Business
Telegraph and TollTelephone Exchange
 million$(000)$(000)$(000)
196468.919,94725,25045,197
196572.521,97327,54649,519
196675.323,85930,11853,977
196777.426,09732,35358,450
196874.928,37641,67170,047

The number of telegrams forwarded annually is about 6.1 million, while the number of toll communications exceeds 67 million. Over 50 percent of telegrams are now handled by telephone.

A greetings telegram service was introduced on 1 June 1960. During the year ended 31 March 1968, 427,769 greetings telegrams were sent.

Machine-printing telegraphs operating at 45 words per minute were introduced on 5 December 1921. In 1929 a teleprinter circuit, working at a speed of 66 words per minute, commenced operation, and at 31 March 1968 there were 160 offices with teleprinter circuits.

The first voice-frequency telegraph system—of three high-speed channels between Wellington and Christchurch—was installed in 1938. Since then a network embracing all the larger provincial towns has been developed.

A leased teleprinter service for business organisations was begun in 1951. At 31 March 1968 there were 92 organisations leasing 56,972 miles of telegraph circuit. Annual revenue from this source was $817,476.

Until 1950 daily newspapers received their outside news over the public telegraph system but in that year their national organisation leased an extensive teleprinter network so that the news could be transmitted direct from Wellington into the various newspaper offices. Newspapers participating in this arrangement number 35.

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE—At 31 March 1968 there were 584 exchanges in New Zealand serving a total of 1,119,422 telephones. Of these exchanges 222 were manually operated, serving 189,351 telephones, or 17 percent of the total, and 362 were automatic, serving 930,071 telephones, or 83 percent of the total.

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31 March of each year shown).

Item196019611962196319641965196619671968

*Represents separate instruments connected to main telephone system.

† Of these, 626,826 were residential telephones and 125,286 were business telephones.

Exchanges493501511529540547569576584
Subscribers' main stations491,773532,560571,917602,285632,986668,393704,420736,190752,112
Service stations4,2814,4754,6534,8464,9065,0995,3015,4585,648
Toll stations1,4901,4671,4811,4511,4391,4101,4181,4221,392
Public call stations3,0583,2313,4513,6213,7743,9174,0464,2034,376
Extension stations183,399201,145218,866237,223257,761282,788308,916336,988355,110
Private telephone lines2,0201,9191,5071,1461,089989983872784
    Telephone station totals*686,021744,797801,875850,572901,955962,5961,025,0841,085,1331,119,422
Main stations installed during year53,60365,91868,68365,96970,81984,32193,02889,09578,033
Number of waiting applicants28,71127,15219,10819,49918,69414,45613,45314,08311,639

The total number of telephone stations shows an increase of 433,401, or 63 percent, during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last five years being 51,383, 60,641, 62,488, 60,049 and 34,289 respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the period covered by the table amounted to 260,339, or approximately 53 percent, while extension stations show an increase of 171,711, or 94 percent.

The “party” line system of telephone service is used mainly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March 1968 the number of “party” lines was 51,967, serving a total of 149,715 stations.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1967), compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks third in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (49.9), Sweden (47.9), New Zealand (39.9), Switzerland (39.3), and Canada (38.9).

The first public call stations (coin-in-the-slot telephones) were installed at Wellington in August 1910, and 4,376 such instruments were in use throughout New Zealand at 31 March 1968.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, etc., of the telephone exchanges up to 31 March 1968 was $225,185,774.

The following table shows the classification of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection as from 1 April 1967.

Class of ExchangeClass of ConnectionAnnual Rate Within Base-rate Area
BusinessResidential
  $$
Class I Automatic exchanges with more than 10,000 paying subscribers.Individual86.0044.00
    (Typical exchanges are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton, Invercargill, Palmerston North, and Wellington)2-party62.0038.00
 3-party58.0037.00
 4-party54.0036.00
 5-party50.0034.00
 6-10 party46.0030.00
Class II Automatic exchanges with 3,001-10,000 paying subscribers.Individual80.0044.00
    (Typical exchanges are Blenheim, Masterton, Levin, and Oamaru.)2-party60.0038.00
 3-party56.0037.00
 4-party52.0036.00
 5-party48.0034.00
 6-10 party42.0030.00
Class III Automatic exchanges with 201-3,000 paying subscribers.Individual72.0042.00
    (Typical exchanges are Alexandra, Dannevirke, Marton, Westport.)2-party58.0036.00
    Manual exchanges with over 3,000 paying subscribers.3-party54.0035.00
    (Typical exchanges are Browns Bay, Feilding, and Howick.)4-party50.0034.00
 5-party46.0032.00
 6-10 party40.0028.00
Class IV Other exchanges affording continuous service.Individual66.0040.00
    (Typical exchanges are Hokitika, Paekakariki, Picton, and Queenstown.)2-party56.0034.00
 3-party52.0033.00
 4-party48.0032.00
 5-party44.0030.00
 6-10 party38.0027.00
Class V Exchanges observing restricted hours of service.Individual56.0033.00
    (Typical exchanges are Kawhia, Kumara, Mangaweka, and Waitotara.)2-party44.0029.00
 3-party42.0028.00
 4-party41.0026.50
 5-party37.0025.00
 6-10 party36.0024.00

For stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate or special rate area of an exchange a milage rate is added to the rental, depending on the distance by line measurement from the base-rate or special rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station.

TOLL SERVICE—At first, toll communication between towns was made over lines not in use for telegraph purposes. In 1900, construction of exclusive telephone circuits commenced, the first circuits of any length being provided between Dunedin-Invercargill, Auckland-Hamilton, and Wellington-Masterton. The North and South Islands were first linked by a telegraph cable in 1866 and later by a telephone cable in 1926. A broadband toll link, comprising microwave radio and coaxial cable systems, now connects main centres from Whangarei to Dunedin.

Toll rates for distances up to 30 miles range from 5c to 12c for each three minutes. They are the same day and night. For distances over 30 miles, the rates range from 17c to a maximum of 80c for three minutes' conversation. These rates are increased by approximately one-third of the relative initial rate for each minute exceeding three. Between 6 p.m. and 8 a.m. on weekdays, and between midnight and 6 a.m. on Sundays and departmental holidays, the rates for calls over 60 miles are reduced and vary from 25c to 65c for three minutes' conversation, with a proportionate increase for each additional minute. Urgent calls are charged at double the rate for an ordinary call.

In addition to station-to-station calls other types of calls accepted are person-to-person, transferred charge, collect, fixed time, and contract. Credit-cards are available at a cost of $1 each. These entitle the holder to have the charges for toll calls and telegrams debited to a telephone at a distant exchange.

TELEX SERVICE:Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service— is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers only commenced in New Zealand on 31 August 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 countries overseas.

Automatic telex service was introduced in New Zealand on 13 May 1964 with 150 subscribers. This service absorbed the previous international connections and all New Zealand telex subscribers may now communicate with each other as well as with overseas telex subscribers. International service is now available with 103 countries. At 31 March 1968 there were 769 subscribers.

The annual rental is $400 for a standard machine and $540 for a teleprinter equipped with a tape reperforator and transmitter. In the year to 31 March 1968 rentals totalled $334,140 and call revenue was $515,878 (internal $350,441 and international $165,437).

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS:Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening in 1902 of the Pacific cable between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island, with a connection linking Norfolk Island to Brisbane; the laying of a cable direct between Auckland and Sydney in 1912; shifting of terminals from Wakapuaka to Wellington in 1917; laying a cable direct between Auckland and Suva in 1923, and duplicating the Suva-Canada cable in 1927. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority (the private company of Cable and Wireless Ltd., with headquarters in London), following which one cable between Wellington and Sydney was abandoned, part of it being lifted for reuse, and the route of the other was altered to terminate at Auckland instead of Wellington. Following a conference of representatives of Commonwealth Governments (including New Zealand) held in London in 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets of Cable and Wireless Ltd. in New Zealand, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America,and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in April 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable and radio is now available to 178 countries, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, passenger ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station is to be constructed in New Zealand for communicating with other countries via satellites in space. The station is expected to be in operation by the end of 1970.

INTERNATIONAL RADIO SERVICES—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

An event of major importance in the development of New Zealand's external telecommunication services was the opening of the Himatangi radio transmitting station in November 1953 thus providing at that time for direct New Zealand - United Kingdom radiotelephone and radiotelegraph circuits. The receiving station complementary to the Himatangi transmitting station is Makara Radio.

The principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Niue, and at the Chatham Islands.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue which also communicate direct with each other. Direct communication is also available from New Zealand to Noumea (New Caledonia).

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga Radio through small feeder stations. Small stations in the Tokelau Islands communicate with Apia Radio.

Facilities exist for the dispatch of radio telegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of mobile radiotelephone services continues to grow. Post Office very-high frequency service available from 53 base stations meets the mobile communication requirements of 2,865 subscribers operating 17,175 mobile units. A miscellany of private and Government owner-operated stations provide mobile radiotelephone service through 2,084 base stations for a further 7,218 mobile units. Radiotelephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by landline—e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency cases.

Direct radio circuits are operated between the New Zealand mainland and the Chatham Islands.

Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Moko Hinau Island, East Cape, Portland Island, Stephens Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, The Brothers, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

Private Stations—Private radio stations are governed by the New Zealand Radio Regulations 1953.

Ordinary radio-receiving licences and television-receiving licences authorise reception from broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any Post Office Savings Bank on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licences will be found in Section 12B, Radio and Television Broadcasting.

Licences for amateur stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1966-671967-68
 $(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—
    Postages21,18823,071
    Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees402477
    Miscellaneous8590
 21,67523,639
Telecommunications revenue—
    Telex694910
    Telegraph3,1424,137
    Tolls24,14425,965
    Telephones34,65843,961
    Overseas telecommunications2,8453,450
    Radio203231
 65,68778,655
Miscellaneous revenue—
    Fees from Government Departments, etc.3,2263,320
    Money order and postal note commission313424
    Rents received231226
    Other revenue393343
 4,1634,313
Total revenue91,525106,607

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 11 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenue $(000)Expenditure $(000)
195844,23244,089
195945,31945,202
196048,47448,395
196153,31053,243
196260,11260,003
196364,87464,777
196470,18370,068
196577,84176,586
196686,96284,890
196791,52693,582
1968106,607100,781

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous small offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government Departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various Departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following Departments: Agriculture (inspection fees, etc.), Education (child welfare receipts and examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special milage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation and National Provident Fund receipts).

Payments—Department of Social Security (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Education (boarding-out orders), Labour (subsidised wage payments and military training medical examination payments), Maori Affairs (Maori trust payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government Superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other Departments), Ministry of Works, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine Department and the Division of Civil Aviation on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, also as Registrars of Electors.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of motor vehicles insurance (third-party risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1962, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting revenue for such outside bodies as the New Zealand Poultry Board, the New Zealand Trade Certification Board, the Armed Forces Canteen Council, and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification1958196619671968
Permanent staff—
    Administrative16212023
    First Division6,96110,18110,94511,293
    Second Division9,30314,56114,63114,489
 16,28024,76325,59625,805
Temporary staff—6,6463,3843,5343,557
    Employed on an agency basis928702674654
Totals23,85428,84929,80430,016

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1968 consisted of 3,576 vehicles—1,386 trucks, 1,223 vans, 957 cars, and 10 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 533 vehicles are used for hire to other Departments, 2,418 for engineering construction work, and 625 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 31 million miles in the year ended 31 March 1968.

12 B-RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

GENERAL: Radio-broadcasting Company—The initial development of broadcasting on a Dominion-wide basis was confirmed by the agreement of the Radio-broadcasting Company of New Zealand on 1 August 1925 to establish and maintain an efficient broadcasting service. The company purchased existing stations in the four main centres and began operation of its new stations at Auckland and Christchurch in August-September 1926. Stations at Wellington and Dunedin followed soon after. By the end of 1931 the number of receiving licences in the country had risen to about 70,000.

New Zealand Broadcasting Board—With the expiry of the Radio-broadcasting Company's contract in January 1932, control of the broadcasting service, under the Broadcasting Act 1931, was vested in the New Zealand Broadcasting Board. Existing plant was purchased from the company.

New Zealand Broadcasting Service—The Broadcasting Act 1936 abolished the New Zealand Broadcasting Board and vested control of the newly constituted National Broadcasting Service in a Minister of the Crown. Administration of the service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Permanent officers previously employed by the board became officers of the Public Service from 1 July 1936.

By the 1936 Act the Minister of Broadcasting was empowered also to establish and operate commercial radio stations broadcasting advertising matter. The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1937 provided for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service which existed separately until the two services were combined under the Director of Broadcasting on 26 August 1943.

The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1960 provided for the establishment of a television service to be operated by the Minister in Charge of Broadcasting in association with the existing broadcasting service.

New Zealand Broadcasting Authority—Under the Broadcasting Authority Act 1968 an Authority of three members has been appointed to consider and adjudicate upon applications for warrants to establish and operate broadcasting stations, either sound radio or television. The Authority is required to make rules from time to time on the balance and quality of programmes, the character and standard of advertising, the accuracy and impartiality of news, and other matters, after consultation with the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation and representatives of owners of private broadcasting stations holding warrants under the Act.

NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING CORPORATION—The Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961 repealed all previous legislation and established a Corporation of three members empowered from 1 April 1962 to take over and operate the existing service. The Broadcasting Corporation Amendment Act 1965 allows the membership of the Corporation to be from three to seven, and extended the powers of the Corporation to permit assistance to performing art and cultural organisations. General or special directions in line with Government policy may be given to the Corporation by the Minister of Broadcasting. The Director-General is appointed by the Corporation but is paid out of the Consolidated Revenue Account.

RADIO—There are in New Zealand 48 medium-wave broadcasting stations and two shortwave transmitters of Radio New Zealand, the latter having 19 assigned frequencies. One of the medium-wave stations (4XD) is privately owned and operates with the assistance of a subsidy from the Broadcasting Account. Of those remaining, 28 stations—shown with an asterisk in the following list—broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day or Good Friday. Stations 2YA, 1YA, 3YA, 4YA, and 4YW maintain a daily 24-hour service apart from a shutdown once a week between the hours of 11.20 p.m. Sunday and 5 a.m. Monday in the case of 2YA, and 6 a.m. in the case of the other four stations.

A complete list of medium-wave stations follows.

MEDIUM-WAVE STATIONS

Call Sign and LocalityRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week

*Broadcasts advertising material.

† Operates when 2YA broadcasts the proceedings of the House of Representatives.

 kilowattskilocycleshrmin
1ZK, Kaitaia*2.001,44012430
1ZE, Kaikohe*2.001,22012430
1ZN, Whangarei*2.0097012430
1YX, Whangarei2.0083012120
1YA, Auckland20.0076016120
1YC, Auckland10.008804330
1ZB, Auckland*10.001,07013200
1ZM, Auckland*2.001,25012100
1ZD, Tauranga*10.001,00011930
1ZH, Hamilton*2.001,31012930
1YW, Hamilton2.001,14012120
1YZ, Rotorua10.0086012120
1ZC, Rotorua*2.001,35011930
1ZO, Tokoroa*2.001,42012720
1ZU, Taumarunui*1.001,52012720
1ZA, Taupo*2.001,50012720
1ZT, Turangi0.101,39012720
2ZG, Gisborne*2.001,06011630
2YW, Gisborne2.001,18012120
2ZP, New Plymouth*2.001,37011630
2ZH, Hawera*1.001,56011630
2YZ, Napier20.0063012120
2ZC, Napier*2.001,28012330
2ZW, Wanganui*2.001,20011630
2ZA, Palmerston North*2.0094012330
2ZD, Masterton*2.0084011330
2YA, Wellington100.0057016220
2YC, Wellington60.006604330
2YB, Wellington20.00800
2ZB, Wellington*20.0098012600
2ZM, Wellington*2.001,13012100
2ZE, Blenheim*1.001,5403130
2ZN, Nelson*2.001,34011630
3YW, Westport2.001,46012120
3YZ, Greymouth10.0092012120
3ZA, Greymouth*2.007503900
3YA, Christchurch20.0069016120
3YC, Christchurch10.009604330
3ZB, Christchurch*10.001,10012600
3ZM, Christchurch*2.001,40012100
3ZC, Timaru*2.001,16011630
4YW, Alexandra2.0064016120
4YA, Dunedin20.0078016120
4YC, Dunedin10.009004330
4ZB, Dunedin*10.001,04012600
4XD, Dunedin0.251,4301500
4YZ, Invercargill20.0072012120
4ZA, Invercargill*10.0082012330

Of the two short-wave transmitters employed by Radio New Zealand, each has a power of 7.50 kilowatts, and frequencies used are in the 6, 9, 11, and 15 megacycle bands. Frequencies are adjusted throughout the day as well as seasonally to give best reception in the target areas, 15.28, and 11.78 megacycles being commonly used for daily transmissions of the home service programme, and the additional one of 6.08 megacycles being employed for transmissions to Australia and Antarctica. Broadcasting hours amount to approximately 15 1/2 hours daily to the Pacific Islands and 12 1/2 hours daily to Australia.

Coverage of Medium-wave Service—The basic function of medium-wave stations in the programme coverage of New Zealand is as follows:

  1. Stations 1YA, 2YA, 3YA, 4YA, 1YX, 1YZ, 2YZ, 3YZ, 4YZ, 1YW, 2YW, 3YW, and 4YW broadcast the national (non-advertising) programme to listeners throughout the country.

  2. Stations 1YC, 2YC, 3YC, 4YC, provide alternative non-advertising programmes to those of the national programme stations in (a) but with slightly less extensive coverage.

  3. Stations 1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, 1ZK, 1ZE, 1ZN, 1ZH, 1ZD, 1ZC, 1ZA, 1ZT, 1ZO, 1ZU, 2ZP, 2ZH, 2ZW, 2ZA, 1ZG, 2ZC, 2ZD, 2ZN, 2ZE, 3ZC, 3ZA, 4ZA, 1ZM, 2ZM and 3ZM serve the immediate locality of the centres in which they operate and present advertising programmes mainly of a light character. Within their coverage range these stations give alternative programmes to those provided by stations listed in (a) and (b).

  4. Stations 1ZA, 1ZO, 1ZU listed in (c) broadcast advertising programmes part of the time only. At other times they link with stations in (a) to rebroadcast the national programme.

  5. Stations 1ZK, 1ZE, 1ZT, 2ZH, 3YW and 4YW are satellite stations rebroadcasting for local reception the programmes of more distant stations with which they are linked.

Coverage of Short-wave Service—Radio New Zealand broadcasts to the Pacific islands a daily home-service programme from 5 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 6 p.m. to 8.45 p.m. on two frequencies. Its transmission to Australia comprises a daily home-service programme from 8 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 9 p.m. to 11.45 p.m. on two frequencies. In addition to its large radio audience throughout the Pacific, Radio New Zealand has listeners as far distant as the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, the United States, and Japan. Radio New Zealand programmes illustrate many different aspects of life in this country.

National Programmes—Programmes from national non-commercial stations include, as well as all types of music, plays, short stories, serials, sports commentaries and results, talks, documentaries, women's programmes, children's educational and entertainment programmes, news, and devotional programmes.

All proceedings of the House of Representatives are broadcast from Station 2YA. During broadcasts of Parliament the scheduled programmes of Station 2YA are broadcast by Station 2YB.

Time signals from the New Zealand Time Service are broadcast every day from Station 2YA or 2YB. The signals take the form of a series of six “dots” at intervals of one second, the last “dot” denoting the exact minute. Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article published in Section 40 (Miscellaneous) of this Yearbook.

Commercial Programmes—Commercial stations broadcast music, serials, variety and quiz programmes, sports commentaries and results, children's and women's programmes, news and other spoken programmes.

A brief historical outline of the commercial stations is given in the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TELEVISION—The relatively high cost of establishing television in New Zealand was the main reason for the delay in providing this service. Few countries of such a small population are so isolated and beyond the reach of the stimuli and assistance which arise from telecasts in a neighbouring country, with opportunities for sharing programmes, relays, and so on. In addition, the hilly terrain in most parts of the country presents difficulties in the attainment of a comprehensive coverage.

However, in August 1958 the Postmaster-General and the Minister of Broadcasting jointly announced that, on a recommendation of the Inter-departmental Committee on Television (established in 1949) and with the advice of the New Zealand Radio and Television Manufacturers Federation, it had been decided to establish the 625 line system as the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made on such matters as the likely coverage of TV transmitters, the determination of suitable transmitter sites, the provision of a TV coverage plan, and the relative suitability of different operating frequencies. Channel 2 Auckland, which was originally opened in 1959 as an experimental television station, began its regular programme service on 1 June 1960 with a weekly two-hour transmission. By November 1960 the hours of telecasting had increased to two and a half each evening, Monday to Friday. On 1 January 1961 telecasting on seven nights a week began.

Television stations commenced transmissions in Christchurch on 1 June 1961, Wellington on 1 July 1961, and in Dunedin on 31 July 1962.

Television Programmes—Film purchased overseas makes up a substantial portion of TV programmes. Nevertheless all stations are active in the exploitation of New Zealand news and talent as much as possible. An analysis of TV programmes for a week in September 1967 showed that of the total hours then telecast 24 percent were devoted to news, talks, and information programmes (including religion), 9 percent to variety, 21 percent to drama, 13 percent to comedy, 13 percent to adventure and westerns, 5 percent to mystery and crime, 11 percent to children's programmes, and 4 percent to sports. Four mobile outside telecast units have been in use since the beginning of 1963.

Extensions to coverage—The Corporation is currently surveying for transmitter sites to extend TV coverage to all areas of New Zealand. Fourteen of these transmitters are so far in service, relaying the programmes of the four metropolitan stations.

As a temporary measure, the Corporation has laid down a policy whereby it will license low-power translators to serve fringe-area localities until permanent high-power regional transmitters are operating. The arrangement is that the Corporation takes out the transmitting licence and comes to an agreement with a non-profit society of local interested persons to provide the translator equipment and to maintain it.

By the end of June 1968, 76 percent of homes in New Zealand were equipped with television sets. By the end of 1970 it is likely that over 80 percent of homes will have television sets. Latest comparable figures for other countries are: United States, 93 percent; Canada, 92 percent; Britain, 83 percent; Australia, 64 percent.

Details of television broadcasting stations in operation at the four main centres are as follows.

TELEVISION STATIONS

Call Sign and Location of StudioRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week
VisionSoundVisionSound
 kilowattsmegacycleshrmin
AK TV-2, Auckland100.020.055.2560.75650
WN TV-1, Wellington100.020.045.2550.75650
CH TV-3, Christchurch100.020.062.2567.75650
DN TV-2, Dunedin10.02.055.2560.75650

The hours of telecasting are from 2 p.m. to 11 p.m. from Monday to Thursday and on Sunday, from 2 p.m. to midnight on Friday and Saturday. Advertising materials is included on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday from 2 p.m. till 11 p.m.; and on Saturday from 2 p.m. till midnight.

ORCHESTRAS: NZBC Symphony Orchestra—Formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra, this is a full Symphony Orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries along with New Zealand choirs appear regularly with the Orchestra and free concerts for school children are an established part of its tour programme.

During 1966 a start was made to enlarge the playing strength of the Orchestra which has now reached approximately 90 players. This enables the NZBC Symphony to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

The Corporation has established its own Orchestral Training Scheme, which gives full-time training to selected young New Zealanders, and a National Youth Orchestra which gives a series of concerts once a year.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for all television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. In recent years the circulation of the Listener has risen to over 126,000. On 1 April 1966 web offset colour printing was introduced. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, talks and discussions as well as fiction, poetry and criticism. Through its editorial and correspondence columns the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussion on important New Zealand and overseas questions.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS—The following tables show the financial results of the principal activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

Item1964-651965-661966-671967-68
Commercial Activities$ (thousand)
Income—
    Net revenue from advertising services and New Zealand Listener after deducting commission6,9337,8219,41610,701
Expenditure—
    Purchase of programmes1,0641,3711,5981,796
    Operating costs, including programming, engineering, administrative, publishing, general running and selling expenses4,1085,0105,7966,436
    Provision of technical facilities and services3584959101,137
 5,5306,8768,3049,369
    Surplus before taxation1,4039451,1121,332
    Provision for taxation386324152486
    Surplus commercial activities1,017621960846
Concert Activities—
    Net expenditure on orchestras and concert presentation451478603637
Non-commercial Activities    
Income—
    Gross licence fees6,0157,4668,8399,233
        Less Post Office collection charges295547663673
 5,7206,9198,1768,560
    Interest on investments11122499
    Miscellaneous receipts41536664
 5,7726,9848,2668,723
Expenditure—
    Purchase of programmes9871,1921,4531,665
    Operating costs, including programming, engineering, administrative, and general running expenses2,4192,8023,3383,723
    Depreciation provision6699081,6962,114
 4,0754,9026,4877,502
    Credit for provision of commercial, technical, and other facilities3584959101,137
 3,7174,4075,5776,365
    Surplus non-commercial activities2,0552,5772,6892,358
    Net surplus2,6212,7203,0462,567

In the table for non-commercial activities, the amount recovered from commercial activities on account of provision of technical services provides for Head Office engineering overhead and services, allowance for depreciation on assets in use commercially, and share of the costs of interference suppression and frequency measurement. From 1962-63 this charge relates only to use of assets.

There are two principal sources of revenue, radio and television-licence fees and radio and television advertising. While licence fee revenue is credited to the accounts of the noncommercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund is in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. Up till 1962-63, the commercial surplus was subject to taxation without set-off from any deficit arising from the non-commercial activities. However, since the 1963-64 financial year, 75 percent of the net cost of the Symphony Orchestra and concert presentation has been allowed as a deduction before the assessment of income tax.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest five financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
 $ (thousand)
Radio-licence fees1,8141,9181,8891,9521,929
TV-licence fees2,1794,0865,5776,8877,305
Radio advertising4,1074,0364,3714,7274,614
TV advertising1,8683,5674,3075,7377,396
          Totals9,96713,60716,14419,30321,244

LICENCES—The licence fee for a radio receiving station is $3 a year.

A licence issued for a radio receiving station situated in a family residence is sufficient in respect of all radio receivers in that residence other than those owned and used by subtenants or lodgers occupying part of the premises in the residence.

Free licences are issued to blind persons and institutions for the blind, as well as to public hospitals and orphan and other charitable institutions where radio or television receivers are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free licence privileges are also extended to the operation of radio or television sets in schools for educational broadcast purposes. The total number of free licences issued for each of the last six years, at 31 March, was: 1962, 3,188; 1963, 3,288; 1964, 3,294; 1695, 3,397; 1966, 3,483; 1967, 3,561; 1968, 3484.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio or television apparatus. Requirements with respect to licences are set out in the Radio Regulations 1953.

The following table shows the increase in radio receiving licences.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonCanterburyOtagoNew Zealand TotalLicences per Hundred of Population
1958206,755184,85390,27967,420549,30724.14
1959215,242189,16393,68269,077567,16424.38
1960219,918193,19793,94470,344577,40324.36
1961224,491193,62597,49271,437587,04524.32
1962224,739202,701101,67372,428601,54124.28
1963227,745207,348102,03673,601610,73024.11
1964227,166204,394104,91476,259612,73323.73
1965251,476206,370106,96075,588640,39424.25
1966247,797217,215105,25673,855644,12324.08
1967272,305205,599104,82576,520659,24924.17
1968269,667202,202110,62174,478656,96823.92

A summary of radio licences in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1968 follows:

DistrictReceiving LicencesRadio DealersPrivate ExperimentalOtherTotal Licences
AmateurResearch
Auckland259,2831,2711,484131128262,297
Wellington212,3551,2041,440102103215,204
Canterbury110,5744926482747111,788
Otago74,398441330288075,277
Totals656,6103,4083,902288358664,566

A summary of licensed television sets in New Zealand follows. The licence fee is $13 a year.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinOther CentresTotalNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences*
*Included in preceding figures.
196214,3024,0414,784421223,343842
196340,92115,04815,3743,6496,84781,8395,976
196468,05228,40126,5529,87734,862167,74413,558
1965100,07843,14942,46019,194109,039313,92033,257
1966121,35355,09454,95825,879177,593434,87756,922
1967139,29362,83864,93335,258227,566529,88870,233
1968146,24067,40972,34338,414251,541575,94774,062
1969152,59971,21775,98340,292267,724607,81581,089

12 C—NEWSPAPERS. LIBRARIES, CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas with a total circulation of 728,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 33 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 317,000.

When circulation figures for daily newspapers are related to population figures, it is found that New Zealand has 380 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The latest comparative figures for other countries include United Kingdom, 488; Australia, 370; Canada, 218; United States, 312; U.S.S.R., 274; Sweden, 501; Norway, 381; Denmark, 347; and France, 245. (Source: UN Statistical Yearbook.)

Statistics compiled from various sources disclose that from 1840 to 1940, altogether 468 newspapers (of all categories) were established in New Zealand The acceleration of motor transport had a speedy and decisive effect on the small-town press. Many local papers which, by publishing once, twice, or three times a week, had been serving adequately the needs of a district and backblocks were unable to survive when city papers were able to reach remote settlements within a few hours of publication, offering to country dwellers such superior attractions as daily publication, full services of New Zealand and world news, sporting news, and attractive magazine features. Under the steady pressure of competition, mergers were effected in a number of provincial towns to reduce the quota of papers, generally to a single daily.

The circulation of all periodicals is not known, but for 147 periodicals (not including two national weeklies classified as newspapers) the circulation is 2,026,000. (These statistics are compiled from information gathered by the Association of New Zealand Advertisers.)

The total number of magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals printed (but not necessarily all sold) in 1966-67 was 77,425,000 compared with 84,905,000 in 1965-66.

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, along with the selling value of the newspapers and periodicals at the factory door.

Type of PublicationAdvertising RevenueSelling Value
1965-661966-671965-661966-67
 $(000)
Newspapers, daily27,07026,9736,4606,881
Newspapers other than daily2,4512,5182,1042,517
Magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals1,2331,3771,6512,107

LIBRARIES—New Zealand is fairly well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a well developed system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

National Library of New Zealand—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand on 1 April 1966 under the administration of the Department of Education. The planning of a new building for the Library is proceeding.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The Chief Librarian is guided by a committee of Members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the Library has been the principal depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It contains about 10,000 bound volumes of New Zealand newspapers as well as many stored on microfilm; about 15,000 volumes of periodicals and, in addition, some 15,000 books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The Library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for Members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations, UNESCO, and the International Labour Office.

In all, the Library holds about 328,000 volumes.

During the Parliamentary recess, the Library is open to the public on the recommendation of a Member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington is a State research and reference library, bequeathed to the nation in 1918 by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868-1918). Before the formation of the National Library, the Library was under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs.

The original bequest has now been increased to approximately 150,000 books, together with many thousands of manuscripts, paintings and prints, photographs and maps. Acquisitions increase steadily in number, by purchase and gift. The Turnbull material has been augmented by many important donations and bequests, including some entire collections.

The fields covered by the Library fall into two main divisions. The Pacific Collections (inclusive of Antarctica) are strongest in material relating to history, early voyaging, ethnology and literature, with particular emphasis upon New Zealand publications and the work of New Zealand authors; the Trustees of the National Library have decided that these holdings should be regarded as the comprehensive national collection of New Zealand material. The General or non-Pacific Collections are primarily concerned with English literature, rare books and the development of the art of printing. The Milton collection, which was of especial concern to Turnbull himself, is of particular importance. There are about 9,000 volumes in the rare book collection of first editions of works in English literature, early printed books and examples of fine printing.

The Library's extensive holdings of manuscript material include private archives relating to most aspects of New Zealand history. The Library's resources of early paintings of historical and topographical interest are outstanding as is the collection of photographs and negatives which has been built up to about 150,000 pieces during the past 20 years.

As from 1966, the Alexander Turnbull Library has assumed responsibility for the compilation and maintenance of the National Bibliography, begun by the National Library Service in 1947 and for the centralised cataloguing of current New Zealand material.

Central Division—This Division continues the main functions of the National Library Centre of the former National Library Service, and is responsible for maintaining and developing the national lending and reference collections of the National Library and for making their resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1968, these collections comprised approximately 260,000 titles together with 18,000 volumes of bound periodicals.

The Division acts as purchasing agent for most Government departments operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and advisory service for these departments.

Other functions, developed in association with the Library Resources Committee of the New Zealand Library Association, are concerned with the national system of inter-library lending and national bibliographical projects. The National Union Catalogue records the non-fiction holdings of the major New Zealand libraries and now contains 800,000 entries. The Union List of Serials in New Zealand Libraries, available in published form, is a similar record covering periodicals and other serial publications. The Index to New Zealand Periodicals, published annually, indexes significant articles from nearly 150 New Zealand periodicals and annuals.

Extension Division—This division has two parts:

  1. Country Library Service—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through regional offices in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from books vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the main centres, receive assistance under certain conditions. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of $6 for 50 changed three times a year. Nine specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600-2,000 books, travel over the whole territory.

    Libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1968 included the following: free libraries, 142: county libraries, 850; groups, 23; Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps, 62; psychiatric hospitals, 15; hospitals, 26; prisons and borstal institutions, 18. The number of books on loan to these libraries totalled 272,516, and 141,672 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

  2. School Library Service—The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development. The bookstock at 31 March 1968 totalled 2,048,910 books.

General exchanges of books for recreational reading are made by 13 district offices to State and private primary schools from Standard 1 upwards. An information and request service is also available to teachers and pupils. Public libraries which give free service to children and young people also receive circulating loans of books. Services to preschool groups are given through local public libraries or direct from district offices.

For the year ended 31 March 1968 books supplied in exchanges totalled 1,145,786, and through the information and request service 910,041 books were provided.

Library School—The New Zealand Library School offers a professional course lasting from March to December to those holding university degrees. This leads to the diploma of the School. The possession of this qualification, followed by three years' satisfactory work in libraries, entitles a librarian to apply for the Associateship of the New Zealand Library Association. The School was established in 1946 and 458 students had been given professional training by the end of 1968. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' colleges. The School also conducts four-week courses for studies preparing for the Certificate of the New Zealand Library Association: they attend one such course in each of three years.

Facilities are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

Census of Libraries, 1964—The quinquennial census of libraries was taken for the year ended 31 March 1964. The census covered a total of 413 libraries comprising three national libraries, 33 libraries in universities (including the libraries of other institutions of higher education), 163 special libraries, and 214 public libraries. Corresponding figures for the 1959 Census of Libraries, with the same coverage, were 286, 3, 21, 98, and 164 respectively.

Three libraries were listed as national libraries—the General Assembly Library, the Alexander Turnbull Library, and the National Library Service.

The libraries in universities (including other institutions of higher education) comprised the libraries of the six universities with nine libraries in close association, the libraries of eight teachers' training colleges, the library of the university college of agriculture, the libraries of five theological colleges, and four institutions of higher technical education, making a total of 33, or 12 more than five years earlier.

The special libraries were, for the purpose of this census, divided into (a) libraries of learned societies, etc., and of commercial interests and (b) libraries of Government Departments. There were 39 libraries in the former category and 124 in the latter, being increases of 17 and 48 since 1959. Coverage in the former category may not be complete.

Public libraries (those controlled or largely supported by a local authority and including branch libraries) showed an increase of 50 over the 1959 census—214 as against 164.

In the period 1959 to 1964 public library membership increased by 28 percent and book circulation by 27 percent. Book stocks rose by 30 percent, so that slightly less use was made of the books available. Since 1959 circulation per member has dropped at most libraries, except the very largest. Television, which has been introduced since 1960, has probably been one of the factors involved. There are 4.60 books to every member in the public libraries; on average those books circulate 6.32 times annually and members take out 29.06 public library books a year. Junior readers read four times as much fiction as non-fiction while adults read three times as much.

The following are summarised tables of the results of the 1964 census. Full details containing the census data have been published in a separate report prepared by the Department of Statistics.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATION

Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1964Circulation During Year
BooksSerialsPamphletsTotalItems Lent Outside the Library*Items Lent to Other Libraries*Items Borrowed From Other Libraries*
*Items include books, serials, and pamphlets.
National libraries32,905,65639,70921,6462,967,0112,135,175144,8026,397
Libraries in universities, etc.331,007,523162,68518,3721,188,580538,2347,74712,806
Special libraries—
    Learned societies and commercial interests39148,22688,53124,035260,79235,0701,8653,699
    Government departments and associated organisations124447,916386,99149,730884,637292,99212,92027,172
Totals, special libraries163596,142475,52273,7651,145,429328,06214,78530,871
Grand totals1994,509,321677,916113,7835,301,0203,001,471167,33450,074

PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1964

Public Libraries in Area With a Population ofNumber of Libraries*Own StockFor Reference Only (Included in Own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJunior
Pay CollectionFree FictionFree Non-fictionFictionNon-fiction
*Number of library systems which operate 214 libraries (including 62 branches as separate entities).
50,000 and over6229,765292,519698,591175,75968,5791,465,21351,3495,32012,805
20,000 to 49,99914162,40166,325213,54292,06936,834571,17126,68413,8506,180
10,000 to 19,999924,34229,28850,39127,88811,655143,5641,58013,5776,058
    5,000 to 9,99930109,20163,25064,88843,77914,123295,2413,27122,31610,290
    3,000 to 4,9992978,74546,53528,53419,3916,168179,3731,46515,7878,396
Under 3,00064133,10347,24828,85122,8424,715236,7591,08726,6918,558
Totals152737,557545,1651,084,797381,728142,0742,891,32185,43697,54152,287

PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE

Public Libraries in Areas Population of—Number of Libraries*Own StockCountry Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
Pay CollectionFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals
*See footnote to table above.
50,000 and over61,922,7671,856,4921,554,362429,9461,631,7427,395,30931,326134,2842,7568,139
20,000 to 49,999141,775,195844,686693,716180,2161,318,2244,812,03765,56832,2492768,952
10,000 to 19,9999362,754362,052256,59572,399268,4351,322,23552,58027,5878974,610
    5,000 to 9,00030990,185452,422332,50861,733535,0812,371,929149,960100,30630415,460
    3,000 to 4,99929558,897264,554156,05620,625204,5461,204,678102,66556,8431,0078,164
Under 3,00064676,969183,111107,57317,657190,0601,175,370159,65361,8731,2237,478
Totals1526,286,7673,963,3173,100,810782,5764,148,08818,281,558561,752413,1426,46352,803

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES

CountryPopulation (Million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecial
New Zealand2.61,964Libraries333163
   Volumes (000)2,9671,1891,145
Australia11.01,963Libraries110552
   Volumes (000)7302,990..
Canada18.21,961Libraries134372
   Volumes (000)2506,9936,000
South Africa14.41,958Libraries2....
   Volumes (000)700....
United Kingdom51.91,958Libraries36321,177
   Volumes (000)9,00021,53314,850
United States of America180.71,960Libraries11,9405,000
   Volumes (000)12,075176,000..

PUBLIC LIBRARIES

CountryPopulation (Million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes
*Estimated.
    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand2.61,9641522,89162918,282
Australia10.81,9623195,026....
Canada18.21,96285514,5285,000*60,268
South Africa14.41,9583684,93353714,783
United Kingdom53.31,96256277,20014,470460,504
United States of America185.91,9628,309270,00050,000740,000

CINEMAS—Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1967 covered 312 theatres, compared with 397 in 1965.

The extensive development of television since 1961 has influenced cinema patronage. Cinema attendances during the year 1966-67 were 6.4 million fewer than when the previous survey was made in 1964-65. The average number of admissions per head of mean population fell from 10 in 1964-65 to 7 in the latest survey.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsAverage Admission Price*Admissions Per Head of Mean Population
*Including amusement tax up to and including 1964-65. This tax was abolished as from 14 June 1965.
  (000)$(000)$(000)$(000)cNo.
1939-4057431,1714,0201083,91212.919.1
1944-4555135,4205,1762204,95614.621.3
1949-5060036,3535,5802725,30815.319.3
1953-5458237,3687,3606006,75819.718.1
1956-5757837,5968,9667408,22623.817.1
1958-5954738,2089,7008508,85025.416.6
1960-6154540,63210,7929529,84026.617.0
1962-6349137,58410,1368809,25627.015.0
1964-6539726,0268,1801808,00031.410.0
1966-6731219,6067,789- 39.77.3

The following statistics for the last three collections cover the operations of all classes of cinemas—viz, (a) those operating six days per week; (b) those operating on odd days per week; (c) circuit, or itinerant operators. The average number of screenings per week in these categories in 1966-67 were 11.5, 2.4, and 0.8 respectively.

Item1962-631964-651966-67
Cinemas—
    Screening six days per week204176163
    Screening odd days per week254197133
    Circuit332416
Totals491397312
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—
    Other than circuits—
        Under 200704227
        200 and under 500170144103
        500 and under 1,000184157140
        1,000 and under 1,500252118
        1,500 and over998
    Circuit cinemas332416
Totals491397312
        Seating accommodation (all cinemas)No.246,361209,991178,722
        Average seating capacity per cinemaNo.502529573
        Persons engaged—
            Full time—MalesNo.595518439
 FemalesNo.475418349
            Part time—MalesNo.1,012722566
 FemalesNo.1,5221,182984
Performances per year No.155,546138,314114,987
Average attendance per performance No.242188171

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion-picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under “Theatre expenditure” does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1962-631964-651966-67
*Includes drawings of working proprietors.
Revenue—$(000)
    Admission receipts (including amusement tax)10,1368,1807,789
    Screen advertising424384251
    Other receipts308304484
Totals10,8688,8688,524
Expenditure—
    Salaries and wages*2,3322,1282,019
    Film hire2,7662,6042,833
    Advertising718598611
    Amusement tax880180...
    Rent768370368
    Repairs and maintenance330226307
    Depreciation266212139
    Other expenses1,6661,4521,488
Totals9,7247,7687,765

Classification by Statistical Areas—The following two tables show some of the principal statistics for cinemas for 1966-67 by statistical areas. Attendances per person in 1966-67 declined in all areas. The popularity of the cinema is still most pronounced on the West

Coast. Average attendances per person in the Westland statistical area were 10.4. 1964-65 West Coasters went to the cinema an average of 18.3 times.

Statistical AreaPopulation 1 April 1967Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of Population
*Based on mean population in this case.
   Number of Seats(000)cNo.
Northland94,500237,43957532.26.1
Central Auckland631,5216140,5864,92043.67.8
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty398,6005425,6132,47035.76.2
East Coast47,20049,4181,29634.07.4
Hawke's Bay126,90011
Taranaki101,200137,23469933.66.9
Wellington532,6004532,5074,02341.57.6
Marlborough29,90049,51383034.58.5
Nelson68,10016
Westland24,30093,87425229.510.4
Canterbury382,5273922,2522,60444.86.8
Otago184,6002213,8871,22538.26.6
Southland105,200116,39971333.26.8
All areas2,727,148312178,72219,60639.77.3*
Statistical AreaAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 $(000)$(000)PercentNo.No.No.
Northland1865630.34,724122323
Central Auckland2,14478636.727,014182665
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty88029833.816,341151474
East Coast44017038.77,587171628
Hawke's Bay
Taranaki2358536.04,819145556
Wellington1,67061336.723,176174722
Marlborough28610135.25,345155476
Nelson
Westland742635.31,606157430
Canterbury1,16844638.213,662191571
Otago46916635.57,031174631
Southland2378636.33,682194582
All areas7,7892,83336.4114,987171573

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics have been prepared for the principal urban areas for the latest year and are shown in the next table. The Hutt urban area has been included with Wellington for the purposes of these statistics.

Seating accommodation in relation to population in these areas shows Dunedin to have one seat for every 12.8 persons, Auckland one for every 15.4, Wellington one for every 17.4, Christchurch only one for every 20.6 persons.

Urban AreasPopulation 1 April 1967Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of Population
 (000)No.No. of Seats(000)No.cNo.
Auckland5664736,7454,81213143.98.5
Wellington (including Hutt)288201,6582,40714545.18.4
Christchurch2531712,3012,01416447.58.0
Dunedin10998,5768219644.67.5
All areas1,2169374,20310,05413545.08.3
Urban AreasAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as Proportion of Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 $(000)$(000)PercentNo.No.No.Percent
Auckland2,11377436.625,55318893920.1
Wellington (including Hutt)1,08640237.012,76618994619.9
Christchurch95737138.88,73123186826.6
Dunedin36613236.24,9601651,02316.2
All areas4,5211,67937.152,01019393720.6

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows the classification of cinemas according to number of screening days per week and of circuit operators.

ScreeningNumber of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm Hire
*Seven circuits.
 No.No. of Seats(000)No.c$(000)$(000)
Six days per week163131,29717,54813441.27,2412,652
Odd days per week13344,3602,0074526.6534176
Circuit16*3,065511726.5145
                All cinemas312178,72219,60611039.77,7892,833
ScreeningPersons EngagedNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.Percent
Six days per week36330734380597,71118087520.5
Odd days per week713921017416,65512139130.8
Circuit5313562182 ...
All cinemas439349566984114,987171 ...

Cinema Attendance in Principal Countries—The table below shows the number of admissions per head in the years quoted in a number of selected countries. These figures are taken from the United Nations Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearNumber of Admissions
Total (Million)Per Head
Australia1,96021021
Canada1,9651005
Denmark1,964347
France1,9662415
Germany, West1,9662805
Ireland, Republic of1,9613813
Israel1,9655020
Italy1,96664012
Japan1,9653734
New Zealand1966-67207.3
Norway1,9623510
Russia (U.S.S.R.)1,9664,20018
Spain1,96640413
Sweden1,963527
Switzerland1,966457
United Kingdom1,9662895
United States of America1,9652,28812
Yugoslavia1,9661156

Chapter 13. Section 13 PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

Table of Contents

PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY INDEXES—Growth rates in a national economy constitute the most important single class of economic indicator. Growth is the result of many factors but attention has been focused in recent years on labour productivity, that is, the relation between output and labour input.

As a basis for improved measures of productivity, the Department of Statistics instituted in 1962 a new volume of production index. This index, known as the Index of Production, measures the volume of output of all goods and services produced by the economy. Its complete coverage and concept of net output bring it into line with the approach to national income and sector accounts. Not only does the new index produce a more comprehensive volume of production measure, but it also provides the basis for a productivity index known as the Index of Productivity. The two indexes not only provide measures of the country's economic growth, but they also give the Court of Arbitration a measure of productivity for its wage claim deliberations. The Court is now specifically required to have regard to productivity when considering an application for a general wage order.

The advantages of the Index of Production covering the whole productive process are obvious. For one thing services of all kinds are of major importance in present day economic life and obviously must be adequately covered by indexes representative of the whole production structure of the economy. The weighting of the index is based upon the pattern derived for the 1954-55 Inter-Industry Study, and the weights for each indicator are derived from the net output and depreciation represented by that indicator in 1954-55. The divisions for the sector indexes are based upon the industrial division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification which, in turn, is based upon an industrial classification recommended by the United Nations and which is being universally adopted by other countries. The proportionate weighting is as follows:

 Weight percent
Farming20.7
Forestry and logging0.8
Fisheries, etc.0.3
Mining and quarrying1.0
Manufacturing21.6
Building and construction8.2
Electric power and gas1.6
Services45.8
 100.0

Production Index—The following are the figures for the index equated to Base 1954-55 = 1000.

YearIndex
* Provisional.
1954-551,000
1955-561,039
1956-571,059
1957-581,115
1958-591,146
1959-601,191
1960-611,265
1961-621,307
1962-631,349
1963-641,430
1964-651,518
1965-661,612
1966-671679x
1967-68*1,661

Over the 12 years to 1966-67 the index increased by 67.9 percent, an average rate of approximately 4.4 percent each year. The year 1955-56 gave an increase almost the same as the average, but in 1956-57 the increase was only 1.9 percent, a result caused mainly by a relatively small increase in the Manufacturing group. The following year 1957-58, the main index rose by 5.3 percent, with the heavily-weighted Manufacturing, Farming, and Services groups all contributing substantially. The latter half of the year 1958-59 was a period of restraint, and particularly affected was the Services group (mainly wholesale and retail trade) which recorded a small rise only. After allowing for off-setting solid increases in the Farming and Manufacturing groups, the overall index rise was recorded as 2.8 percent in 1958-59.

There was a year of recovery in 1959-60 with an average rise of 3.9 percent. This was followed in 1960-61 by a substantial rise, when sharp increases in the Manufacturing and Services groups were the main reason for the 6.2 percent rise in the overall index. In 1961-62, the increase of 3.3 percent was below the average for the period, and this pattern was repeated in 1962-63, when the increase was only 3.2 percent, a result mainly of a decline in Building and Construction and a smaller than average increase in the Services group. A sharp upward movement was recorded in 1963-64 with an increase of 6.0 percent, resulting mainly from substantial increases in the Manufacturing and Services groups. In 1964-65 the increase in volume of output for the Manufacturing group was the largest recorded throughout the 12-year period to 1966-67 and this was the main contributing factor to the rise of 6.2 percent in the overall index for 1964-65, equalling the rise of 6.2 percent in 1960-61. Although there was a fall in the growth of Manufacturing output (from 13.0 percent in 1964-65 to 6.8 percent in 1965-66), substantial increases in the heavily-weighted Farming group and in the Building and Construction group ensured an overall rise of 6.2 percent in 1965-66, the same increase as that for 1964-65. In 1966-67, all of the groups showed increases, but, except for Fisheries, these increases were at a lower rate than in 1965-66. The net result of this was that the increase in 1966-67 of 4.2 percent for All Groups was a levelling off in the trend.

In 1967-68, estimated decreases in the heavily-weighted Manufacturing and Services groups (particularly the wholesale and retail trade sector of the latter) are primarily responsible for the overall estimated decrease in production. Other groups with estimated decreases are Building and Construction and Mining and Quarrying. Continued growth has been estimated in the Farming, Forestry and Logging, Fisheries, and Power and Gas groups.

In the five years to 1966-67, the index has risen by 28.5 percent, or 5.1 percent a year on average. The following table shows the group indexes to 1966-67, with the provisional manufacturing group and all-groups figures for 1967-68.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION : MAJOR GROUP INDEXES

Industrial Group1954-551955-561956-571957-581958-591959-601960-611961-621962-631963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68*

*Provisional.

†Decrease.

Farming1,0001,0191,0471,1141,1681,1941,2401,2621,3381,3691,3971,4941,543 
Forestry and logging1,0001,0751,0751,1021,1661,2841,3151,3341,2951,3541,4771,5421,559 
Fisheries, etc.1,0001,0441,0561,0961,1041,1531,1951,1421,2181,2501,2691,3321,455 
Mining and quarrying1,0001,1131,1881,1761,2421,2891,4091,3391,2901,3641,4181,5501,6611,460
Manufacturing1,0001,0481,0651,1391,2031,2441,3661,4361,5011,6581,8732,0012120x2,070
Power and gas1,0001,0911,1381,2901,2811,4351,5251,6541,8322,0162,2042,4272,581 
Building and construction1,0001,0781,0861,1191,1341,2481,3121,3501,3101,3171,3791,5671,633 
All services1,0001,0321,0521,0961,1041,1421,2081,2481,2751,3551,4111,4661,513 
Total All Groups1,0001,0391,0591,1151,1461,1911,2651,3071,3491,4301,5181,6121679x1,661
Annual percentage increase in Production Index 3.91.95.32.83.96.23.33.26.06.26.24.2-1.1

The table shows the steady progress in the output of farming, the greatest upward movements being in 1957-58, 1958-59, 1962-63, and 1965-66. During the 12 years to 1966-67, Farming output rose by 54.3 percent, an average of 3.7 percent a year, compared with the average increase in the overall index of 4.4 percent a year.

The other primary industry groups all increased their outputs but at lower overall rates than the average for all groups. The Power and Gas group recorded the largest increase, over 158 percent, in the 12-year period to 1966-67.

The Manufacturing group showed the second largest increase, with a rise of 112.0 percent during the 12-year period to 1966-67, considerably more than the overall average. The Building and Construction group showed a gain of 63.3 percent over the period.

The most heavily-weighted group, Services, recorded an increase of 51.3 percent, which was below the All Groups average of 67.9 percent. Service industries may be said to be of two kinds, those for supplying the needs of final consumers, and those which service industries of all kinds. The volume index for these service industries covers many activities such as wholesale and retail trade, transport and communication, finance, education, and personal services.

PRODUCTIVITY—The productivity index shows changes in the volume of output per person engaged, and is obtained by dividing the volume of production index by an index of employment. The index of employment is an index of total labour force for the year but excluding armed forces and unemployed.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of ProductivityAnnual Percentage Increase in Productivity Index

*Provisional.

† Decrease.

1954-551,0001,0001,000...
1955-561,0391,0201,0191.9
1956-571,0591,0381,0200.1
1957-581,1151,0591,0533.2
1958-591,1461,0821,0590.6
1959-601,1911,0931,0902.9
1960-611,2651,1181,1313.8
1961-621,3071,1431,1431.1
1962-631,3491,1611,1621.7
1963-641,4301192x1200x3.3
1964-651,5181230x1234x2.8
1965-661,6121274x1265x2.5
1966-671679x1314x1278x1.0
1967-681661*1,3151263*-1.2

Comparing the index of production with the index of employment shows how the average output per person engaged varied over the 13 years to 1967-68. It can be seen that the productivity index is a little more sensitive to changes in economic tempo than is the index of production. In 1956-57 there was virtually no increase in productivity, but in 1957-58 there was a gain of 3.2 percent. Then 1958-59 was another year of low productivity gain, while the succeeding year gave an increase slightly less than that of 1957-58, and the gain in 1960-61 was of 3.8 percent. In 1961-62 the increase was 1.1 percent, and the following year, 1962-63, 1.7 percent. For 1963-64 the increase was 3.3 percent, and for 1964-65, 2.8 percent. In 1965-66 the index of productivity per person engaged in the labour force rose by 2.5 percent, slightly less than in the previous year. For the year 1966-67 the index rose by 1.0 percent, considerably less than in 1965-66. A decrease of 1.2 percent, the first decrease recorded in the series, has been estimated for 1967-68.

The full effect of the sharp rise in the number of persons born immediately following the Second World War is not being reflected in the higher-than-average percentage gains recorded in the labour force for three years up to 1966-67. The rises of 3.2 percent in the mean size of the labour force in 1964-65, 3.6 percent in 1965-66, and 3.1 percent in 1966-67 compare with an average rise of 2.3 percent over the 12-year period to 1966-67. A percentage rise in employment generally similar to those recorded in 1964-65, 1965-66, and 1966-67 would normally have been expected for 1967-68, but the changed economic conditions in the country throughout 1967-68 brought a minimal rise only in the employment index.

Over the 12-year period to 1966-67 productivity increased by 27.8 percent, which represents an average annual rate of increase of 2.1 percent. If the provisional 1967-68 figure is included, the productivity index increased by 26.3 percent from 1954-55 to 1967-68, an annual average increase of 1.8 percent.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT IN CONSTANT PRICES—A volume of production index, covering the national output in its entirety and allowing for the input of goods and services by individual producing units, provides material with which the gross domestic product in constant prices may be obtained. With only minor modification, particularly the inclusion of the service of defence, the volume of production index can be converted into an index of real gross domestic product. It should be noted that adjustments have been made to figures previously published in the following tables relating to Gross Domestic Product in Constant Prices and that the figures for 1967-68 are provisional.

YearIndex of ProductionIndex of Real Gross Domestic Product
*Provisional.
1954-551,0001,000
1955-561,0391,037
1956-571,0591,057
1957-581,1151,112
1958-591,1461,143
1959-601,1911,188
1960-611,2651,261
1961-621,3071,303
1962-631,3491,343
1963-641,4301,425
1964-651,5181,512
1965-661,6121,604
1966-671679x1670x
1967-68*1,6611,653

An examination of these two indexes, shows that the major influences on their movements are identical. Both have been obtained by the Department of Statistics in its annual compilation of the national income and expenditure. It should be noted that adjustments have been made to some figures previously published.

YearGross Domestic ProductxGross National Product
*Provisional.
 $(m)$(m)
1954-551,8771,860
1955-561,9791,965
1956-572,0782,061
1957-582,2012,184
1958-592,2942,270
1959-602,4532,434
1960-612,6602,623x
1961-622,7542,723
1962-632,9672,921
1963-643,2393,197
1964-653,5463,487
1965-663,7983,744
1966-673,9773,911
1967-68*4,0834,032

The index of real gross domestic product can then be used to derive gross domestic product in constant prices and, by allowing for the share of output accruing overseas, real gross national product can also be obtained. This is done in the following tables where both the gross domestic product and the gross national product are expressed in 1954-55 prices.

YearIndex of Real Gross Domestic ProductGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesxGross National Product at 1954-55 Pricesx
*Provisional.
  $(m)$(m)
1954-551,0001,8771,860
1955-561,0371,9461,932
1956-571,0571,9841,968
1957-581,1122,0872,071
1958-591,1432,1452,123
1959-601,1882,2302,213
1960-611,2612,3672,334
1961-621,3032,4462,418
1962-631,3432,5212,482
1963-641,4252,6752,640
1964-651,5122,8382,791
1965-661,6043,0112,968
1966-671670x3,1353,083
1967-68*1,6533,1033,064

Gross domestic product is the value of all goods and services produced by the economy during the year. The total value of goods and services available for internal use either for personal consumption, Government use, capital formation or stock accumulation is gross domestic expenditure. It is in fact gross domestic product less exports of goods and services plus imports of goods and services. In the following table exports and imports of goods and services are also derived from the Official Estimates of National Income and Expenditure.

YearGross Domestic ProductxExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesValue of Goods and Services Available for Use*x

* This is also called gross domestic expenditure.

† Provisional.

 $(m)
1954-551,877507557x1,927
1955-561,979565601x2,015
1956-572,0785955962,079
1957-582,2015936572,265
1958-592,2945765782,296
1959-602,453671555x2,337
1960-612,6606306832,713
1961-622,754634x695x2,815
1962-632,967671x654x2,951
1963-643,239788760x3,211
1964-653,546838x793x3,501
1965-663,798833x933x3,899
1966-673,977883x954x4,048
1967-684,0838558614,089

Just as gross domestic product and gross national product corrected for price changes are better indicators of the volume of production and the level of economic growth, so also if the goods and services available for internal use are expressed in constant prices, a better idea of the volume of goods and services available, and the economic welfare of the country can be obtained. Therefore, in the following table, corrections are made to eliminate price changes from the value of imports and exports, so that the value of goods and services available, in 1954-55 prices, can be obtained from gross domestic product also in 1954-55 prices.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesxExports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 PricesImports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 PricesGoods and Services Available for Use* at 1954-55 Pricesx

* This is also called gross domestic expenditure.

† Provisional.

 $(m)
1954-551,877507557x1,927
1955-561,9465685831,961
1956-571,9845925631,955
1957-582,0875966112,102
1958-592,1456635492,031
1959-602,230680536x2,086
1960-612,3676586502,359
1961-622,4467076552,394
1962-632,5217386352,418
1963-642,675783x7412,633
1964-652,838769x773x2,842
1965-663,011797x891x3,105
1966-673,135841x907x3,201
1967-683,1038747763,005

The following table assesses movements caused by changes in the terms of trade, by showing gross domestic product at constant prices corrected for the terms of trade. By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1954-55 prices, a much better picture can be obtained of the purchasing power, both here and abroad, of the income it represents.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesxExports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 PricesExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeEffective Gross Domestic Productx
*Provisional.
 $(m)
1954-551,8775075071,877
1955-561,9465685521,930
1956-571,9845925631,955
1957-582,0875965482,039
1958-592,1456635382,020
1959-602,2306806392,189
1960-612,3676585922,301
1961-622,4667075952,334
1962-632,5217386462,429
1963-642,675783x752x2,644
1964-652,838769x787x2,856
1965-663,011797x784x2,998
1966-673,135841x833x3,127
1967-68†3,1038747652,994

From gross domestic product at constant prices there is deducted that portion which is exported and added back the amount of imports that can be exchanged for these exports. By comparing the gross domestic product at 1954-55 prices with the corrected figures it is seen that there was a steady loss in purchasing power of the gross domestic product over the years to 1962-63, the worst years being a loss of $125 million in 1958-59, a loss of $112 million in 1961-62, and a loss of $92 million in 1962-63. A sharp upward movement in export prices in 1963-64 cut the loss to $31 million for 1963-64, and the continued improvement in the export price index, which rose at a faster rate than the import price index in 1964-65, resulted in a gain in the purchasing power of the exported component of the gross domestic product in 1964-65 for the first year during the series. In the following two years to 1966-67 there was a slight decline in the purchasing power of the exported component of the gross domestic product, with the adverse moment in New Zealand's terms of trade since 1964-65. This adverse movement accelerated in 1967-68, when import prices rose and export prices fell.

Chapter 14. Section 14 FARMING

14 A—GENERAL

SOILS AND LAND USE—Soil is the product of its environment—of the rock waste which is the parent material, of the climate under which it weathers, of the kind of topography upon which it is situated, of the vegetation under which it develops, and of the length of time during which it has been developing. In New Zealand, the wide variety of conditions under which the many kinds of rock are transformed into soil results in a complex pattern. Yet it is a complexity showing regularities and relationships that enable the soils to be grouped and classified. The conditions that control soil formation tend also to govern the kind of land use. Thus a close relationship between soils and land use arises in two ways—from characteristics inherent in the soils themselves and from environmental factors such as the climate and topography. Maps showing the pattern of soils and of land use are published in A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959). Soils are shown in two divisions: (a) zonal soils, and (b) intrazonal and azonal soils; and descriptions of the location, properties, and productive capacities of the different soil types in New Zealand are now given.

Zonal Soils—If the soils formed from unusual parent materials, e.g., volcanic ash, and those occupying special sites, such as steep slopes and swampy hollows, are set aside, a simple pattern of zonal soils is revealed. It consists of the brown-grey earths of the semiarid areas where the rainfall is less than about 20 inches a year; the yellow-grey earths of subhumid areas where the rainfall is approximately 20-40 inches a year; the northern, central and southern, and high-country yellow-brown earths respectively of the humid regions where the rainfall is well distributed and a greater than approximately 40 inches a year; and the podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols where an acid litter of decomposing vegetation and high rainfall results in excessive leaching. Zonal soils comprise 18 million of the country's 66 million acres.

The brown-grey earths (1 1/2 m; 1/2 m acres*) occupy the dry inter-montane basins of Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains where rainfall is insufficient for plant requirements for most of the year. They are generally rich in plant nutrients and are weakly acid to alkaline, in places with salty patches. Many of them are stony. Their chief need is more water but irrigation must be practised with care to avoid waterlogging or spreading salts. They produce fine wool and store sheep and, where irrigated, fat lambs; lucerne is grown and, in favoured spots, stone fruits and brassica and other seed crops.

The yellow-grey earths (2 1/2 m; 1/2 m acres*) are the seasonally dry soils of southern Otago, Canterbury, Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and Manawatu, where rainfall is inadequate for plant growth for a third to half of the year. They are moderately to weakly acid, and the older soils have a thick hard silt-pan in the subsoil. Fat-lamb farming is the principal use with mixed arable farming on the drier soils and some dairying on the moister soils. Stony soils related to the yellow-grey earths (1 1/2m acres) cover much of Canterbury Plains; they are used for sheep farming including fat lambs; with irrigation, they carry over four ewes per acre and grow cereal and pasture seed crops.

The rainfall of the yellow-brown earths is usually adequate for plant growth for most of the year. The high-country yellow-brown earths (1/2 m; 1 m acres) of the cold upland basins east of the Southern Alps are developed under tussock at high elevations. They have yellow friable subsoils and are moderately acid and strongly leached. Where oversown with clovers they respond to molybdenised superphosphate and sulphur. They are used

*Where two areas are given in parentheses after particular types of soil they refer to easy and hilly land respectively, and are usually expressed in millions of acres.mostly for wool production and some store sheep. The southern and central yellow-brown earths (2 m; 4 1/2 m acres) of the cool and mild districts like Southland and Wellington were formed under forest and have nutty subsoils. When sown to pasture with lime and superphosphate (in places molybdenised), they are used for dairying and fat lambs on the rolling land, and for wool production, store stock, and some fat lambs on the more hilly slopes. Cattle are also run to help control pasture growth and prevent its reversion to scrub and fern. The associated podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (140,000; 200,000 acres) are best developed in Southland. They are formed under rimu-kamahi forest and are very strongly leached with grey acid structureless topsoils and with iron pans in the subsoils in places. They are being brought into pasture for sheep and cattle grazing. Waterlogged counterparts of these soils, the grey podzols or “pakihi soils” (3/4m; 100,000 acres) in Westland where the rainfall is 100 inches or so per year. They have structureless subsoils and their chief problem is one of drainage to remove the excess water. They are difficult to utilise once the forest has been removed. The northern yellow-brown earths (1/2m; 3/4m acres), formed under mixed forest in the warm moist climate of North Auckland, are mostly heavy clays. The more fertile soils are moderately acid but support good pastures when topdressed with lime and phosphate, in places molybdenised; the rolling land is used for dairying and fat lambs, the hills for sheep and cattle grazing. The less fertile soils support fair pastures when topdressed with lime and superphosphate; on the easier land many dairy- and fat-lamb farms are situated, but pastures on the hill country are less easy to maintain.

The northern podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (1/2 m; 300,000 acres) have thin grey structureless topsoils overlying a grey siliceous horizon, and are strongly acid and very low in plant nutrients. Where formed under kauri they are know as “gumlands”. In places, especially where the soils are sandy, farming should be approached with caution because subsoil pans of humus and iron impede drainage; otherwise the fertilisers and soils can be made to support good dairy pastures.

Intrazonal and Azonal Soils—The intrazonal soils include the soils from less-common parent materials and those influenced by high ground water; and the azonal soils are youthful owing to recent renewal by sedimentation, volcanic eruptions, or erosion.

Rendzina and other lime-rich soils, mostly from limestones, occur both in subhumid areas (100,000 acres) such as near Oamaru, in North Canterbury, and in Hawke's Bay, and in the humid areas (1/4 m acres) particularly North Auckland. They are fertile, with deep, dark granular topsoils. In the drier areas, they are used for intensive arable farming and sheep farming and, near Oamaru, for poultry farming; in the humid areas, for dairying and fat lambs.

The yellow-brown sands (3/4 m acres), from coastal sand drifts of various ages, occur on sandhills which dry out excessively in summer and on sand plains where ground water approaches the surface in winter. The drier soils are for grazing; the soils with moister subsoils, after fertilising with phosphate and potash, are used for sheep farming and dairying. Where the subsoils are loose, blowing is a problem.

The yellow-brown pumice soils (2m acres) of central North Island are formed mostly of two volcanic ash showers that fell 800 and 1,700 years ago. Their topsoils are mostly sand or sandy loams, and the subsoils pumice sands and gravels. Because the cattle and sheep became bush sick these areas were difficult to farm for many years and large areas were planted in exotic forests. However, the ailment is now overcome by topdressing with cobaltised superphosphate and, except where droughty, the soils can be converted into good farmland. In addition to phosphate they need consolidation and, after continued use, potash topdressing. The yellow-brown loams (4 m acres) are derived mostly from fine-textured ashes erupted by volcanoes in central North Island and by Mount Egmont and occur around the margin of the younger pumice soils. They are very friable loamy soils, respond well to superphosphate topdressing, and give slight to good responses to limes; potash responses are expected to increase with continued use. The soils are used mainly for dairying and fat-lamb production.

The red and brown loams and brown granular clays (1 1/4 m acres) are formed from basalts and andesites and are rich in iron and aluminium. They are friable soils with strong structure and a marked power to fix phosphates. The younger, more fertile soils (1/2 m; 1/4 m acres) respond to superphosphate and lime, those from basalt also respond to potash; they are used for dairying, fat-lamb production, and sheep grazing, and in places for market gardens and orchards. The older soils have lower natural fertility and include the strongly acid granular soils and the moderately acid ironstone soils; they carry fair pastures when topdressed with lime, phosphate, and potash and, on the acid soils, with molybdenised superphosphate.

The organic soils (1/2 m acres) are peaty and occur mostly in the Auckland district. Where mellow and fertile they can be farmed satisfactorily, but the peats of acid bogs require special treatment.

The gley soils (3/4 m acres) are formed under the influence of groundwater which causes the formation of grey subsoils commonly mottled with rust colours. They, too, occur mostly in the Auckland district, and when drained are used for dairying and fat-lamb production.

Recent soils from alluvium (1 1/2 m acres) are formed from flood sediments on river flats. For the most part they are fertile, deep loams, but some are gravelly with excessive drainage. They are used mainly for fat lambs and dairying; also, in drier areas, for cereals, pasture and vegetable seed crops, pulse crops for canning, pip and stone fruits, small fruits, and tobacco.

Recent soils from volcanic ash (1 3/4 m acres) occur mostly around the active volcanoes of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, and also around Mount Tarawera. Where they cover the pumice soils their cobalt content offsets the deficiency in the pumice.

Steepland soils occupy about half the area of New Zealand, being most extensive on the axial ranges, and in the north-west Nelson and east Taranaki. Although showing characters related to the zone where they occur they are for the most part shallow and their subsoils vary widely in fertility according to the underlying rock. They are relatively unstable and are periodically renewed by erosion. When the plant cover is disturbed by man the erosion is accelerated and the results affect not only the hillsides but also the rivers and river flats. Areas occupied by these soils are: steepland brown-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; steepland yellow-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; high-country steepland yellow-brown earths, 4 1/2 m acres; other steepland yellow-brown earths, 14 m acres (including 2 m with high natural fertility), and podzolised steepland soils, 6 3/4m acres. The podzolised steepland soils are largely in forest, and occur mainly in western Nelson, Westland, and western Southland, at altitudes from 5,000 ft in the north to 3,000 ft in the south. Above these levels there are 2 3/4m acres of poor wet soils largely in subalpine scrub and tussock, and grading up to the alpine barrens (3 3/4 m acres) at elevations where vegetation is sparse or absent and much bare rock and ice are present.

New Approach to Land Use—The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to land use. In the early thirties the use of land was still guided by the art of judging its capabilities from external appearances and a general knowledge of farming and local conditions. This method had its success but in places failed badly, for example, in parts of the country, pastures could not be maintained and farm land was abandoned. The need for solving such problems led to the improvement in ways of recognising and mapping the soils so that their properties and uses could be determined. Today, land use is guided for the most part by the capabilities of the soil type as revealed by investigation. The reliability of predictions made in this way has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency. It reflects the modern swing from farming as a traditional art to farming as an up-to-date science.

NATURE OF FARMING—The natural tussock grassland, which occurs mainly on the hilly and mountainous country to the east of the Main Divide of the South Island, is used for extensive pastoral farming, where the main product is wool and in some instances store sheep, while on the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised. The third type of grassland, that sown after ploughing, is found on the flat and gently undulating country of both Islands and is used mainly for the grazing of dairy cattle and the production of fat lambs. Here farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

The North Island—Many parts of the North Island have proved very suitable for dairying because of the temperate climate, a fairly high rainfall well distributed over the year, and land reasonably flat and of average to good quality. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, Central Auckland, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington Statistical Areas. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as one cow per acre, and annual production as high as 350-400 lb of butterfat per acre. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is also undertaken, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty. Sheep farming is carried on throughout the Island, but is most concentrated in the Rangitikei-Manawatu and on the eastern section from the Wairarapa, through Hawke's Bay, to the hill country north of Gisborne.

The South Island—Sheep farming is practised in practically all parts of the Island east of the Southern Alps. The tussock grasslands, particularly on the higher parts, carry about one sheep to 10 acres, whereas improved pastures heavily topdressed carry six or more sheep to the acre. On the easier hill country, in addition to returns from wool, a considerable portion of the revenue comes from the sale of store sheep, which are purchased by the farmers on the plains and undulating country for fattening and for flock-replacement purposes.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 92 percent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley acreage is in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also fattened. Considerable areas (approximately three-quarters of the New Zealand acreage) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

Dairying is very localised and is concentrated near the cities to cater for whole-milk requirements. Districts where herds are run for dairy-factory supply are the plains areas of Southland; parts of Nelson and Westland; and Banks Peninsula, in Canterbury. Less than 8 percent of the dairy cows are in the South Island, and approximately one-sixth of the beef cattle.

CLASSIFICATION OF HOLDINGS BY PRINCIPAL FARMING ENTERPRISES—The collection of farm production statistics in 1960 was carried out as New Zealand's part of the World Census of Agriculture. Detailed information has been published separately in the report of the New Zealand Census of Agriculture, 1959-60.

For purposes of fuller analysis of the New Zealand results than is customarily given in Statistical Area (previously Land District) tables, counties with some affinity as to farming types, etc., have been regrouped to form what have been designated “Regional Areas”, and certain tables given in Sections 14B and 14C of this volume are set out on this basis. The following sets out in detail the content of these regional areas.

Regional AreaCounties Included (as at 1960)
NorthlandMangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata.
South AucklandManukau, Franklin, Raglan.
Waikato and Hauraki LowlandsWaikato, Waipa, Otorohanga, Hauraki Plains, Piako, Matamata.
Cape ColvilleGreat Barrier, Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri.
Central PlateauTauranga, Rotorua, Taupo, Whakatane.
Westland UplandsWaitomo, Taumarunui, Clifton, Waimarino.
TaranakiTaranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Eltham, Waimate West, Hawera.
East CapeOpotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Waikohu, Cook.
Hawke's BayWairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata.
RangitikeiPatea, Waitotara, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina.
ManawatuDannevirke, Woodville, Oroua, Manawatu, Kairanga, Horowhenua, Pahiatua.
WairarapaEketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Wairarapa South, Akitio.
FeatherstonHutt, Makara, Featherston.
NelsonWaimea, Golden Bay, Buller, Murchison, Inangahua.
MarlboroughSounds, Marlborough, Awatere, Kaikoura.
WestlandGrey, Westland.
North CanterburyAmuri, Cheviot, Waipara.
FoothillsAshley, Oxford, Tawera, Selwyn.
Canterbury PlainsKowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Ellesmere.
ChristchurchWaimairi, Heathcote, Halswell.
Banks PeninsulaMount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa.
MackenzieMackenzie.
South CanterburyAshburton, Geraldine, Levels, Waimate, Waitaki.
OtagoWaihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka.
Central OtagoManiatoto, Vincent, Lake.
SouthernBruce, Clutha, Southland, Wallace.
RemainderChatham Islands, Stewart Island.

Figure 14.1. HOLDINGS IN REGIONAL AREAS BY TYPE OF FARMING AT 31 JANUARY 1960

HOLDINGS IN REGIONAL AREAS BY TYPE OF FARMING AT 31 JANUARY 1960

Figures for 1959-60 as to the number of holdings of various principal types of farming enterprises in the several regional areas (each Island separately) are here presented. ("Principally" means 75 percent or more; “predominant” means 50-74 percent; “mixed” means approximately equal; “general mixed” covers three or more types with none predominant.)

Regional AreaPrincipally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep PredominantCropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (including Horticulture, Timber, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
Northland5,3971,371492382911658111589811,55710,604
South Auckland2,3571,081127167604912143643172414,492
Waikato to and Hauraki Lowlands5,9621,382128374107117531742322728,657
Cape Colville58915727692025---21541681,130
Central Plateau Western2,12666854228621031422463804764,161
Uplands3421,5562813086821542401012222,608
Taranaki3,2096662216660986-3451041024,481
East Cape Hawke's5391,06856842646665836922012702,542
Bay2572,045474652551198537593582053,365
Rangitikei5542,0173991987999173946533,123
Manawatu1,9201,733621371171217013835150754,441
Wairarapa3611,010374393449351040141,642
Featherston275454833231228-167378991
    Totals, North Island23,88815,2081,0931,9818419864911841066893,0373,73352,237
Marlborough2027241047181417021623989561,452
Nelson6255486412959708750341485071672,488
Westland North21422713765916--1980116874
Canterbury155074298188132923193820
Foothills45331691611103920196012641
Canterbury Plains47848318353921362145196217256522,302
Christ-church12148144238962618830459
Banks Peninsula75259722241610226164443
Mackenzie South-225--1-693109217345
Canterbury3321,8731947102361,335175415271383595,047
Otago2301,07823212523988727278741,892
Central Otago16663851126251015162731,032
Southern1744,35129311418191777814662571646,760
Remainder-85-211----641136
    Totals, South Is.2,52711,4023396997344123,2694488068752,32285824,691
    Totals, New Zealand26,41526,6101,4322,6801,5751,3983,7606329121,5645,3594,59176,928

The average area of holdings where the main types of farming were principally carried out were: dairy, 147 acres; sheep, 1,141 acres; beef, 1,033 acres. The most common size groups were: dairy, 75–99 acres; sheep, 250–399 acres; beef, 250–399 acres.

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS—In 1966 a total of 125,148 persons were employed in agriculture and livestock production. Of this total, which is derived from the 1966 Census of Population and Dwellings, 38,533 were engaged in sheep farming, 39,474 in dairy farming, 17,657 in mixed farming, 3,881 in market gardening, 3,934 in farm contracting, and 4,593 in fruitgrowing. At the time of the previous census in 1961 a total of 121,641 persons were employed in agriculture and livestock production. There was little change in the number employed in sheep farming (39,101 in 1961 and 38,533 in 1966), but the number engaged in dairy farming declined from 41,749 to 39,474.

Of the 38,533 persons engaged in 1966 in sheep farming 10,638 were employers, and 9,028 were farming on their own account. Comparable figures in 1961 were 10,396 employers and 9,324 farming on own account. In dairy farming the number of employers increased from 9,126 in 1961 to 10,687 in 1966, while the number farming on their own account increased from 13,749 to 15,178.

Wage and salary earners in the sheep farming industry numbered 19,000 in 1961 and 18,630 in 1966. In the dairy farming industry they numbered 18,209 in 1961 and 13,304 in 1966.

The following table is based on occupations recorded at the 1966 Census. The number of persons engaged in farming occupations does not coincide exactly with the number employed in the farming industry. A number of persons engaged in farming occupations would be employed in other industries, and on the other hand, a number of persons in non-farming occupations would be employed in the farming industry. For example, gardeners are included under farm occupations, but a number are employed in gardens attached to factories, and so will be included in the labour force of manufacturing industries. Examples of people in non-farming occupations who may be employed in the farming industry are accountants, cooks, and pilots of topdressing planes. However, with these minor qualifications, the table does give a broad picture of the occupations of those engaged in the farming industry at the Census of Population and Dwellings 1966.

Major Groups and Selected OccupationsMalesFemalesTotal
Farmers and farm managers—
    Dairy farmer22,0812,08324,164
    Sheep farmer, station owner, run holder19,47184520,316
    Farmer in mixed farming10,79052111,311
    Farmer or settler, n.o.d.2,7941372,931
    Farm manager, foreman, or overseer4,607414,648
    Market gardener1,8122772,089
    Orchardist, fruitgrower1,4001151,515
    Poultry farmer9853121,297
    Nurseryman820157977
    Cattle farmer, grazier43230462
    Sharemilker3,7045154,219
    Wheat or other grain grower, agricultural farmer3925397
    Other1,6941571,851
Totals70,9825,19576,177
Other farm occupations—
    Farm labourer, n.o.d.12,00949812,507
    Landgirl-1,2301,230
    Relative assisting on farm14371214
    Orchard hand, n.o.d.8062741,080
    Shepherd, musterer4,183484,231
    Shearer3,052253,077
    Milker3511,9182,269
    Fencer1,52811,529
    Tractor driver1,17021,172
    Farm contractor, n.o.d.9352937
    Gardener, jobbing or n.o.d.2,078812,159
    Poultry farm worker351190541
    Market garden hand1,0397721,811
    Other13,8523,38217,234
Totals41,4978,49449,991
Totals, all farm occupations112,47913,689126,168

n.o.d. — not otherwise defined.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS— An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. It covers all productive farm holdings of 10 acres and over outside boroughs. The collection does not include holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees or where farming is secondary to another industry. Owing principally to the number of occupancy transfers which took place immediately prior to or during the 1967-68 collection, information could not be collected from all farm holdings; the following tables include data from about 94 percent of all farm holdings qualifying for inclusion.

Statistics obtained from these returns have been linked up with those given by the 1967-68 annual farm collection to relate capital expenditure and farm types. Capital expenditure on farms during the year ended 31 March 1968, according to farm types, and also by statistical areas, is set out in the following table.

Farm Type and Statistical areaNumber of HoldingsCapital Expenditure
Building ConstructionMotor Vehicles and TrailersTractors and Farm MachineryImprovements and DevelopmentTotal Expenditure

*Dairy predominant.

† Sheep predominant.

‡Beef predominant.

 $(000)
Principally dairy farming20,48815,9393,6866,3748,32734,325
Principally sheep farming16,4877,6302,3063,50614,60128,043
Principally beef farming1,8837681982415811,788
Dairy and sheep(*)1,4019882824217272,418
Dairy and beef(*)50933891110251790
Sheep and dairy()62130786148412954
Sheep and beef()8,3394,1141,2461,6599,51516,534
Beef and dairy16035253247139
Beef and sheep8343541391424861,121
Mixed livestock1,2656381832748741,968
Sheep and cropping3,9051,8917362,3802,3667,374
Principally cropping1,5666632589314652,317
General mixed farming1,7411,0634191,0531,1223,656
Market farms and gardens6713052333961411,074
Others2,6871,6453425814613,030
Totals, 1967-6862,55736,67810,23018,24740,375105,530
 $(000)
Northland5,0633,1977741,2503,4918,712
Central Auckland4,6483,1558341,1222,1317,242
South Auckland—
    Bay of Plenty14,10911,2072,4713,6268,83626,141
East Coast1,4226501903261,5112,677
Hawke's Bay3,8952,1236029972,7846,506
Taranaki4,6042,7817891,2291,7426,542
Wellington7,4513,3301,0561,6924,14110,218
Totals, North Island41,19226,4436,71510,24424,63668,038
Marlborough1,2034531614176841,715
Nelson2,0098622514868962,494
Westland631225761785781,057
Canterbury8,0004,2781,5333,9315,11514,857
Otago4,6331,7837141,3713,8477,715
Southland4,8892,6357801,6204,6199,654
Totals, South Island21,36510,2353,5158,00315,73837,491
Totals, New Zealand62,55736,67810,23018,24740,375105,530

GROSS FARMING INCOME—Gross farming income is the value of the output of the farming sector. A description of this statistical series was given in the 1966 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

The following table shows the figures of gross farming income for the past 16 production seasons as well as for the pre-war year 1938–39. The second part of this table gives the relative contributions of each of the seven groups in each year in the form of percentages of the total of all farm production.

YearFarm Group
Grain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsTotal

*Provisional

† Figures revised slightly.

$(million)
1938–399.412.618.524.413.156.74.8139.5
1952–5323.840.5128.193.544.5179.911.9522.2
1953–5432.438.8142.3104.936.2178.611.4544.6
1954–5531.941.4151.7112.144.7169.111.2562.1
1955–5632.241.6143.0111.536.8176.912.4554.4
1956–5729.745.0183.0124.141.7179.211.3614.0
1957–5829.745.2137.8117.863.0187.511.7592.7
1958–5931.843.6130.4106.067.4172.912.1564.2
1959–6039.247.0169.599.367.9187.413.2623.5
1960–6142.350.4158.3109.155.0184.514.3613.9
1961–6242.255.8153.992.659.7175.914.9595.0
1962–6343.357.1180.5107.868.8180.516.0654.0
1963–6450.062.4230.1131.374.4198.317.1763.6
1964–6548.769.6172.9166.987.1229.417.5792.1
1965–6651.176.0x193.6x166.995.7251.817.4852.5x
1966–6758.6x79.9x162.7140.4x103.9x261.4x17.3x824.2x
1967–68*62.983.4132.9153.5133.2245.015.2826.1
Percentages of Total Income
1938–397913179413100
1952–535825189342100
1953–546726197332100
1954–556727208302100
1955–566826207322100
1956–575730207292100
1957–5858232011322100
1958–5968231912312100
1959–6068271611302100
1960–617826189302100
1961–6279261610303100
1962–6378281611282100
1963–6478301710262100
1964–6569222111292100
1965–6669232011292100
1966–67710201712x32x2100
1967–68*810161816302100

The following diagram shows gross farming income for the farming groups.

Figure 14.2. GROSS FARMING INCOME

GROSS FARMING INCOME

Index numbers have also been compiled showing the movements in volume of farm production both in total and for the same component groups as previously defined. For the compilation of these index numbers computations have been made for each season showing what the aggregate annual values would have been had the 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production, for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The coverage of the pastoral production groups includes allowances for changes in the numbers of livestock on farms.

In the following tables index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year change.

YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
*Provisional.
INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1952–53253322688384338318246374
1953–54345308766430274316238390
1954–55338329815459339299233402
1955–56343330769457279313258397
1956–57315357984508317317238440
1957–58315359741483477331246425
1958–59338346701434511305254404
1959–60417373911407515331275447
1960–61449400851448417326296440
1961–62449443827380452311313426
1962–63462452970442521319333468
1963–645324951,238538564350354547
1964–65517552929684661405365567
1965–66544603x1046x684731444363611x
1966–67623x634x879575x793x461x360x591x
1967–68*6696627186291,017432317592
INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1952–5311715412713014313688133
1953–5413216013014312712985133
1954–5512116014014515512790136
1955–5610816914315215013187139
1956–5713516815415015113178141
1957–5813016615616917614186151
1958–59134169169186176140105157
1959–6016317217618918113792159
1960–6117917618319917214392166
1961–6216320018420919614096169
1962–63195225197211208144110178
1963–64215249194219195149111184
1964–65202260196221206158101189
1965–6621927922222820916791200
1966–67231x283x222246x235x167x80x207x
1967–68*27029222525424516490212

From the 1952–53 season through to the 1956–57 season the value series showed a much faster growth rate than the volume series, a result of a general upward movement in prices.

From 1956–57 to 1962–63 prices were more stable and in some cases showed a decline and, in consequence, the index of total value of farm produce remained relatively stable, even though the volume index showed a consistent upward movement.

From 1963–64 to 1965–66 the value and volume series increased steadily but in 1966–67 wool, mutton, and lamb prices fell, so that while the volume series continued to increase the value of all farm products fell by 3.3 percent.

In the year 1967–68 the value of all farm products rose by an estimated 0.2 percent. Beef and lamb returns were higher than for the previous year but any gain in these products was largely offset by a further fall in wool prices and a fall in dairying. The volume index recorded an estimated increase of 2.4 percent.

The table clearly shows the effects of fluctuations in the price of wool from year to year.

Over the 29-year period, the average annual compound rate of increase in the volume series has been 2.6 percent. For the latest five years the compound rate of increase has been 3.6 percent.

The following table shows in quinquennial periods except for the two-year period in the last column, the proportions of gross farming income arising from exports of farm produce and from consumption of such produce within New Zealand. A description of the methods of estimation was given in the 1967 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Gross Farming Income1941–42 to 1945–461946–47 to 1950–511951–52 to 1955–561956–57 to 1960–611961–62 to 1965–661966–67 to 1967–68
All farm produce—  percent  
    From exports677170686600
    From New Zealand consumption332930323400
Totals100100100100100100

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The next table shows the estimated production and utilisation of butterfat during each of the last five seasons. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

Utilisation1963–641964–651965–661966–671967–68

*Includes small quantities of creamery fat used in whey buttermaking.

†Including residual fat in skim-milk from home separation. Basis of estimate changed. Series subject to revision.

   million lb  
Creamery buttermaking*421.6445.0463.2465.2x449.6
Cheesemaking83.993.893.897.5x97.4
Whole-milk products12.313.516.417.317.3
Totals517.9552.3573.4580.0x564.3
Residual fat in skim-milk products4.04.54.75.2x5.2
Total processed by dairy factories521.9556.8578.1585.2x569.5
Consumed as milk, cream, or ice cream48.946.748.148.7x47.0
Farm butter0.2    
Fed to stock13.813.413.713.2x13.6
Wastage5.86.26.46.4x6.3
Total production “at pail”590.2623.1646.3653.5636.4

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1963–641964–651965–661966–671967–68
*Excludes infant foods from 1 June 1965.
   tons (000)  
Creamery butter228.7242.1251.3251.8244.5
Whey butter2.83.23.13.13.4
Cheese95.1106.2105.7109.7110.0
Condensed and powdered whole milk*15.613.415.4*15.5*14.4
Skim-milk powder62.880.285.9137.5144.9
Buttermilk powder19.921.724.623.223.2
Casein42.241.853.046.846.4

The following table gives estimates of the average butterfat production per cow “at the pail”, which are derived by the New Zealand Dairy Board from data concerning tested herds.

YearTotal ButterfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow
*Provisional.
 million lb(000)lb
1959–605471,887288
1960–615571,929287
1961–625551,968280
1962–635671,997282
1963–645902,011292
1964–656232,032305
1965–666462,088308
1966–67654x2,131x306x
1967–68*6362,242283

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

Figure 14.3. BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION

BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION

The Dairy Board has its functions defined in the Dairy Board Act 1961. Finance is provided by a levy on dairy produce. It is the Board's concern to promote the orderly development of the dairy, bobby calf, and pig industries with a view to improving the quality of the stock and expanding production. Quality improvement involves testing stock for production, the development of artificial breeding, and research and experimental work. (About half the dairy herd is now bred by artificial insemination from selected sires, and produce about 25 lb of butterfat more each year than cows bred naturally.)

The Board shares with the Government the management and finance of the Dairy Research Institute, and, with the Government, the Meat Producers Board, and the Wool Board, the control of the Veterinary Services Council.

The Board is also represented on the Dairy Products Prices Authority, the Dairy Industry Loans Council, the Meat Producers Board, the Pig Producers Council, the Bobby Calf Pools Central Executive, the Dairy Factory Managers Registration Board, and on a committee which examines improvements in manufacture.

The Dairy Industry Act 1952 regulates the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Dairy produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking.

Co-operative dairy companies are a feature of the organisation of the dairy industry.

MEAT PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL—The following table shows in summary form production and disposal of meat. Figures are shown at bone-in weights.

Product and Use1963–641964–651965–661966–671967–68
   tons (thousand) 
  Production  
Beef258.9246.7265.3271.4314.5
Veal28.124.722.025.624.9
Mutton176.3169.5149.9185.5212.7
Lamb303.9298.7312.0326.9344.7
Pig meat—
    Porker19.318.316.114.816.2
    Baconer24.123.221.319.218.8
    Chopper2.62.72.42.02.4
Edible offal38.939.240.845.551.8
Total production852.1822.9829.9890.8986.0
  Disposal  
Exports and ships' stores557.422.7536.2590.9680.8
For canning11.411.411.713.912.1
Local consumption283.4288.8x281.9286.0293.1
Total production852.1822.9829.9890.8986.0

Figure 14.4. MEAT PRODUCTION

MEAT PRODUCTION

Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately one-third of total production. The figures in the next table give actual consumption during the years ended 30 September, by classes of meat.

ProductLocal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
1965–661966–671967–681965–661966–671967–68
  tons (000)  lb 
Beef120.8123.3121.2101.3101.698.7
Veal8.69.810.47.28.18.4
Mutton76.377.481.164.063.766.1
Lamb22.026.826.418.422.121.5
Pig meat—
    Porker15.114.115.412.611.612.5
    Baconer20.018.319.816.715.116.1
    Chopper2.22.32.21.81.91.8
Edible offal11.611.412.39.79.410.0
Totals276.6283.4288.8231.5233.5235.2

Details of sources of supply for local consumption in 1967–68 are given in the following table. Figures for meat export works include those for a few bacon works. In the case of registered abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses, edible offal has been estimated at 3 percent of total carcass weight excluding pig meats.

ProductRegistered AbattoirsMeat Export WorksRural Slaughter-housesFarmsTotal
   tons  
Beef82,167228,3742,5221,447314,510
Veal5,83518,7822926224,908
Mutton39,981155,1141,33616,232212,663
Lamb10,581332,5761231,438344,718
Pig meat—
    Porker10,8744,53720956116,181
    Baconer3,39915,42018,819
    Chopper6031,7962,399
Edible offal4,15747,50512051,782
    Totals157,597804,1044,33919,940985,980

The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of livestock slaughtered for food during each of the last 11 September years. The figures are for total killings—i.e., they include export works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and an allowance for killings on farms.

LIVESTOCK SLAUGHTERINGS

Year Ended 30 SeptemberSheepLambsCattleCalvesPigs
   Carcasses (000)  
19585,08115,8831,1061,314768
19597,45918,3559621,222883
19607,35619,2839561,234863
19617,28919,8469951,299839
19628,00221,5181,2241,413850
19637,22021,3081,2821,412921
19647,90122,1571,2861,3921,002
19657,55221,9241,1381,231951
19666,71122,3261,1721,102874
19678,47424,1581,2121,217790
196810,15926,4241,4951,235821

Meat intended for export from New Zealand is slaughtered at meat export slaughter-houses, of which 37 are at present operating. They are licensed annually under the provisions of the Meat Act 1964 and regulations thereunder, which also authorise officers of the Department of Agriculture to inspect all meat whether for export or for local consumption.

The supervision of grading of meat for export is one of the responsibilities of the Meat Producers Board. Grading at each freezing works is carried out, after slaughtering and dressing, by graders employed by the concern operating the freezing works. Supervising graders of the Meat Producers Board are allotted to each group of works to ensure uniformity of grading.

To supply meat for the larger urban centres there are at present 38 abattoirs operating, the larger ones being organised on the same lines as meat export works, and the supply is augmented by meat drawn from export works. At rural slaughterhouses meat is killed for consumption in small country towns and rural districts. Many farmers, particularly on sheep farms, kill their own meat.

To regulate and control the marketing of bobby calves, Bobby Calf Committees were established in 1938 and are now governed by the Bobby Calf Marketing Regulations 1955 under the control of the Dairy Board.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. New Zealand specialises in the production and export of crossbred wool. There is only, at present, a small annual consumption by local mills. The quantity on a greasy basis used by local manufacturers in the post-war period until 1958–59 ranged between 10,900,000 lb and 14,500,000 lb. Figures for local consumption in recent years are as follows.

Year Ended 30 JuneQuantity Used (Greasy Basis)
 lb (000)
196015,800
196117,100
196220,400
196318,200
196420,300
196522,300
196623,300
196722,500
196824,800

The following table shows for the last 11 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per pound of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per lb of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per pound (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 lb (m)c.$ (m)
195849634.30170.2
195954030.06162.4
196057737.21214.6
196158833.62197.6
196258732.65191.6
196362035.70221.4
196461745.89283.0
196562335.12218.8
196669534.69241.0
196770929.39208.5
196872822.87166.5

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

Figure 14.5. WOOL PRODUCTION

WOOL PRODUCTION

An analysis of wool sold at New Zealand auctions, according to quality groups, is given in the following table. (Source: Wool Commission.)

Quality Group1963–641964–651965–661966–671967–68
BalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total Sales
60–64's and up13,4101.013,4971.014,3511.013,7780.911,9160.8
60's10,2570.89,7360.78,1960.58,0230.58,4790.5
58–60's, 58's, and 56–58's87,0636.783,9566.482,9305.672,1644.663,1864.0
50–56's and 56's123,3629.5107,8588.2137,5739.3120,1277.7109,0356.9
52's55,2394.247,3353.650,6053.447,3113.040,7632.6
50's128,73610.0123,8329.4133,1939.0120,9647.7114,2197.3
48–50's125,6229.7138,34610.6152,73910.3133,8678.6146,9439.4
46–50's and 48's405,40531.3380,51629.0438,86529.5341,66721.9323,38120.6
46–48's217,27116.8279,14021.3310,54521.0445,88828.6475,31630.2
46's and lower128,93010.0127,9779.8154,66010.4257,10416.5278,70117.7
Totals1,295,295100.01,312,243100.01,483,657100.01,560,893100.01,571,939100.0

The Wool Industry Act 1944 provided for the establishment of the Wool Board. The Board's principal concern is the promotion of the wool industry, particularly in regard to markets, scientific and industrial research in relation to wool and sheep with a view to improvement in quality and quantity, and the discovery of new or improved methods of utilisation. Specific matters in relation to which the Board may be called upon to exercise certain functions are the production, handling, pooling, appraising, storage, distribution, marketing, and disposal of wool. The Board is empowered to act in combination or association with other bodies established outside New Zealand functioning on similar lines, such as the International Wool Secretariat and the Wool Bureau, and with the Meat Producers Board and the Dairy Board. It is also represented on the Wool Commission established by the Wool Commission Act 1951. To provide funds for the Board to carry out its functions the Wool Industry Act authorises a levy on all wool produced in New Zealand, the rate of the levy to be fixed each season by the Board. Under the Wool Commission Act, payment of this levy is at present suspended, the expenses of the Board being met from a charge imposed by regulation under that Act on all wool exported or used in New Zealand. Following the decision of the Wool Board to find additional funds for the wool promotion and research programme of the International Wool Secretariat, the charge from 1 July 1964 became 0.70c per pound on shorn greasy and slipe wool (roughly $2.35 per standard bale). (The Wool Commission has subsidised the payment to the Wool Board except in 1967–68 season.)

In December 1960 there was set up the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand supported by the Wool Board and the Government (through the National Research Advisory Council). The main object of the organisation is to promote and conduct research into the properties of wool, but it may also study problems of handling, storage, transport, marketing, and related matters.

References to the activities of the Wool Commission set up under the Wool Commission Act 1951 are to be found in Section 21.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE—The Department of Agriculture has existed as a separate Department since 1892 and has been instrumental in building up farm production. The principal functions of the Department, as set out in the Department of Agriculture Act 1953, are (a) to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; (b) to promote and control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Divisional Directors of Animal Health,Meat, Dairy, Farm Advisory, Research, Horticulture, Sheep and Wool, and Administration. Though the service is primarily educative, the Department administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The Animal Health Division is responsible for the control of infectious diseases of livestock, and vaccination and testing are carried out to prevent and eradicate certain serious stock diseases. Special attention is given to herds supplying milk for human consumption. Livestock husbandry forms an essential part of the extension service provided by this Division. All stock exported and imported is examined by the Division's veterinarians. Instruction is given in poultry keeping. The Division is concerned with the control of noxious weeds and, with the Pest Destruction Council through district pest destruction boards in the destruction of rabbits, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of all stock and meat produced in abattoirs and meat export works—and for the standard of hygiene in these establishments as well as in all meat export and domestic meat packing plants. It supervises the standard of hygiene in game packing houses and gives veterinary certificates covering the export of game and fish.

Sheep and Wool—This Division was established in 1966 to carry out the advisory work, formerly located in the Farm Advisory Division, on sheep and wool production. In addition, it has the responsibility in association with the various breed societies to establish and operate a performance-recording scheme for sheep and beef cattle to assist breeders to develop stock which will produce better meat.

Dairy Produce—Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, milk powder, and casein is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and a close supervision is exercised over butter and cheese at all stages of manufacture The Division is responsible also for the registration of town milk supply premises and provides technical advice on market milk treatment. The Division has laboratories at Auckland, New Plymouth, and Wallaceville which provide a comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to its control of dairy produce quality. The Division is responsible for the registration and licensing of dairy factories, approval of their design, general suitability, and economic justification.

Farm Advisory Service—The Farm Advisory Division is concerned with advisory work in soil management, crop and pasture production, and farm management. A field staff of farm advisory officers acts as a link between the research stations and the farmers and also carries out co-operative demonstration trials and demonstrations on farmers' properties. The Division is concerned with seed certification and crops, pastures, farm management and economics, rural sociology and home economics, and farm machinery. Soil testing and assistance with farm drainage work are both undertaken. The Division controls the following stations: Seed Testing Station, Palmerston North; Phormium plantation, Moutoa; Flock House Farm of Instruction, Bulls, and three demonstration farms, one at Kaikohe, one at Te Anau and another at Westport.

Greater emphasis is now being given by advisory officers to the consideration of the whole farm as a business unit and to close co-operation, for example, with accountants, lending institutions, and stock and station agents, in order to help the farmer to improve the profitability of his enterprise.

Research—All research stations of the Department are under the control of the Director of Agricultural Research, with headquarters at Ruakura, and Directors of Animal Research, Soil Research and Field Research, all stationed at Ruakura. Research work animal diseases is centred largely at Wallaceville under a Director; diagnostic work is carried out at Ruakura, Wallaceville, Whangarei, Lincoln, and Invermay. Horticultural research is centred at Levin and viticultural research at Te Kauwhata. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services.

Horticulture—The Horticulture Division provides an advisory service to fruitgrowers, market gardeners, nurserymen, flower growers, and beekeepers. Its officers inspect market gardens, nurseries, and apiaries for disease, and sets grading standards for pip fruit for export and home consumption. The Horticulture Division provides an advisory service to commercial producers of all types of fruit and vegetables, as well as to nurserymen and cut-flower growers. This advisory service covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control and crop production and handling. Advisory officers of the division also demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping.

Experimental and demonstration areas are sited at Keri Keri, Manutuke (citrus), and Avondale, Auckland (vegetables and ornamentals).

The division is also responsible for disease and pest control in nurseries, orchards, and market gardens and for the quality of apples and pears packed for export or local market. The Apiary Section of the division advises producers on all aspects of beekeeping and is responsible for the control of disease in apiaries.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service, under the direct control of the Director-General of Agriculture, was established in 1960 to take over both plant and animal quarantine work. Officers of this service handle all aspects of agricultural work at major ports and airports.

Marketing and Trade—The Department is also concerned with many of the issues relating to the marketing of primary products, both overseas and within New Zealand, as well as with general economic problems affecting farming industries as a whole.

PASTURE GRASSES—Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in co-operation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer can thus avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialised knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains.

The following table shows the areas under artificially sown grasses, and includes areas of tussock and other naturally established native grasses which have been permanently improved by oversowing with grasses and clovers.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture Grasses and Lucerne
Cut for Seed, Hay or SilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Silage
*Includes 183,873 acres also sown with crops in 1963–64, 173,898 acres in 1964–65, 183,247 acres in 1965–66, and 152,439 acres in 1966–67.
 acres
1961–621,160,01018,087,564
1962–631,387,29918,129,203
1963–641,335,76818,431,705*
1964–651,337,50118,095,856*
1965–661,480,48518,321,728*
1966–671,475,33018,804,018*
1967–681,495,02818,690,625*

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops. Usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in 1967–68 totalled 1,561,000 tons, the superphosphate content of this output being 1,318,000 tons. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about one-third of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8,000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $50 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand's population is 0.1 percent of that of the world, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

Achievement of the increased rate of development recommended by the Agricultural Production Conference is estimated to require an annual increase of fertiliser usage of about 7 percent. The greater input will be needed because, as production develops, fertilisers will be used on more difficult country and on land on which production has already been intensified.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1,500,000 tons in 1945. Since then usage has dropped to less than 1,000,000 tons annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements such as molybdenum according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest six years.

YearGrassland Area Topdressed
With Artificial Fertiliser OnlyWith Lime OnlyWith Both Artificial Fertiliser and LimeTotal Grassland Topdressed
  acres 
1962–638,637,506318,779985,8019,942,086
1963–649,750,559382,8921,257,70011,391,151
1964–6510,846,274392,9461,606,67912,845,899
1965–6611,295,363365,6681,439,01413,100,045
1966–6711,863,091347,5941,405,18913,615,874
1967–6810,736,917325,3541,167,29112,229,562

Though topdressing in the past was practically confined to sown grasses on the flat and gently undulating country, the application of fertilisers to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities from aircraft has followed from the development of commercial aerial topdressing operations since 1949. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 11D.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds. In addition, agricultural and pastoral education is assisted financially by grants to the agricultural colleges.

The following table shows the major payments during the latest four years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1964–651965–661966–671967–68
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Carriage of lime1119410287
Fertiliser transport subsidy1,4202,5292,280
Flood and drought relief33119067216
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis—
    Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs1,5811,4181,2891,028
Subsidies to pest destruction boards1,2781,4011,4811,628
Grants to pest destruction boards390433483348
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards145158157176
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act97104130125
Agricultural Engineering Institute30737083
Herd Improvement Council59677379
National Hydatids Council70707070
Veterinary Services Council65616340

Comment on some of the more important items is necessary to explain their origin and significance.

Lime Subsidy—Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. Farmers meet full transport costs and are entitled to claim a refund from the Department of Agriculture.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—As from 1 August 1965 a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser (excluding lime) was introduced following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference. The subsidy meets three-quarters of the cost of transport in excess of $2 per ton.

Pest Destruction Boards—In the post-war years a determined effort has been made to rid the country of rabbits which were lowering the carrying capacity of farmland and causing a loss of production running into many million dollars in value annually. Rabbit-infested areas were brought under rabbit board control, and effective steps were made towards their elimition. From 1 April 1968 rabbit boards have been reconstituted as pest destruction boards. Rates are subsidised by the Government, which also makes grants to pest destruction boards, which may also undertake opossum and wallaby control.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent attempts to deal with specific problems, such as the eradication of bovine tuberculosis, which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups, and the cost of the Government contribution towards running particular organisations, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE—An Agricultural Development Conference was held in 1963 and 1964. It was called as a result of the feeling in both producer and official circles that agricultural expansion should proceed at a more rapid rate and that a thorough examination should be made of the economic factors impeding such expansions. The first session of the conference in October 1963 approved the establishment of seven working parties to report to it on a number of such factors—farm finance, taxation, scale of farming, manpower, land valuation, noxious animals and weeds, and farm costs. The conference also endorsed the setting up of a Targets Committee to report on the increases in livestock numbers required to ensure that export income will expand at the pace required to maintain economic growth. The Targets Committee's report in 1964 stated that by 1972–73 livestock numbers would have to rise to 111 million ewe equivalents compared with 80 million in 1962–63. This would require an increase in stock numbers of 3.5-percent a year, an increase in pastoral production of 3.8 percent a year, and an increase in pastoral exports of 4.1 percent a year. These calculations assumed the continuance of 1962–63 export prices, and made allowance for the growth of other exports (mainly forest products), the expansion of import replacement industries, and also the expansion of invisible payments.

The targets were endorsed by the conference which also made a number of recommendations to the Government based on the conclusions of the eight working parties. These, in the main, did not recommend any sweeping administrative changes, but suggested a number of measures designed to improve incentives and encourage development. Stress was also laid on the need to expand advisory services to enable farmers to improve their efficiency.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This Council has been set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964. It comprises the Minister of Agriculture (Chairman), the Director-General of Agriculture (Deputy-Chairman), the Dominion President Federated Farmers of N.Z. (Inc.), the Chairmen of the three Producer Boards (Dairy, Meat, and Wool), and the Secretary to the Treasury. The main functions of the Council are to keep under review the livestock targets established by the Conference, to propose measures that will facilitate the attainment of targets and to consider any matters that may be referred to it by the Minister of Agriculture.

The Council has several standing Committees—Executive, Finance, Taxation, Manpower, and Farm Costs—and working parties on specific projects such as Beef, and Lime and Fertiliser Usage.

The Council has also established 21 district agricultural advisory committees to identify factors limiting production in their districts and to propose remedial measures; to ensure that farmers and their advisers are fully aware of the taxation concessions and incentives; the terms and availability of finance; the local “bench marks” for farming; and to keep the Council advised of local problems and circumstances.

The increased production required is being achieved. In 1967, the half-way mark from 1962 to 1972, livestock numbers were slightly above the targets set by the Agricultural Development Conference.

FARM PRODUCTIVITY—Based on sophisticated techniques of grassland farming, agricultural production has continued to grow in a way which has resulted in increasing quantities of dairy products, meat, and wool for export. This has been accompanied by a marked rise in the productivity of labour employed in farming. Over the past decade production has increased by almost 2.5 percent a year, while the labour force declined from 130,000 to 119,000. A general improvement in management practices and a heavy rate of investment in land improvement have been the principal factors responsible for the expansion of output. A study by Professor B. P. Philpott of Lincoln Agricultural College attributes two-thirds of the 2.6 percent average annual increase in output between 1920–1960 to capital investment and one-third to improved efficiency in the use of resources. The pattern is one of more intensive farming, for the area used for farming has not expanded since early in the present century. This has meant more intensive use of public and social capital. Since, with more intensive farming, there is a greater demand for any given operation in a defined area, recent decades have witnessed a very substantial growth of contract services for farmers in harvesting and in farm maintenance and improvement. The trend towards this division of function in farming activities was, of course, largely influenced by the production and availability of highly specialised new farm machinery which it would have been uneconomic for individual farmers to own.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where a comparison is available. The figures for 1960 onwards relate to holdings of 10 acres and over.

Type of Machine1960196519671968
Agricultural tractors78,41589,42191,66993,688
Milking machines36,72132,88729,61529,364
Shearing stands61,63765,91869,94771,080
Pick-up balers7,93210,24711,25011,799
Side delivery rakes21,95324,17824,52524,973
Harvesters—
    Forage1,2004,2804,8965,123
    Header4,7465,8295,5485,847
Electric fence units54,70763,97062,42266,353
Field mowers......50,095
Ploughs......41,743
Disc harrows......33,096

The figures show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanisation of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period.

Milking Machines—Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January1952, 1,799,375, or 94 percent, were milked by machine. At the end of January 1967 there were 29,615 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 188,501 sets of cups, compared with 32,887 machines and 186,585 sets of cups at 31 January 1965.

Agricultural Tractors—The numbers of agricultural tractors employed on farms has risen to 93,688. These figures do not include rotary hoes or garden tractors.

The classes of tractors on farm holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries at 31 January 1968 are given in the following table.

TypeNumberPercentage of Total
Diesel oil—
    Crawler7,4247.9
    Wheel38,14140.7
Total45,56548.6
Petrol or kerosene—
    Crawler5,9566.4
    Wheel42,16745.0
Total48,12351.4

14B—CROPS

GENERAL—Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities. There is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summers months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying more than half of New Zealand's wheat yield, about half of the oats threshed, and over half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has grown higher proportions of wheat and barley crops.Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland-Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing nearly three-quarters of the total yield. About two-thirds of the area closed off for production of grass seed is in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington city draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both Auckland and Wellington with these vegetables. Hastings has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christchurch over 1,000 acres are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating more than 1,000 acres. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance in central Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The area devoted to each of the principal crops in the 1967–1968 season and the percentage distributions for each crop by statistical areas and North and South Island are given in the following table.

CropTotal AreaNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonNorth Island
 acresPercentage of crop area
For threshing—
    Wheat312,960-2.30.24.46.9
    Oats34,4830.60.20.82.33.9
    Barley155,1240.23.40.88.70.817.831.7
    Maize14,5123.82.814.758.718.00.40.799.1
    Peas (not canning)34,665-0.33.910.514.7
Oats—
    For chaff, hay, or silage22,5840.90.33.30.20.60.83.59.6
    Fed off, cut green, abandoned, etc.26,8700.30.30.70.30.90.22.24.9
Root Crops—
    Potatoes23,5180.514.73.70.76.01.322.249.1
    Swedes203,6190.30.110.20.41.01.14.918.0
    Turnips210,5660.50.54.00.42.60.33.912.2
    Turnips and rape mixed25,5811.10.21.60.42.20.13.49.0
    Vegetable crops for processing19,6460.60.115.254.61.071.5
    Vegetable crops for market11,9966.329.75.04.611.60.418.075.6
Green Fodder—
    Rape72,6840.10.34.92.37.6
    Chou moellier, kale109,1460.50.35.70.412.01.822.843.5
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed151,2090.20.10.90.54.90.34.711.6
Grasses and clovers for hay and silage1,110,8205.66.636.90.53.310.49.172.4
Lucerne for hay or silage196,9990.30.29.00.43.11.12.516.6
Commercial orchards19,9543.812.78.13.623.71.052.9
Market gardens16,5073.534.66.43.113.70.515.477.2
CropTotal AreaMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandSouth Island
 acresPercentage of crop area
For threshing—
    Wheat312,9601.60.2––59.615.716.093.1
    Oats34,4830.90.3-46.421.626.996.1
    Barley155,1244.01.8––54.95.32.368.3
    Maize14,5120.9--––--0.9
    Peas (not canning)34,6656.70.2-74.93.20.385.3
Oats—
    For chaff, hay, or silage22,5841.20.90.130.030.327.990.4
    Fed off, cut green, abandoned, etc.26,8707.42.80.252.226.36.295.1
Root crops—
    Potatoes23,5181.41.6––37.86.43.750.9
    Swedes203,6190.31.10.718.322.239.482.0
    Turnips210,5662.51.50.450.621.711.187.8
    Turnips and rape mixed25,5812.40.60.441.421.324.991.0
    Vegetable crops for processing19,6464.56.1-17.80.1-28.5
    Vegetable crops for market11,9961.73.9––9.98.70.224.4
Green fodder—
    Rape72,6843.70.4––55.926.16.392.4
    Chou moellier, kale109,1461.00.80.215.615.123.856.5
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed151,2095.60.9-63.97.810.288.4
Grasses and clovers for hay and silage1,110,8201.01.80.78.76.19.327.6
Lucerne for hay or silage196,9996.81.00.152.119.83.683.4
Commercial orchards19,9542.622.8-5.216.5––47.1
Market gardens16,5071.16.5-7.08.10.122.8

STATISTICS—Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual statistical report on Farm Production issued annually by the Department of Statistics. Unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection relate to holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

BUSHEL WEIGHTS—For statistical and other purposes it is at times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce and fruit, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

ProduceWeight of BushelFruitWeight of Bushel
 lb lb
Wheat60Apples40
Oats40Pears38
Barley50Quinces40
Maize56Peaches42
Peas60Nectarines42
Ryecorn56Apricots42
Beans65Plums42
Grass seed20Cherries42
  Oranges42-43
  Lemons (uncured)42

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION—A general summary of the areas under cultivation is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 10 acres and upwards outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

YearPasture Land*Field CropsPlantationsOrchards, Market Gardens, and NurseriesLying FallowTotal Cultivated Land

*Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or silage, and crops sown together with grasses, which have been included in field crops.

† Excludes domestic orchards.

‡ Areas in residences, private grounds, gardens and domestic orchards are excluded.

§ Includes land prepared for grassland but not sown at 31 January.

   acres (000)  
1962-6317,9512,5941,0243212321,725
1963-6418,2482,5611,0413211221,994
1964-6517,9222,5911,0353312621,707
1965-6618,385§2,6921,056337222,238
1966-6718,940§2,6591,062366322,759
1967-6818,7912,7981,102395722,787

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS—The following table shows the areas under each of the principal field crops for the years stated.

Crop1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68

* Including turnips and rape mixed.

† Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

‡ Includes linseed, mangolds, and tobacco.

§ Includes crops sown together with grasses, 156,749 acres and areas.

‖ Included in other crops.

   acres  
Wheat207,860194,430206,146236,388319,103
Oats73,07597,02585,72066,41184,873
Barley103,961102,39798,043104,773169,678
Maize17,70916,15813,92012,60519,684
Peas for threshing29,97127,24028,78627,32234,665
Linen flax501283446562*
Potatoes25,04525,96924,43419,81823,518
Turnips and swedes*459,620483,896473,448450,625439,766
Onions2,3761,8611,7501,9521,947
Vegetable crops for processing17,44415,40718,28716,05219,646
Green fodder246,315250,963229,126203,104181,830
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed187,612136,501200,824179,255151,209
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage988,8821,049,2181,097,4161,117,0311,110,820
Lucerne for hay or silage159,274151,782182,245179,044196,999
Other crops52,45246,42940,55043,57244,394
Totals2,572,0972,599,5592,701,141§2,658,514§2,798,132§

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. A considerable portion of the area under cereal crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff, hay, or silage, or is fedoff. In regard to peas it should be noted that additional areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
* Estimated.
 Areas for Threshing (Acres)
1961-62186,28834,68277,1167,34428,030
1962-63225,74820,87787,4327,89829,824
1963-64203,96026,57393,9809,64929,971
1964-65183,99638,77287,0359,68527,240
1965-66199,52538,70483,9838,06928,786
1966-67230,56223,00791,9747,56527,322
1967-68312,96034,483155,12414,51234,665
1968-69*312,00028,000135,00015,000..
..Total Yields (Bushels (000))
1961-627,8351,8863,561545763
1962-639,1561,0284,2026091,001
1963-6410,0681,5485,7767441,100
1964-659,1982,4944,670927878
1965-6610,7212,3995,0307621,058
1966-6712,7781,5535,9097281,183
1967-6816,2532,4679,6741,4131,334
1968-69*16,5891,8208,910....
..Yields per Acre (Bushels)
1961-6242.0654.3846.1774.1727.22
1962-6340.5649.2548.0577.1033.55
1963-6449.3658.2461.4677.1236.70
1964-6549.9964.3253.6595.6732.22
1965-6653.7361.9759.8994.4036.76
1966-6755.4267.5164.2596.2243.28
1967-6851.9371.5362.3697.3438.48
1968-69*53.0065.0066.00....

WHEAT—As a result of the equitable price of wheat combined with sowing of increased acreages of higher yielding varieties, and also to other economic factors, the total yield has moved up to record levels of twice those of 8 years ago.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Figure 14.6. AREA AND YIELD OF WHEAT FOR THRESHING

AREA AND YIELD OF WHEAT FOR THRESHING

Wheat Board—Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Board. The operations of this Board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, and bakers, with the Minister of Industries and Commerce as Chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Industries and Commerce as Deputy Chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the Board. The Board is responsible for the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 15 million bushels— some 11 million bushels being required for flour and cereal foods, and the balance for poultry food and seed. In the 1967-68 season New Zealand's production of milling wheat was nearly self-sufficient, requiring only a small quantity to be imported; some surplus non-milling wheat was exported.

Varieties of Wheat—The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, etc. Wheat growers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Crop Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Wheat Research Institute, and the Department of Agriculture. The survey of varieties of wheat grown for threshing is now carried out each year. The 1968 survey which related to wheat sown in 1967 and harvested in 1968 showed the following results.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of wheat threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 312,960 acres which produced 16,252,557 bushels.
Aotea156,0998,409,98757.4453.88
Hilgendorf 6159,6422,697,34018.4245.23
Arawa39,7692,031,11413.8751.07
Cross 7-619,016509,8063.4856.54
Gamenya12,123684,4954.6856.46
Triple Dirk3,000164,9511.1354.98
Tainui1,04347,6790.3345.71
Other1,83195,3910.6552.10
Totals282,52314,640,763100.0051.82

OATS—The area under oats has declined steadily, the greatest decrease being in oats for chaff, hay, and silage. This decline resulted largely from the replacement of horses by tractors.

Varieties of Oats Threshed—A survey covering the season 1967-68 gave the following results:

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of oats threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 34,483 acres which produced 2,466,625 bushels.
Onward14,6441,037,94648.5370.88
Mapua8,481714,57733.4184.26
Black Supreme2,083116,7745.4656.06
Grey Winter1,17751,3052.4043.59
Other White2,146143,2676.7066.76
Other Black1,41674,8043.5052.83
Totals29,947*2,138,673100.0071.42

More than half a million bushels of oats are milled each year to produce some 3,000 short tons of rolled oats, and 2,300 short tons of oatmeal and proprietary oaten foods.

BARLEY—In the five seasons 1963-64 to 1967-68 the average area of barley sown was 116,000 acres of which 102,000 were harvested for grain most of the remainder being used for green feed. In the 1967-68 season there were 9,673,656 bushels of barley threshed from 155,124 acres compared with 5,908,917 bushels from 91,974 acres in the 1966-67 season. During 1966-67 1,849,000 bushels were used for malting and 1,538,000 bushels for manufactured stock food.

Varieties of barley grown in the 1967-68 season were as set out below.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of barley threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 155,124 acres.
Carlsberg84,3475,436,50965.2964.45
Kenia23,8001,394,55716.7558.59
Research22,8401,317,51615.8257.68
Zephyr1,416101,8001.2271.89
Other varieties1,65576,0610.9245.96
Totals134,058*8,326,443100.0062.11

PEAS—The area of peas for threshing has fallen considerably since the peak of 50,000 acres averaged over the three seasons 1946-47 to 1948-49, the average area for the five years 1963-64 to 1967-68 being 29,600 acres. There have been fluctuations in the export figures for this commodity. In 1949 nearly 850,000 bushels were exported, whereas by 1953 the amount had fallen to approximately 370,000 bushels. Over the five years 1963-64 to 1967-68 exports averaged 636,275 bushels annually.

Varieties of peas grown in the 1967-68 season were as under.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of peas threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 34,665 acres which produced 1,333,760 bushels.
Garden varieties15,252576,02151.2337.77
Field varieties—
    Blue Boiling2,777110,1589.8039.67
    Maple8,990346,62030.8238.56
    White2,49991,6478.1536.67
Totals29,518*1,124,446100.0038.09

The foregoing figures exclude green peas grown for market or processing (e.g., canning and quick freezing). There has been an increasing use of quick-frozen peas.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal functions of the Board are to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the Board may impose a levy not exceeding $3 per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the Board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The Board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. For the 1968-69 season the rate involved varies according to varieties from $15 to $26 per 2,000 lb in the South Island and $19 to $30 per 2,000 lb unit in the North Island.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 2 3/4 million is now supplied from the same acreages as were 1 3/4 million people 20 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been achieved through new varieties and better farming practice based on research results.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest five years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre
 acrestonstons
1963-6425,045200,7868.02
1964-6525,969243,0649.36
1965-6624,434230,8589.45
1966-6719,818184,3989.30
1967-6823,518232,1109.87

The estimated area for 1968-69 was 22,300 acres.

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest five years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre
 acrestonstons
1963-642,37631,20113.13
1964-651,86119,11010.27
1965-661,75021,20812.12
1966-671,95223,91612.25
1967-681,94723,76612.21

LINSEED—The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. The highest level of 24,437 acres was reached in 1951-52. In the processing of linseed, the linseed oil is extracted while the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food. A small quantity of unprocessed linseed is also used for this purpose.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS—The following table gives the areas of the supplementary fodder crops.

YearGrasses and Clovers, Including Lucerne for Hay or SilageCereal CropsRape, Kale, and Chou MoellierSwedes, Turnips, Turnips and RapeTotal Area of Fodder Crops*
* Excludes small areas of other minor fodder crops.
   acres  
1962-631,121,77966,318251,076426,9231,866,096
1963-641,148,15668,443246,315459,6201,922,534
1964-651,201,00090,522250,963483,8962,026,381
1965-661,279,66171,321229,126473,4482,053,556
1966-671,296,07567,069203,104450,6252,016,873
1967-681,307,81976,259181,830439,7662,005,674

In 1967-68 grasses and clovers cut for hay or silage totalled 1,110,820 acres and lucerne 196,999 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilised in any quantity for this purpose. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock. The area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or silage or fed off amounted to 50,390 acres. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (72,684 acres) and chou moellier, including kale (109,146 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1967-68 being 439,766 acres (including 25,581 acres of turnips and rape mixed).

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Department of Agriculture has a seed certification scheme covering such crops as potatoes, wheat, perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, short rotation (H1) ryegrass, cocksfoot, timothy, browntop, Phalaris tuberosa, white clover, cowgrass (broad red clover), Montgomery red clover, subterranean clover, oats, barley, ryecorn, sweet blue lupins, onions, chou moellier, rape, kale, turnip, and swede seeds. Selected strains are multiplied under the Department's certification scheme through the stages of certified “Pedigree” seed and certified “Mother” seed to certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed. These seeds are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—Of the total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during 1967-68, 88 percent was in the South Island.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, are given in the following table.

Crop1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
* Includes Ariki ryegrass.
Ryegrass—  acres  
    Perennial54,11642,34462,97755,43150,193*
    Italian7,8518,80111,1977,4564,803
    Short rotation (H1)12,83811,68916,89218,29316,943
Cocksfoot9,5838,1748,7319,3499,607
Chewings fescue1,3111,1271,5071,0062,954
Crested dogstail5,8934,6564,8663,7997,936
Red clover (including Cowgrass)12,48714,24919,94315,45011,888
White clover71,47631,90355,54146,55426,012
Lucerne5,5864,21910,96613,86711,616
Other grasses and clovers6,4719,3398,2048,0509,257
Totals187,612136,501200,824179,255151,209

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass and clover seeds treated by machine dressing plants for the latest three years are given below.

Type of SeedUnit196619671968
Ryegrass—
    Perennialbush1,121,5781,025,303917,325
    Italian (including W. Wolths)bush228,855202,775120,805
    Short rotation (H1)bush403,836753,486445,479
    Arikibush241,859446,049204,732
Cocksfootlb1,578,6161,909,9321,754,292
Chewings fescuelb295,988215,261458,185
Crested dogstaillb1,082,233878,6171,771,103
Browntoplb417,068204,128207,661
Timothylb797,822892,554977,402
White cloverlb5,829,5646,922,1094,568,046
Suckling cloverlb118,20490,999148,492
Suckling white mixturelb351,895355,449326,852
Broad red clover (including cowgrass)lb1,573,5031,640,5511,107,245
Montgomery red cloverlb1,365,1841,159,520990,163
Lucernelb733,4071,165,0681,109,521
Other grasses and cloverslb257,983249,313825,182

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS—The following table sets out the acreages for market gardens, plantations, etc. Forest Service plantations are included in these figures. The statistics relate only to holdings of 10 acres and over outside boroughs. In 1956-57 the area of market gardens in the 1-9 acre group represented 19 percent of the total acreage; in the case of nurseries the percentage was 21 percent and for private gardens 5 percent. Plantations were scarcely affected, being well under 1 percent. Figures include berry-fruit gardens.

YearMarket Gardens*NurseriesPrivate Gardens, etc.Plantations
* Excluding crops for processing.
  acres 
1962-6313,7791,431..1,024,353
1963-6412,9911,758..1,041,476
1964-6514,5791,763102,4461,034,926
1965-6612,9361,848122,6561,056,274
1966-6714,9982,151116,6721,061,606
1967-6816,5072,194114,3881,102,142

Commercial Gardens—The Department of Agriculture estimates that approximately 2,700 vegetable growers were cultivating a total area of approximately 45,000 acres in 1964. Included in this figure are approximately 19,000 acres used exclusively for growing crops for processing.

Commercial berry-fruit gardens are surveyed every five years. The Department of Agriculture's last survey was in 1965 when 1,259 acres farmed by 571 growers were recorded. In 1965 the areas then being grown were raspberries 524 acres; strawberries 472 acres; black currants 91 acres; gooseberries 64 acres; boysenberries 89 acres; loganberries 19 acres. The production of berryfruits in the 1966-67 season was estimated as follows raspberries 1,100 tons; strawberries, 3,400 tons; black currants, 190 tons; gooseberries, 90 tons; boysenberries, 200 tons; and loganberries 70 tons. The greatest concentration of gardens is in Canterbury near Christchurch and Waimate with the combined total of 316 acres. Raspberries account for 157 of the 206 acres of berryfruit grown in the Nelson province. The 112 acres in the Waira-rapa are mainly of mixed berryfruit holdings. In the vicinity of Auckland 71 acres of strawberries are grown. Other major centres of berryfruit growing are Central Otago, 80 acres; Manawatu, 103 acres; and Hawke's Bay 102 acres. Gooseberries are not grown commercially to any extent outside the Wairarapa (45 acres). These estimates cover all gardens of over half an acre and smaller gardens with more than a quarter of an acre of strawberries, including those in boroughs. The only berry fruit for which there is an organised marketing scheme is the raspberry, for which local marketing committees have been established in Nelson (since 1940) and in Canterbury and Otago (since 1959), while a Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to co-ordinate marketing by the three district committees.

Nurseries—The number of nurseries registered at 31 December 1966 totalled 645 and these covered 2,124 acres.

Home Garden Production—Home garden production, on which a question was asked for the first time at the 1956 Census, is dealt with in the next table. This question was not asked again in subsequent censuses.

Proportion of RequirementsPotatoes GrownOther Vegetables Grown
Number of HouseholdsPercent of Total SpecifiedNumber of HouseholdsPercent of Total Specified
All48,0848.7345,4988.27
Three-quarter24,2934.4154,3959.88
One-half46,2518.4069,90112.70
One-quarter56,86610.3356,60410.29
Under one-quarter101,28818.40107,32919.50
Nil273,81149.73216,63039.36
Not specified12,459-12,695-
Totals563,052100.00563,052100.00

Of the total households where a return was made 62 percent kept a garden and 38 percent had no garden. Where only 37 percent of dwellings with one occupant returned “yes”, this rose sharply to 59 percent of households with two occupants. The proportions answering “yes” to this question increased continuously from two to six occupants, and declined from seven occupants onwards.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Apples and pears are the main fruits, the principal growing areas being Nelson and Hawke's Bay. Peach and plum orchards are distributed over Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, and near Auckland. Central Otago, with its hot summers and severe winters, produces the greater part of the English plums, apricots, and cherries. The coastal strip from North Auckland, through the Bay of Plenty, to Gisborne is sufficiently mild for the production of citrus and other subtropical fruits such as passionfruit, tamarilloes, and Chinese gooseberries.

The area in commercial holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries returned as under fruit trees was given as 19,864 acres at 31 January 1968.

During 1963 the Department of Agriculture made the third comprehensive field survey of fruit trees in commercial orchards. This survey covered all orchards with 100 or more deciduous fruit trees, over 50 citrus trees, or over half an acre in berry fruits, grapes, subtropical fruits, and mixed orchards of half an acre and over. The Horticulture Division of the Department of Agriculture has supplied the following numbers of fruit trees of principal kinds in commercial orchards based on 1963 survey figures: apple, 1,208,000; pear, 174,000; quince, 3,400; peach, 336,000; nectarine, 34,000; apricot, 129,000; plum, 97,000; cherry, 18,200; lemon, 33,400; orange, 66,400; grapefruit, 38,000; mandarin, 27,000; tangelo, 4,400.

The 1963 survey showed that the total number of fruit trees had increased since the second survey of 1958. There were 121,000 more apple trees and 30,000 more pear trees, but 10,600 fewer grapefruit trees, 8,000 fewer lemon trees, and 3,000 fewer quince trees.

A survey by the Department of Agriculture in 1960 of all vineyards containing at least half an acre of vines covered 161 vineyards. The total area in grapes was estimated at 958 acres, comprising 863 acres in wine grapes, 72 acres in outdoor table grapes, and 23 acres devoted to grape-juice production. Vineyards were mainly in Auckland (425 acres), Hawke's Bay (387 acres), Waikato (63 acres), Gisborne (45 acres), Northland (21 acres), Thames (10 acres), Bay of Plenty (3 acres), and South Island (4 acres). In 1963 there were 165 licensed winemakers who produced 1,320,500 gallons of grape wine, 3,650 gallons of grape-juice beverage, 21,500 gallons of fruit wine, and 14,250 gallons of cider. Grape-wine production consisted of 220,000 gallons of unfortified table wines, i.e., under 25 percent proof spirit, and 1,100,500 gallons of fortified wines, over 30 percent proof spirit. The estimated area in glasshouse vineries in 1963 was 409,150 square feet. The main centres of indoor grape growing were: Auckland, 204,300 square feet; Canterbury, 51,500 square feet; Manawatu, 51,500 square feet; and Oamaru, 40,700 square feet. Approximately 103,950 square feet of glasshouse vineries have been adapted for early market and 215,200 square feet for late market. In 1963 grapes used for winemaking were estimated at 4,750 tons. There were 100 tons of outdoor table grapes and 185 tons of glasshouse grapes marketed for dessert purposes.

Apples and Pears—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Board appears in Section 21.

Quantities of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Board in the last five seasons are given below. These figures exclude direct sales from fruitgrowers to factories and the public.

SeasonApplesPearsTotal
  bushel cases 
19641,985,500411,6002,397,100
19651,822,200429,6002,251,800
19661,893,900448,8002,342,700
19671,957,100413,3002,370,400
19682,179,500468,7002,648,200

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board and exported to the United Kingdom and elsewhere during the 1967-68 season, together with the total estimated production of each variety. Factories are given authority to purchase fruit for processing direct from the growers.

VarietyMarketed by the Apple and Pear Marketing BoardEstimated Total Production*
In New ZealandFor Export
To United KingdomTo Other Countries
*Estimated by Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture.
Apples— bushel cases 
    Sturmer Pippin322,158620,99910,516..
    Delicious406,00791,748168,906..
    Jonathan259,776194,98491,941..
    Grannie Smith284,639238,664336,074..
    Cox's Orange Pippin139,075141,771883..
    Ballarat Seedling35,66735,2349,989..
    Golden Delicious166,158144,746132,769..
    Gravenstein145,879-309..
    Dougherty73,23143,22446,372..
    Others346,931163,84661,195..
Totals, apples2,179,5211,675,216858,9546,227,000
Pears—
    William's Bon Chretien128,395--..
    Winter Cole127,30556,95024,938..
    Winter Nelis118,8364,30412,790..
    Others94,19138,28849,991..
Totals, pears468,72799,54287,7191,080,000

Stone Fruits—The 1963 survey by the Department of Agriculture revealed that nearly half of the total of 340,000 peach trees were in Hawke's Bay, and that, of the balance, some 76,000 peach trees were in the Auckland district.

Production and disposal of stone fruits for the year ended 30 June 1968 were estimated as follows.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
MarketProcessing
 (000 bushels)(bushels)(000 bushels)
Peaches703512,2001,215
Nectarines6975070
Apricots18189,250270
Plums—
    European177,20024
    Japanese1249,350134
    Cherries221,90024

Citrus and Subtropical Fruits—Estimated quantities of citrus fruits marketed in New Zealand by the Citrus Marketing Authority, together with direct sales to the public by citrus growers, are given in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemons*Sweet OrangesMandarins and Other Citrus Fruits
*Figures for lemons relate to packed 3/1; bushed cases.
  bushels 
1962204,850149,50028,75010,350
1963178,750117,00025,75010,500
1964185,050121,62533,65014,100
1965184,200133,66031,05015,800
1966158,500112,40036,60022,000
1967154,000121,00037,00025,000
1968184,500171,50058,60043,100

Reference to the Citrus Marketing Authority is to be found in Section 21. Estimated production figures for other subtropical fruits for 1968 are: tamarilloes, 1,627 tons; passion fruit, 65 tons; Chinese gooseberries, 1,823 tons.

HOPS—Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea county. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 and 1,500 lb. In the 1968 season 2,783 bales were packed, which was 667 bales less than the previous season. The total crop produced in the 1968 season was 807,339 lb, as against 1,039,938 lb in 1967. About 95 percent of the crop is now picked by machines.

A Hop Marketing Committee of six members (one Government and five producer) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 6,962,396 lb of raw tobacco leaf was imported for the year ended 30 December 1966 with a value of $4,004,504.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: New Zealand Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea PlantedProduction*Estimated Value of Crop*
*Includes research and experimental crops.
  acreslb (000)$ (000)
1962-637295,3578,9483,944
1963-647635,8789,3814,128
1964-657285,8409,8814,554
1965-665855,0886,8233,268
1966-675294,8825,5162,984

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98.0 percent and air-dried leaf for 2.0 percent of the 1966-67 crop.

PHORMIUM TENAX—Certain areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered by natural stands of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), once used by the Maoris for many purposes and one of the earliest of this country's exports. Only a small proportion of the natural area is millable but this, together with an estimated planted area of about 3,000 acres, produces some 5,000 tons of fibre and tow. The industry provides at least one-third of the local requirements of woolpacks.

LINEN FLAX—There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales and for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

Areas for the last five seasons are: 1962-63, 681 acres; 1963-64, 501 acres; 1964-65, 283 acres; 1965-66, 446 acres; and 1966-67, 562 acres.

Production from the single factory still operated by the Linen Flax Corporation at Geraldine has been as follows:

Product19631964196519661967
   tons  
Straw processed1,3511,4491,3698731,313
Scrutched fibre158150167101152
Seed15614216082142
Tow3540382746
Linmeal931021035888

14C—LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—New Zealand has more than 25 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry one cow to the acre, and the best sheep farms can support up to 10 sheep to the acre throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761,700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure. Merinos have become restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country and crossbreds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels. There were nearly 10 million breeding ewes in 1901.

In 1861 there were 193,000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus, which has gradually gained ground over the last 30 years, with Herefords and Shorthorns next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300,000 dairy cows by 1897, 185,000 of them in the North Island and 115,000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than twelve times as many dairy cows as the South Island. At first the Shorthorn was the popular breed, but since 1920 the Jersey has emerged as the predominant breed of dairy cattle.

In the following table, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31 January; sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated; breeding ewes and total sheep are as at 30 June, while the coverage is of holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

Livestock19641965196619671968
*Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.
Cattle (including dairy cows)6,696,2056,801,3337,217,7207,746,8668,247,163
    Dairy cows in milk2,010,8682,032,2272,087,8692,131,3592,232,482
    Total dairy cattle3,128,4373,173,7573,361,6213,505,7143,698,020
    Beef cattle3,567,7683,627,5763,856,0994,241,1524,549,143
Sheep (including lambs)*51,291,89853,747,75357,343,25760,029,977x60,473,597
    Breeding ewes*35,701,95337,178,11039,667,73441,407,70842,650,916
    Lambs tailed during season34,751,81534,791,58036,990,22439,361,93340,920,825
    Lambs shorn during season13,038,88412,902,49917,707,17616,021,57815,913,932
    Sheep shorn during season46,508,39647,415,40549,624,23954,563,34756,451,591
Pigs (total)771,450716,008666,905602,695614,177
    Breeding sows95,17990,04881,67875,91077,412

The 1964 Agricultural Development Conference set a target of an increase in livestock numbers of 3.5 percent a year. In the year to 31 January 1967 dairy cattle increased by 4.3 percent, beef cattle by 10 percent; in the year to 31 January 1968 these increases were 5.5 percent for dairy cattle and 7.3 percent for beef cattle. Sheep numbers rose by 4.7 percent in the year to 30 June 1967 and by 0.7 percent in the year to 30 June 1968.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 87 percent of the total cattle and 93 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 65 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island. Taranaki and Wellington districts between them account for one-quarter of the total dairy cows in milk.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows two years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with two-fifths of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by East Coast and Northland in that order. These five districts together depasture 76 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland-Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 48 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 23 percent. The number of pigs kept in Nelson, Westland, and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 19 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay, in that order, these six districts accounting for 83 percent of the total sheep population in 1968.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 31 January 1968.

Statistical AreaDairy Cows, and Heifers Two Years Old and Over (In Milk)Beef Breeding Cows, Two Years Old and OverTotal CattleBreeding SowsTotal PigsSheep Shorn*Lambs Shorn*Lambs Tailed*
*Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1967-68, remaining particulars for stock at 31 January 1968.
Northland(000)2751378948611,9228501,238
 Percent12.39.510.810.09.93.45.33.0
Central Auckland(000)195434849721,304487906
 Percent8.73.05.911.211.82.33.12.2
South Auckland(000)9913302,703211638,7433,7876,065
    Bay of PlentyPercent44.422.832.827.226.515.523.814.8
East Coast(000)9153431172,3531,0951,416
 Percent0.410.65.21.41.24.16.93.5
Hawke's Bay(000)432187312136,3692,5614,654
 Percent2.015.08.92.42.211.316.111.4
Taranaki(000)352427379771,6866841,158
 Percent15.82.98.911.112.43.04.32.9
Wellington(000)2032571,1789638,9263,5596,026
 Percent9.117.714.311.310.215.822.314.7
North Island(000)2,0691,1807,1575845631,30113,02321,464
 Percent92.781.586.874.674.255.481.852.5
Marlborough(000)1324922161,311195780
 Percent0.61.71.12.62.72.31.21.9
Nelson(000)3718120332685170434
 Percent1.61.21.54.45.31.21.11.0
Westland(000)17157711219346149
 Percent0.81.00.91.22.00.40.30.4
Canterbury(000)508434910749,4151,0297,299
 Percent2.25.84.213.112.016.76.517.8
Otago(000)21722372136,4965274,695
 Percent0.95.02.92.22.011.53.311.5
Southland(000)24552161117,0519236,100
 Percent1.23.82.61.91.812.55.814.9
South Island(000)1632681,0902015825,1502,89119,457
 Percent7.318.513.225.425.844.618.247.5

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Statistics of Farm Production. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper H. 23, which is a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep and gives a broad classification of stud and other groups.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe
 Thousands Totals
19639022,25734,9895172632,7218,54150,190
19649072,35235,7024682682,6638,93251,292
19659312,55337,1784782692,9829,35553,748
19669562,60139,6683362913,13910,35357,343
19679802,70341,4083793192,82011,42160,030
19681,0042,40142,6514883312,49911,10060,474
 Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
195717-4416153-168784
196225-5087183-196918
196719-5296215-215985
 Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but Not Entered in Flock Book
19577201,97024,699352722,3366,09636,245
19628342,01229,035450752,2897,28041,975
19679192,47937,184337922,53310,25453,798
 Crossbred Sheep
1957332923,7607394507365,353
1962412694,4029394368466,096
1967422253,69536112879525,248

The 1967 classification of breeds shows that of the 60,029,977 sheep in New Zealand 45,814,676 (76.32 percent) were Romneys and 5,247,589 (8.74 percent) were crossbreds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 3,420,696, half-bred 2,366,617, South-down 997,784, and Merino 946,990.

There has been a steady increase in the average flock size over the last five years. A classification by size of flock for the last five years is now given.

Size of Flocks19641965196619671968
1- 995,2145,2994,9144,9555,310
100- 1992,7442,6462,5442,4052,421
200- 4995,8495,7285,3164,9954,741
500- 9997,8067,3956,9586,4606,233
1,000- 1,4997,9117,4937,1406,6686,339
1,500- 1,9995,1055,4445,7545,8025,714
2,000- 2,4992,7012,8853,2813,5513,550
2,500- 4,9993,5073,9084,4764,9495,120
5,000- 7,499530611699811825
7,500- 9,999162183205252262
10,000-19,999122148164188218
20,000 and over2024303737
Total flocks41,67141,76441,48141,07340,770
Average flock size1,2311,2871,3821,4621,472

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle by categories are now given.

CategoryAt 31 January
196619671968
Dairy stock—
    Cows and heifers, two years old and over—
        Cows in milk during season2,087,8692,131,3592,232,482
        Heifers not yet in milk59,88176,44185,067
        Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying29,83729,21527,078
Heifers—
        One and under two years old507,208557,998604,647
        Under one year old581,446617,667653,507
    Bulls and bull calves intended for dairy breeding95,38093,03495,239
                                    Totals, dairy stock3,361,6213,505,7143,698,020
Beef stock—
    Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,411,3911,535,8061,647,628
    Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding70,14368,59264,695
    Heifers—
        One and under two years old393,791433,328478,480
        Under one year old472,893539,475573,921
    Steers and bulls of all ages1,507,8811,663,9511,784,419
                                    Totals, beef stock3,856,0994,241,1524,549,143
                                    Totals, cattle7,217,7207,746,8668,247,163

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the four last intervals for which such information is available. The general trend is towards fewer holdings and larger herds.

As at 31 Jan.HoldingsTotal Holdings With 10 or more Cows in Milk
With 10-19 CowsWith 20-29 CowsWith 30-39 CowsWith 40-49 CowsWith 50-59 CowsWith 60-69 CowsWith 70-79 CowsWith 80-89 CowsWith 90-99 CowsWith 100 and over
19524,3684,5365,5275,2454,4383,6652,5121,7261,1052,53235,654
19573,4773,5634,5494,8354,5894,3053,0712,0231,3513,09434,857
19602,5792,8023,6654,2154,1993,9862,9152,1481,2893,35331,151
19683,0351,5081,8902,4492,6412,6792,1278,48824,817

For dairy stock the Jersey breed, with 78.6 percent of all dairy stock in 1962, is predominant, while the main beef stock breeds are Aberdeen Angus (74.5 percent), Hereford (16.3 percent), and Shorthorn (5.4 percent).

PIGS—The rearing of pigs fluctuates as indicated in the following table.

At 31 JanuaryBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
196397,039668,986766,025
196495,179676,271771,450
196590,048625,960716,008
196681,678585,227666,905
196775,910526,785602,695
196877,412536,765614,177

Particulars as to pig breeds collected in 1950 showed that the principal distinctive breeds were Berkshire (6.6 percent) and Tamworth (5.5 percent), but over 80 percent of the pigs in New Zealand were classified as crossbreds.

HORSES—Farm horses have been almost completely replaced by tractors. By 1965 the number of heavy- and medium-type horses had fallen to 6,844, hacks and light working horses having decreased to a much lesser extent.

DOGS—The count of dogs registered during the year ended 31 March 1968 showed that there were 226,007 dogs registered in counties, 60,941 in boroughs, 660 in town districts, and 210 in road districts. Unregistered dogs and those up to six months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY—The following table shows poultry recorded at censuses.

CensusNumber of Units Keeping PoultryFowlsDucksGeeseTurkeysTotal Poultry
*Excluding flocks owned by Maoris.
April 1921*145,9933,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009
April 1926*158,8563,308,384352,03043,87976,8523,781,145
March 1936166,3543,488,516377,79166,66786,1024,019,076
September 1945159,3334,070,683319,91841,90337,8624,470,366
April 1951180,7233,829,481260,65958,47450,9764,199,590
April 1956192,7364,160,424210,71860,93853,4914,485,571
April 1961163,4764,183,563202,24573,45766,1324,525,397
March 1966122,8444,946,838184,54082,05083,0645,296,492

The figures from 1951 onwards include only birds aged four months or over, while the 1945 figures cover birds of all ages. At earlier censuses the question was for the number of birds—no reference being made to age. The census of 1945 was taken in the spring, whereas the other censuses were taken in the autumn.

In 1967-68 there were 3,952 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the industry. Of these 2,348 flocks had fewer than 201 fowls, 396 ranged from 201 to 500 fowls, 322 from 501 to 1,000 fowls, 754 from 1,001 to 5,000 fowls and 132 flocks exceeded 5,000 fowls. There were 3,578,095 birds in these flocks.

The commercial groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns. Egg production has been steadily increasing and sales through licensed distributors have been 30,484,133 dozen in 1964-65, 33,449,158 dozen in 1965-66, 35,474,000 dozen in 1966-67 and 35,441,000 dozen in 1967-68. It is estimated that approximately 40 to 45 percent of the total egg production passes through these channels.

Poultry farming is confined largely to egg production, but units are now established for the production of table poultry, and attention paid to the production of “broilers” or 3 to 31/2; lb live weight chicken. At the Census of 1966 there were 1,167,000 broiler chickens.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Christchurch, and Oamaru. Duck-egg farming is carried on only to a limited extent and is centred mainly around Auckland. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Until about 1950, White Leghorns were almost the only breed used for commercial egg production but crossbred birds are now by far the most popular birds for egg production. The pure breeds mated to produce these crossbreds are White Leghorns, Australorps, and Rhode Island Reds.

Khaki Campbell and Runner ducks are mainly used for egg production, while Khaki Campbell, Muscovy, and some Pekin ducks are marketed as table birds. There is some organised turkey production.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Production for the year ended 31 May 1968 was estimated at 3,400 tons of honey and 119,200 lb of commercial beeswax, considerably below the average for the past six seasons. Most of the honey is consumed in New Zealand, which has one of the highest rates of consumption a head in the world.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that at 31 May 1967 there were 3,508 beekeepers with a total of 12,770 apiaries and 194,213 hives. There are only some 300 full-time bee-keepers completely dependent on honey production. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group1-5 Hives6-29 Hives30-250 Hives251 Hives and OverTotal
Beekeepers2,2297213122463,508
Apiaries2,3341,0901,7237,62312,770
Hives established5,2339,14625,551154,283194,213

Chapter 15. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Trees are among New Zealand's valuable assets; their growth is favoured by a temperate climate, a generally adequate rainfall and soil conditions. Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the land area of New Zealand; the remaining third constituted land in the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 3,500-4,500 ft. European settlers clearing land for farms felled and burnt large areas of native bush. Clearing of the forests extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable for conservation. The kauri forests of the far north were almost destroyed by logging and subsequent burning, and the areas of rimu forest in both islands were heavily depleted. It was not until towards the end of the nineteenth century that the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds was recognised. By the early 1900s national parks and scenic and climatic reserves amounting to about 2 million acres had been set aside as permanent forest; the are, has since grown to over 5 million acres (see Section 10B).

Today, apart from the national parks, nearly 10 million acres of land, valuable either for timber production or whose forest growth is vital to soil and water conservation, has been constituted State forest. The country's timber resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in about 30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species. State plantations now have an area of about 636,000 acres, and planting by private interests has contributed an almost equal area of trees. For some years the earlier planted trees have been milled, and the output of timber from the exotic forest now greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests, in which cutting is restricted. These exotic species are also the basis of a flourishing pulp and paper industry and an export log trade.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandNew Zealand Area, in Million AcresPercentage of Total Area
Total forested land15.423.2
Pasture and arable land33.750.0
Other non-forested land16.425.5
Minor islands0.20.3
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.71.0
Total area66.4100.0

THE FORESTS TODAY—More than three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 14.1 million acres of indigenous forest that remain, only some 1.3 million acres are merchantable by today's standards. It is estimated that the amount of timber they contain is about 2,000 million cubic feet, representing 13,000 million board feet of sawn timber. Despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber the indigenous forests are being depleted at the rate of 30,000 acres a year, primarily for sawn timber.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, nearly half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are 1.2 million acres of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap, undeveloped land at that time. Because they can be reinstated with no great difficulty after harvesting, it can be expected that the exotic forests will be extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of the two classes of forest land is shown in the table below.

Class of Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
* Merchantable indigenous forests includes some reserves, previously logged areas, and areas of such low stocking that commercial exploitation is at present uneconomic. Commercially exploitable forest in the 2,600,000 acres detailed above is estimated to be 1,300,000 acres.
Merchantable forestsacres (thousand)
    State forests1,5306362,166
    Crown land range18017197
    Freehold and leasehold land4205981,018
    Maori land260-260
    Reserves180-180
Totals (say)2,600*1,2003,800
Unmerchantable forests
    State forests5,300-5,300
    Crown land, other1,400-1,400
    Freehold and leasehold land1,6001001,700
    Maori land800-800
    Reserves2,400-2,400
Totals11,50010011,600
Totals, all forested land14,1001,30015,400

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp-broadleaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many sub-groups and transition zones.

Podocarp-broadleaved forests are found at all latitudes in the three main islands, although they are in general those of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consist of pockets that will be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Liboccdrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and West Coast of the South Island and largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broadleaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia raccmosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and, except in Westland, tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa).

Kauri forests are found in Northland. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp-broadleaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited reservations and a few small pockets remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern-beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from many localities where their presence might be expected, e.g. Mt. Egmont, the region 100 miles south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, those forests are protective forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are re-generating and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides), between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests-Introduced species of pines form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme all-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching sawlog size in 30-40 years), produces a large volume of the usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa). Of recent years the southern pines—loblolly (P. taeda), slash (P. elliottii), and longleaf (P. palustris) pines—have found a place in more northerly forests. Species planted on a restricted scale are lodgepole (P. contorta), strobus (P. strobus), and patula (P. patula) pines, larch (Larix decidua and L. leptolepis), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Lawson cypess (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrrpa), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata.) The limited amount of introduced broad-leaved species used in the plantations is, for the most part, various species of eucalypt.

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations. Douglas fir will be more widely used in future plantings because a good market for the timber has developed.

FOREST ADMINISTRATION—For many years State forests and related afforestation activities were under the Department of Lands and Survey, but in 1919 a separate Forestry Department was formed—this was the beginnings of the present-day Forest Service.

By the Forests Act 1949, which consolidated and amended all legislation on forestry, the Forest Service has, under the direction of the Minister of Forests, complete responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and has exclusive control and management of:

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilisation, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry;

  2. The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilisation, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land;

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act;

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed;

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Regulations—The Forests Act 1949 authorises the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950, the Forest and Fire Publicity Committee Regulations 1952, the Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee Regulations 1952, the Indigenous Forest Timber Committee Regulations 1966, and the Timber Industry Training Centre Advisory Committee Regulations 1966.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1952, the Timber Regulations 1948, the Forest Service Fees and Charges Regulations 1953, the Forest Produce Import and Export Regulations 1966, and the Forest Disease Control Regulations 1967.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards:

Protecting, conserving, and, if possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

Creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber. The Forest Service prepares working plans for all major State Forests and through them regulates the amount of timber that may be cut annually.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent on them. Further stability is being sought by the practice of replanting logged areas with exotic species, combined where possible with the planting of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic and part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

The possibility of regenerating some podocarp forests and maintaining production from them is being explored. The ecology of the natural forest associations and the Silvia cultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate, which means that clear felling, or any condition that allows exposure and desiccation, must be avoided.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. They show promise of being amenable to sound forestry management. Bleeding for gum, which damaged many trees in the past, is forbidden. The annual cut is strictly rationed. Wherever kauri is felled a portion of the growing stock in young vigorous trees is left as a reserve. Young pole stands are silviculturally treated to free them from competition and improve growth. Natural regeneration is assisted and encouraged. A small but regular cut of this valuable species is assured.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained yield basis are good. Both the major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce sawlogs in 100-130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact, and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of pole forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer, whose browsing may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 47,000 acres had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 376,000 acres planted by the State and 297,000 acres by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has doubled since then (12,000 acres in 1961, 24,000 acres in 1967).

In the early years exotic forestry was necessarily experimental, and, as could be expected, was not equally successful with all species and in all sites tried. Location and distribution of the plantations were largely decided by the availability of land rather than by suitability for tree growing or proximity to existing or future markets.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and, at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice. There is wide use of working plans to prescribe and co-ordinate forest operations.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply over 80 percent of the total wood production, and must in the future supply much more.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective: the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land, and the establishment of production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Six schemes are in operation-at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Waiterere, and Santoft—embracing a total area of approximately 110,000 acres. About 26,000 acres of trees have been planted.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and sub-alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand; for many of the rivers that bring water to low-lying farm lands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy falls of rain and are mostly formed of rocks that erode easily when exposed to heavy rain and other climatic effects. The blanket of montane vegetation absorbs much of the rainfall and by protecting the soil and stabilising unconsolidated rocky slopes, prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Thus settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river training works and by maintaining vegetation on catchments that ensures the most stable stream flow possible. Hence this vegetation of the mountain regions is called “protection forest”, a term that also includes the protective scrub, grass, and other vegetation above the timber line.

The Forest Service controls over five million acres of protection-forest land, and its main function here is to maintain the protective vegetation in good condition. The greatest threat is from the large numbers of browsing animals that were introduced many years ago, which in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate have multiplied excessively. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of these animals. Protection-forestry rangers are trained in field biology, in field geology, and in watershed and range management. They make careful observations of the effects of browsing animals on the vegetation to gauge if control operations have been intensive enough to allow adequate vegetation response.

The Protection Forestry Section of the Forest Service works in close association with the Forest Research Institute's Protection Forestry Branch and its associated Forest and Range Experiment Stations, which investigate such features as the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, and rates of crosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control.

Recreation in Forests—As the population increases and as the cleared land becomes more firmly occupied by agricultural interests, so does the call on the recreational resources of the forests become greater. Weekend hunters head for the forest to shoot deer and pigs; fishermen frequent the streams; trampers wander along the many tracks; and alpinists climb through the forest to the heights above. The Forest Service caters for this demand in popular forests by establishing regular patrols, clearing and maintaining tracks, making camping sites and fireplaces, and (with the help of tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts and erecting bridges. Several areas are being developed in this way as forest parks, which, although primarily protection forests, will also provide recreation facilities.

Safeguarding Forests and Timber:Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire-resistant, but can become flammable in drought conditions; and severely burnt indigenous forest usually means a destroyed forest, because many of the species are difficult to regenerate.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the Department has fire-fighting responsibilities, and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Also, aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required.

Although the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall reduces the risk of fire, high winds and strong sunshine can quickly dry out vegetation on exposed situations. The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the Forest Service. There is a nation-wide network of “fire weather” and radio stations, and the fire-hazard in any part of the country is known at the head office in Wellington each day during the fire season (October to April) within an hour of weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action to be taken, such as advice to fire authorities and broadcasting of warnings.

Legislative provisions for fire protection are the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 and the Fire Services Act 1949. The Forest Service is responsible for administering the former Act.

Noxious Animal Control—Under the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On state forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the regeneration of forest trees and ground-cover vegetation, in production as well as in protection forests. The natural forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by such ground-browsing animals as deer and goats, while simultaneously the upper storey is being adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Damage by deer and opossums in commercial exotic forests has made it necessary to extend control measures into these forests.

Over 200,000 animals are killed each year by Forest Service and private hunters. Even with modern facilities, including air transport of supplies and use of helicopters for hunting, control of noxious animals is difficult and overall progress is slow. In some rugged country where hunting has proved impracticable such as in parts of Westland, poisoning has been used successfully.

Control of Insects and Fungi—Sound silvicultural practices are the first line of defence, rendering trees less vulnerable to attack.

Biological control over insect pests is exerted by their natural enemies, insect or fungal parasites. Introduced species frequently come into the country without their natural enemies; part of the work of the biologist is to breed and liberate the latter.

Chemical control is an emergency measure to deal with outbreaks. It includes spraying of affected forests from aeroplanes, chemical treatment of nursery soils, and the dipping of timber to prevent attack by bark beetles and fungi.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute make a continuous study of diseases and insects harmful to forests and timber. Observers of the Institute's Forest Biology Survey maintain a constant watch on the forests and woodlots and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken; and much information is accumulated which helps to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country. In 1966, to reduce the risk of introducing insects in packing timbers a prohibition was placed on importation of any sawn timber with bark attached. Overseas exporters must now certify that any wooden packing they use is free of bark and insect attack when shipped. Since introduction of this requirement there has been a noticeable drop in the number of infested crates reaching the country. New Zealand exporters are required to give the same care, and timber must be completely free of attack before export is permitted. Control over dunnage was extended in 1966 to include all material within New Zealand territorial waters.

RESEARCH—Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or co-ordinated by its Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects.

The Forest Research Institute programme has a wide range and includes studies of the fundamental physiological process of tree growth; the ecology of indigenous and exotic forests; silvicultural practices for all stages of exotic forestry; growth rates and productivity under various silvicultural treatments and their impact on the economics of the operations; forest soils, particularly deficiences and remedies for them; selection, breeding, and introduction of improved strains of trees; and all factors affecting the health of trees. The institute has made country-wide inventories of forest resources, indigenous and exotic, and conducts surveys of the condition of protection forests and the mountain scrub and grassland associated with them, particular attention being paid to the impact of animal pests on the vegetation.

Linked with the research into wood formation are studies of the products of forests. The physical and mechanical properties of timbers are investigated, both generally and with special reference to the effects of tree selection based on visual qualities and of silvicultural treatment. Suitability for production of woodpulp and the characteristics of the pulp from species not now used are also studied. Assistance is given to the timber industry by work on wood use, timber seasoning, and preservative treatments.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to the age of 20 years for training as forest rangers and foresters. Ranger trainees work for one year in the forests and then attend Rotorua Ranger School for one year where they study the subjects basic to forestry. Another two years are then spent on forests to consolidate knowledge and to learn supervision and gain experience in planning, control, and leadership. Those selected as forester trainees go directly to university on a full-time study bursary to complete a four-year degree course in forestry. The Forest Research Institute recruits young people of both sexes for training as research technicians.

To build up a permanent and efficient skilled-labour force, the Forest Service now recruits each year about 100 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a two-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, or Dusky, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Through the Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua courses are regularly offered in timber grading, timber inspection, seasoning and treatment of timber and other forestry operations. A continuous series of courses is also provided for Forest Service staff on all phases of Forest Service activity. The Timber Industry Training Centre at Rotorua provides courses for the industry in saw doctoring, sawmilling, and timber machining.

PRIVATE FORESTRY:Private Forest Estate—The National Exotic Forest Survey found that, in 1962, forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) and those on other Crown lands amounted to 528,000 acres. Since then about 70,000 acres have been added, mainly by afforestation companies, and the estimated areas in the various ownerships at 31 March 1968 were: local authorities, 46,000 acres; companies, 348,000 acres; and private persons (mainly farmers), 204,000 acres.

Extension Services—The sale by the State of planting stock in bulk lots, coupled with a revival of interest through the activities of farm-forestry associations established throughout the country, has resulted in an increase in extension-forestry work.

Forest Taxation—The value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax and local body rates and, since 1949, concessions have been made in connection with income tax. Expenditure incurred in planting, protecting, and maintaining shelter belts and some categories of woodlots has since that year been allowed to be charged against income for tax purposes. At the same time income from the intermittent sale of farm trees could, on application to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, be spread over five years to mitigate the effects of the higher graduation tax. In 1960 the timber value of trees growing on a deceased's estate was exempted from death duties. This exemption removes the fear of a crippling burden on the estate and the possibility of the forced sale of a perhaps immature plantation.

Forestry Encouragement Finance—Under the Forestry Encouragement Act 1962 the Government may grant loans to private owners and local authorities towards the cost of establishing and tending new plantations and the tending of those already existing. The scheme came into operation in 1963.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—At present more money is being spent on the establishment and tending of forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry has been met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
   $(000)  
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure7,5405,3445,6216,2766,719
    Less receipts3,220929589111
        Required from Consolidated Revenue Account4,3205,2525,5266,1876,608
Works and Trading Account expenditure6,49611,68212,91813,56115,094
    Less receipts4,9469,27610,49811,19512,053
Loan moneys required1,5502,4062,4202,3663,041
Net finance required from Government funds5,8707,6587,9468,5539,649

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 60 million cubic feet per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 10 million cubic feet came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total removals of roundwood had gone up to 81 million cubic feet with 29 million cubic feet from the exotic forests. Today the exotic forests supply over 80 percent of the total wood output.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 540 sawmills, nine plywood and veneer plants, two particle board mills, five pulp and paper mills, and a pulp and fibreboard mill.

ROUNDWOOD PRODUCTION*

(Volume in Million Cubic Feet)
Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
*Excludes firewood.
195158.841.099.8
195655.768.0123.7
196155.0113.5168.5
196346.5118.0164.5
196447.0135.2182.2
196546.0155.2201.2
196643.6163.4207.0
196743.2169.4212.6
196837.4184.7222.1

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine, accounts for about 90 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Less than a third of the country's timber requirements come from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber for selected years.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 board feet (million)
192129010300718308
1926335734210111353
1931208132219-9230
19362493428310-10293
19412775433111-12343
19462269732319322345
195130119049232436528
195627530558043346626
196128739267832436714
196424439363726329666
196523647070627330736
196621950572430333757
196721549871333235748
196819645665221223675

NOTE—In some cases rounding off results in a total disagreeing slightly with the total individual items shown in the table.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past five years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968
 board feet (million)
Rimu and miro193179167166154
Matai2427242217
Totara910996
Kahikatea1718171718
Tawa141416179
Beech1012121310
Other indigenous33442
Totals, indigenous270263249248217
Exotic pines371441473465421
Douglas fir1825272729
Eucalypts22222
Other exotic55666
Totals, exotic396473508500458
Totals (all species)666736757748675

NOTE—Owing to rounding, details may not add to totals.

The Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of output of the pulp and paper industry reached $66 million in 1966-67. Over the last decade total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of over 8 percent. Production rose from 209,000 tons in 1957-58 to 474,000 tons in 1967-68. During the same period total wood consumption in the pulp and paper industry (which includes sawmills of integrated plants) increased form 31 million cubic feet to 74 million cubic feet. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are six plants, five of which are integrated with sawmilling to utilise fully the total wood input. Woodchips from sawmill residues are also produced by independent sawmills and provide a sizeable source of raw materials for the pulp industry.

The basic products of the industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of pulp in New Zealand.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

*Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

†Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tons
1940-217
1945-15,434
1950-21,438
195543,20429,568
1960140,057102,715
1965193,029203,372
1966193,181217,743
1967223,860205,345
1968252,44222,119

All mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table on Trade in Pulp and Paper.)

Production figures of pulp products in New Zealand are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and PaperboardFibreboard
   tons  
1940-..12,87312,873-
1945-..20,61920,6196,862
1950-..21,78721,78713,526
1955-..40,27340,27320,591
196076,100..85,585161,68524,830
1963113,7002,000106,842222,54227,250
1964168,0054,000124,018296,02329,229
1965184,31711,869114,940311,12631,736
1966195,60616,258137,290349,15433,771
1967183,88619,664150,771354,32132,878
1968195,54621,359166,756383,66133,075

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following diagram.

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise timber from the Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 34 million board feet of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 200,000 tons of newsprint, 95,000 tons of chemical pulp, and 160,000 tons of mechanical pulp.

In 1959 the Bowater Group obtained an interest in the company and took over the management and development of the mill and world sales of all its products.

New Zealand Forest Products Ltd.—This public company is already utilising over 32,000,000 cubic feet of timber a year from its own pine forests. Plant capacity is 100,000 tons of kraft, printing, and writing paper, 150,000 tons of kraft pulp, 43,000 tons of defibrated pulp for fibreboard production, and 50,000,000 board feet of sawn timber a year—on a one-shift basis. The company is equipped to convert 10,000,000 board feet of timber into wooden cases and to produce 53,000,000 square feet of veneer, 120,000,000 square feet of fibreboard, and 38,000,000 multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, and sawmill is located at Kinleith near Tokoroa; the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia in Fibre Products N.Z., Ltd., a firm which makes over 13 million moulded fruit trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., which is a subsidiary of New Zealand Forest Products, operates two paperboard machines, with an annual production capacity of 61,000 tons. The company manufactures its own mechanical and semi-chemical pulp, and is self-sufficient for more than 90 percent of its raw materials; it also uses considerable quantities of waste paper.

The company owns its own radiata-pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 26 miles to the mill by road. An associated company, Whakatane Timber Mills Ltd., has its modern sawmill located near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau. The mill has a capacity of 30 thousand tons annually. It draws water and steam supplies from the Tasman company and produces its own requirements of refiner groundwood pulp.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, has been in operation for more than 80 years. Its three machines produce a wide range of papers from fine tissues to heavy krafts, as well as paper felt, pressings, and manilas for special trade requirements. The mills are being modernised to enable production to be diversified and substantially increased. The company produces a small amount of mechanical pulp, which supplements purchased supplies of New Zealand made sulphate pulp, imported sulphite pulp, and waste paper. Annual production capacity is 15,000 tons of kraft and other papers.

Plywood and Veneer Manufacture—Nine factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1967, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16 in. thickness, was 57.1 million square feet. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1966-67 was 220 million square feet (1/16 in. basis).

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply, and in the 1966-67 year provided 48 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forest to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Species of logs and quantities of plywood and veneer produced are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVolume of Logs UsedValue of Logs UsedProduction
RimuKahikateaRadiata PineOtherImportedTotalPlywoodVeneer
 cubic feet (thousand)$(000)million square feet
19621,010178728931632,1721,21449.3189.3
19631,08216887890352,2531,20251.4188.8
1964920208836471482,1591,29052.9185.9
19659831711,13343972,4271,28054.2183.0
19661,0521661,2121702012,8011,62856.6222.6
19679451521,3041481852,7341,64257.1220.3

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. A 1966 survey showed that a total of 8 million fence posts of all types was used: 4 million of these were wooden, almost all being thinnings or small-diameter logs from exotic plantations.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1967, 39 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated; by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which exotic softwoods such as radiata pine may be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: The very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority (set up by the Government in 1955). Plant inspection and sampling associated with quality control are done on behalf of the Authority by Forest Service staff.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g. creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM) and the Lowry process have been introduced. OPM is expected to facilitate treatment of large-diameter round produce and large sawn sections of radiata pine and similar timbers, because it avoids the long-treatment seasonings. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable.

Collection of statistics on wood preservation was introduced in 1955 and the following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated in the country.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
*Mainly boron.
  board feet (thousand) 
1954-55536,98461,48468,520
1958-59-47,18796,584143,770
1959-603070,889105,837176,756
1962-63391,242120,333211,579
1963-6416102,974125,873228,863
1964-65140132,991142,373275,504
1965-664149,621153,878303,503
1966-679148,505154,542303,056
1967-6812108,063156,755264,830

In addition to the above, 8,054,000 cubic feet of other timber, such as sleepers, poles, and fencing materials, was treated by the open-tank method, by diffusion, and by pressure impregnation i 1967-68.

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS—The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April in the years stated. (Source: Labour and Employment Gazette, Department of Labour.)

At 15 AprilForestryLoggingSawmillingPulp and Paper IndustryOtherTotal
*Included in Other.
19502,1922,188*2,08717,68724,154
19552,2872,6385,9692,98013,65127,525
19602,7142,6666,2934,93814,52031,131
19653,5732,6906,3886,82716,61736,095
19663,6492,7516,3667,21217,10737,085
19673,7162,7196,4427,69616,86937,442
19684,1182,7735,8297,57616,01636,312

NOTES:

  1. “Forestry” includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

  2. “Logging” includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

  3. “Pulp and Paper Industry” includes manufacture of pulp and conversion of pulp into paper, paperboard, fibreboard, and paper products (excluding stationery).

  4. “Other” includes plywood and veneer manufacture, timber merchanting, and other wood-using industries.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forests products are growing in importance as earners of overseas funds and their more diversified development in New Zealand is also contributing to reduction of imports. For the year ended June 1968 exports of forest products were valued at $41.2 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 59 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper; and Japan was next largest, taking 33 percent, mainly logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $13.2 million.

Timber exports. There is now an established market in Australia for radiata pine and Douglas fir sawn timber. At present Japan is taking our timber mainly in log form, but the market there for our sawn radiata pine is rapidly expanding. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber imports. Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as railway sleepers, large poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc., but greater use is being made of preservative-treated New Zealand-grown softwood timber for these and other uses subject to severe service conditions. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods and sapele for the furniture trade and other specialty purposes.

Pulp and paper exports. A steady increasing export market for both pulp and paper is developing, mainly to Australia. Chemical sulphate pulp is the only type exported in quantity; and newsprint comprises over 90 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and paper imports. Sulphite pulp, which is not manufactured in New Zealand, and special papers still need to be imported. These two items constitute about two-thirds by the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS

Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports ($000, c.d.v.)
19634,4811,34410,06615,891
19644,7371,73010,44316,910
19655,7231,6099,18816,520
19666,6621,9609,25017,872
19675,3471,9197,01514,281
19684,2191,3417,59113,151
 Exports ($000, f.o.b.)
19634,1885,5108,36818,066
19645,0545,52511,86822,447
19656,4974,77512,39023,662
19666,6156,00312,59925,217
19677,4125,92811,04724,387
196816,9106,07818,23241,220

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES

Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberSleepersLogs and Poles
Australian HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
*Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
 board feet (million)cu. ft. (million)
19635.716.30.25.527.73.30.3
19647.014.90.25.227.32.70.6
19656.422.70.16.936.12.70.5
19667.222.40.28.738.52.20.8
19677.119.9-7.134.12.10.7
19684.88.40.15.118.40.10.4

NOTE—Figures have been adjusted to include items not given in board feet in published statistics.

TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES

Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
 board feet (million)cu. ft. (million)
19630.125.14.32.30.832.532.67.8
1964-25.54.03.80.133.433.410.9
19650.333.23.94.50.141.742.014.5
19660.126.92.33.5-32.732.817.8
19670.125.91.13.00.330.330.419.9
19682.449.22.710.40.262.564.943.2

NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the last five years.

EXTERNAL TRADE IN PULP AND PAPER

Year ended JuneWood PulpFibreboardPaper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

*In 1,000 square feet.

†Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; values include minor items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: Exports—free on board at port of shipment; Imports—c.d.v. in country of origin.

Imports
   tons  
196419,889119*6,45830,89137,349
196517,557349*4,53631,37035,906
196621,673193*3,00426,59529,599
196721,697117*1,73122,08823,819
196814,81633*39322,29722,690
Exports
   tons  
196465,6012,396*107,353811108,164
196555,8502,841*110,912743111,655
196670,3323,291*117,0601,674118,734
196772,3263,444*94,6062,88397,489
196884,3026,223*124,09011,554135,644

FOREST TREES AND TIMBERS—Detailed information is contained in publications of the New Zealand Forest Service, including Forest Trees and Timbers of New Zealand (Entrican, Hinds, and Reid); Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand (Weston); The National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. 1: The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand (Masters, Holloway, and McKelvey); The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand (Entrican, Ward, and Reid); New Zealand Building Timbers (Reid); and the annual reports of the Forest Service and Forest Research Institute. New Zealand Forestry gives an overall account of all aspects of forestry from pre-settlement times to 1963.

Chapter 16. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The fishing industry in New Zealand is based on the bottom-dwelling or demersal species of fish caught by trawling, Danish seining, lines, and nets. Trawling is by far the most important method, producing approximately 80 percent of the total catch, followed by line methods 10 percent, net and other methods 6 percent, and Danish seining 4 percent. The motor trawler ranging in size between 50 ft and 60 ft with a crew of two or three men has come to be the type of vessel mainly used by the industry. In recent years there has been a trend to larger stern-ramp trawler with improved gear and equipment. The Marine Department has a 92 ft stern-ramp trawler for technology work associated with fishing, and has also purchased a 140 ft trawler for further research.

In New Zealand the fishing industry is widely dispersed around a number of smaller ports as well as the main ports. The industry is built around the handling and selling of fresh fish in the main, as opposed to processing fish. Exports are relatively limited, except for crayfish.

Licensing controls which limited the growth and expansion of the fishing industry have largely been replaced with measures to permit the industry to expand to the full economic utilisation of the available resources. The Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965 redefined the three-mile territorial seas and introduced a nine-mile fishing zone beyond the territorial limit.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. Tuna species occur both in the inshore and in the oceanic waters around New Zealand but a tuna fishery has not yet developed. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, hake, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Marine Department.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950, the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951, and the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. Under the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects—e.g., permissible length of different classes of fish to be taken—while the various acclimatisation societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946 and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1964 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, Rock Oyster Farming Regulations 1966, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations 1964, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1955.

Fishing Industry Board—In 1963 there was passed a Fishing Industry Board Act, providing for the establishment of a seven-member board with the principal function of promoting the expansion and development of the fishing industry, marketing and standards of hygiene and packaging, continuity of supply, co-ordination within the industry, and promoting means of financing development. Members were appointed and met for the first time in April 1964.

The Government made a grant of $100,000 towards the cost of establishing the Board. A levy of approximately 2 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965, and provided $76,000 to March 1966 and $73,000 in 1966-67 for the Board's activities. The Board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, technical education, tuna development, and fishing demonstrations.

Objectives of the Board include the provision of adequate supplies of high-quality fish for the local market at reasonable prices, and an increase in overseas earnings from selling more fish overseas. It is recognised that fishermen must be encouraged to modernise their trawling fleet and that shore establishments of the industry must be improved to fulfil these objectives. In 1965 the Government arranged to guarantee mortgages to the value of $1,000,000 and lend up to $600,000 through the State Advances Corporation to purchase new, fully-equipped fishing vessels. Guarantees will be given or loans made on the recommendation of a Fishing Industry Loans Committee.

Recent Developments—A public company formed at Nelson commenced fishing operations during 1967 with two 140 foot stern ramp trawlers. This was the first time that vessels of this size had been employed in fishing from the New Zealand coast. Catching was for export and for the local market. Non-table varieties of fish and fish offals were converted into fish meal. Unfortunately, the company went into liquidation in 1968.

Another venture involving New Zealand and Japanese interests has commenced trawling for snapper for the Japanese market. The fish is frozen whole, at sea, landed into refrigerated storage ashore and shipped frozen to Japan.

The growth in value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

Figure 16.1. FISHERIES

FISHERIES

FISHERY STATISTICS—As at 31 December 1967 there were 2,165 licensed fishing boats, compared with 1,912 a year earlier. Values of catches by these boats for the year ended 31 December 1967 were as follows: Over $2,000, 784; $1,000-$2,000, 216; under $1000, 1,165.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed were as follows in the two latest years.

ProductUnitQuantityValue
1966196719661967
    $(000)$(000)
Wet fishcwt666,274713,5274,3884,626
Whitebait (West Coast South Island only)cwt9411,908137233
Oysters (dredged)sacks160,908165,2311,1261,157
Oysters (rock)sacks2,5922,2842724
Musselssacks31,55023,2984942
Crayfishcwt128,981159,0123,8444,320
Total value......9,57110,402

Annual quantities and values of wet fish caught are shown in the following table.

YearTotal QuantityTotal Value
 cwt$(000)
1957498,3023,008
1958494,1733,173
1959517,9173,086
1960542,5063,351
1961528,6323,254
1962554,6543,545
1963550,9663,376
1964589,3843,780
1965604,5823,949
1966666,2744,388
1967713,5274,626

Kind or Class of Wet Fish Caught—The following table shows the quantity and value of each kind of “wet fish” caught during the latest two years.

Kind or Class of FishQuantityValue
19661967196619671966196719661967
 cwtpercent$(000)percent
Snapper203,990206,88930.6229.001,2161,24927.7126.99
Tarakihi122,850124,55518.4417.4672375316.4716.27
Gurnard70,76362,98810.628.832612435.955.26
Trevally61,02761,1529.168.571571583.583.42
Red cod16,22432,5852.444.57611431.393.10
Sole22,81626,8943.423.772923086.666.67
Hapuku24,05225,8693.613.633503767.978.14
Flounder24,22224,7813.643.474274139.738.92
Blue cod17,02221,0452.552.951762134.014.60
Elephantfish21,89518,4043.292.582422195.514.72
Moki12,44218,0721.872.5352741.181.60
Pioke16,72814,5072.512.031431243.252.69
Other52,24375,7867.8110.622893536.587.62
Totals666,274713,527100.00100.004,3884,626100.00100.00

Methods of Capture—The total quantity of “wet fish” caught by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below for the latest two years.

Method of FishingQuantityValue
1966196719661967
 cwt$(000)
Trawl533,152566,6473,1513,299
Danish seine26,34025,043146138
Set and drag nets42,28139,054423416
Long and hand lines61,28270,067662741
Other methods3,21912,716831
Totals666,274713,5274,3904,626

Landings at the Ports—Ports where the total landed catch of wet fish was in excess of 10,000 cwt are listed in the following table.

PortQuantityValue
1965196619651966
 cwt$(000)
Auckland132,850128,455709706
Nelson42,835109,739230569
Gisborne75,46788,743368395
Timaru54,07348,810443380
Napier46,81046,265267280
Manukau51,50645,984226207
Tauranga40,28736,897208204
Wellington41,78935,511351314
Lyttelton31,57618,183249165
Port Chalmers14,84015,767152168
Bluff and Stewart Is.11,54212,873107133
Thames14,80511,941123121
Akaroa10,82410,61095103

The total quantity of fish landed at these ports in 1967 was 609,778 cwt, which was 85.46 percent of the total catch.

EXPORTS—A table showing quantities and values of the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest three years is set out below.

CommodityQuantityValue (f.o.b.)
196519661967196519661967
  cwt  $(000) 
Crayfish and tails28,04234,84548,2983,9194,5746,262
Fish, fresh or frozen52,34256,88464,8041,0451,1681,262
Fish meal1,8404001,6339211
Other, including smoked and canned2,0772,8235,64284117224
Totals84,30194,952120,3775,0575,8617,759

OYSTER BEDS—The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula.

In South Island waters a closed season is observed from 1 October to 14 February, and in North Island waters from 1 November to 30 April in each year. The taking of oysters is governed by the Oyster-fishing Regulations 1946, and vessels operating commercially are subject to the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. During the 1967 season 164,340 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 160,382 sacks in 1966.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but from 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. In 1958 a change was made in the marketing procedure, and sales to the public through the oyster depot were discontinued. The total supply of oysters is now allocated direct to the trade in an endeavour to achieve wider distribution through the retail fish shops.

Oyster cultivation is being carried out on an experimental basis by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara Harbour. In 1964 an Act was passed to provide for the setting up of oyster farms by private persons as a first step towards establishing a rock-oyster industry and in 1966 an experienced rock oyster farmer was recruited from Australia to set up experimental and demonstration farms.

Rock oysters picked by the State in 1967 totalled 2,284 sacks, compared with 2,592 sacks in 1966.

CRAYFISH—Marine crayfish occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of crayfish is sold in local markets for domestic consumption, part is exported as frozen crayfish tails and whole crays, while a small quantity is canned.

With the development of the export of frozen crayfish tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of crayfish has increased. The catch of crayfish over the latest six years is as follows.

YearQuantityValue
 cwt$(000)
196290,0182,142
196389,4491,881
196490,3072,315
196597,9333,270
1966128,9813,844
1967159,0124,319

WHALING—In 1963 the International Whaling Commission introduced a complete ban on the killing of humpback whales and the sole remaining New Zealand whaling station, situated in the Cook Strait area, was forced to convert to hunting sperm whales. The company sought sperm whales with some initial success but a substantial drop in the world price for sperm-whale oil led to the cessation of shore-based whaling, which began in New Zealand about 1829.

SEALS—The taking of seals in New Zealand waters has been on a restricted scale during the last 70 years, these animals being placed on the protected list in 1894. No sealing was then allowed until 1913, when there was an open season, but with certain restrictions. From 1916 a close season was observed until 1922, when the taking of seals was again permitted, but only till 1924, since when a close season has been observed, except for a short restricted open season during 1946.

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of these fish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1967 season (from November 1966 to June 1967), big-game fish caught included 14 black marlin, 161 striped marlin, 8 blue marlin, 422 mako shark, and 962 other species. Figures for the 1966 season recorded 11 black marlin, 144 striped marlin, 5 blue marlin, 265 mako shark, and 480 fish of other species.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on the species Galaxias attenuatus which, so far as is known, is not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where it occurs. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and has, over a period of years, produced an average of approximately 3,000 cwt of whitebait. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. The 1967 season for the West Coast of the South Island showed a total of 1,908 cwt, compared with 941 cwt in 1966.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs of the Rotorua and Taupo Fishing Districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Marine Department assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research, on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish.

The estimated revenue from angling licences for the 1965-66 season was $280,000.

Indigenous Species—The taking of eels, principally for export, continues to increase. Eels are the only species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters.

Chapter 17. Section 17 MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Over 90 percent of the value of the present mineral production is represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock, and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction.

The increasing complexity of modern industry creates a demand for a wider range of primary and ancillary raw materials. New industries such as aluminium smelting, iron and steel, and glass manufacture create additional demands for clays, dolomite, and magnesite for refractories, limestone for fluxes and so on.

Mineral requirements and values have changed and in 1964 the Government launched a new three-stage five-year programme for mineral research. The first stage involves expansion of projects in progress in regard to oil prospecting, surveying of dolomite deposits, and coal utilisation. The second stage involves national surveys for important minerals, including limestone (for agriculture, and for the cement, steel, carbide, and other industries), aggregate and sand (for roads, glass, steel, and other industries), and bentonite for foundry and steel industries, cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations. The third part of the programme consists of long-term projects such as ground water supplies and requirements of electrochemical industries.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals during 1966 and 1967 from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19661967
QuantityValueQuantityValue
Fuels $ (000) $(000)
Coal2,594,529 tons15,7222,369,224 tons13,263
Petroleum (crude)127,600 gal1188,150 gal8
Natural gas3,952,850 cu. ft.23,687,200 cu. ft.2
Metals    
Gold8,964 oz23110,703 oz361
Silver2 oz––--
Copper ore--150 tons15
Iron ore2,624 tons182,757 tons10
Tungsten ore3 tons616 tons39
Non-metallicstons tons 
Bentonite2,416523,05372
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.300,784340281,882343
Clay for pottery, fillers, etc.8,426857,66185
Diatomite4,660641,40828
Dolomite13,2511478,310125
Dimension stone9,5449434,593138
Greenstone4849
Limestone for agriculture1,041,8302,028925,2401,787
Limestone for industry95,45221597,952215
Limestone and marl, for cement1,673,5411,0731,494,647902
Magnesite55775689
Perlite (processed value)1,028201,05520
Pumice18,0392516,14426
Rock for harbour work1,465,867569979,852627
Salt35,4501,00055,2001,214
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate5,622,1937,7714,197,6365,770
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast22,882,91019,73719,432,24716,962
Sand for industry117,721189183,948246
Serpentine138,48534988,407183
Silica sand90,95923279,142225
Sulphur6111151
Totals 49,997 42,685

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Bauxite Act 1959, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1926, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Mines Department.

The Mineral Resources Committee is a sub-committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, and its terms of reference include the determination of the direction of mineral investigations in relation to financial resources available and the possibilities of early economic development. The Committee also has a responsibility to encourage co-ordination between Government and private organisations in the search for and development of minerals of national industrial importance. In 1964 it published a report Development of Mineral Resources of New Zealand.

Adapted from A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to coal resources, are—

Sub-bituminous Coal: Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven), Murchison.

Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is being fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association Inc. Finance for the Association's activities is raised by a levy of 5 cents a ton made by coal merchants, and this is subsidised by the Government on a $1 for $1 basis in much the same way as for other industrial research associations. Engineers have been appointed and in a laboratory at Lower Hutt they investigate such matters as coal handling, coal storage and appliance development. The basic object is to bring the convenience and cleanliness of coal firing up to the level obtained with other forms of firing. The Executive of the Coal Research Association includes representatives of mine-owners, mineworkers, coal merchants, the Mines Department, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the University of Canterbury and the New Zealand Institute of Coal Mining.

Fuel Technology Service—The Mines Department has established a fuel technology service in Auckland and Christchurch to advise industrial and domestic consumers in the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—Investigation of coal resources is now being carried on in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling. For detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields, those interested are referred to Geological Survey Bulletins Nos. 17, 45, 51, 56, and 59, and for an overall picture to Economic Geology of New Zealand, Volume 4, Eighth Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress, procurable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand was prepared in 1964 based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted—“measured,” “indicated,” and “inferred”—is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows.

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples of measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

The categories of coal resources refer only to the probability of their existence and may be applied either to coal in the ground or to recoverable coal.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable coal reserves, which total 1,066 million tons.

LocalityMeasured RecoverableIndicated RecoverableInferred Recoverable
Tons (000)
Bituminous
Buller22,2638,73515,900
Murchison406501,380
Reefton1,2503,5408,180
Garvey Creek1002,8005,000
Greymouth4,02310,42832,174
Pike River15,000
Shag Point280820
 27,95626,15378,454
Sub-bituminous
Northland805003,000
Maramarua17,10036,40024,000
Huntly4,90083,10045,000
Rotowaro15,80015,60021,100
Glen Massey170454,000
Whatawhata100100200
Kawhia1004505,750
Mangapehi3,000
Tatu-Ohura3,4001,10012,000
Waitewhena40090011,000
Mokau60,000
Collingwood1051301,000
Heaphy River1,000
Inangahua301008,000
Fletcher Creek3,000
Punakaiki2,000
Kaitangata1,920500500
Ohai7,1008,40090,000
Orepuki1,000
 51,205150,325292,550
Lignite
Charleston5,9702,0008,000
Canterbury2002,000
North Otago2502,000
Central Otago25015,000
Green Island2503,000
Kaitangata4,30020,00075,000
Pomahaka60,000
Mataura Valley5,40020,200216,000
 16,62042,200381,000
Totals95,781218,678752,004

Coal Consumption—The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the latest six years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports (including bunker coal for overseas vessels). Additional information on accumulating stocks of coal has led to a revision of this series.

User196119621963196419651966
* Sales by private mines to domestic consumers included in ‘other consumers.’
   tons (000)  
Railways216187183166141120
Gasworks279262268258260241
Electricity generation602342597586433491
Households535470517476482344*
Factory industries—
    Meatworks151121120114113121
    Dairy factories290292306328324299
    Pulp and paper mills125122156142132125
    Cement works172186210213217233
    Other factories215203210196185174
Other consumers286250196298335455
Total consumption2,8712,4352,7632,7772,6222,603

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations.

YearOutput (tons 000)Persons Ordinarily EmployedLives Lost by Accidents in or about Mines
SurfaceUndergroundTotalsPer Million Tons ProducedPer Thousand Persons EmployedLives Lost
Prior to 1963154,999..........634
19632,7421,2942,3663,6601.481.094
19642,8771,3672,2643,6311.070.833
19652,6591,2362,2113,447
19662,5951,2142,1453,3593.082.388
19672,3701,2062,0733,2799.006.4021
Totals168,242...............670

Underground Mines—The following table gives particulars of the operations of underground mining during the last five years.

Calendar YearOutput (tons 000)Men Employed UndergroundTons per Man UndergroundMen Employed on SurfaceTons per Man on Pay Roll
19631,6222,366686930492
19641,6522,264730918519
19651,6092,211728831529
19661,5022,145701818507
19671,3712,073661795478

There were 76 underground mines in operation in 1967 and of these 17 operated by the State produced 963,120 tons of coal. Production from individual State mines is set out in the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C. 2. On 30 September 1968, Dobson State Mine shut down.

Opencast Mines—Production of coal from opencast mines in 1967 amounted to 998,165 tons. The proportion of the total production of coal obtained from opencast mines amounted to 42.0 percent.

There were 44 opencast mines in operation in 1967 and of these 11 operated by the State produced 387,595 tons. Details of production from all opencast mines for the last five years are given in the following table.

YearOutput (tons 000)Men EmployedTons per Man Employed
19631,1203643,077
19641,2254492,728
19651,0494052,591
19661,0913962,756
19679984112,429

Derived Products—Low-temperature carbonisation works, using the Lurgi process, established at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland, in 1931, produced during 1966, 19,369 tons of carbonettes, 389,716 gallons of tar and oil, and 894 tons of char from 34,731 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced 37,243 gallons of tar and 5,201 tons of coke during 1967.

The briquetting works at Ngakawau owned by State Coal Mines has ceased production.

Mercer Power Station—This station, of 180,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 700,000 tons of coal a year. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Kopuku opencast coalfield about 7 miles distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

State Coal Mines—The State purchase of coal mines, which began in 1940, has left only two large private mines in production. During 1966 there were 26 State coal mines in operation.

Financial—Sales of coal, etc., through the medium of depots totalled 1,217,076 tons (value $11,854,838) for the year ended 31 December 1967. This compares with 1,348,895 tons (value $12,594,066) for the year ended 31 December 1966. The operating loss for the year was $1,070,415 and with interest $1,206,289 on loan capital the loss was $3,076,704. As interest could not be paid it was remitted under section 15 of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953. Capital expenditure for the year was $1,115,101, depreciation was $823,136 and the value of fixed assets was increased to $8,435,017.

Accidents—The number of compensatable accidents at State coal mines for the year ended 31 December 1966 was 1,497 compared with 1,383 in the previous year.

Coal Mining Districts' Welfare and Research Fund—This fund, into which is paid a levy at the rate of 7 1/2c per ton on coal other than lignite and 6c per ton on lignite, is used for coal-miners' relief, provision of amenities, payment of retiring allowances, establishment and maintenance of rescue stations, research, promotion of coal usage, and generally for the benefit of the industry.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 6A—Social Security.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tons of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tons of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tons in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks is now being constructed at Glenbrook, 36 miles south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Limited, and the plant will use ironsands deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 12 miles away. It is envisaged that plant capable of producing about 140,000 tons of steel a year could be in operation by 1970 and that output could be expanded in 10 years to 400,000 tons a year.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

URANIUM—In 1955 uranium-bearing minerals were discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush, the area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now almost confined to one dredge.

The following table gives particulars of the estimated gold content of gold/silver/bullion production for the last three years.

Type of MiningQuantityValue
196519661967196519661967
 ozozoz$$$
Quartz mining321414766334473
Alluvial mining2943201867,0427,5446,270
Dredge mining11,8658,63010,503302,502223,186354,022
Totals12,1918,96410,703310,310231,064360,765

SILVER—Most of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfields, where gold and silver were found alloyed. A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredges.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depth. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved scheelite mining is on a small scale. Mining is confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flats fields in Otago.

COPPER—A deposit of copper ore near Parakao contains azurite and malachite, forms of carbonates of copper, as well as tentorite, an oxide of copper. It has been used as an additive to fertilisers. Another deposit of copper ore was worked at Pupuke. It is estimated that the total production of copper ore over the years to the end of 1967 amounted to 7,752 tons, valued at $303,094.

Prospecting has been carried out for copper ore at Moke Creek near Queenstown, and Coppermine Island near Whangarei.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Of recent years there has been some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore. There has been no production of manganese since 1960.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district.

ANTIMONY—Small quantities of antimony ore have been won from deposits in the South Island, but there has been no production since 1953.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc is being mined near Te Aroha.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

PETROLEUM—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1939, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Mines the jurisdiction to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences on (a) land and in marine areas including territorial waters, and (b) the continental shelf; for the former there are 295 current prospecting licences covering 49,262 square miles and for the latter 13 licences covering 55,750 square miles.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Geological and geo-physical work (including seismic surveys) is being conducted by several licence holders in various areas throughout New Zealand. Since the current search commenced a few years ago a number of deep wells have been drilled and the following are capable of commercial production.

Name of Well and LocalityDepth in FeetDate CompletedResult
Kapuni No. 1 (Taranaki)13,040October 1959Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 2 (Taranaki)13,762January 1962Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 3 (Taranaki)12,457June 1962Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 4 (Taranaki)12,800October 1962Gas/condensate

Gas from the Kapuni field will be treated for the removal of carbon dioxide and piped to Auckland and Wellington. It will be used mainly as a premium household fuel although some will be used for the generation of electricity and for industry. Gas reserves are estimated to be sufficient for 25 years. Condensate from Kapuni will provide some of the feedstock for the Whangarei refinery.

The Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967 established a Corporation to purchase, transport, and market natural gas. Construction of the 8 5/ in. O.D. trunk pipeline and the gas treatment plant is going ahead and natural gas is expected to come into use in nine North Island centres early in 1970.

For many years small quantities of petroleum have been produced at New Plymouth. During 1967 the company operating at New Plymouth produced from four wells 88,150 gallons of crude oil and supplied 3,687,200 cubic feet of natural gas to the New Plymouth gas works. The total production of crude oil to 31 December 1967 is approximately 7,255,400 gallons.

The production for the latest two years was refined into the following products.

Product19661967
 gallons
Motor spirit21,30511,545
Distillate9,8709,535
Power kerosene19,42012,220
Diesel oil35,78524,900
Residual oil41,22029,950
Totals127,60088,150

BENTONITE—Deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau in the Hawke's Bay District, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. Deposits of bentonite at Coalgate in Canterbury are being prospected and indicate a large tonnage of good quality non-swelling bentonite which can, however, be modified to produce swelling bentonite suitable for all purposes such as pelletising iron ore, drilling muds, moulding sands and many other uses.

PERLITE—Owing to its extreme lightness and unique thermal insulating properties, perlite has applications in the building and construction industries. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. In 1955 production of asbestos was resumed after a temporary cessation but was discontinued in 1963. Current work is aimed at finding a market for the high proportion of very short fibre found in the ore.

KAURI GUM—Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tons.

PHOSPHATE—The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand, but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance and the more favourable sections of the deposits have been exhausted.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine, which in the South Island forms vast rock masses in Nelson and Otago, and which occurs in smaller amounts in the North Island, is of value to the fertiliser industry in the preparation of serpentine superphosphate. Production at first was mainly confined to the smaller occurrences in North Auckland owing to ease of access and transport, but production is now obtained from much larger deposits at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1967, 2,311,397 tons of serpentine had been mined, including 88,407 tons in 1967.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded segregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. In 1967 about 4 tons of raw greenstone was obtained, valued at $8,960.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest six years is shown in the following table:

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tons$(000)
19628,900190
196311,000300
196421,332674
196534,1701,080
196635,4501,000
196755,2001,214

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES—New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building stones scattered throughout both Islands. Their distribution is described in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz. (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Geological Survey—Imperative to long-term assessment of New Zealand's mineral resources is an understanding of the country's geology. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Mines, Works, and other Government Departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff.

The Survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the Survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has in the past done most of its regional geological mapping on a scale of one mile to the inch, about one-third of the country so far being covered by maps on this scale. Most of these maps have been issued in groups with a bulletin text describing the geology and mineral resources of the regions concerned. Paleontological bulletins are also issued. To speed the geological mapping of the country, the Survey in 1956 embarked on a programme to map the whole country on a less detailed scale. These new maps (scale of 1:250,000) are known informally as the “Four Mile” series. They each carry about 3,000 words of descriptive text in their margins; there are 28 of them altogether and all 28 sheets are now printed. One-mile maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. The first of a new industrial series of maps, at 1:25,000 scale, has been issued, covering Hamilton City and parts of Auckland City. Geological mapping, has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency.

Mineral Resources Surveys Generally—A strong Economic Section of the Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Committee's recommended programme. A new minerals map of New Zealand has been prepared. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Metallic Minerals—In earlier years when gold was of major importance the Survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the Survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Recently the Survey has, in collaboration with the Chemistry Division, been developing the techniques of geochemical prospecting with significant results in difficult terrain; chief ores being traced are copper, zinc, and manganese in Northland, West Otago, and Southland. It has recently completed detailed surveys of the ilmenite-zircon-gold sand deposits near Westport, of the important mineralisation areas in North-West Nelson, and of a disseminated low-grade copper deposit at Coppermine Island off Whangarei, and is commencing surveys of areas containing scheelite and gold lodes in Otago.

Coal—Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, apart from constructional materials, and mapping the coalfields in detail has been one of the Survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with Mines Department and with the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, where thousands of analyses of New Zealand coals have been made. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, and Ohai coalfields have been published, while those for the Waikato field will be the next to be issued. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, Survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision.

Oil—The Government does not undertake oil exploration. Oil companies however draw on Survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial operation has usually developed between Survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act 1937. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently appointed a petroleum geologist to the staff.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the Survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki, which was rewarded by the discovery and development of a large reservoir of natural gas. Of particular importance were the collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores. These greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as is possible with the staff available, the Survey advises Ministry of Works and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. A major aggregate survey has been launched in co-operation with Ministry of Works. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in whose utilisation the Survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the Survey includes detailed projects on North-west Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed recently; North Auckland sands and halloysite clays are also under investigation.

CENSUS OF MINING AND QUARRYING—A census of mining and quarrying was taken for the production year 1963–64 to fit in with the World Programme of Basic Industrial Statistics sponsored by United Nations. Statistics for that year are shown in the following table.

ItemType of Mining or QuarryingTotal
Sand, Gravel, Rock, Clay, etc.LimestoneCoalOther, Including Gold
*One owner may operate several mines, e.g., the Government operates many coal mines.
Type of organisation*
    Registered company287764011414
    Individual or partnership10521545185
    Government or local authority106111109
Totals498989517708
Nature of business—
    Underground mines operated22944102
    Surface mines or quarries operated97411548191,156
Totals976117142231,258
Employment—
    Average number of persons engaged (excludes working proprietors)2,5173143,2781176,226
    Salaries and wages paid (includes bonuses, overtime, etc.) persons engaged$(000)5,1306167,67621813,640
    Overtime hours workedhr(000)5875212132792
    Number of working proprietors130241346294
Production (values as at quarry floor or mine head)—
    Sand, gravel, rock, clay, etc. cu. yd (000)17,4101626817,641
 $(000)17,000648017,146
    Limestonetons(000)711,6991,770
 $(000)862,0462,130
    Coaltons(000)12,8432,844
 $(000)616,54216,548
    Other$(000)19644652892
Total, values$(000)17,2882,15216,62465236,716

Chapter 18. Section 18 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metal-working, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934-35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929-30 level.

A part from the metal-working and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949-50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel and made up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949-50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital investment in new buildings and machinery. A measure of the increase in capital employed is that the value of land and buildings, plant, and machinery at the end of the production year for each person engaged was $870 in 1945-46, $1,266 in 1950-51, rising to $2,148 in 1955-56, $2,750 in 1960-61, $3,382 in 1963-64, $3,541 in 1964-65, $3,830 in 1965-66, and $4,136 in 1966-67.

The greater use of machinery for manufacturing during the last 20 years is illustrated also by the continuing rise in the average horsepower for each person engaged in manufacturing. In 1935-36 the average was 2.86; in 1945-46, 2.97; in 1955-56, 4.42; in 1965-66, 5.59; and in 1966-67, 5.73. This expansion has been facilitated by developments in electric power generation and industrial techniques. In 1966-67 the use of electric motors in factories accounted for 96 percent of the total rated horsepower for all types of engines employed in factories. The number and horsepower of steam, petrol, oil, and other non-electrical engines has declined absolutely as well as relatively.

Industrial progress has been rapid, but manufacturing in New Zealand is still organised on a relatively small scale. In 1966-67, 61 percent of the factories employed 10 persons or less, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of geographical configuration, many factories still supply small local markets. Although these small factories are numerous, they accounted for only 11 percent of the total value of factory production. There were only 158 factories (1.52 percent of the total) in 1966-67 where the number of persons engaged exceeded 200, but these factories accounted for 33 percent of total value of production. Some were engaged in processing goods for export—for example, 38 were meat-freezing works.

Manufacturing plays a vital part in employment. In April 1968 some 26 percent of the total labour force was employed in manufacturing industries. Of the total female labour force 22 percent was engaged in manufacturing.

Successive annual increases in the volume of production took place in the following years: 1959-60, 3.5 percent; 1960-61, 9.8 percent; 1961-62, 5.1 percent; 1962-63, 4.5 percent; 1963-64, 10.4 percent; 1964-65, 13.0 percent; 1965-66, 6.8 percent; 1966-67, 6.0 percent. However, in 1967-68 there was an estimated decrease of 2.4 percent.

Export Earnings—Goods manufactured in New Zealand are finding increasingly larger outlets in overseas markets. In 1947 manufactures to the value of $4 million were exported, but by 1965 the value of exported manufactured goods rose to $29.7 million and in 1968 a record figure of $64 million was achieved. Newsprint, wood pulp, petroleum products, machinery (including agricultural, woodworking, and electrical machinery) and textiles accounted for about 70 percent of these earnings. However, exports of a wide range of other products, such as chemical elements and compounds, prepared foodstuffs and leather manufactures, are increasing in value.

Although the development of other Commonwealth and Asian markets is continuing, Australia remains the major export market for New Zealand manufactured goods. The limited free trade area agreement with Australia, which came into operation on 1 January 1966, has given additional impetus to the expansion of mutually beneficial trade between the two countries.

Import Replacement—In the latter part of 1957 and in early 1958 the terms of trade changed substantially to New Zealand's disadvantage and a serious depletion of overseas reserves resulted from the effects of heavy importing in 1957 and the fall in price of our main export commodities. To reduce overseas expenditure and arrest this drain on the reserves New Zealand reintroduced comprehensive import controls, which became effective on 1 January 1958. An improvement in the terms of trade in 1959 and 1960 allowed some relaxation in import restrictions, but a further fall in export prices and a higher volume of imports forced the Government to revert in 1961 to stricter import control. In mid-1962 the first of the measures to make the import licensing schedule more flexible in meeting manufacturers' and importers' needs was introduced.

Because of the importance of manufacturing industries in the employment of a rapidly increasing labour force and in conserving overseas funds, import licensing policy catered for plant and materials for industry. Manufacturing output has expanded in depth as well as in breadth. This has involved manufacturing in a number of industries being taken back to more basic stages rather than, for example, the mere assembly of imported components; making greater use of New Zealand's already available raw materials, such as wool and timber; and utilising raw materials hitherto unexploited, such as ironsands.

The development of manufacturing industries in New Zealand has been substantial in recent years. In addition to increases in the volume, range, and depth of manufacture of existing industries, several large new industrial enterprises have been established and are now in full production. These include a steel merchant bar mill; wire drawing and galvanising; wire rope production; the manufacture of wood screws; an aluminium mill producing sheet, foil, and extrusions; television tube production; telephone and underground power cable plants; refinery; a gin distillery; a sheet glass works; and nylon fibre and yarn spinning mills.

Other new products of New Zealand industry during recent years include high-speed twist drills, aluminium tube and cable, press brakes, pneumatic and steel tyred road rollers, bicycles, electric motor starters, water heater and room thermostats, copper oxide, formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde syrup adhesives, concrete additives, liquid and powdered synthetic detergents, acrylic emulsions of paints, p.v.c. compounds, p.v.c. flooring, roofing and rainwater goods, woven plastic materials, textured synthetic yarns, foam backed fabrics, moulded pulp products, wallpaper, rindless cheese wrapping, and soluble coffee. Experimental production of brandy and whisky has been commenced.

More recently the variety of manufactures has been further increased with the production of, among other things, a polarised ion source (for use with nuclear particle accelerators); bentonite for use in pelletising iron ore; fractional horse-power electrical motors; 11KV switch gear; electronically controlled counting machines for packing pharmaceutical tablets; self-propelled hydraulically-operated trench diggers; oil-fired kilns; piston-type positive oscillating water meters; porcelain-on-steel pressed baths; golf balls; electric hoists; post-hole diggers; disc-brake pads; warp-knitted fabric; and certain hydraulic equipment and attachments; turbo-prop topdressing aircraft; utility farm vehicles.

Aids to Development—Among the various bodies providing assistance to manufacturing industries are the Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand, the New Zealand Industrial Design Council, and the New Zealand Inventions Development Authority.

Development Finance Corporation—Established as an independent body in 1964, the Corporation provides a source of financial assistance for new or expanding industries, where assistance is not available from normal lending institutions. Borrowers would normally be engaged in the production and related fields, such as manufacturing or serving of basic industry. Extractive industries, such as fishing, forestry, and mining, are also eligible for assistance.

Industrial Design Council—Established in 1964 under the Industrial Design Act with the object of improving the quality, efficiency and appearance of New Zealand made goods, the Council's function is to aid industry by promoting the appreciation, development and use of industrial design.

Inventions Development Authority—The general functions of the Authority are to promote the development, manufacture or exploitation of inventions with the object of improving the quality, efficiency or range of goods available for use in New Zealand or for export.

RECENT MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS—The following are some of the recent major developments.

Pulp and Paper—At Kinleith the fifth papermaking machine has been installed and capacity in other associated departments increased. The pulp making capacity of the mill at Kawerau is also being expanded. At another mill in the same area, the installation of plant for the production of groundwood pulp is proceeding. This continued development of the industry is particularly important in view of the likely increase in export opportunities for paper expected following the limited free trade area agreement with Australia. Further paper-making capacity is to be provided at the paper mill at Mataura. A report published by the Government indicates that it may be practicable to establish a pulp mill at Nelson between 1970 and 1975.

Steel—At the end of 1964 specific plans were completed to establish in New Zealand an iron and steel industry based on domestic resources of ironsand. An operating company, New Zealand Steel Ltd., was registered in July 1965 and a site of about 1,000 acres was purchased at Glenbrook, 4 miles north of Waiuku.

New Zealand Steel Ltd. commenced production of a range of galvanised coil and sheet from imported black coil at the end of 1968, and the production of billets from ironsands commenced in July 1969.

The output of billets, initially about 130,000 tons a year, is, in the main, being supplied to Pacific Steel Ltd. for the production of wire rod for the domestic wire drawing industry, and for increasing the range of merchant bar products.

Pacific Steel Ltd., in which New Zealand Steel Ltd. has a 40 percent shareholding, has almost completed an $8 million expansion programme. The expansion programme includes the installation of a modern rod rolling mill and associated equipment.

The Government has approved in principle of New Zealand Steel Ltd. bringing forward its plans for establishing a steel pipe and tube mill for the manufacture of black and galvanised steel pipe, tube, and hollow sections.

Aluminium—Construction of a major aluminium smelter at Bluff is expected to commence in 1969 following agreement reached between the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty Ltd. of Australia, and Showa Denko K. K. and Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd. of Japan. The cost of constructing the smelter to a first stage capacity of 105,000 tons a year is estimated at up to $90 million, approximately half of which is expected to be spent in New Zealand.

The smelter, to be operated by the above Australian and Japanese companies, will draw its large power requirements from the Manapouri - Te Anau hydro-electric complex. Initial production of 70,000 tons of aluminium a year from Australian alumina could commence as early as 1971. Within the following year or two, output is expected to reach 105,000 tons. At this level of production, 700 people would be directly employed at the smelter.

Revised taxation provisions for approved development projects should provide the incentive for these companies to rapidly expand productive capacity to 210,000 tons. At this level, which is twice that originally envisaged when a smelter was first contemplated in 1960, net overseas earnings on present costs and prices could be of the order of $25 million.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—The statistics of factory production collected annually by the Department of Statistics cover registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, assembly, repair, or treatment of articles.

Bread bakeries and ready-made concrete establishments were surveyed as separate industries for the first time for 1962-63, but they have been excluded from group and national totals to maintain comparability with previous years.

Industrial activities not covered by the survey of the Department of Statistics set out in this section are: cake and pastry kitchens; boot repairers; bespoke tailors; dressmakers, milliners; abattoirs; railway workshops; naval dockyard; all one-man factories.

The exclusion of these activities from the scope of the statistical inquiry, and also of all persons engaged in factories in a purely distributive capacity, reduces the total manufacturing labour force from that quoted by the Department of Labour (279,000) to the figure recorded in these statistics for 1966-67 of 229,302. Although the annual census of factory production covers only 82 percent of the labour force classified by the Department of Labour as “manufacturing” the percentage of the total production covered would be larger, as all but the very smallest establishments are included.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but factories are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries—butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving—the years correspond with the production seasons ending in May and September respectively.

Throughout this section, in addition to the conventional added value, net output (net value added) is given. For definitions of added value see explanations given later in this section under the heading “Net Output (Net Value Added)”.

GENERAL SUMMARY—The factory production table in the Statistical Summary section of this volume gives a long time series of leading statistics.

The volume of production rose by 5.6 percent in 1966-67, as compared with an increase of 6.8 percent in 1965-66. A rise of 4.4 percent in the total value of production brought the figure to $2,484 million in 1966-67, as compared with $2,374 million in 1965-66. Net output (net value added) increased by 4.3 percent, from $709 million in 1965-66 to $741 million in 1966-67, while manufacturers' surplus decreased by 3.3 percent (from $240 million to $232 million), as compared with a rise of 21.5 percent in 1965-66. The number of persons engaged, including working proprietors, increased by 2.8 percent (from 222,851 to 229,302) and salaries and wages by 7.7 percent (from $455 million to $493 million).

Factory statistics by local authority administrative areas showing the number of establishments and accompanying main statistics are published in the Report on Industrial Production.

The following table gives the main statistics by statistical areas for the year 1966-67.

Statistical AreaNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionAdded ValueNet Output (Net Value Added)
     $(000)  
Northland2994,3489,89173,674107,09533,42120,236
Central Auckland2,81075,308161,229397,179720,207323,028240,354
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,34223,09352,687214,283347,205132,92287,362
East Coast1242,1384,45712,45221,5389,0856,700
Hawke's Bay4358,61018,27472,765111,02138,25628,389
Taranaki3676,24213,22372,48498,94826,46418,551
Wellington2,03345,910100,293297,935498,661200,726151,002
Marlborough1101,3902,7236,29210,6294,3373,069
Nelson2623,7877,48520,88537,45616,57110,546
Westland1071,2822,5915,38810,4645,0763,408
Canterbury1,49935,70273,543173,365313,049139,683106,750
Otago59614,77229,86667,060123,65256,59242,236
Southland4106,72016,46852,58583,81831,23422,802
Totals10,394229,302492,7301,466,3472,483,7421,017,395741,407

Further analyses by industrial groups of the figures shown in this table will be found in the appropriate contexts in the following pages.

In the next table the statistics for the year 1966-67 are reclassified by employment districts.

Employment DistrictNumber of FactoriesPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionAdded ValueNet Output (Net Value Added)
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
    $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Whangarei2993,9643849,44544773,674107,09533,42120,236
Auckland2,81051,59723,711131,24629,982397,179720,207323,028240,354
Hamilton83710,5311,93523,8052,184138,599195,40856,81040,906
Tauranga1931,9464374,25949622,40832,45010,0437,143
Rotorua3167,44881220,97399953,345119,48666,14139,368
Gisborne1211,5795453,71071712,38621,4049,0186,661
Napier1782,1907135,22283826,96141,18714,22610,657
Hastings2064,2011,09110,1571,32641,84764,63222,78616,884
New Plymouth3575,1061,03411,8711,15570,98797,05226,06618,274
Wanganui2653,2471,1237,7331,13829,33744,44015,10311,160
Palmerston North5076,5362,44014,9662,65864,77599,24534,47025,603
Masterton1682,1775295,05560921,08731,09310,0057,336
Lower Hutt44211,7364,33631,7716,228134,956217,67882,72262,332
Wellington7119,5244,77724,6216,44353,231113,29560,06345,680
Totals, North Island7,410121,78243,867304,83455,2201,140,7721,904,675763,902552,595
Blenheim1101,0893012,3843396,29210,6294,3373,069
Nelson2162,7265715,87263218,82332,70513,8829,138
Greymouth1531,5002723,2583147,45015,2157,7654,817
Christchurch1,22122,2118,71053,21910,269142,121265,642123,52294,130
Ashburton801,1543452,6053848,03412,4304,3963,458
Timaru1982,6716116,39367323,21034,97611,7669,162
Oamaru621,4163172,8953688,13213,4975,3664,049
Dunedin5349,2953,74422,3284,27558,928110,15451,22638,187
Invercargill4106,21051015,88258652,58583,81831,23422,802
Totals, South Island2,98448,27215,381114,83617,840325,575579,068253,493188,812
Totals, New Zealand10,394170,05459,248419,67073,0601,466,3472,483,7421,017,395741,407

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three latest years.

Item1964-651965-661966-67
Number of establishments9,7539,94510,394
Persons engaged211,050222,851229,302
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages $(000)411,992455,030492,730
    Materials $(000)1,343,9761,416,4031,466,347
    Other expenses $(000)231,982263,419292,557
                                  Totals $(000)1,987,9482,134,8522,251,635
Value of production $(000)2,185,2062,374,4472,483,742
Manufacturers' surplus $(000)197,258239,595232,108
Value added in manufacture $(000)841,230958,0441,017,395
Net output (net value added) $(000)621,796709,211741,407
Overtime worked by wage earners h(000)34,81537,13937,827
Volume index for industry: Base 1956-57 (=1000)1,7591,8791,991
Premises and plant—
    Value at end of year—
        Land and buildings $(000)469,942545,465613,800
        Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)277,356308,074334,592
        Transport equipment $(000) 25,79730,474
    Capital expenditure during year—
        Land and buildings $(000)33,28051,16151,185
        Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)62,51083,44881,034
        Transport equipment $(000) 10,84413,683
        Coal consumption as fuel tons(000)993971952

Figure 18.1. FACTORY PRODUCTION 1966 - 67

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1966 - 67

Figure 18.2. FACTORY PRODUCTION 1966 - 67

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1966 - 67

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1966-67 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown.

IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionValue Added in ManufactureNet Output (Net Value Added)
Food Manufacturing Industries   $(000) 
Meat freezing and preserving4420,85655,233311,76084,34961,140
Ham and bacon curing471,3843,03421,8696,5394,951
Sausage casings82264552,250806709
Processed cheese3791432,201398155
Ice cream184708438,6934,6603,516
Butter and cheese1712,8026,739195,49913,8157,688
Milk products other than butter and cheese701,8624,43161,77317,3738,573
Fruit and vegetable preserving312,4104,66326,58611,1067,362
Fish preserving111622831,623523389
Grain milling379981,97016,3265,2463,695
Biscuits101,2892,23910,9815,4874,101
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery502,3253,89618,5369,1217,191
Feeds for animals and fowls445081,14815,5763,7852,572
Food preparations, n.e.i.581,7073,59530,11611,8489,179
Totals60237,07888,672723,789175,057121,221
Beverage Industries      
Winemaking502825934,1081,8401,434
Distilling, rectifying, and blending of spirits41122612,3061,161843
Brewing of ale and stout and malting181,4283,85930,02617,09112,815
Aerated waters and cordials567321,3696,7813,7892,751
Totals1282,5546,08343,22123,88117,843
Tobacco Manufactures      
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes31,1292,16621,5917,4045,951
Manufacture of Textiles      
Woolscouring255961,65640,4163,3442,233
Woollen milling234,2947,68525,47313,1149,796
Other spinning and weaving mills242,5545,68924,59211,3987,974
Hosiery and other knitting mills794,9948,26933,33115,61311,758
Phormium flax12127207654389267
Linen flax12951765635
Textiles, n.e.i.251,1662,59312,9905,4303,291
Totals18913,76026,151137,53149,34435,353
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionValue Added in ManufactureNet Output (Net Value Added)
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up Textiles  $(000) 
Leather gloves and apparel10135206730373310
Men's and boys' outerwear1284,1755,56917,8168,2697,025
Women's and girls' outerwear2795,6307,68923,78712,02410,051
Underclothing501,7152,1037,0862,8902,342
Hats, caps, and millinery569311,1973,3831,9511,565
Corsetry261,3901,7755,1172,5532,041
Neckties72313431,314622509
Shirts and pyjamas472,0012,6318,9174,0243,450
Wearing apparel, n.e.i.1164,9056,53223,1899,5977,998
Fur coats and necklets28184304871525434
Footwear (other than rubber)1235,3639,33927,74814,76311,603
Canvas goods455939223,6031,5771,283
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)749831,4216,3782,5992,141
Totals98928,23640,031129,93761,76750,752
Manufactures of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)      
Sawmills3975,96813,82754,19429,19819,344
Planing mills and timber preservation1802,2864,98034,09211,2858,690
Joinery4284,4189,68635,36216,27913,119
Wooden containers405181,0824,4742,1731,605
Plywood and veneer129732,2558,2424,6252,829
Wood products, n.e.i.796921,4485,2152,8202,221
Totals1,13614,85533,279141,57966,38147,808
Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures      
Furniture4455,05611,07834,96418,00714,767
Mattress manufacture265491,0485,0052,0051,545
Venetian blinds182394542,342920717
Totals4895,84412,57942,31120,93217,030
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products      
Pulp, paper, and paperboard73,30910,83965,99844,61324,418
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and paper bags552,8486,12036,43213,58910,192
Paper products, n.e.i.461,8173,51622,8249,8147,737
Totals1087,97420,475125,25468,01642,347
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Industries      
Printing and publishing877,00216,97848,01834,89825,023
Job and general printing3676,75914,09842,42424,73519,278
Service industries for printing trade567501,8243,8243,0902,362
Totals51014,51132,90094,26662,72446,663
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionValue Added in ManufactureNet Output (Net Value Added)
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)   $(000) 
Tanning117471,6797,7912,9452,246
Fellmongery91332922,434528326
Leather goods831,1871,9256,5083,2692,751
Totals1032,0673,89616,7336,7425,324
Manufacture of Rubber Products      
Motor vehicle tyres and tubes31,0303,11714,7158,4636,282
Rubber goods (other than motor vehicle tyres and tubes)342,0184,53714,9358,6416,443
Vulcanising and tyre retreading836511,3956,9754,0322,400
Totals1203,6999,04836,62621,13515,126
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products      
Chemical fertilisers161,2743,65940,93412,3917,131
Vegetable and animal oils and fats324161,0186,4602,9221,843
Ink102996032,4241,4751,152
Soap134931,0677,8663,7482,683
Paint and varnish319122,10116,6026,2234,713
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics391,3762,26617,6687,8886,411
Chemical products, n.e.i811,8513,96025,86211,7508,275
Totals2226,62114,673117,81546,39732,208
Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal      
Petroleum and coal products174051,20652,19913,5929,586
Bituminous paving and roofing materials323388587,3383,0931,952
Totals497432,06459,53616,68611,538
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)      
Structural clay products391,2112,9827,7536,8734,191
Pottery, china, and earthenware107411,6133,1992,7222,058
Cement69362,40915,43312,9314,845
Glass and glass products521,9054,17915,36210,4376,871
Concrete products2972,5305,90921,36312,1808,816
Lime903246933,0662,1551,197
Fibrous plaster754069022,5151,4481,172
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.218102,18611,0205,2683,102
Totals5908,86320,87479,71154,01532,252
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionValue Added in ManufactureNet Output (Net Value Added)
Basic Metal Industries   $(000) 
Basic metal industries871,4603,58618,6147,7665,798
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)      
Sheet-metal working2015,79913,55153,18726,80220,001
Wire working569002,12810,4764,6643,769
Nail making61583432,545652394
Electroplating and metal polishing808491,8784,3753,4112,536
Metal products, n.e.i.3526,99317,27567,59334,43525,874
Totals69514,69935,175138,17569,96252,573
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)      
Agricultural and pastoral machinery1101,2172,64216,9595,6254,455
Machinery, n.e.i.74914,95336,238116,00963,44850,038
Totals85916,17038,879132,96869,07354,492
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies      
Range making61,0932,2587,7883,6762,747
Radio and television assembly and manufacture322,5384,67022,3758,6936,634
Electrical machinery, appliances, n.e.i.2685,88412,40556,08525,67119,203
Totals3069,51519,33386,24838,04028,583
Manufacture of Transport Equipment      
Boat building and ship repairing881,3703,3538,3054,9374,091
Motor-vehicle assembly184,11210,570102,30425,08920,769
Motor-body building881,7333,72113,4846,3585,165
Repairs to motor vehicles2,55621,30340,997128,81364,77350,429
Aircraft maintenance and repair412,1545,73113,0758,9276,777
Perambulators7194299738449351
Transport equipment, n.e.i.321,3533,01011,0276,6464,699
Totals2,83032,21967,680277,745117,18092,281
Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries      
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment333076201,648982758
Jewellery867741,4534,6452,5152,091
Brushes and brooms135149163,9121,9791,536
Toys and sports goods358011,4335,4342,9712,343
Manufacturing industries, n.e.i.2124,90910,76744,45526,44619,534
Totals3797,30515,18860,09334,89226,263
Grand totals10,394229,302492,7302,483,7421,017,395741,407

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES—In recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas. The 1966-67 survey covered 10,394 factories, the largest number included in any year.

The following table shows the number of factories in each statistical area.

Statistical AreaNumber of Factories
1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
Northland255265277281299
Central Auckland2,3322,5222,6442,6942,810
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,1121,1431,2071,2331,342
East Coast119119120122124
Hawke's Bay377405411412435
Taranaki366361379366367
Wellington1,8361,8481,8981,9462,033
Marlborough99107118107110
Nelson205218238246262
Westland108104108114107
Canterbury1,3061,3551,4121,4611,499
Otago548553560565596
Southland371365381398410
Totals9,0349,3659,7539,94510,394

An analysis of the 1966-67 totals by industrial groups in the various statistical areas is given in the next table.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Number of Factories 1966-67
Food22108869226393
Beverages44413315715
Tobacco manufactures-1--1-1
Textiles166429349
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods64334382119232
Wood and cork products (except furniture)47157236185350168
Furniture and fixtures31814212012109
Paper and paper products-39622131
Printing, publishing, etc.7152474169152
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-53212215
Rubber products3271732527
Chemicals and chemical products2831317859
Petroleum and coal products2124-1316
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.4690707411883
Basic metal manufactures1344-2218
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)73064362510134
Machinery (except electrical)25200141122833166
Electrical machinery and appliances410934112570
Transport equipment11753752245152110509
Miscellaneous products21781514786
Totals2992,8101,3421244353672,033

Factories by Industry groups in Statistical areas—Cont.

Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
 Number of Factories 1966-67
Food12204924031602
Beverages1621062128
Tobacco manufactures------3
Textiles-3133117189
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made up textile goods462158498989
Wood and cork products (except furniture)20715015760491,136
Furniture and fixtures482742211489
Paper and paper products-1-1664108
Printing, publishing, etc.374663112510
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-1-1854103
Rubber products1312254120
Chemicals and chemical products15-26143222
Petroleum and coal products---74-49
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.9276994252590
Basic metal manufactures---203387
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)11031043313695
Machinery (except electrical)111531344249859
Electrical machinery and appliances-3-44177306
Transport equipment4273273581891492,830
Miscellaneous products13261172379
Totals1102621071,49959641010,394

The number of factories and persons engaged are shown together in the following table, classified by industrial groups. Persons engaged include proprietors actively participating in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry GroupNumber of FactoriesNumber of Persons Engaged
1964-651965-661966-671964-651965-661966-67
Food63760660235,14536,25037,078
Beverages1271241282,3462,5202,554
Tobacco manufactures3339701,1341,129
Textiles18518518912,33313,40413,760
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9861,00498927,36128,07328,236
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,1001,1221,13614,13314,75614,855
Furniture and fixtures5254884895,7435,8505,844
Paper and paper products1121101087,1117,4857,974
Printing, publishing, etc.48549651013,06713,84614,511
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)101961031,9251,9242,067
Rubber products1061111203,4193,5783,699
Chemicals and chemical products2192222226,3146,5166,621
Petroleum and coal products465049682704743
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.6105795908,5738,9588,863
Basic metal manufactures9086871,3151,4061,460
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)64766969513,11814,27514,699
Machinery (except electrical)77882985913,89015,57716,170
Electrical machinery and appliances2272553068,7439,2529,515
Transport equipment2,4462,5482,83028,84030,28932,219
Miscellaneous products3233623796,0227,0547,305
Totals9,7539,94510,394211,050222,851229,302

Persons engaged are shown in the table below for the year 1966-67 classified into working proprietors, managerial and clerical, professional, and technical staff; and wage earners.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MaleFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
Food3,8921,25727,1234,80631,0156,06337,078
Beverages4511781,6682572,1194352,554
Tobacco manufactures62623776284396901,129
Textiles9275126,2156,1067,1426,61813,760
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,5751,1844,31121,1665,88622,35028,236
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,03234412,24723214,27957614,855
Furniture and fixtures7882224,2625725,0507945,844
Paper and paper products9693644,9121,7295,8812,0937,974
Printing, publishing, etc.1,9251,2458,9332,40810,8583,65314,511
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)215809598131,1748932,067
Rubber products5391612,4575422,9967033,699
Chemicals and chemical products1,2305793,3971,4154,6271,9946,621
Petroleum and coal products191374813467271743
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,4003466,7034148,1037608,863
Basic metal manufactures218621,149311,367931,460
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,18066610,5621,29112,7421,95714,699
Machinery (except electrical)2,52671212,50942315,0351,13516,170
Electrical machinery and appliances1,2434015,2712,6006,5143,0019,515
Transport equipment)5,3321,79224,31777829,6492,57032,219
Miscellaneous products9504643,5562,3354,5062,7997,305
Totals28,64510,668141,40948,580170,05459,248229,302

Further information is given in the following table on persons engaged in 1966-67. Totals in each industrial group are shown by statistical areas.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Food1,1388,2143,3618813,3091,9605,640
Beverages251,0032405019776372
Tobacco manufactures-70--383-676
Textiles154,03266165276552,871
Footwear, other wearing apparel and made-up textile goods11712,0971,5421364797395,978
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4252,2545,0951093964531,525
Furniture and fixtures112,9252414243691,037
Paper and paper products-2,6862,796176741,362
Printing, publishing, etc.1864,9748761635573354,066
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-996691322259
Rubber products19910119132124798
Chemicals and chemical products752,45833872182331,979
Petroleum and coal products18417571-48206
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.8893,1226403423188962
Basic metal manufactures450948-14294228
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)627,872470232871532,909
Machinery (except electrical)3655,8672,013974486612,859
Electrical machinery and appliances153,4846149270982,272
Transport equipment8037,6424,1094191,1399348,308
Miscellaneous products154,018448258361,603
Totals4,34875,30823,0932,1388,6106,24245,910
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
Food335873355,1193,3812,83237,078
Beverages145320287181362,554
Tobacco manufactures------1,129
Textiles-33103,7642,36810513,760
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2261001585,3251,23710228,236
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1057266411,87462163114,855
Furniture and fixtures19463917255745,844
Paper and paper products-16-4552203517,974
Printing, publishing, etc.84170551,84698821114,511
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-2-494229372,067
Rubber products6941,73425173,699
Chemicals and chemical products1074-7014111176,621
Petroleum and coal products---7817-743
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.56432291,5175253388,863
Basic metal manufactures---29061121,460
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7166111,79483910614,699
Machinery (except electrical)13390682,37174345516,170
Electrical machinery and appliances-13-1,977708559,515
Transport equipment3359762324,2781,8121,23232,219
Miscellaneous products6081688115197,305
Totals1,3903,7871,28235,70214,7726,720229,302

The sex distribution among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males—in 1966-67 for every female engaged, there were three males. In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent. The male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. In two industries only did the number of females exceed the number of males—viz., tobacco manufactures, where there were 157 females to every 100 males, and footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., where there were 380 females per 100 males. The upper table on the previous page shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1966-67.

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females were engaged in factories in New Zealand for 1966-67. This table gives by statistical areas the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per 1,000 of population.

Statistical AreaMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1-4-67Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Northland3,9643844,3481,03294,50046
Central Auckland51,59723,71175,308218631,521119
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty19,9113,18223,093626398,60058
East Coast1,5925462,13829247,20045
Hawke's Bay6,7031,9078,610351126,90068
Taranaki5,1851,0576,242491101,20062
Wellington32,83013,08045,910251532,60086
Marlborough1,0893011,39036229,90046
Nelson3,1576303,78750168,10056
Westland1,0692131,28250224,30053
Canterbury26,0369,66635,702269382,52793
Otago10,7114,06114,772264184,60080
Southland6,2105106,7201,218105,20064
Totals170,05459,248229,3022872,727,14884

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is now given. Since 1951-52 the series excludes certain sectors of production previously included—principal omissions being the logging activities of sawmills and the generation and supply of gas and electricity.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering—Total
10 or Under11-2021-5051-100Over 100
Number of Factories
1934-353,7257644961431425,270
1939-404,2189577722121836,342
1944-454,1391,0468332701976,485
1949-504,9931,4091,1063122078,027
1954-555,3501,4731,0203102138,366
1959-605,2421,6211,1083122678,550
1964-655,8931,8281,2944093299,753
1966-676,3531,8031,41647035210,394
Number of Persons Engaged
1934-3514,90111,32115,3099,71628,11179,358
1939-4017,21214,04823,31614,73739,409108,722
1944-4518,38215,54725,78718,80943,889122,414
1949-5024,48120,60834,38621,30443,530144,309
1954-5527,20621,43231,65021,80851,479153,575
1959-6026,92623,75534,10521,66665,521171,973
1964-6529,62426,50440,39928,09186,432211,050
1966-6732,26326,23144,08232,52894,198229,302

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 61 percent of the total number of factories in 1966-67.

SALARIES AND WAGES—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical, professional and technical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 $(000)$$(000)$$(000)$
1960-61256,5081,89044,642980301,1501,660
1961-62274,9481,95848,1181,020323,0641,722
1962-63290,5922,02049,2621,034339,8541,774
1963-64313,5462,10455,0381,094368,5841,850
1964-65350,7222,22461,2701,148411,9921,952
1965-66387,0462,34267,9841,181455,0302,042
1966-67419,6702,46873,0601,233492,7302,149

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the latest three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1964-651965-661966-67
 $(000)
Food76,39481,69788,672
Beverages4,9505,5516,083
Tobacco manufactures1,7001,9912,166
Textiles21,08224,62026,151
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods36,83438,17840,031
Wood and cork products (except furniture)28,97032,00033,279
Furniture and fixtures11,42612,13512,579
Paper and paper products16,29018,14520,475
Printing, publishing, etc.26,84629,59932,900
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3,4523,5863,896
Rubber products7,7928,4469,048
Chemicals and chemical products12,84213,83914,673
Petroleum and coal products1,7561,9192,064
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.18,39420,06220,874
Basic metal manufactures2,9343,3193,586
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)28,29032,92735,175
Machinery (except electrical)29,95834,82738,879
Electrical machinery and appliances16,00417,57119,333
Transport equipment55,07660,95067,680
Miscellaneous products11,00013,66815,188
    Totals411,992455,030492,730

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1966-67 totals according to statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1966-67
    $(000)   
Food2,73818,8997,7522,1317,5664,99613,956
Beverages412,63655196477155859
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*7,824157*7131135,616
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13217,8971,8461475608988,413
Wood and cork products (except furniture)8395,39311,8482077869333,399
Furniture and fixtures216,652488*4831172,264
Paper and paper products-5,8639,327***2,931
Printing, publishing, etc.40811,4851,7993681,1557139,573
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-1,945****471
Rubber products442,30726727*472,191
Chemicals and chemical products*5,124823*6675534,387
Petroleum and coal products-445161-*16520
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,0337,5531,539775261882,376
Basic metal manufactures*1,158109-**596
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)19519,4161,177476623036,681
Machinery (except electrical)91514,9004,6012059361,4627,136
Electrical machinery and appliances366,7361,146*5412265,011
Transport equipment1,53916,6078,1397762,0031,66719,139
Miscellaneous products9508,3889593741,1998364,774
Totals9,891161,22952,6874,45718,27413,223100,293
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Salaries and Wages Paid 1966-67
    $(000)   
Food7661,5347212,9087,2618,09488,672
Beverages*114*628379*6,083
Tobacco manufactures------2,166
Textiles-50*7,0324,11420126,151
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods283108*7,8491,58312440,031
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1881,4171,5024,0821,3331,35233,279
Furniture and fixtures2994*1,79345716712,579
Paper and paper products-*-84636493420,475
Printing, publishing, etc.1983641074,0182,24446832,900
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-*-851458803,896
Rubber products*19*3,99552369,048
Chemicals and chemical products*161-1,44495432214,673
Petroleum and coal products---18838-2,064
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1101,114523,2571,25279820,874
Basic metal manufactures---742167263,586
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*341224,0881,97225735,175
Machinery (except electrical)2731961235,4041,6301,09638,879
Electrical machinery and appliances-24-3,9291,54412119,333
Transport equipment7011,8984028,7303,7782,30167,680
Miscellaneous products176513111,7582869015,188
Totals2,7237,4852,59173,54329,86616,468492,730

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1966-67, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical, professional and technical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business. Males and females are distinguished throughout.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1966-67
    $(000)   
Food12,0721,70269,2225,67581,2947,37888,672
Beverages1,4762454,0513105,5275556,083
Tobacco manufactures2121019509031,1621,0042,166
Textiles3,34378214,5627,46317,9058,24526,151
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods5,1381,9369,01523,94114,15325,87840,031
Wood and cork products (except furniture)5,98945926,54628432,53674333,279
Furniture and fixtures2,4413149,15366811,59698312,579
Paper and paper products3,80558513,9762,10917,7812,69420,475
Printing, publishing, etc.6,2571,75521,7723,11728,0284,87232,900
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)7541162,0339932,7871,1093,896
Rubber products1,6712426,4706658,1419079,048
Chemicals and chemical products3,9628808,2661,56612,2282,44614,673
Petroleum and coal products683581,278451,9611022,064
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.4,28746015,60052719,88798720,874
Basic metal manufactures724812,744373,4691173,586
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7,46995825,0611,68632,5312,64435,175
Machinery (except electrical)8,50696228,83357937,3391,54138,879
Electrical machinery and appliances4,01960111,4593,25515,4783,85519,333
Transport equipment15,2862,18848,8621,34464,1473,53267,680
Miscellaneous products3,2706918,4502,77711,7203,46815,188
Totals91,36615,117328,30557,943419,67073,060492,730

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past 11 years.

YearProprietors Actively EngagedManagers, OverseersAccountants, ClerksProfessional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Average Salary or Wage
 $$$$$$$$$$$$
1956-571,7821,1242,3581,4461,644914....1,5288081,608832
1957-581,8381,2422,4821,4881,696954....1,5948381,678862
1958-591,9101,3382,5961,5041,760982....1,6428821,732904
1959-602,0041,3042,7181,5861,8541,028....1,7069001,804928
1960-612,0901,3782,8481,7341,9421,074....1,7869501,890980
1961-622,1321,3882,9541,7702,0121,114....1,8529921,9581,020
1962-632,2601,3683,0361,7502,0741,1482,4841,3901,9041,0002,0201,034
1963-642,3121,4623,1681,8362,1661,1962,5661,3821,9801,0622,1041,094
1964-652,4501,4823,3581,9062,2801,2522,6961,4362,0921,1142,2241,148
1965-662,6641,6573,5292,0212,3761,3042,7911,5152,2051,1422,3421,181
1966-672,6911,5973,7142,0612,5231,3642,9571,5512,3221,1932,4681,233

MOTIVE POWER—A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources (as described in Section 20A) has been a major factor in industrial growth, especially as the rates compare very favourably with those in more highly industrialised countries.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories.

Class of Engine1959-601963-641964-651965-661966-67
ElectricNo.165,797208,993222,924234,965246,623
h.p.770,2131,040,0661,117,8791,193,8831,262,328
SteamNo.407276273241224
h.p.18,37912,59015,95014,76612,907
Petrol and light oilNo.709758931901998
h.p.14,27615,48020,89818,12820,139
Heavy oilNo.265262214219211
h.p.16,40317,35314,18615,70515,462
OtherNo.11575485557
h.p.3,6111,8632,0752,3792,134
TotalsNo.167,293210,364224,390236,381248,113
h.p.822,8821,087,3521,170,9881,244,8611,312,970

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1966-67.

Industry GroupRated Horsepower of Engines in Use
ElectricSteamPetrol and Light OilHeavy OilOtherTotal
Food268,7583,1061,4092,189503275,965
Beverages18,13122719210-18,560
Tobacco manufactures2,626----2,626
Textiles47,264206112--47,582
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods18,792811315-18,901
Wood and cork products (except furniture)165,1242,6056,3928,807636183,564
Furniture and fixtures18,675-6--18,681
Paper and paper products244,8864503172-245,511
Printing, publishing, etc.27,661715990126628,994
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)8,90730---8,937
Rubber products31,375-74-531,454
Chemicals and chemical products67,89627667372133469,900
Petroleum and coal products19,2485,4101,239-8025,977
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.103,6094142,2102,244177108,654
Basic metal manufactures9,447-2--9,449
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)64,569181,3161481566,066
Machinery (except electrical)52,860-3,0561253456,075
Electrical machinery and appliances16,866-615-16,887
Transport equipment48,127653,051508451,377
Miscellaneous products27,5071222665-27,810
Totals1,262,32812,90720,13915,4622,1341,312,970

CONSUMPTION OF COAL—During the year 1966-67, 994,000 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the two previous years were: 1965-66, 1,013,000 tons, and 1964-65 1,030,000 tons. It is important to note that the factory production statistics exclude the activities of the gas-making industry and electric generation and supply stations. These two industries used 241,000 tons and 441,000 tons of coal respectively in 1966-67.

The following table shows for the year 1966-67 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry GroupTons of Coal Used
Food452,910
Beverages10,133
Tobacco manufactures-
Textiles30,808
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,491
Wood and cork products (except furniture)901
Furniture and fixtures72
Paper and paper products124,537
Printing, publishing, etc.146
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)4,846
Rubber products18,514
Chemicals and chemical products17,678
Petroleum and coal products42,475
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.284,765
Basic metal manufactures118
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,812
Machinery (except electrical)391
Electrical machinery and appliances307
Transport equipment243
Miscellaneous products1,952
Total994,099

Approximately 87 percent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1966-67 were as follows:

IndustryTons
Milk products other than butter and cheese240,812
Cement233,031
Pulp, paper, and paperboard124,529
Meat freezing and preserving120,837
Butter and cheese57,933
Petroleum and coal products42,475
Structural clay products38,362
Food preparations, n.e.i.20,628
Woollen milling18,660

MATERIALS—The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis o comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. A example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers an packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was $549 million, and the goods produced were valued at $724 million, while the materials use in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost $75 million and finished goods produce were valued at $142 million.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of th latest three years was as follows.

Industry GroupCost of Materials Used
1964-651965-661966-67
 $(000)
Food538,915542,025548,732
Beverages16,51017,61719,340
Tobacco manufactures12,40013,16614,186
Textiles80,66988,73188,187
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods64,07266,87568,170
Wood and cork products (except furniture)67,20273,07875,199
Furniture and fixtures20,33821,36021,379
Paper and paper products46,21852,37857,238
Printing, publishing, etc.26,01128,68031,543
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)8,1908,8189,990
Rubber products13,28314,88215,491
Chemicals and chemical products60,56368,66271,418
Petroleum and coal products40,18947,34442,851
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.23,85325,31125,696
Basic metal manufactures9,26110,80010,848
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)56,71164,23768,213
Machinery (except electrical)53,04958,42163,895
Electrical machinery and appliances48,59845,89348,207
Transport equipment139,685146,205160,565
Miscellaneous products18,25721,91925,201
Totals1,343,9761,416,4031,466,347

An analysis by statistical areas of the cost of materials used for the year 1966-67 is given below.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Cost of Materials Used 1966-67
$(000)
Food30,742101,022121,7928,63732,30753,36977,199
Beverages10910,2311,2082021,3112401,723
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*22,4082,749*10,09948419,836
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods17929,7783,4012151,0541,39314,066
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,64114,03526,6006432,6341,5988,371
Furniture and fixtures1911,509644*6191473,596
Paper and paper products-17,88721,154***9,745
Printing, publishing, etc.18813,6031,0581999003378,728
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-4,403****899
Rubber products1074,28855441*813,252
Chemicals and chemical products*21,0676,464*3,8835,16820,183
Petroleum and coal products*3,463726-*895,843
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,9799,8932,2681106152823,155
Basic metal manufactures*5,97693-**1,188
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)30439,7072,253602,96159911,676
Machinery (except electrical)96723,4885,7452492,1562,27613,442
Electrical machinery and appliances2317,7462,094*1,10659910,780
Transport equipment2,66532,31814,2951,2033,0853,06472,524
Miscellaneous products33,74914,3561,18489310,0352,75811,730
Totals73,674397,179214,28312,45272,76572,484297,935
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

Cost of Materials Used 1966-67
$(000)
Food3,1897,7951,24151,16927,16533,103548,732
Beverages*217*2,962938*19,340
Tobacco manufactures------14,186
Textiles-74*20,5387,6993,45788,187
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods646220*14,0912,42721668,170
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2982,8432,5437,3623,2712,35975,199
Furniture and fixtures46124*3,43299523321,379
Paper and paper products-*-3,8938562,13757,238
Printing, publishing, etc.87244443,6772,17230631,543
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-*-2,2911,4886129,990
Rubber products*36*6,840965815,491
Chemicals and chemical products*768-5,3994,0302,50371,418
Petroleum and coal products---561250-42,851
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2311,132513,4661,4291,08425,696
Basic metal manufactures---874431710,848
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*376336,5833,02062268,213
Machinery (except electrical)41939111910,9432,1331,56863,895
Electrical machinery and appliances-47-12,7082,9919448,207
Transport equipment1,1876,28771813,4475,6574,116160,565
Miscellaneous products1893296393,1284009825,201
Totals6,29220,8855,388173,36567,06052,5851,466,347

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the primary produce processing industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, $549 million, represented 37 percent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, $1,466 million. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value in recent years constitutes approximately three-fifths of the value of products. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of production for each industrial group and for all industries.

Industrial GroupValue of Production
1964-651965-661966-67
 $(000)
Food683,388716,179723,789
Beverages34,91839,53543,221
Tobacco manufactures18,40820,10821,591
Textiles120,846135,899137,531
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods119,552127,063129,937
Wood and cork products (except furniture)126,562138,745141,579
Furniture and fixtures38,74841,39542,311
Paper and paper products101,868114,836125,254
Printing, publishing, etc.78,34486,24894,266
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)14,31015,46516,733
Rubber products31,85234,77236,626
Chemicals and chemical products99,868112,202117,815
Petroleum and coal products50,43062,62959,536
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.71,48877,66579,711
Basic metal manufactures15,86417,97718,614
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)113,868130,726138,175
Machinery (except electrical)105,666120,247132,968
Electrical machinery and appliances84,41880,80086,248
Transport equipment231,822249,917277,745
Miscellaneous products42,98452,04060,093
Totals2,185,2062,374,4472,483,742

A similar analysis by statistical areas, but limited to the year 1966-67, is now given.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Value of Production 1966-67
$(000)
Food36,288140,364143,31613,19746,65063,639101,534
Beverages23819,6482,7984812,7936735,573
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*37,9552,996*11,37468631,138
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods38758,1556,4574121,9712,89326,434
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4,33724,05852,2301,0914,1843,24514,681
Furniture and fixtures4522,8211,427*1,4143167,161
Paper and paper products-32,83961,204***16,980
Printing, publishing, etc.93435,8994,7827753,1401,52126,471
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-7,819****1,737
Rubber products2799,6301,397119*1817,821
Chemicals and chemical products*37,3239,502*5,6117,14034,172
Petroleum and coal products*5,7961,097-*1377,764
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.9,91626,8886,4522691,6786348,045
Basic metal manufactures*8,572282-**2,370
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)72078,9784,2591684,6091,23325,164
Machinery (except electrical)2,47249,30314,0025604,2134,68426,682
Electrical machinery and appliances8031,0714,098*1,9201,03520,592
Transport equipment5,14159,35027,5032,3626,4185,976111,018
Miscellaneous products46,25933,7393,4032,10315,0464,95423,325
Totals107,095720,207347,20521,538111,02198,948498,661
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

Value of Production 1966-67
$(000)
Food4,40210,8051,39773,03141,28647,879723,789
Beverages*589*6,9102,885*43,221
Tobacco manufactures------21,591
Textiles-158*32,59114,7693,924137,531
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,076371*25,9914,667382129,937
Wood and cork products (except furniture)6415,4295,65315,3455,7394,948141,579
Furniture and fixtures93255*6,4561,80149442,311
Paper and paper products-*-6,3241,5734,018125,254
Printing, publishing, etc.41790924511,3246,6061,24194,266
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-*-3,6342,26480916,733
Rubber products*92*16,41723311936,626
Chemicals and chemical products*1,323-9,4326,2463,878117,815
Petroleum and coal products---1,012396-59,536
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.4425,84316210,6975,4413,24479,711
Basic metal manufactures---2,1543886218,615
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*9087014,5766,3121,134138,175
Machinery (except electrical)84872832320,7385,0113,402132,968
Electrical machinery and appliances-86-21,2375,77829686,248
Transport equipment2,1219,4811,33828,05711,2527,730277,745
Miscellaneous products5894781,2757,1231,00725860,093
Totals10,62937,45610,464313,049123,65283,8182,483,742

NET OUTPUT (NET VALUE ADDED): Added Value—Ever since the inception of statistics on manufacturing industries in New Zealand the term added value has been used in the various industry summaries, reports, and analytical tables. Throughout this long period the statistical concept of added value was defined as the difference between the value of an industry's product and the cost of materials, i.e., those materials which became physically part of, or were transformed directly into, the industry's product.

Several economic and statistical meanings are attached to such a concept of added value. The simplest interpretation is the one from which the words themselves derive in their ordinary common usage: the value added by a specific activity to materials to make from them a new product. The clothing manufacturer uses textiles to make suits and added value is simply the money value by which the value of textiles has been enhanced when made into suits.

Added value, however, can also be taken as the measure of the contribution of an industry to production in general and as a basis of comparison between one branch of the manufacturing industry and another. For instance, added value per person has been generally used in productivity studies and comparisons between industry branches and over a historical period. For such purposes the measure of added value is greatly superior to value of production which varies from industry to industry not only because their respective contributions are different but also because the unit cost of materials varies. A simpler example would be a comparison between two furniture factories, one of which largely uses pine whereas the second makes only mahogany furniture.

A third aspect of added value is its neutrality to structural organisation of the manufacturing industry as a whole; as a result added value is a measure which is consistent in its concept over time. The total value of production, on the other hand, is affected by the degree of industry integration which can in turn be affected in an accidental way by institutional and financial circumstances. The value of production depends on the number of units in the productive process, because it is partly duplicated as production moves from one unit to the next and the value is counted at every stage. Added value, by ignoring the value of materials at each stage, can be summed to a meaningful total independent of the number of units involved.

Net Output (Net Value Added)—It has been felt for a number of years, that the concept of added value as previously calculated was deficient in many ways for the purposes for which it is intended. Deducting only materials which go into the product of a firm or branch of industry is not enough in order to evaluate the contribution of a given industry. The firm or industry also uses materials not directly incorporated in the product, it uses services of many kinds and all of these are the products of industries, other than the given industry. In other words, to get a precise and satisfactory measure of “added value” the products of all other industries entering into production costs of the given industry need to be deducted. Failing this, none of the three purposes described in the first section of the notes can be satisfactorily achieved.

It is for these reasons that it has been decided to introduce a new concept of “added value” which henceforth will be designated as Net Output (Net Value Added). In order, however, not to interrupt historical data for statistical users both concepts will be published side by side for the next few years. Not only will the new Net Output (Net Value Added) series afford a much better comparison between branches of industry but its aggregate for the manufacturing industry as a whole will provide a direct measure of the contribution of the manufacturing industry to national income itself. The new Net Output (Net Value Added) series consists, as is shown in the schematic table below of three items only, viz, salaries and wages paid, interest paid by the industry, and surplus generated. These three items are also the components of national income or its companion aggregates net national and domestic output.

COMPARISON BETWEEN NET OUTPUT (NET VALUE ADDED) AND ADDED VALUE

Cost Structure of Industry (Typical Items of Cost)Examples of Industries Contributing to Production (Output of Industries Typically Supplying Goods and Services)Item Included (+) or Excluded (-) In
Net Output (Net Value Added)Added Value
Rewards to Factors of Production—
    Salaries and Wagesgiven industry's own contribution to production  
    Interest on borrowed capital++
    Proprietors' surplus++
Other (non-factor) Costs—
    Materials and components transformed into productsManufacturing, Farming, Mining and Quarrying, Forestry--
    Fuels, electricity, waterMining, Electricity, Gas, Water-+
    Repairs and maintenance to plant and premisesManufacturing, Building and Construction, Services-+
    Costs connected with transport of persons and goodsTransport, Manufacturing-+
    RentsReal Estate-+
    InsuranceInsurance-+
    Communications servicesCommunications-+
    Other management costsManufacturing, Services-+
Depreciation costsContribution to production by wear and tear of given industry's own capital equipment-+

The following table covering the manufacturing industry demonstrates how each concept is arrived at.

Components1961-621962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
$(million)
Value of production1,6131,6811,9242,1852,3742,484
    Less Costs of materials9771,0061,1611,3441,4161,466
Added value6366757638419581,017
    Less Other expenses128136148166185206
    Depreciation charges374347546470
Net output (Net value added)471496568622709741
Percent
Contribution of manufacturing industry to net domestic output (income)20.119.420.3*20.321.6*21.4

The following table shows added value and net output for each industrial group and for all industries and an analysis of the 1966-67 totals according to the statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry Group1966-67
Added ValueNet Output
 $(million)
Food175.1121.2
Beverages23.917.8
Tobacco manufactures7.46.0
Textiles49.335.4
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods61.850.8
Wood and cork products (except furniture)66.447.8
Furniture and fixtures20.917.0
Paper and paper products68.042.3
Printing, publishing, etc.62.746.7
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6.75.3
Rubber products21.115.1
Chemicals and chemical products46.432.2
Petroleum and coal products16.711.5
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.54.032.3
Basic metal manufactures7.85.8
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)70.052.6
Machinery (except electrical)69.154.5
Electrical machinery and appliances38.028.6
Transport equipment117.292.3
Miscellaneous products34.926.3
Totals1,017.4741.4

The analysis for 1966-67 by statistical areas now follows.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Added Value 1966-67
 $(000)
Food5,54539,34221,5244,56014,34310,26924,335
Beverages1289,4171,5902791,4824343,850
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*15,547246*1,27520211,302
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods20828,3773,0561979171,50012,368
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,69610,02325,6294481,5501,6476,310
Furniture and fixtures2611,311783*7951693,565
Paper and paper products-14,95240,049***7,235
Printing, publishing, etc.74622,2963,7255762,2411,18417,744
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-3,416****838
Rubber products1725,34284378*1004,569
Chemicals and chemical products*16,2563,038*1,7281,97213,989
Petroleum and coal products*2,333372-*481,921
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.7,93716,9944,1841591,0633524,890
Basic metal manufactures*2,596189-**1,182
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)41539,2712,0051081,64863413,487
Machinery (except electrical)1,50525,8158,2583112,0572,40813,241
Electrical machinery and appliances5713,3242,004*8134379,812
Transport equipment2,47627,03213,2081,1583,3332,91238,494
Miscellaneous products12,51019,3832,2191,2105,0112,19611,595
Totals33,421323,028132,9229,08538,25626,464200,726
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Added Value 1966-67
 $(000)
Food1,2133,01015721,86214,12014,776175,057
Beverages*372*3,9481,947*23,881
Tobacco manufactures------7,404
Textiles-84*12,0527,07046749,344
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods430151*11,9002,23916661,767
Wood and cork products (except furniture)3422,5863,1117,9822,4682,58866,381
Furniture and fixtures47131*3,02580626120,932
Paper and paper products-*-2,4317161,88168,016
Printing, publishing, etc.3306652017,6474,43493562,724
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-*-1,3447761976,742
Rubber products*55*9,5771376121,135
Chemical and chemical products*555-4,0332,2161,37546,397
Petroleum and coal products---451147-16,686
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2114,7111117,2314,0112,16054,015
Basic metal manufactures---1,280346457,766
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*532377,9933,29151169,962
Machinery (except electrical)4293372049,7952,8791,83469,073
Electrical machinery and appliances-39-8,5302,78720238,040
Transport equipment9343,19461914,6105,5953,614117,180
Miscellaneous products3991496363,99460716034,891
Totals4,33716,5715,076139,68356,59231,2341,017,395

The analysis for 1966-67 by statistical areas now follows.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Net Output 1966-67
 $(000)
Food3,25427,88512,9373,16510,4876,45916,866
Beverages986,9771,1712031,1443672,892
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*10,351141*8971287,752
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods14123,1942,4871677741,17810,375
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,3197,27717,6153371,0771,2665,002
Furniture and fixtures219,296650*6551402,765
Paper and paper products-11,04622,054***5,372
Printing, publishing, etc.56016,2192,8914711,66787413,663
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-2,650****687
Rubber products1143,87052949*693,069
Chemicals and chemical products*12,1451,834*1,0721,11310,032
Petroleum and coal products*1,589244-*231,475
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,69911,1962,8601237872723,432
Basic metal manufactures*1,949146-**882
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)34029,0881,561751,1265389,910
Machinery (except electrical)1,18520,2906,4522581,6432,00610,304
Electrical machinery and appliances*10,1831,542*6403296,876
Transport equipment1,96420,98310,3238902,6452,20830,786
Miscellaneous products8,54314,1661,9269613,7731,5808,864
Totals20,236240,35487,3626,70028,38918,551151,002
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Net Output 1966-67
 $(000)
Food6621,91310315,67910,66811,145121,221
Beverages*308*2,9971,371*17,843
Tobacco manufactures------5,951
Textiles-70*9,2675,55730635,353
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods373**9,6981,87613850,752
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2311,8201,9116,1001,8891,96247,808
Furniture and fixtures40109*2,48665021117,030
Paper and paper products-*-1,7785441,14842,347
Printing, publishing, etc.2144911465,7353,05068146,663
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)-*-1,1085821675,324
Rubber products*34*7,162881915,126
Chemicals and chemical products*338-2,6761,41781232,208
Petroleum and coal products---30266-11,538
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1392,190704,7792,4631,24432,252
Basic metal manufactures---1,030225365,798
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*442*6,4132,63539252,573
Machinery (except electrical)3632781647,8992,2001,45154,492
Electrical machinery and appliances-27-6,6702,09516428,583
Transport equipment7202,27846811,8434,3462,82892,281
Miscellaneous products3282515453,12851510026,263
Totals3,06910,5463,408106,75042,23622,802741,407

A final table on added value and net output for 1966-67 classifies factories into several added value and net output groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

GroupEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of ProductionAdded ValueNet Output
TotalPer Person EngagedTotalPer Person Engaged
Added Value         
$NumberNumber$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$
Under 5,0004079131,4422,9893,9429531,043......
5,000- 9,9991,3794,3227,68411,57622,04610,4702,422......
10,000- 19,9992,36411,77422,25939,22273,57934,3572,918......
20,000- 29-9991,44011,41621,95939,93775,56235,6253,121......
30,000- 39,99998910,44720,02840,68874,89434,2063,274......
40,000- 99,9992,11537,49373,105180,495312,955132,4603,533......
100,000- 199,99982729,37358,456222,852337,677114,8253,909......
200,000- 499,99955537,70078,421254,361422,850168,4894,469......
500,000- 999,99916323,61350,656136,430248,930112,5004,764......
1,000,000-1,999,9998923,15554,713173,693297,842124,1495,362......
2,000,000-4,999,9995428,36073,408227,653380,136152,4835,377......
5,000,000 and over1210,73630,598136,451233,33096,8799,024......
Totals10,394229,302492,7301,466,3472,483,7421,017,3954,437......
Net Output $...........................
Under 5,0009002,6814,57511,08915,910......1,986741
5,000- 9,9991,7996,69612,21721,51540,115......13,3871,999
10,000- 19,9992,38214,63028,05955,890101,888......34,4162,352
20,000- 29,9991,41813,81126,65054,51699,951......34,8652,524
30,000- 39,99982310,65121,15761,05499,071......28,6812,693
40,000- 99,9991,77839,96678,340257,169404,672......109,8012,747
100,000- 199,99967230,57962,237207,586333,927......92,3603,020
200,000- 499,99939234,68472,672190,342348,374......118,7943,425
500,000- 999,99912825,07255,651153,633279,646......91,2353,639
1,000,000-1,999,9996926,68566,737198,427338,620......98,0403,674
2,000,000-4,999,9992920,90454,709193,432308,253......85,1494,073
5,000,000 and over42,9439,72561,695113,315......32,69311,109
Totals10,394229,302492,7301,466,3472,483,742......741,4073,233

The development of factory production in New Zealand is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, net output, added value, and value of production.

Figure 18.3. FACTORY PRODUCTION

FACTORY PRODUCTION

EXPENSES OF OPERATION—Total operating costs of factories for the year 1966-67 amounted to $2,252 million, of which salaries and wages accounted for $493 million, cost of materials for $1,466 million, and other expenses for $293 million, while value of production totalled $2,484 million.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, by industry groups for the year 1966-67.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke, Gas, Oils, etc.InsuranceInterest on Loans, etc.DepreciationRentRepairs and MaintenanceOtherTotal
 $(000)
Food4,5565,1762,7702,6113,01913,8421,41710,66912,79556,855
Beverages1043402903055611,5901601,0172,2326,599
Tobacco manufactures-472410955546132324811,508
Textiles3261,0644076771,3884,1396042,7404,03315,378
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods176171185236921,8032,2801,1424,51611,708
Wood and cork products (except furniture)71,4543411,5521,2353,9207923,9716,53519,808
Furniture and fixtures1272243613287226684431,4114,230
Paper and paper products1,0183,7881,4951,1321,7908,3987624,4044,67127,458
Printing, publishing, etc.26171485965463,9551,0161,4878,24016,607
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3911360107893241452333971,508
Rubber products1635492022771251,6952377012,1846,134
Chemicals and chemical products1878543496409914,6313672,5964,56515,180
Petroleum and coal products-312129150482,210908371,4195,196
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.3,2551,7031,6157686416,0762824,1883,87522,404
Basic metal manufactures11991761071574161132357212,125
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)161,5055501,0611,2354,1631,4112,1026,58118,625
Machinery (except electrical)68423421,0781,2103,0951,1031,7026,41315,791
Electrical machinery and appliances66772324735792,0116468104,60310,036
Transport equipment31,4194121,6651,3794,4672,9952,73811,20026,277
Miscellaneous products176471824665022,1929371,1253,0629,131
Totals9,72522,1949,86914,65916,56970,19516,03843,37189,937292,557

CAPITAL ASSETS—Fixed capital employed in manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. In those cases where the factory premises, or, in some cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented, an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalising the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table, which shows the values of these assets for each of the last three years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1966-67. For the year 1966-67 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the two previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the YearValue at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Land and BuildingsPlant, Machinery and EquipmentTotalLand and BuildingsPlant, Machinery and EquipmentTotal
Totals—$(000)
    1964-6533,28062,51095,788469,942277,356747,298
    1965-6651,16183,448134,610545,465308,074853,540
1966-67—      
    Food10,08117,43527,516119,32471,002190,327
    Beverages1,3492,2093,55915,6968,66724,363
    Tobacco manufactures2966018972,0012,5674,568
    Textiles1,9294,6386,56826,01918,86844,887
    Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9811,3952,37636,79510,67747,472
    Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,3574,5106,86731,16319,47050,633
    Furniture and fixtures6065911,19614,9192,83517,754
    Paper and paper products1,8698,46410,33239,47243,84583,318
    Printing, publishing, etc.6,7246,17412,89835,28923,70058,989
    Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1662484143,8751,1735,048
    Rubber products1,1262,2733,3998,9285,70014,629
    Chemicals and chemical products3,2268,23011,45633,51922,45855,977
    Petroleum and coal products4651,5922,0575,4029,97815,380
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,2744,8207,09425,00824,44649,454
    Basic metal manufactures2714256953,8592,0355,894
    Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,3693,9276,29540,99020,15561,145
    Machinery (except electrical)2,5053,0245,53034,68312,55747,239
    Electrical machinery and appliances1,7692,3234,09221,2777,27128,548
    Transport equipment9,6895,78515,47495,77617,831113,607
    Miscellaneous products1,1322,3723,50319,8039,35629,160
Totals, 1966-6751,18581,034132,219613,800334,592948,392

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS—A quarterly survey of manufacturers' stocks is conducted by the Department of Statistics. The survey is based on a sample of 1,200 factories selected from the 1964-65 Census of Manufacturing and allowance is made in the sampling procedures for the opening of new factories and the closing of established factories since the 1964-65 census. The combined stocks of manufacturers in the sample represent over 75 percent of the total manufacturers' stocks at the 1964-65 census, and appropriate estimation methods are used to derive statistics for all factories. Since September 1967 the survey has been made on a new basis and earlier statistics have been revised.

The following table compares in summary form the results of the quarterly surveys. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries—meat processing and dairy products manufacture—have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading “Materials” includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies

As at—Total StocksMovement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsPercentage Movement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsStocks Seasonally Corrected
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished Goods
Including Primary Produce Processing Industries
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)PercentPercentPercent$(m)$(m)
1962—31 Mar193.0115.3308.3-1.6+4.2+2.7-0.8+3.8+0.9  
1963—31 Mar198.3116.5314.8+5.3+1.2+6.5+2.7+1.0+2.1  
1964—31 Mar218.1134.5352.6+19.8+18.0+37.8+10.0+15.5+12.0  
1966—31 Mar262.0174.7436.7+34.8+26.2+61.0+15.3+17.6+16.2  
1967—31 Mar284.5196.9481.4+22.6+22.2+44.7+8.6+12.7+10.2  
    30 Jun281.8195.8477.5+11.8+15.0+26.8+4.4+8.3+5.9  
    30 Sep287.2186.8x474.0x+14.9+28.0x+42.9x+5.5+17.6x+9.9x  
    31 Dec275.9203.8479.7+3.2+35.6+38.8+1.2+21.1+8.8  
1968—31 Mar283.3243.8527.1-1.2+47.0+45.8-0.4+23.9+9.5  
    30 Jun281.6233.5515.1-0.1+37.7+37.5––+19.3+7.9  
    30 Sep290.9215.6506.5+3.7+28.8+32.5+1.3+15.4+6.9  
As at—Total StocksMovement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsPercentage Movement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsStocks Seasonally Corrected
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished Goods
    Excluding Primary Produce Processing Industries
1962—31 Mar182.064.8246.9-0.2+5.1+5.0-0.1+8.5+2.1180.766.1
1963—31 Mar187.571.0258.5+5.5+6.2+11.6+3.0+9.6+4.7186.272.3
1964—31 Mar207.279.7286.9+19.7+8.7+28.4+10.5+12.3+11.0205.881.2
1966—31 Mar251.697.5349.1+35.2+8.1+43.3+16.3+9.1+14.2249.999.3
1967—31 Mar273.3112.9386.2+21.7+15.4+37.1+8.6+15.8+10.6271.4115.0
    30 Jun271.4120.7392.1+11.7+16.8+28.5+4.5+16.2+7.8269.7121.8
    30 Sep275.4136.6412.0+15.4+22.3+37.8+5.9+19.5+10.1273.7129.8
    31 Dec263.7129.6393.4+3.8-19.1+23.0+1.5+17.3+6.2268.8132.9
1968—31 Mar272.4134.3406.7-0.8+21.4+20.6-0.3+19.0+5.3270.5136.8
    30 Jun271.1138.5409.5-0.4+17.8+17.4-0.1+14.8+4.4269.3139.7
    30 Sep278.4146.8425.2+3.0+10.2+13.2+1.1+7.5+3.2276.6139.6

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of September.

Industry GroupStocks at 30 SeptemberIncrease or Decrease in Stocks September 1967 to September 1968
19671968
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotal
Primary Produce Processing Industries         
Meat freezing, ham, bacon, and casings8.3631.7240.088.9647.0756.03+0.60+15.35+15.95
Dairy3.4018.5221.923.4721.7725.23+0.07+3.25+3.31
Totals11.7550.2462.0012.4368.8481.26+0.68+18.60+19.26
Other food19.9322.6242.5623.0625.1348.19+3.13+2.51+5.63
Beverages4.056.0210.064.396.6211.01+0.34+0.60+0.95
Tobacco manufactures13.58-13.5815.07-15.07+1.49-+1.49
Textiles20.728.9129.6321.187.6628.85+0.46-1.25-0.78
Clothing16.839.0925.9217.179.8827.05+0.34+0.79+1.13
Footwear4.981.276.253.751.164.91-1.23-0.11-1.34
Wood manufactures10.7413.2724.0111.4913.7125.20+0.75+0.44+1.19
Furniture and fixtures5.881.337.216.921.238.15+1.04-0.10+0.94
Paper and products18.138.7126.8517.908.0125.90-0.23-0.70-0.95
Printing, publishing13.501.4814.9813.421.5114.92-0.08+0.03-0.06
Leather and products2.650.893.552.890.743.63+0.24-0.15+0.08
Rubber products5.604.179.775.324.679.99-0.28+0.50+0.22
Chemicals and products18.4716.9335.4021.0018.9839.99+2.53+2.05+4.59
Petroleum, coal products1.801.162.962.111.263.36+0.31+0.10+0.40
Non-metallic mineral products9.418.4217.838.8310.0418.87-0.58+1.62+1.04
Basic metal products2.350.683.042.130.903.03-0.22+0.22-0.01
Metal products24.118.4132.5223.019.6832.69-1.10+1.27+0.17
Machinery24.938.8233.7522.758.7131.46-2.18-0.11-2.29
Electrical products20.235.5825.8121.165.9927.15+0.93+0.41+1.34
Transport equipment29.603.7133.3126.153.5229.67-3.45-0.19-3.64
Miscellaneous7.925.0712.998.737.4016.13+0.81+2.33+3.14
Totals275.42136.56411.98278.42146.79425.21+3.00+10.23+13.23
        Grand totals, all manufacturing industries287.17186.80473.97290.85215.63506.48+3.68+28.83+32.51

ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRY—New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organised on a relatively small scale.

The law in New Zealand restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 25 persons, a private company to not fewer than two or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than seven persons. Co-operation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1966-67 is given in the following table.

Character of OrganisationNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsAdded ValueNet Output
TotalPer EstablishmentTotalPer Establishment
   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$$(000)$
Private registered company7,560147,121307,182773,2731,380,966607,69380,383458,89660,701
Public registered company94663,424144,945400,082732,760332,678351,668230,864244,042
Individual1,0054,2997,68211,47023,75412,28412,2239,7509,701
Partnership4962,9355,8519,52320,02010,49721,1638,31016,754
Co-operative association2738,21819,619264,438308,49844,060161,39225,75294,330
Local authority and State1143,3057,4527,56117,74410,18389,3257,83468,719
Totals10,394229,302492,7301,466,3472,483,7421,017,39597,883741,40771,330

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organisation, the added value per unit being much greater than that for private registered companies. Private companies, however, occupy a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the added value created in New Zealand factories (59.7 percent in 1966-67, as compared with 32.7 percent in the case of public companies).

Since 1951-52, the first year of the new series, private and public registered companies have increased their combined share of added value from 87.8 percent to 92.4 percent. In 1966-67 the share of added value accruing to public companies was 32.7 percent, compared with 34.7 percent in 1951-52, but over the same period private companies increased their share from 53.1 percent to 59.7 percent. All other types of organisations have had a decreased share of added value.

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES—Below is a table giving index numbers of added value, net output, value of production, and volume of production based on the year 1938-39. This table commences with the year 1928-29 and runs through to 1950-51, at which stage a new series was commenced.

Production YearValue Added in ManufactureNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of ProductionVolume of Production
    Base: 1938-39 (= 100)
1928-2980 7971
1929-3083 7974
1930-3175696869
1931-3262555860
1932-3360535863
1933-3464576365
1934-3570636974
1935-3677707981
1936-3790859392
1937-3899959997
1938-39100100100100
1939-40113114113110
1940-41125127129114
1941-42137141136116
1942-43151157145120
1943-44162168154125
1944-45173181166129
1945-46185194171131
1946-47205217191140
1947-48233244238151
1948-49252264263155
1949-50285297290164
1950-51311321345172

With the reclassification in 1951-52 a new series of index numbers was commenced and these are shown below. It should be realised in comparing the two series of index numbers that the latter excludes the activities of three important industries. These are the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in the sawmilling industry, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity. However, the effect of the exclusion of these industries entirely from the newer series is not great, as the two series in the overlapping period recorded very similar movements.

Production YearValue Added in ManufactureNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of ProductionVolume of Production
    Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)
1949-50494529527721
1950-51547571632754
1951-52677731716806
1952-53700742771800
1953-54784825823848
1954-55895927915941
1955-56971980973994
1956-571,0001,0001,0001,000
1957-581,0961,0931,0711,070
1958-591,1631,1581,0951,130
1959-601,2871,3121,1721,169
1960-611,3871,4091,2571,283
1961-621,5361,5681,3401,349
1962-631,6311,6511,3961,410
1963-641,8431,8921,5981,557
1964-652,0312,0701,8151,759
1965-662,3142,3611,9721,879
1966-672,4572,4682,0631,991

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of production, added value, net output, and volume of production. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE OF FACTORY PRODUCTION, VALUE ADDED, NET OUTPUT AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION, BASE 1956-57 (= 1000)

Industry GroupValue of ProductionValue AddedNet OutputVolume of Production
1965-661966-671965-661966-671965-661966-671965-661966-67
1Indices not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.
Food1,5171,5332,0132,0242,1062,0341,4251,521
Beverages1,9072,0852,2082,4062,4912,7091,4521,523
Tobacco manufactures1,6561,7782,0752,2132,2342,3811,7371,887
Textiles2,2472,2742,7472,8742,7512,8752,6012,808
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,6091,6461,7531,7991,7221,7621,4201,414
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,9011,9401,8891,9091,9821,9491,3551,357
Furniture and fixtures1,9962,0402,0142,1041,9522,022(1)(1)
Paper and paper products2,5722,8052,6142,8473,4843,8992,5602,742
Printing, publishing, etc.2,0662,2582,1632,3562,1282,2851,9072,037
Leather and leather products (except foot-wear and apparel)1,8902,0452,2042,2352,2052,2311,6281,635
Rubber products1,6461,7331,9782,1012,0562,1171,8391,924
Chemicals and chemical products2,0762,1802,2962,4472,3332,4021,8981,903
Petroleum and coal products12,97812,33710,17711,10910,43511,515(1)(1)
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,0962,1512,1812,2502,2552,2211,8971,877
Basic metal manufactures2,6592,7542,7042,9262,7012,876(1)(1)
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3,1293,3083,2723,4433,1293,255(1)(1)
Machinery (except electrical)2,3032,5472,7763,1022,7513,055(1)(1)
Electrical machinery and appliances3,7784,0333,8524,1983,8284,1073,4263,606
Transport equipment2,0792,3112,0852,3562,0532,284(1)(1)
Miscellaneous products4,3915,0705,0145,8085,0095,769(1)(1)
All Groups1,9722,0632,3142,4572,3612,4681,8791,991

OVERTIME—Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarised in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest three years. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Worked by Wage Earners (Both Male and Female)
1964-651965-661966-67
 (000)
Food9,1779,0319,809
Beverages466491660
Tobacco manufactures230271279
Textiles1,7932,0761,974
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9941,0721,050
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,2032,5882,345
Furniture and fixtures899907805
Paper and paper products1,4431,6392,099
Printing, publishing, etc.1,4361,6991,568
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)210227213
Rubber products584669623
Chemicals and chemical products1,1441,1951,164
Petroleum and coal products99129113
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,0772,2382,156
Basic metal manufactures298324313
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3,0643,4153,152
Machinery (except electrical)2,7343,1152,956
Electrical machinery and appliances1,1961,2101,255
Transport equipment3,8793,7834,026
Miscellaneous products8901,0611,267
Totals34,81537,13937,827

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1966-67 by males and females separately.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage EarnersAverage Overtime Hours Worked by All Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
 (000)(000)  
Food9,155654338136
Beverages653739128
Tobacco manufactures171108453172
Textiles1,52844624673
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods46458610828
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,3261919082
Furniture and fixtures7852018435
Paper and paper products1,905193388112
Printing, publishing, etc.1,35721015287
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1724217951
Rubber products6032024636
Chemicals and chemical products1,0956932249
Petroleum and coal products1094227115
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,10254314130
Basic metal manufactures311227152
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,964188281146
Machinery (except electrical)2,9154223398
Electrical machinery and appliances1,06918620372
Transport equipment3,861165159212
Miscellaneous products1,10316431070
Totals34,6493,17924565

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS—The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1966-67, together with the value of production for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of co-operative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of ProductionManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
 $(000)
Food88,672548,73256,855694,258723,78929,531
Beverages6,08319,3406,59932,02143,22111,200
Tobacco manufactures2,16614,1861,50817,86021,5913,731
Textiles26,15188,18715,378129,716137,5317,815
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods40,03168,17011,708119,909129,93710,028
Wood and cork products (except furniture)33,27975,19919,808128,285141,57913,295
Furniture and fixtures12,57921,3794,23038,18842,3114,122
Paper and paper products20,47557,23827,458105,171125,25420,082
Printing, publishing, etc.32,90031,54316,60781,05094,26613,217
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3,8969,9901,50815,39416,7 31,339
Rubber products9,04815,4916,13430,67336,6265,953
Chemicals and chemical products14,67371,41815,180101,272117,81516,544
Petroleum and coal products2,06442,8515,19650,11059,5369,426
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.20,87425,69622,40468,97379,71110,738
Basic metal manufactures3,58610,8482,12516,55818,6142,055
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)35,17568,21318,625122,012138,17516,163
Machinery (except electrical)38,87963,89515,791118,565132,96814,403
Electrical machinery and appliances19,33348,20710,03677,57686,2488,671
Transport equipment67,680160,56526,277254,522277,74523,223
Miscellaneous products15,18825,2019,13149,52060,09310,573
Totals492,7301,466,347292,5572,251,6352,483,742232,108

LIST OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES PRODUCED IN RECENT YEARS—The following is a list of certain commodities produced in New Zealand during the latest four years available.

Commodity1963-641964-651965-661966-67
*See new classification below.
ToastersNo.61,50282,82367,17363,862
IronsNo.77,79581,60667,14762,725
Radiators, electricNo.152,312218,149221,626213,253
Vacuum cleanersNo.55,11158,99657,27182,008
Washing machinesNo.42,10245,77047,29051,333
Refrigerators (home and commercial and freezers)No.53,72852,80661,31172,730
Electric rangesNo.40,32144,27249,87552,432
Electric rangettesNo.3,1443,1816,4347,072
Radios, including radiograms, etc.No.94,85680,460102,04181,536
Television setsNo.113,904162,813110,54279,185
BlanketsPairs225,216243,622257,596241,214
Floor coverings (textile top coverings)sq. yd.(000)3,7194,7685,0705,484
Mattresses—     
    Innerspring—     
        SingleNo.81,70792,424101,53298,850
        DoubleNo.28,88431,76930,31929,213
        Soft filled—     
        SingleNo.76,32769,52356,25049,178
        DoubleNo.14,61515,44811,84311,473
    InfantsNo.10,3869,55511,1099,360
Venetian blindssq. ft.(000)2,8122,745**
Venetian blindsNo.......114,85297,165
Roller (Holland) blindsNo.......209,766119,602
Newspapers produced—     
    Dailiesthousand328,082328,310334,140327,328
    Other than dailiesthousand53,01855,46353,96156,294
Hot-water bottlesNo.302,711451,839427,715464,753
Soap—     
    Toiletton3,6014,0313,8174,530
    Barton4,4584,1714,3554,200
    Powder and flaketon15,05713,83915,66813,485
Household and industrial cleaners—     
    Synthetic detergents—     
    Powders and pastescwt30,68826,95843,49573,026
    Liquidgal(000)9409951,5671,952
    Other cleaners, etc.—     
    Powders and pastescwt21,54423,05319,35021,536
    Liquidgal(000)599653249441
Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,3213,6363,7743,809
Lacquersgal(000)346370345365
Toothpastecwt12,75615,66716,31017,626
Furniture and floor polishcwt27,24925,54834,045x19,380
Shoe polishes and cleanerscwt3,6513,7796,149x4,622
Water heaters—     
    Under 10 gallonsNo.14,28713,00512,62510,416
    10 gallons and overNo.36,38738,93445,33042,152
Sinks: stainless steelNo.42,93156,07863,09355,728
Sink tops: stainless steelNo.26,61928,41232,03426,408
WheelbarrowsNo.19,93922,31125,41921,950
Lawnmowers (hand and power)No.66,26461,47779,54284,186
Prams, pushchairs, strollers—     
    Cane (inc. dolls)No.4,1804,9053,5474,452
    Other than caneNo.32,44228,57229,78829,767
ToothbrushesNo.(000)2,6552,9232,8582,757

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES—The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last three years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Report on Statistics of Industrial Production.

Commodity1964-651965-661966-67

*In addition 1,035,000 bundles were produced in the sausage casings industry in 1965-66 and 1,063,000 bundles in 1966-67.

†Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes chocolate sold for further manufacturing purposes.

†Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

*In addition, in 1964-65, 162,000 gallons; in 1965-66, 155,000 gallons; and in 1966-67, 169,000 gallons were recorded by establishments classified in other industries.

*Other principal products withheld to avoid disclosure of figures for individual establishments.

*Includes production of establishments classified in other industries.

†Effective running footage.

*Principal products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

*Principal products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments 404144
Persons engagedNo.19,65720,14820,856
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)47,31850,27855,233
    Materials$(000)234,784235,253227,411
    Other expenses$(000)19,88022,88924,557
    Totals$(000)301,982308,420307,201
Value of production$(000)304,510322,451311,760
Value added in manufacture$(000)69,72687,19784,349
Net output (net value added)$(000)50,62065,45361,140
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)5,8355,3195,952
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,3291,3291,431
Principal products—    
    Meat—    
    Lamb carcassesNo.(000)20,58421,06322,578
cwt(000)5,5855,8906,084
    Mutton carcassesNo.(000)4,7783,9415,522
cwt(000)2,0651,7472,410
    Boned muttoncwt(000)11087115
    Mutton and lamb piecescwt(000)193205179
    Beef quarters, bone incwt(000)1,8541,126893
    Beef cutscwt(000) 537671
    Boneless beefcwt(000)1,0331,0431,206
    Bobby vealcwt(000)197154163
    Other vealcwt(000)826388
    Porkcwt(000)477432380
    Edible offalscwt(000)860907909
By-products—    
    Runners (not processed)No.(000)4,9174,9475,750
    Casings*bundles(000)4,9724,6595,193
    Woolly sheepskinsNo.(000)165136161
    PeltsNo.(000)26,77226,28628,489
    Cow hidesNo.(000)497478519
    Ox and bull hidesNo.(000)349355384
    Bobby calf hidesNo.(000)1,1541,0661,095
    Other calf hidesNo.(000)666066
    Woollb(000)62,68564,97974,113
Boiling-down products—    
    Tallowcwt(000)1,1911,2881,378
    Neatsfoot oilgal (000)164156174
Organic fertilisers and stock foods    
    Meatmealcwt(000)691392457
    Meat and bone mealcwt(000) 398513
    Livermealcwt(000)1067
    Bonedustcwt(000)1189167
    Blood manurecwt(000)1148795
    Blood and bonecwt(000)542437442
    Manure mixturecwt(000)1154
    Other manures and mealscwt(000)12912781
Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous canningscwt(000)127131128
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments 545147
Persons engagedNo.1,5101,5471,384
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,0563,1803,034
    Materials$(000)18,30819,05315,330
    Other expenses$(000)1,7081,6701,647
    Totals$(000)23,07423,90320,011
Value of production$(000)24,39825,91721,869
Value added in manufacture$(000)6,0906,8646,539
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,4225,2484,951
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)364353157
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,3431,323994
Pigs dealt with—    
    CarcassesNo.(000)495475398
    Cost$(000)11,65411,64310,933
Principal products—    
    Ham and baconcwt353,161346,887289,348
    Frozen porkcwt38,66029,74029,057
    Smallgoodscwt323,795326,610257,865
    Lard (edible)cwt12,30913,0269,486
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments—    
    Butter and cheeseNo.205182171
    Other milk productsNo.737070
Persons engagedNo.4,4054,3344,664
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)9,4589,98911,170
    Materials$(000)206,146213,322226,084
    Other expenses$(000)11,48612,93015,317
                    Totals$(000)227,090236,240252,571
Value of production$(000)231,430243,150257,272
Value added in manufacture$(000)25,28629,82831,188
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,98817,13616,261
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,2131,4501,535
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2691,3181,378
Butterfat used—    
    For creamery butterlb(000)444,945460,073464,850
    For cheesemakinglb(000)93,15689,42898,383
    For whey butter making—    
            Recoveries from own wheylb(000)1,4472,4292,678
            Whey fat purchasedlb(000)4,6244,2773,659
            Second grade creamery butterfatlb(000)5457289
                Total for whey butterlb(000)6,6166,7796,426
Principal products—    
    Creamery butterton242,448249,918250,881
    Whey butterton3,1483,0954,541
    Cheeseton105,17499,488109,594
    Condensed and evaporated milk, and whole and blended milk powderton14,38116,56517,345
    Skim-milk powderton77,97385,959137,535
    Buttermilk powderton22,92225,70625,262
Caseinton40,69852,57745,725
Ice Cream
Number of establishments 191718
Persons engagedNo.518511470
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)872887843
    Materials$(000)3,8203,7744,032
    Other expenses$(000)1,2861,2661,195
                    Totals$(000)5,9785,9266,070
Value of production$(000)7,8108,2328,693
Value added in manufacture$(000)3,9904,4584,660
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,9123,3853,516
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)516265
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,5931,6651,803
Main materials used—    
    Milkgal(000)1,2151,3621,267
    Creamgal(000)171190210
    Ice-cream mixturecwt7,71214,3735,350
    Buttercwt23,08625,37927,751
    Skim-milk powdercwt21,84421,54628,855
    Sugarcwt65,67471,79074,605
Principal products—    
    Bulk ice-creamgal(000)2,7872,8472,809
    Ice cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.gal(000)3,8874,1344,406
    Iced lolliesgal(000)713681949
Grain Milling
Number of establishments 403837
Persons engagedNo.9851,021998
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,8121,9411,970
    Materials$(000)9,84210,46111,081
    Other expenses$(000)1,4981,5791,685
                    Totals$(000)13,15013,98114,736
Value of production$(000)14,48415,52616,326
Value added in manufacture$(000)4,6425,0655,246
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,2503,6093,695
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)132140132
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,3961,4361,478
Main materials used—    
    Wheatbushel (000)10,77410,80310,978
    Oatsbushel(000)523549528
Principal products—    
    Flourshort ton230,329229,854232,106
    Wholemeal, wheatmeal*short ton8,3778,2909,342
    Bran and pollardshort ton63,25065,57666,004
    Breakfast cereals—    
    Oatmeal, rolled oatsshort ton5,8145,8025,482
    Other (including cereals in biscuit, flake and puff form)*short ton11,61312,27812,933
Biscuits
Number of establishments 9910
Persons engagedNo.1,2601,3261,289
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,0302,1872,239
    Materials$(000)5,1285,2035,494
    Other expenses$(000)1,1901,2811,455
                    Totals$(000)8,3488,6719,188
Value of production$(000)9,72010,32210,981
Value added in manufacture$(000)4,5945,1195,487
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,4683,9044,101
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)282326329
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2391,2941,403
Main materials used—    
    Flourshort ton13,07013,48913,496
    Sugarton4,2594,4894,243
    Chocolatecwt13,00613,72625,754
    Margarine, lard, confectionery fatcwt58,70260,08963,227
Biscuits manufacturedton19,62420,18021,896
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments 464950
Persons engagedNo.2,0562,2402,325
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,1003,5313,896
    Materials$(000)9,4069,3039,415
    Other expenses$(000)1,5781,7952,014
                    Totals$(000)14,08414,62915,325
Value of production$(000)16,11817,24418,536
Value added in manufacture$(000)6,7107,9429,121
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,2026,2237,191
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)249297378
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,3961,5511,625
Main materials used—    
    Sugarton12,44612,85913,045
    Cocoa beanscwt60,51465,00772,589
    Cocoa buttercwt13,88616,60515,826
    Glucosecwt83,00690,52187,689
    Nutscwt29,50129,04128,629
Confectionery manufactured—    
    Chocolate and chocolate-coated*ton10,10111,52912,254
    Sugarton10,43610,94910,923
Potato crisps and stickscwt14,26717,77124,788
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments 323231
Persons engagedNo.2,2452,5562,410
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,8844,5374,663
    Materials$(000)12,98814,47615,480
    Other expenses$(000)3,6684,2214,390
                    Totals$(000)20,54223,23424,533
Value of production$(000)22,26825,92726,586
Value added in manufacture$(000)9,28011,45111,106
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,0927,7607,362
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)631691874
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,0212,3192,596
Main materials used—    
    Fruit (fresh)ton23,01830,20329,566
    Vegetables and tomatoes (fresh)ton48,30251,55260,014
    Sugarton6,4506,6096,723
Principal products—    
    Canned fruitcwt260,564344,196379,242
    Canned beans in saucecwt71,16861,78787,127
    Canned peascwt71,08474,70687,881
    Canned green beanscwt27,50836,37440,352
    Other canned vegetables (not tomatoes)cwt82,212106,799138,929
    Tomato soupgal553,028583,655540,359
    Pickles and sauces*gal1,087,092x843,183960,155
    Jams, jellies, and conservescwt81,92490,42795,731
    Canned spaghetti in saucecwt85,87275,341110,913
    Canned tomatoes (whole and halves)cwt17,25516,38111,478
Quick-frozen vegetables—    
    Peascwt224,246237,703219,776
    Beanscwt52,87551,21361,714
    Othercwt31,20942,22164,544
Brewing of Ale and Stout, and Malting
Number of establishments 181818
Persons engagedNo.1,3831,4461,428
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,1843,5483,859
    Materials$(000)11,23211,90212,935
    Other expenses$(000)3,7764,1454,607
                    Totals$(000)18,19219,59421,401
Value of production$(000)24,58627,69130,026
Value added in manufacture$(000)13,35415,78917,091
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,75411,81512,815
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)415441594
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2261,2901,343
Main materials used—    
    Maltbushel(000)1,6271,6251,673
    Hopscwt6,5436,3096,489
    Sugarcwt75,569112,970152,982
Beer produced for salegal(000)59,89862,63365,196
Stout produced for salegal(000)392434434
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments 565556
Persons engagedNo.662733732
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,1701,3031,369
    Materials$(000)2,8842,9712,992
    Other expenses$(000)9921,0261,171
                    Totals$(000)5,0465,3005,532
Value of production$(000)6,0086,6126,781
Value added in manufacture$(000)3,1263,6413,789
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,2522,7312,751
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)393838
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,5201,6551,702
Main materials used—    
    Sugarton6,7757,6958,118
    Essential oils and essenceslb(000)449489 
    Fruit extracts and juicesgal(000)6774102
Aerated waters madegal(000)10,68011,77412,143
Cordials made*gal(000)477483511
Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments 333
Persons engagedNo.9701,1341,129
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,7001,9912,166
    Materials$(000)12,40013,16614,186
    Other expenses$(000)1,4661,4671,508
                    Totals$(000)15,56616,62317,860
Value of production$(000)18,40820,10821,591
Value added in manufacture$(000)6,0086,9427,404
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,6945,5855,951
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)230271279
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,5981,7371,887
Tobacco leaf used in manufacturelb(000)13,17513,57014,824
Cigarettes made million 3,8874,3904,883
Tobacco madelb(000)4,0843,6533,464
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments 222223
Persons engagedNo.4,1764,4874,294
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)6,6367,7397,685
    Materials$(000)10,76211,34612,359
    Other expenses$(000)3,1163,3493,772
                    Totals$(000)20,51422,43323,816
Value of production$(000)20,97424,41025,473
Value added in manufacture$(000)10,21413,06413,114
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,2709,9879,796
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)735763610
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,1872,3742,489
Main materials used—    
    Wool fibres—    
    Greasy and slipe woollb(000)12,53012,46612,173
    Scoured woollb(000)4361,2071,313
    Tops, noilslb(000)2,0222,3402,506
    Woollen and worsted yarnlb(000)433561680
    Non-wool fibres—    
    Artificial and syntheticlb(000)7871,0481,477
    Otherlb(000)221817
Principal products—    
    Woollen clothyd(54 in. 000)1,3521,4191,475
    Worsted clothyd(54 in. 000)1,3331,2801,583
    Flannelyd(54 in. 000)203173174
    Blanketspairs(000)244258241
    RugsNo.(000)798495
    Yarn produced for sale or transfer—    
    Fingeringlb(000)2,4262,7232,624
    Machine knittinglb(000)2,6653,0933,032
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills    
Number of establishments 787679
Persons engagedNo.4,4174,6604,994
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)6,8127,5828,269
    Materials$(000)14,95416,20917,718
    Other expenses$(000)3,7164,0054,200
                    Totals$(000)25,48227,79530,187
Value of production$(000)27,88231,16233,331
Value added in manufacture$(000)12,93014,95315,613
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,45611,22511,758
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)324410432
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,2482,4582,667
Clothing
Number of establishments 713713709
Persons engagedNo.20,26920,73420,978
Production costs-    
    Salaries, wages$(000)25,58826,34627,839
    Materials$(000)46,32248,10348,677
    Other expenses$(000)6,4246,9697,385
                    Totals$(000)78,33481,41883,900
Value of production$(000)83,74688,54090,608
Value added in manufacture$(000)37,42640,43741,931
Net output (net value added)$(000)31,42633,87134,981
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)542580568
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2621,3321,315
Footwear
Number of establishments 124129123
Persons engagedNo.5,3835,4925,363
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)8,8989,2149,339
    Materials$(000)11,90412,48712,986
    Other expenses$(000)3,1343,2353,318
                    Totals$(000)23,93624,93725,643
Value of production$(000)25,63227,43127,748
Value added in manufacture$(000)13,72814,94314,763
Net output (net value added)$(000)10,72811,85411,603
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)382410416
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,5911,6721,670
Main materials used—    
    Upper leathersq. ft.(000)11,12810,5039,843
    Sole leatherlb(000)2,1251,8671,812
    Synthetic soling materiallb(000)1,2621,6531,902
    Ready-made soles—leather, rubber, and otherpair(000)2,2392,7973,052
    Ready-made heels—leather, rubber, wood, and otherpair(000)2,8802,7732,925
Feltsq. yd.(000)98146133
Sawmills
Number of establishments 395391397
Persons engagedNo.5,8895,8875,968
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)12,46813,35613,827
    Materials$(000)22,88223,84724,996
    Other expenses$(000)9,0809,38710,463
                    Totals$(000)44,43046,58949,286
Value of production$(000)50,51053,31854,194
Value added in manufacture$(000)27,62829,47129,198
Net output (net value added)$(000)19,04420,58019,344
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)8801,000903
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2431,2401,204
Rough-sawn timber producedthousand ft b.m.726,728725,299704,080
Planing Mills and Timber Preservation
Number of establishments 173182180
Persons engagedNo.2,1192,3552,286
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)4,1284,9054,980
    Materials$(000)19,76622,14722,807
    Other expenses$(000)2,2182,6722,777
                    Totals$(000)26,11229,72430,564
Value of production$(000)29,49833,65434,092
Value added in manufacture$(000)9,73211,50711,285
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,6709,0028,690
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)314331304
Rough-sawn timber used in manufacturethousand ft b.m.168,850190,666190,465
Dressed timber produced—    
    Floorboardsthousand ft b.m.36,05540,30837,483
    Weatherboardsthousand ft b.m.23,46323,71722,112
    Otherthousand ft b.m.86,95496,11492,265
Joinery work done$(000)2,6202,8972,923
Joinery
Number of establishments 422425428
Persons engagedNo.4,1974,3544,418
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)8,4369,2049,686
    Materials$(000)16,00818,94019,084
    Other expenses$(000)2,6003,2023,479
                    Totals$(000)27,04431,34632,249
Value of production$(000)30,43234,99835,362
Value added in manufacture$(000)14,42416,05816,279
Net output (net value added)$(000)12,00413,13413,119
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)761886764
Timber used in manufacturethousand ft b.m.90,775106,946106,401
Dressed timber produced—    
    Floorboardsthousand ft b.m.10,4399,5719,565
    Weatherboardsthousand ft b.m.3,9573,2782,919
    Otherthousand ft b.m.11,55710,0059,512
Flush panel doors*No.394,253444,483390,549
Joinery and other woodwork$(000)24,18028,08528,730
Furniture
Number of establishments 476442445
Persons engagedNo.4,9865,0605,056
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)9,99210,63111,078
    Materials$(000)15,83816,73716,956
    Other expenses$(000)2,6303,1373,491
                    Totals$(000)28,46030,50531,525
Value of production$(000)31,41033,86034,964
Value added in manufacture$(000)15,57217,12318,007
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,13014,23014,767
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)751729673
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments 777
Persons engagedNo.3,0783,1483,309
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)8,8129,83410,839
    Materials$(000)17,12019,59121,385
    Other expenses$(000)18,89421,36921,522
                    Totals$(000)44,82450,79453,746
Value of production$(000)55,17061,73765,998
Value added in manufacture$(000)38,05042,14644,613
Net output (net value added)$(000)20,67822,04924,418
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)7878771,174
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,2972,5312,676
Principal products—    
    Newsprintton188,385195,463182,861
    Other paperton82,006102,779120,811
    Paperboardton47,87456,99654,662
    Fibreboardsq. yd.(000)10,04710,66810,257
    Wood pulp for saleton87,22172,92796,602
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments 555555
Persons engagedNo.2,4312,6152,848
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)4,6705,2196,120
    Materials$(000)18,40820,71622,843
    Other expenses$(000)2,9923,4633,731
                    Totals$(000)26,07029,39832,694
Value of production$(000)29,02232,51936,432
Value added in manufacture$(000)10,61411,80413,589
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,9948,93010,192
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)483539692
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,7192,9673,199
Paper used in manufactureton44,26948,53952,979
Cardboardton24,39325,99520,030
Corrugated and laminated paperboardton11,55512,67218,978
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made*$(000)22,08624,72027,604
Paper bags and paper sacks, made*$(000)5,2566,1925,909
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments 888987
Persons engagedNo.6,4056,7617,002
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)13,97815,62716,978
    Materials$(000)11,97013,04613,120
    Other expenses$(000)8,0928,83210,063
                    Totals$(000)34,04037,50540,162
Value of production$(000)41,92045,97748,018
Value added in manufacture$(000)29,94832,93134,898
Net output (net value added)$(000)21,96824,23925,023
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)566752613
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,4901,6351,651
Newsprint usedton71,93474,54674,773
Other paper usedton3,8605,3785,897
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments 342349367
Persons engagedNo.5,9336,3166,759
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)11,33012,32314,098
    Materials$(000)13,35614,89317,689
    Other expenses$(000)4,6525,1115,786
                    Totals$(000)29,33632,32837,573
Value of production$(000)33,22636,74542,424
Value added in manufacture$(000)19,87021,85324,735
Net output (net value added)$(000)15,51417,04119,278
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)775856881
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,0692,2652,560
Newsprint used ton 3,049x5,2414,179
Other paper usedton21,11321,70025,554
Cardboard usedton5,1435,9916,214
Corrugated and laminated paperboard usedton617617732
Cellulose film usedton530527748
Tanning
Number of establishments 111111
Persons engagedNo.706700747
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,5441,5991,679
    Materials$(000)3,6924,0664,846
    Other expenses$(000)676744738
                    Totals$(000)5,9126,4097,263
Value of production$(000)6,6167,2747,791
Value added in manufacture$(000)2,9243,2082,945
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,2682,4842,246
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)130139127
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2471,2881,187
Principal products*—    
    Leather—    
    Hide—    
    Bendslb(000)1,2181,109941
    Shoulderslb(000)665756542
    Bellieslb(000)706652560
    Chrome and other sidessq. ft.(000)7,4767,7957,255
Rubberware
Number of establishments 353637
Persons engagedNo.2,7902,9093,048
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)6,5267,0887,654
    Materials$(000)10,88212,28612,547
    Other expenses$(000)3,4563,7654,435
                    Totals$(000)20,86423,14024,636
Value of production$(000)25,75428,00129,651
Value added in manufacture$(000)14,87215,71517,103
Net output (net value added)$(000)11,46412,00012,726
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)482575504
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,5801,8201,859
Main materials used—    
    Natural rubberlb(000)10,87612,22712,901
    Synthetic rubberlb(000)13,87816,26416,363
    Latex$(000)664671638
Principal products—    
    Motor tyresNo.937,6611,075,0061,013,093
    Motor tubesNo.586,273710,438677,628
Camelbacklb(000)5,3995,8406,927
Milking rubberware$(000)3,2123,3343,599
Bicycle tyres and tubes$(000)3,2123,3343,599
Battery containers$(000)3,2123,3343,599
Rubber and canvas footwear$(000)3,2123,3343,599
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments 151616
Persons engagedNo.1,3071,3681,274
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,3683,7313,659
    Materials$(000)24,00428,31428,543
    Other expenses$(000)3,3864,7655,680
    Totals$(000)30,75836,81037,881
Value of production$(000)35,01240,43540,934
Value added in manufacture$(000)11,00812,12112,391
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,7687,7427,131
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)553582551
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,8101,9201,731
Main materials used—    
    Rock phosphateton870,206993,943909,638
    Serpentine rockton159,219150,147122,558
    Sulphurton176,979201,129182,141
    Carbonate of limeton33,61043,50040,027
    Nitrate of sodaton4,0745,1403,676
    Potashton115,486124,725117,580
Principal products—    
    Serpentine superphosphate and mixtureston370,953305,570263,392
    Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtureston43,06146,59439,333
    Straight superphosphate and mixtureston867,464969,240969,852
    Aerial superphosphate and mixtureston506,463575,017419,289
    Other (including ground rock)ton1,40112,3346,851
    Superphosphate content of aboveton1,478,7271,628,8941,425,908
Soap Manufacture
Number of establishments 131313
Persons engagedNo.490488493
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)9669761,067
    Materials$(000)3,6524,3234,118
    Other expenses$(000)1,0141,1861,260
    Totals$(000)5,6326,4856,445
Value of production$(000)6,7587,3927,866
Value added in manufacture$(000)3,1083,0693,748
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,1842,0512,683
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)7710385
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2981,3501,426
Main materials used—    
    Tallowton11,50812,13112,185
    Other oils and fatston1,1851,2591,218
    Caustic sodaton2,1272,3382,242
    Soda ashton2,7342,7472,559
    Perfumes$(000)192232285
Principal products—    
    Soap—    
    Toiletton4,0313,8174,530
    Barton4,1714,3554,200
    Powder and flaketon13,83915,66813,485
    Candleston156..141151
    Sandsoapton209209146
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments 313131
Persons engagedNo.965949912
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,0322,0892,101
    Materials$(000)10,23810,34910,379
    Other expenses$(000)1,2421,3151,581
    Totals$(000)3,51413,75314,062
Value of production$(000)16,40017,14616,602
Value added in manufacture$(000)6,1626,7976,223
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,9645,5234,713
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)977493
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,4741,4551,444
Main materials used—    
    White leadcwt6,2985,2735,273
    Titanium dioxide (in terms of 100 % TiO2)cwt74,93277,90981,273
    Other pigments and extenderscwt127,812132,213130,300
    Linseed oilgal(000)315320319
    Solventsgal(000)2,3692,1382,133
    Resinscwt125,035127,882116,608
Principal products—    
    Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,6363,6173,643
    Lacquersgal(000)370345365
Varnishesgal(000)138157166
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics*
Number of establishments 394139
Persons engagedNo.1,1921,3101,376
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,8522,0582,266
    Materials$(000)7,3088,0229,780
    Other expenses$(000)1,1081,3241,550
    Totals$(000)10,26811,40413,596
Value of production$(000)13,14014,64717,668
Value added in manufacture$(000)5,8326,6257,888
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,7765,3626,411
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)454645
Principal products—    
    Pharmaceutical products$(000)4,9085,3715,923
Toilet preparations and cosmetics—    
    Dentifrices$(000)1,1181,2371,421
    Cosmetic creams and lotions$(000)628998909
    Hair dressing$(000)2,4722,6762,413
    Powder, face and talcum$(000)590712749
    Lipstick$(000)286330378
Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments 403939
Persons engagedNo.1,1161,2311,211
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,5102,8142,982
    Materials$(000)762824880
    Other expenses$(000)2,1902,4572,770
    Totals$(000)5,4606,0956,631
Value of production$(000)6,3527,0417,753
Value added in manufacture$(000)5,5926,2166,873
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,4363,8374,191
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)343288353
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,2001,2671,339
Clay used—    
    Purchasedton28,56635,89541,649
    From own quarryton341,733332,254371,691
Principal products—    
    Firebricks*No.(000)3,1303,2003,069
    Building bricks including hollow blocksNo.(000)52,10153,20552,298
Glazed pipes and fittings—    
    4 in. and belowft(000)6,4676,3366,834
    Over 4 in. but not exceeding 6 in.ft(000)486551462
    Above 6 in.ft(†000)203834
Field tiles and fittings—    
    4 in. and belowft(000)9,52411,39611,701
    Over 4 in. but not exceeding 6 in.ft(000)1,6381,5841,527
    Above 6 in.ft†(000)89130157
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments 101110
Persons engagedNo.782828741
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,3701,6121,613
    Materials$(000)390423477
    Other expenses$(000)666580710
    Totals$(000)2,4242,6152,800
Value of production$(000)2,8782,9153,199
Value added in manufacture$(000)2,4882,4922,722
Net output (net value added)$(000)1,8501,9692,058
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)133133172
Principal products—    
    Insulators and refractory insulator elements$(000)902920860
    Crockery, artware and novelties, stone-ware$(000)1,2501,3011,487
    Other earthenware including sanitary-ware$(000)598591800
Cement
Number of establishments 666
Persons engagedNo.823858936
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,1182,1852,409
    Materials$(000)2,5382,3782,502
    Other expenses$(000)5,7407,1698,175
    Totals$(000)10,39611,73313,086
Value of production$(000)14,15015,11115,433
Value added in manufacture$(000)11,61212,73312,931
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,9525,6944,885
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)375410306
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,6801,7881,827
Principal materials—    
    Limestoneton706,405742,920751,025
    Clay, marl, cement rockton678,944725,875952,224
    Gypsumton34,51935,99134,595
Cement madeton786,521841,060858,975
Concrete Products
Number of establishments 307291297
Persons engagedNo.2,6972,6502,530
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)5,6766,0195,909
    Materials$(000)9,0909,5229,183
    Other expenses$(000)2,9303,3613,581
    Totals$(000)17,69618,90318,672
Value of production$(000)20,75821,99921,363
Value added in manufacture$(000)11,66612,47612,180
Net output (net value added)$(000)8,8809,2818,816
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)619657576
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,7001,8271,648
Materials used—    
    Portland cementton136,108152,792143,625
    Sand, shingleyd707,317757,431742,461
    Reinforcington17,11916,45113,816
    Pumiceyd27,50829,91226,853
Principal products—    
    Roofing tiles and ridgesNo.(000)8,8155,9255,228
    Fencing postsNo.(000)2,6462,4932,064
    Telegraph and power polesNo.(000)28*2827
    Housing bricks and blocksNo.(000)20,257*25,876*24,717
    Pipeston156,204167,423137,560
    Prestressed concrete beamsNo.6,6116,0172,461
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments 101212
Persons engagedNo.756894973
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,6722,0082,255
    Materials$(000)3,3343,2043,616
    Other expenses$(000)1,1981,6561,853
    Totals$(000)6,2046,8687,723
Value of production$(000)6,7947,0898,242
Value added in manufacture$(000)3,4603,8854,625
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,3002,2692,829
Overtime worked by wage earnerh(000)101171213
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,6721,5961,876
Species of logs used—    
Rimuft(000)(H.Dahl)9,2639,9148,907
Kahikateaft(000)(H.Dahl)1,6151,5601,432
Radiata pineft(000)(H.Dahl)10,67611,42412,293
Otherft(000)(H.Dahl)1,3213,5013,138
Veneer produced (1/16in. basis)sq. ft.(000)183,049222,603220,254
Plywood made (3/16in. basis)sq. ft.(000)54,19056,61357,082
Range Making*
Number of establishments 666
Persons engagedNo.9921,0321,093
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,9042,0362,258
    Materials$(000)3,7143,6594,112
    Other expenses$(000)866843945
    Totals$(000)6,4846,5377,315
Value of production$(000)7,0447,1687,788
Value added in manufacture$(000)3,3303,5103,676
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,4742,6772,747
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)54124129
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,5081,6441,794
Iron and steel usedton6,2045,4157,413
Principal products—    
    Domestic electric rangesNo.44,27249,87552,432
    Domestic electric rangettesNo.3,1816,4347,072
Domestic coal ranges, rangettes, destructors, space heaters. and other stovesNo.3,3292,2713,029
  Radio and Television Assembly and Manufacture*  
Number of establishments 343332
Persons engagedNo.3,0392,7502,538
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)5,1924,8154,670
    Materials$(000)21,72015,37213,682
    Other expenses$(000)2,6242,1342,264
    Totals$(000)29,53622,32220,616
Value of production$(000)34,93624,98922,375
Value added in manufacture$(000)13,2169,6178,693
Net output (net value added)$(000)10,7267,6176,634
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)293211182
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 6,6825,4094,465
Principal products—    
    Radios—    
    Car and portableNo.54,87681,40856,940
    TableNo.13,5585,7043,720
RadiogramsNo.11,31714,92920,876
Television setsNo.162,813110,54279,185
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments 171818
Persons engagedNo.4,0904,2684,112
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)9,75010,54710,570
    Materials$(000)75,18274,41077,215
    Other expenses$(000)2,9623,5954,382
                    Totals$(000)87,89488,55292,167
Value of production$(000)95,92097,926102,304
Value added in manufacture$(000)20,73823,51525,089
Net output (net value added)$(00017,79819,98520,769
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,4391,2631,288
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 1,6351,6121,543
Vehicles assembled—    
Cars*No.58,21956,95353,353
VansNo.5,1513,3815,180
TrucksNo.4,8904,9625,683
Motor-body Building
Number of establishments 869488
Persons engagedNo.1,5231,7091,733
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,9423,4193,721
    Materials$(000)4,3265,4547,126
    Other expenses$(000)9341,0161,295
                    Totals$(000)8,2029,88912,141
Value of production$(000)8,75010,69313,484
Value added in manufacture$(000)4,4245,2396,358
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,5904,3715,165
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)229218283
Main materials—    
    Timberft b.m.(000)1,0312,6751,602
    Plywoodsq. ft.(000)7229981,239
    Paints and oilsgal(000)383441
Motor bodies built—    
    BusesNo.235217206
    VansNo.322306449
    Trucks—    
    CabsNo.11734679
    TraysNo.826961914
    CaravansNo.1,0581,8212,413
Repairs to Motor Vehicles
Number of establishments 2,1992,2862,556
Persons engagedNo.19,05519,68621,303
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)33,20036,24940,997
    Materials$(000)51,52256,41064,040
    Other expenses$(000)11,62612,92715,382
    Totals$(000)96,346105,586120,420
Value of production$(000)103,626113,756128,813
Value added in manufacture$(000)52,10657,34767,773
Net output (net value added)$(000)41,16845,19950,429
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,3541,4511,415
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments 195199201
Persons engagedNo.5,3355,8465,799
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)11,21413,09313,551
    Materials$(000)21,68424,72626,385
    Other expenses$(000)5,5766,5307,208
    Totals$(000)38,47444,34847,144
Value of production$(000)44,11850,93453,187
Value added in manufacture$(000)22,43626,20826,802
Net output (net value added)$(000)17,15220,00820,001
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,2241,3341,174
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000) 2,3732,7522,824
Metal Products n.e.i.
Number of establishments 316334352
Persons engagedNo.6,1436,6856,993
Production costs—    
    Salaries and wages$(000)13,57215,96717,275
    Materials$(000)27,07631,13933,158
    Other expenses$(000)7,4648,6039,268
                    Totals$(000)48,11255,70959,702
Value of production$(000)54,70863,51967,593
Value added in manufacture$(000)27,63432,38034,435
Net output (net value added)$(000)20,83824,43925,874
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,4741,6981,636
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments 108106110
Persons engagedNo.1,2401,3571,217
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,4442,7852,642
    Materials$(000)12,23810,59311,334
    Other expenses$(000)9581,1741,309
    Totals$(000)15,64014,55215,285
Value of production$(000)17,35216,24616,959
Value added in manufacture$(000)5,1145,6535,625
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,2464,5864,455
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)190226146
Machinery n.e.i.
Number of establishments 670723749
Persons engagedNo.12,65014,22014,953
Production costs—    
    Salaries, wages$(000)27,51432,04136,238
    Materials$(000)40,81247,82952,560
Other expenses$(000)10,23412,58814,482
                    Totals$(000)78,56092,458103,280
Value of production$(000)88,314104,001116,009
Value added in manufacture$(000)47,50456,17263,448
Net output (net value added)$(000)38,02044,48850,038
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)2,5442,8892,810
Principal products*—    
    Washing machinesNo.45,77047,29051,333
    Refrigerators (home, commercial and freezers)No.52,80661,31172,730
Industrial machinery—    
    Mining, quarrying$(000)1,2421,8611,903
    Road construction$(000)2,4122,6682,868
    Logging, sawmilling, woodworking$(000)1,7502,9002,316
    Refrigeration$(000)1,8603,0663,291
    Heating, air-conditioning$(000)3,2043,3873,732
    Dairy factory$(000)2,158 3,145
    Pumping$(000)1,600 2,079
    Other$(000)18,494 21,677
Lawn mowers—hand and powerNo.61,47754284,186
Repairs to machinery$(000)15,43216,59619,298

*Includes production of establishments classified in other industries.

Note—More detailed information on individual industries is given in the annualReport on Statistics of Industrial Production obtainable from Government bookshops, or alternatively available for reference at major public libraries.

Chapter 19. Section 19 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

GENERAL—With minor fluctuation there has been a steady long-term increase in the building of houses and flats to meet the housing needs of a growing population, while the expansion of industry, trade, and commerce has led to extensive construction of factories, shops, warehouses, and offices. The erection of more multi-storey buildings, including blocks of flats, in the inner city areas has been a feature of building construction in recent years.

A Census of Building and Construction was taken for the production year 1963-64 and the value of work done totalled $616 million. Private enterprise contributed $398.4 million or 64.7 percent, Government Departments with their own employees $120.6 million or 19.6 percent, local authorities with their own employees $72.2 million or 11.7 percent, and owner-builders $24.6 million or 4.0 percent.

In the main analysis there was an unavoidable double count of the work done by subcontractors involving $88.4 million and this brought the aggregate figure for value of work done to $704 million. This consisted of $450.8 million or 64.0 percent on the construction, alteration, maintenance, repair, and demolition of buildings; $106.6 million or 15.1 percent on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, dams, drains, wharves and jetties; $79.0 or 11.2 percent on power, telephone and telegraph line erection, cable laying and electric power stations; $25.0 million or 3.5 percent on land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation schemes, water supply and well drilling; $22.4 million or 3.2 percent on earth moving, reclamation, land development, aerodromes and airstrips; $3.2 million on the removal of overburden for mines or quarries; and $17.4 million on plant hire and activities not otherwise included.

In the post-war years until 1967 building and construction activity absorbed a growing proportion of the labour force, and there was phenomenal growth in the value of buildings erected. The value of building permits issued in 1945-46 was $41.4 million, in 1950-51, $92.5 million, in 1955-56, $180.4 million, in 1960-61, $269.4 million, in 1965-66, $381.7 million, and in 1967-68, $330.3 million. The permit values for houses and flats in corresponding years were as follows: 1945-46, $27.8 million; 1950-51, $65.5 million; 1955-56, $103.0 million; 1960-61, $145.0 million; 1965-66, $176.4 million; and 1967-68, $161.6 million.

In June 1965 the Government introduced a building programme procedure under the Economic Stabilisation Act in terms of which the issue of building permits for works of an estimated value of more than $60,000 could be deferred for periods of up to three years. These building controls were removed on 8 March 1968. Regulations came into force on 7 October 1968 requiring construction work costing more than $20,000 to be registered with the Building Projects Registration Authority at the working drawing stage.

In November 1965 the Government set up a Building Industry Advisory Council with a view to assessing current and future demands on the industry and relating them to such matters as the labour situation, financial problems, improved efficiency, and building research.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes.

Trends in Average Costs—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period with general characteristics of rising costs. Although there were some increases in wages and cost of materials during 1967, actual building costs dropped considerably due to more intensive competition by contractors.

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1939195019551960196519671968
 $$$$$$$
State rental house (976 sq ft) Buildings (reinforced concrete):2,1224,3445,1645,5286,1645,8006,250
    For similar size and type20,00050,20057,60064,20073,40070,00075,000

PRIVATE CONTRACTORS—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1963–64 is summarised in the following table. Further information is given in Building and Construction 1963–64, a report of the Department of Statistics (available at Government bookshops).

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs SubcontractorTotal
 No.No$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contractor4,85125,81249.54,377109.5281.811.8293.6
Civil engineering contractor4445,68612.523218.047.76.053.6
Shop and office fitter51280.5311.02.0.22.2
Electrical contractor8382,9364.954412.612.511.023.5
Plumber1,0783,1425.389315.613.814.728.6
Painter1,2373,3365.91,2474.69.37.516.8
Drainlayer1975521.01741.92.82.14.9
Plasterer3751,4012.53622.21.55.97.4
Roofing contractor775041.0233.51.14.45.5
Bricklayer3068111.43042.71.05.26.2
Glazier765361.0172.5.44.04.4
Flooring contractor1275291.1902.42.12.84.9
Earth mover1989602.01051.18.51.910.3
Road sealer344551.0142.35.1.55.6
Other2102,6155.4967.89.010.319.3
Totals10,09949,55595.28,509187.6398.588.4486.9

HOUSING CONSTRUCTION: Government Encouragement to Housing—The impetus of post-war housing levelled off in the early 1950s and led the Government in 1953 to call a National Housing Conference. The conference assessed the extent of the housing shortage and set a number of 206,000 houses in 10 years as a target to overcome the shortage and provide for the needs of the growing population. At the end of the 10 years a total of 203,200 house units was actually constructed.

A National Housing Council representing all interests in the housing field meets periodically when convened by the Government to continue the work of the conference.

In October 1966 the National Housing Council recommended to the Government that provision be made for the construction of a total of 138,000 houses over the five years to March 1971, the projected total for each year being subject to annual review.

Encouragement has been given to the construction of blocks of flats by private enterprise through the introduction of a plan for individually owned flats. A company is formed to construct or take over a new flats building, and ownership of a block of shares in the company entitles the holder to occupy a particular flat. In major cities most new flats are now constructed on this basis.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At 31 March 1968, 69,724 of these houses and flats had been built and, since 1950, 21,111 of them had been sold to the occupiers. About 1,500 of these dwellings are now built each year and let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances with an income of not more than $2,000 a year plus a discretion operated in certain circumstances. Some 600 houses were also built by the State in 1967–68 for the accommodation of Government employees.

Under the Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Urban renewal schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, assisted with Government finance.

Government Capital Assistance on New Housing—The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in the latest three years and includes both direct expenditure by Government Departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by the State Advances Corporation and the Department of Maori and Island Affairs and amounts advanced in capitalisation of family benefits payable under social security. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

 1965–661966–671967–68
  $(000) 
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.14,68615,91815,680
Expenditure by Housing Division for other Departments5,6664,6623,334
Department of Maori and Island Affairs7,4185,7705,738
Department of Lands and Survey398678549
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new urban houses45,69442,19040,295
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new rural houses1,1741,9262,152
State Advances loans paid to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.3,5644,9925,282
Department of Health subsidies paid to local authorities for pensioners' flats8848721,010
Advances under capitalisation of family benefits8,7767,5465,383
Totals88,26084,55479,423

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completed houses and flats include any new flats which are created by the conversion of existing buildings. All houses and flats completed by the Government are included.

Statistics of completions are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHouses and Flats Completed
195015,800
195116,400
195216,300
195316,100
195416,600
195518,500
195619,200
195719,200
195818,600
195919,600
196021,600
196123,500
196224,300
196322,100
196421,100
196523,500
196626,000
196724,700
196823,300

BUILDING PERMITS—The returns from local authorities that operate a building-permit system cover all private and local authority building subject to permit. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government Departments, hospital, and education boards is included, even though permits are not actually taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies more particularly to large buildings than to houses and small blocks of flats.

The value placed on a building for the purposes of the permit is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be greater than originally estimated. This increase is not reflected in building permit figures.

The values of building permits for the latest five years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968
*Includes ancillary buildings.
   $(000)  
Houses and flats (new)139,796165,306176,406176,170161,579
Houses and flats (alteration and additions)20,35022,37025,23326,67125,696
Hotels and boarding houses11,21210,08017,08412,0649,527
Hospitals*5,80418,59811,01220,4917,338
Factories26,31834,70841,44039,56628,174
Commercial buildings56,45859,74657,75859,90648,200
Schools*14,30023,95819,69024,69116,693
Miscellaneous (including churches, sports, and entertainment buildings)20,31622,93833,08431,92033,110
Totals294,554357,704381,709391,478330,318

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 11 years are shown, along with permit values.

Year Ended 31 MarchPermits for New Houses and FlatsValue of New Houses and FlatsValue of Other New BuildingsTotal Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
PrivateGovernmentTotal
    $ (000)$ (000)$ (000)
195816,9851,97018,955105,00855,357203,533
195918,1212,44720,568114,02743,350202,932
196020,5273,05123,578132,67843,754228,026
196121,6482,74924,397144,95246,270269,424
196220,3252,06922,394138,62740,844259,154
196318,4482,18820,636129,23960,257274,232
196419,8221,94121,763139,79664,639294,554
196523,3611,99625,357165,30597,129357,704
196623,6252,30725,932176,40681,627381,709
196721,8932,15324,046176,17080,195391,478
196819,4511,91421,365161,57953,988330,318

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1967–68 was $7,563, compared with $7,326 in 1966–67 and $6,802 in 1965–66.

During the year ended 31 March 1968 there were permits issued for 1,320 blocks of flats, totalling 4,586 individual units. The preceding table includes flats on an individual basis.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Figure 19.1. NEW HOUSES AND FLATS BUILDING PERMITS

NEW HOUSES AND FLATS BUILDING PERMITS

The following table shows details, for the latest 11 years, of blocks of flats and flats created by conversions. These figures do not include motels or holiday flats as these are included in commercial buildings with hotels, etc.

Year Ended 31 MarchBlocks of FlatsNumber of Flats in BlocksFlats Created by ConversionsTotal Flats
19583051,0417111,752
19592991,0398101,849
19603901,4408992,339
19613671,3478602,207
19624201,5774702,047
19635452,0124042,416
19641,0133,3757524,127
19651,5895,4621,0596,521
19661,5685,6751,2486,923
19671,4805,2691,1006,369
19681,3494,5869505,536

Since the year 1961–62 additional information makes it reasonably certain that the figures for flats created by conversion refer to complete units. In earlier years the figures are known to include some apartments not completely self-contained.

The following table gives a summary of building permits (including State building operations) for the latest two years by number and value for urban and rural districts.

The urban districts include all cities, boroughs, and town districts, and seven urban counties; they do not conform with urban areas as defined for population statistics.

Districts1966–671967–68
New Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: ValueNew Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: Value
  $(000)$(000) $(000)$(000)
Urban districts19,513142,368316,70217,856134,725274,409
Rural districts4,53333,80274,7763,50926,85355,909
Totals, New Zealand24,046176,170391,47821,365161,579330,318

There were 1,914 Government houses and flats (1,606 in urban and 308 in rural districts) commenced in 1967–68 compared with 2,513 (1,576 in urban and 577 in rural districts) in 1966–67. The value of Government houses and flats commenced in 1967–68 was $14,286,152 as against $15,336,482 in 1966–67. The average value for Government houses and flats was $7,464 in 1967–68 as against $7,123 in 1966–67.

The following table arranges in geographical order the urban local authorities with building values of over $1,000,000 in 1967–68.

 $(000)
Whangarei city4,085
Waitemata county16,130
East Coast Bays2,103
Takapuna city2,951
Birkenhead2,122
Devonport1,497
Auckland city19,700
Manukau city17,294
Mt. Eden1,965
Mt. Albert1,169
Mt. Roskill2,290
Onehunga1,742
One Tree Hill2,424
Ellerslie1,121
Mt. Wellington2,981
Papatoetoe1,380
Howick1,632
Papakura2,635
Waiuku1,088
Hamilton city10,066
Rotorua city4,146
Taupo1,936
Tauranga city4,235
Mt. Maunganui2,395
Gisborne city2,689
Napier city4,296
Hastings city3,843
Havelock North1,026
New Plymouth city5,739
Wanganui city1,937
Palmerston North city4,910
Levin1,603
Masterton2,084
Hutt county6,178
Upper Hutt city1,915
Lower Hutt city8,520
Porirua4,906
Tawa1,231
Wellington city31,231
Nelson city2,789
Blenheim2,047
Christchurch city13,472
Waimairi county6,082
Paparua county2,635
Timaru city2,244
Oamaru1,090
Dunedin city10,191
Gore1,349
Invercargill city5,396

Building Permits in Rural Districts—The counties of Waitemata, Hutt, Waimairi, Heathcote, Paparua, Peninsula, and Taieri are largely urban in character and their permits are included under the urban districts. The tabulation for rural districts is therefore confined to the remaining counties and Waiheke Island.

Government building in rural districts has been included.

The following table arranges rural local authorities with building values of over $1,000,000 in 1967–68 in descending order.

County$(000)
Hawke's Bay2,636
Taupo2,540
Matamata2,498
Southland2,049
Whangarei1,913
Rotorua1,855
Franklin1,691
Waipa1,631
Tauranga1,571
Horowhenua1,528
Cook1,430
Waimea1,356
Wallace1,339
Waikato1,332
Taranaki1,257
Bay of Islands1,127
Rangitikei1,070
Marlborough1,070

Other Government Building Operations—In 1967–68 new Government buildings commenced, other houses and flats, totalled $2,666,941 in value. The comparable figure for 1966–67 was $15,744,322. Buildings erected by or for hospital or education boards are not included in these figures but are included in these figures but are included in the total building statistics quoted previously. For the year ended 31 March 1968 the value of buildings commenced for hospital boards amounted to $4,110,444, while work commenced for education boards was valued at $10,790,389. The comparable figures for 1966–67 were hospital boards $19,220,424, education boards $11,599,800.

Sector of Ownership—An analysis is given of the sector of ownership for permit values.

Sector of OwnershipCommercial BuildingsHouses and FlatsAll Buildings
1966–671967–681966–671967–681966–671967–68
 $(million)
Private enterprise44.537.926.021.3128.0106.9
Households0.31.0156.8122.5169.3158.7
Central government11.43.715.514.659.539.5
Public corporations1.33.90.10.031.68.5
Local government2.41.82.53.233.015.8

The values for other types of building for 1966–67 and 1967–68 respectively were: factories $39.5 million and $28.2 million (mostly private enterprises); hotels, etc., $12.0 million and $9.5 million (mostly private enterprises); hospitals, etc., $20.4 million and $7.3 million (mostly local government); schools, etc., $24.6 million and $16.7 million (mostly Central Government); miscellaneous buildings, including churches, sports, and entertainment buildings $31.9 million and $33.1 million.

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics now makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. These statistics differ conceptually from those in the building permits section in that (i) there is a variable time lag between the issue of a permit and the commencement of building, (ii) the building work covered by a permit extends over a time period, in some cases many calendar quarters, and (iii) the total value of work carried out on a building may differ from the permit value as a result of unanticipated rises in building material costs and wage rises after the permit issue. The statistics are based on a sample survey.

Period EndedDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
Value of Work Put in Place $(million)
Year ended     
    31 March—     
        196616.0167.9183.826.8210.6
        196717.1160.2177.328.0205.4
        196814.6149.2163.726.7190.4
Quarter ended—     
    1967—December4.240.444.66.851.4
    1968—March3.033.236.25.842.0
                June3.435.238.66.645.2
                September3.338.441.66.347.9
                December3.243.847.08.655.6
Quarter EndedOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding HousesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

*Includes alterations and additions.

†And ancillary buildings.

‡Includes churches, sports, and entertainment buildings.

§Value of work actually put in place.

Value of Work Put in Place § $(million)
Year ended 31 March        
196611.17.647.562.918.627.8175.4386.1
196713.910.439.560.520.732.7177.6382.9
196814.813.437.054.019.932.8171.7362.1
Quarter ended—        
    1967—December3.93.08.712.84.27.740.291.6
    1968—March3.03.48.011.74.67.938.580.5
                June2.83.96.911.24.38.537.682.8
                September3.74.17.912.34.79.442.290.1
                December4.23.39.512.25.98.043.198.7

BUILDING MATERIALS—Most materials with the major exception of steel and galvanised iron are produced in New Zealand and current production is meeting demand. Although supplies of imported materials are restricted under the system of import licensing, building operations have not been seriously hampered by lack of supplies. Expansion still continues in the quantity and range of materials and fittings manufactured in New Zealand.

Production of Principal Building Materials—The following table shows the production of principal building materials for the latest eleven years.

PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS

Production YearRough-sawn Timber*Dressed Timber (from Rough-sawn)Building SheetPlywoodWall-boardPaints, etc.
Paints and EnamelsVarnishesLacquers

*Source: New Zealand Forest Service, for years ended 31 March.

†Asbestos cement and cement sheet.

‡Includes fibrous plasterboard.

 ft. b.m. (million)sq. ft. (million)gal (thousand)
1956–57596.9110.126.237.8125.12,650110173
1957–58596.8105.728.138.8125.52,763140211
1958–59636.8119.328.740.0141.22,892128217
1959–60693.8128.431.643.1153.13,033118256
1960–61714.1144.433.848.0170.83,134115264
1961–62692.6157.031.349.3188.43,016130270
1962–63643.4160.228.351.4170.33,096126294
1963–64666.0154.030.152.9168.73,321136346
1964–65736.2176.831.254.2192.93,636138370
1965–66756.9185.034.656.6197.53,617157345
1966–67747.6176.033.657.1181.03,643166365
Production YearConcrete Roofing TilesBricks and BlocksDrainpipes, Salt Glazed, 6 in. and BelowCement
Building Bricks, ClayConcrete
BricksBlocks
*In millions of effective running feet.
No. (million)tons (000)
1956–5710.243.80.55.72.39472.1
1957–589.349.30.66.72.35544.0
1958–599.452.20.68.22.28542.1
1959–6011.450.90.510.12.76575.4
1960–6111.056.40.612.52.88619.6
1961–6211.260.50.512.43.09647.9
1962–639.446.81.412.23.06653.2
1963–649.850.20.815.25.82*754.1
1964–658.851.70.818.66.95*786.5
1965–665.952.41.323.86.89*841.1
1966–675.250.81.523.27.33*859.0

HOUSING FINANCE—The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the State Advances Corporation, a wholly Government owned institution described in detail in Section 30B. For the year ended 31 March 1968 the State Advances Corporation authorised loans valued at $40.8 million for new urban dwellings, of which $7.4 million was at the 3 percent rate. Loans of $9.8 million were authorised for the purchase of existing houses, of which $0.9 million was at 3 percent. From 1964 all new 3 percent loans are subject to review every five years, and if the income of the borrower exceeds the qualifying limit existing at the review date, the standard rate will be charged for the balance of the loan term.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home or for essential alterations or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $2,000. Family benefit capitalisation advances totalling $81.1 million were authorised in the first nine years of the scheme by the State Advances Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Social Security Commission.

Under the Mortgage Guarantee Scheme introduced in 1961, the State Advances Corporation assists building societies, insurance companies, and other approved lending institutions to grant loans for the purchase of existing houses by guaranteeing the difference between the usual limit of 66 2/3 percent of value and 85 percent of the valuation. Guarantees are also available in respect of new houses up to a limit of 90 percent of valuation.

In July 1957 the Government announced the commencement of a home lay-by scheme in the Post Office Savings Bank and this has been extended to trustee and private savings banks. A subsidy, known as a suspensory free deposit, of $10 per $200 up to a limit of $100 is credited to each home lay-by account when the money is used to acquire a new home to be occupied by the depositor. There is no limit to the amount which can be deposited but the maximum amount in any one year on which the subsidy can be credited is $500. The effect of the scheme is that a person who deposits $500 each year in a home lay-by account for four years will qualify for the maximum subsidy of $100, in addition to the normal savings bank interest. Deposits of $200 a year for 10 years can also earn the maximum subsidy.

Further information on housing finance is contained in Section 30B—State Advances Corporation.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the State Advances Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community accommodation.

Pensioner Housing: For some years Government has encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of pensioners rather than provide such accommodation itself. To this end a scheme of subsidies was introduced, the balance of the cost being found by way of a loan to the local body with interest at 3 1/2 percent and a term up to 40 years on a table basis. The combination of subsidy and low interest rate is directed at keeping rents within reasonable levels—the current maxima are $3.50 and $4.50 for single and double units respectively.

The policy is administered by the Health Department, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality and administers the subsidy. The State Advances Corporation provides technical services and administers the loan. The subsidy offered is up to 50 percent of the cost of erection—with a maximum of $1,850 per unit. It is required that the accommodation provided be let only to elderly persons with a housing need.

At 31 March 1968, Government subsidies of $7,897,032 had been granted to local authorities and also loans of $10,399,788. There have been 4,963 flats built providing accommodation for 5,896 persons. (These subsidies are separate from those granted to religious and relief organisations—see section 5A.)

Rural Housing: The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farm lands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The State Advances Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Interest to local bodies is currently at 4 3/4 percent; the rate charged to the farmer is 5 1/4 percent; the maximum advance in respect of any one house is $6,000. Persons receiving loans are principally owners of economic farms.

Government policy has for many years been directed at ensuring housing of good standard in rural areas and active encouragement has been given to county councils to increase participation in the scheme. During the year ended 31 March 1968, 59 county councils uplifted loans of $2,458,635 in respect of 448 houses. A total of $17,606,362 has been authorised since the scheme was introduced.

Community Housing: The State Advances Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. The interest rate is 5 percent; loan terms are for up to 40 years on a table basis. Proposals must involve a definite, scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas, e.g., in Wellington the city council's building programme has been largely financed from this source. The emphasis is on moderate cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed under the community housing scheme—but at 3 1/2 percent. The area concerned must first be declared a reclamation area; any loss on land purchase and demolition is eligible for a Government subsidy (administered by the Ministry of Works). The Freeman's Bay scheme in Auckland and the Nairn Street project in Wellington are examples.

Since 1960 over $8.5 million has been authorised for community housing schemes.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the State Advances Corporation, financial assistance towards the erection of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris under the Maori Housing Act 1935, the lending authority being the Board of Maori Affairs. Section 18 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act 1938 provided for the Special Housing Fund to be set up. The use of a Special Housing Fund as a reserve enables the Board of Maori Affairs to cater for families who are unable to meet the full repayments normally required.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department, through its building organisation, also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases. A comprehensive plan service is available to meet the special needs of the Maori people. Finance through the Department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefit, is similar in all respects to loans granted by the State Advances Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for the special interest concession the finance is made available at an interest rate of 5 5/8 percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the State Advances Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the Department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1968, the Department has provided finance to enable 13,686 families to build new houses, 531 to purchase existing houses and 4,795 to make additions to or repair their houses. A further 5,918 Maori families have obtained houses through the agencies of the State Advances Corporation and the Maori Trustee. A Maori household averages 5.5 persons so that the combined figure of 14,930 means a total of 137,115 Maori people have been provided with better housing in a span of 30 years.

The Government has devoted particular attention to providing accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has erected rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christ-church and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1,000 young Maori people are now being met.

Accommodation for Maori pensioners has been provided in Kaikohe and Paihia.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—A programme of building State rental houses and flats was commenced in March 1937. These are for letting (and subsequent purchase if the occupier wishes) to people in the moderate income group according to need. Since 1950 there has been an income bar on applicants for tenancies of State rental units.

The Housing Division of the Ministry of Works acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. These activities are covered by the Housing Act 1955.

The totals of State rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 11 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1968 there were 69,723 units completed.

YearNumber of Units
1956–572,746
1957–581,853
1958–591,647
1959–602,128
1960–612,148
1961–621,972
1962–631,948
1963–641,562
1964–651,646
1965–661,334
1966–671,469
1967–681,489

Flats and Multi-unit Dwellings—In compliance with Government policy, aiming at higher density housing in the interests of conserving land and at the same time arresting urban sprawl, the State has continued to build increasing numbers of multi-unit dwellings, mainly two and four units, also a number of three-storey blocks of flats each comprising 12 units. The number of multi units built by the Housing Division for State rental purposes up to 31 March 1968 was 12,744 two-unit dwellings, 651 three-unit dwellings, and 5,469 four-to-eight-unit blocks. In addition, the Housing Division built 1,682 flats in multi-storey blocks and 1,031 pensioners' flats, also for State rental purposes.

State Services Housing—State services houses are houses built for Government Departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Division to 31 March 1968 was 11,953. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the State housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Construction vote in the Works and Trading Account, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchState HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
*Additional expenditure charged directly to the departments concerned is shown in the succeeding table.
 $(thousand)
19589,6321125,3901,14016,276
19599,730526,2261,19817,204
196014,372606,4021,19622,032
196112,430926,4161,29020,228
196211,63868*5,3261,35418,386
196310,35464*4,0942,14016,652
196410,76472*3,9601,84016,636
196510,102122*3,3521,88615,462
19669,394136*3,2921,86414,686
196711,234124*2,7841,89816,040
196810,8651232,7691,92215,680

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Division in the latest six years.

YearVote, “Housing Construction”On Behalf of Other Departments (Charged Direct)Total
Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationLand Development, MuruparaOn Behalf of Other Departments*Total
*Expenditure on behalf of other Departments charged meantime to vote, “Housing Construction”.
 $(thousand)
1962-6316,516726416,6522,58219,234
1963-6416,55687216,6362,21018,846
1964-6515,332812215,4622,27217,734
1965-6614,5361413614,6865,66620,352
1966-6715,792112415,9174,66220,579
1967-6815,557-12315,6803,33319,013

Room Content of Units (State Houses and State Services Housing)—The types of units according to the number of bedrooms in units built during the two latest years, also the totals from 1937 to date, are shown in the following table.

Number of Bedrooms1966-671967-68Totals to Date
Number of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of Total
One bedroom or bed-sitting room894.0613.24,7365.8
Two bedrooms42218.830415.724,76330.3
Three bedrooms1,38861.71,25665.045,91156.2
Four or more bedrooms34915.531116.16,2667.7
Totals2,248100.01,932100.081,676100.00

Sheathing Materials Used (State Houses and State Services Housing)—The sheathing materials used in the units built during the two latest years, also the totals from 1937 to date, are shown in the following table.

MaterialsUnits Built
1966-671967-68Totals to Date
Weatherboard95977247,236
Brick25123213,969
Concrete2702995,234
Other sheathing76862915,237
Totals2,2481,93281,676

Land Acquisition—During 1967-68 a total of 26 developed unit sites was purchased as a charge against the Housing Construction vote, also some 29 acres of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 128 unit sites. Approximately one-half of these sections are intended for State rental house building, the balance being for private home building, including houses under the Government-approved group building scheme.

State Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the four main centres at the end of the last 11 financial years for similar types of three-bedroom State rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square foot.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $$$$$$$$
1957-586,102(5.81)6,004(5.72)5,090(4.85)6,062(5.78)
1958-596,018(5.73)6,044(5.76)5,076(4.83)5,904(5.62)
1959-606,218(5.92)6,068(5.78)5,362(5.11)6,134(5.84)
1960-616,338(6.04)6,134(5.84)5,500(5.24)6,218(5.92)
1961-626,334(6.03)6,278(5.98)5,472(5.21)6,172(5.88)
1962-636,298(6.00)6,316(6.02)5,452(5.20)6,182(5.88)
1963-646,306(6.01)6,330(6.03)5,686(5.42)6,234(5.94)
1964-656,726(6.41)6,888(6.56)6,104(5.81)6,632(6.32)
1965-666,942(6.61)7,178(6.83)6,434(6.12)6,758(6.42)
1966-676,894(6.58)7,372(7.03)6,488(6.19)6,990(6.67)
1967-686,366(6.06)6,830(6.50)6,273(5.97)6,586(6.27)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 makes provision for a form of ownership by which a family home will belong not to the husband and wife separately but to both of them jointly so that it may pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. The predominant purpose behind the legislation is the preservation of a family home outside the business or personal speculations of either spouse. A husband and wife, or either of them, being solvent and owning land whether freehold or leasehold on which a residence is erected or on which a residence will be erected within six months, may settle the land as a joint family home provided the residence is used exclusively or principally as a home for themselves and the members of their household. The 1964 Act makes it possible to settle flats as family homes. The settlement is cancelled when the land is sold or when both husband and wife have died or have ceased permanently to reside and have their home on the land. There are substantial benefits resulting from settlement under the Act. The husband and wife have equal rights in connection with ownership and possession while they are both living but cannot deal separately with their interest. On the death of either of them the joint family home becomes the property of the survivor. In the event of claims by creditors or an assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected up to a sum of $8,000. Further, on the death of one of the spouses there is an exemption of $8,000 from estate duty. Settlements under the Act are exempt from gift and stamp duty.

The Joint Family Homes Amendment Act 1965 introduced new provisions to cover the system now growing up in connection with granting long-term leases to the owner-occupier of flats and vesting the fee simple in them in undivided shares. Under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 the owner-occupier could settle his leasehold interest in the flat, but the new legislation enables him to settle also his undivided share in the fee simple.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered for the last 11 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
19586,262
19597,052
196011,195
196116,368
196216,012
196314,683
196413,056
196513,224
196614,149
196712,738
196813,278

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act caused a very substantial increase from 1959 onwards, mainly owing to the condition attaching to capitalisation of the benefits that the home, if not in the sole name of the wife, be settled as a joint family home.

CENSUS INFORMATION: Nature of Dwelling—The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses at 1961 and 1966.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1961196619611966
A. Inhabited dwellings—
    Permanent private dwellings—
        Private house564,196626,58087.786.5
        Private house, partly sublet7971,1620.10.2
        Flat52,93674,9998.210.4
        Dwellings combined with shop, rooms attached to offices, etc.6,8305,8201.10.8
        Bach8,9057,4841.41.0
        Other4359
Totals633,707716,10498.598.9
    Mobile and temporary dwellings—
        Mobile residence (including caravans)1,2481,0350.20.1
        Other (including tents)248134
Totals1,4961,1690.20.1
    Non-private dwellings—
        Hotel, boardinghouse, apartment house, hostel6,0825,3170.90.7
        Public or private hospital5345330.10.1
        Camp3805250.10.1
        Other1,2117960.20.1
Totals8,2077,1711.31.0
Grand totals, inhabited dwellings643,410724,444100.0100.0
B. Uninhabited dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away12,84014,979 ...
    Untenanted dwelling19,87026,272 ...
    Bach (weekend or summer dwelling)26,99729,534 ...
Totals59,70770,785 ...
C. Building—
    Dwellings in course of erection11,38310,667 ...

In 1966 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.52 compared with 3.58 five years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Rents—In the following table the average weekly rent for unfurnished five-roomed dwellings is given for selected cities with the largest numbers of rental dwellings in 1966. State rental houses are included in the figures and would have a moderating effect on the rents. The average weekly rent for the 47,362 unfurnished five-roomed dwellings in New Zealand was $6.29, while it was $7.08 for the 33,378 such dwellings in centres of over 2,000 population.

CityNumber of Five-roomed Dwellings LetAverage Weekly Rent
  $
Auckland2,4438.16
Lower Hutt1,6417.11
Wellington1,4849.72
Christchurch2,2367.48
Dunedin1,3046.45
Hamilton1,2567.10
Palmerston North1,0026.95
Porirua1,2766.72
Napier6526.45
New Plymouth6576.73
Hastings5676.69
Wanganui7316.36
Timaru4946.61
Invercargill6317.19
Manukau9957.10
Gisborne5446.40

The numbers and average weekly rents according to the number of rooms in rented dwellings and flats is shown in the following table: (These are also from the 1966 census.)

Nature of DwellingNumber of RoomsTotal, Including Other
123456
DwellingsNumber
Furnished1,0514,3306,3685,8814,4251,61924,476
Unfurnished2,46110,09922,50238,75547,36212,071137,271
Partly furnished6362,7003,9343,7632,9181,17815,682
All rented dwellings4,14817,12932,80448,39954,70514,868177,429
 Weekly Rent
 $$$$$$$
Furnished7.3310.1211.6711.9011.7313.9011.58
Unfurnished4.136.488.127.066.296.886.88
Partly furnished6.009.1310.3110.7210.7011.5412.76
All rented dwellings5.247.849.087.956.978.047.84
Nature of DwellingNumber of RoomsTotal, Including Other
123456
FlatsNumber
Furnished7693,7374,8672,8371,02333913,772
Unfurnished2,0327,60613,48410,6133,48952938,054
Partly furnished4352,2222,9911,7905291488,199
All rented flats3,23613,56521,32215,2405,0411,01660,025
 Weekly Rent
 $$$$$$$
Furnished8.0910.5812.6314.5816.3918.4012.73
Unfurnished4.286.969.589.758.3410.168.71
Partly furnished7.029.6610.9912.0413.0114.4410.88
All rented flats5.568.4110.4810.9210.4713.559.94

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the inhabited permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19611966
Number of DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedNumber of DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Renting or leasing153,72824.3177,42924.9
Free dwelling provided with job34,0875.435,3875.0
Loaned without payment8,5861.47,9191.1
Buying with table mortgage166,63626.3213,80730.0
With flat mortgage86,35913.780,88511.3
Unspecified mortgage4330.1226
Owned without mortgage181,79328.8197,08527.7
Not specified2,085 3,366...
Totals633,707100.0716,104100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The next two tables present the various amenities in permanent private dwellings and show whether they were used solely by the occupants of a dwelling or shared by occupants of other dwellings.

AmenityNot SharedSharedNilNot Specified
19611966196119661961196619611966
Number of Dwellings
Hot water service588,447697,4006,4197,26837,5457,9461,2963,490
Bath or shower607,385697,0617,8495,65017,9089,6905653,703
Flush toilet552,512667,5787,8255,68472,88640,7544842,088
Refrigerator509,461651,7601,9231,999121,17658,8771,1473,468
Telephone..584,735..3,395..123,215..4,759
Washing machine488,253620,1875,8009,486137,60781,2122,0475,219
Television set..452,033..1,132..252,939..10,000
Radio..667,340..979..44,220..3,565
Vacuum cleaner..636,217..3,592..72,287..4,008
Percentage of Dwellings
Hot water service93.197.91.01.05.91.1....
Bath or shower96.097.81.20.82.81.4....
Flush toilet87.393.51.20.811.55.7....
Refrigerator80.591.40.30.319.28.3....
Telephone..82.2..0.5..17.3....
Washing machine77.387.31.01.321.711.4....
Television set..64.0..0.2..35.8....
Radio..93.7..0.1..6.2....
Vacuum cleaner..89.3..0.5..10.2....
Means of Cooking—1966Number of DwellingsPercentage of Total Specified
Electric range, stove560,23478.4
Electric cooker, stovette1,6520.2
Electric range and coal, wood, coke, range20,8882.9
Electric range and gas range3,4000.5
Gas range72,98810.2
Gas cooker, stovette1590.0
Gas range and coal, wood, coke, range2,7690.4
Coal, wood, coke, range51,5597.2
Oil range or stove3260.0
Oil, other103––
Other4290.1
Not specified1,087-
No means5100.1
Totals716,104100.0

At the 1966 census 44.5 percent of dwellings were heated mainly by open fireplaces, 38.6 percent by electric fires or radiators, 5.6 percent by space heaters, and 2.6 percent by kerosene heaters or radiators.

In 1966, 90.4 percent of all inhabited permanent private dwellings had piped water, while 9.5 percent depended on rainwater tanks, and only 0.1 percent had no water laid on.

Materials of Outer Walls—The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed. Flats are included individually and not as blocks. Therefore part of the increase, for instance, in brick and concrete construction, is accounted for by a lesser number of buildings than indicated by the increase in number of dwelling units.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
195619611966
Wood411,370431,318455,213
Stone1,1212,4568,910
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,51028,347
Concrete and wood1,0872,0393,093
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,17194,100
Brick and wood3,3326,1578,818
Brick and other material3,4017,0356,263
Wood and iron3,7213,3142,507
Wood and proprietary wallboard2,3697,3351,593
Iron3,8623,0832,554
Asbestos2,0112,1762,684
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type26,25047,96346,954
Roughcast27,94425,55537,045
Other materials3,9226,81716,238
Not specified7,3737781,785
Totals563,052633,707716,104

Although the number of houses and flats with outer walls of wood increased by slightly fewer than 24,000 between the 1961 and 1966 censuses, as a percentage of all inhabited permanent private dwellings they decreased from 68.1 to 63.6.

Houses and flates with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total between 1961 and 1966, thus continuing the post-war trend.

Materials for Roofs—Most dwellings (69.5 percent) in 1966 were roofed with sheet or corrugated iron with tiles the next popular choice (22.6 percent).

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1966 according to the number of rooms and the number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of Occupants
12345678 and OverTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
14,741713220104512713215,8901.3
211,2578,4512,2581,04042221610913023,8831.9
314,82821,4059,5786,1073,0891,6538941,09858,6522.6
424,99650,41328,04022,38911,4395,7102,6822,990148,6592.9
521,29961,13250,00662,22047,44925,06610,5978,444286,3133.8
68,32524,52120,70924,66620,52713,6237,1337,534127,0384.1
72,2946,7776,5187,9667,1394,9742,6922,50740,8674.3
87462,2622,2232,6052,4901,8349801,01114,1514.4
92237097428808336103683434,7084.4
101063233173833322921671642,0844.5
11 and over683132782682832371161441,7074.5
Not specified401511334333229149781172,1523.5
Totals89,384177,530121,223128,96194,28354,39125,82924,503716,1043.5

Of the total number of dwellings (where number of rooms was specified) 562,010, or 78.7 percent, had either four, five, or six rooms and of these 344,096 were occupied by either two, three, or four persons.

The number of dwellings with only one occupant increased from 72,004 in 1961 to 89,384 in 1966, a rise of 24.1 percent, with those living alone in dwellings of three rooms rising from 11,157 to 14,828, those in four rooms from 19,897 to 24,996 and those in five rooms from 17,003 to 21,399. A large proportion of these persons living alone are widows.

TENANCY—The Tenancy Act 1955 administered by the Department of Labour governs rents and possession of certain houses and business premises. Because of the progressive relaxation of this legislation since 1950 the Act now has only limited application. The principal exemptions are (a) all flats erected or resulting from conversion of buildings into flats since November 1953; (b) all buildings erected since October 1955; (c) all tenancy agreements entered into since November 1961; (d) all business premises with the exception of those still protected in 1964 where application was made to a Court to have protection extended until 1967. Where the Act does apply, a landlord or a tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent.

Chapter 20. Section 20 ELECTRIC POWER AND GAS

20 A—ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL—Of all New Zealand's natural resources which can be developed for electricity generation, by far the most important are its lakes and fast-flowing rivers which are ideal for hydro-electric development, providing a very cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. Natural lakes have been supplemented by man-made lakes formed by the building of dams on some rivers.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Coal is being used at Meremere steam station south of Auckland; also a large station will shortly be built at New Plymouth to use coal from the Buller region of the South Island. Gas turbines, which have recently been installed at Otahuhu, and are now burning oil, will operate on natural gas in 1970 when the pipeline from Kapuni reaches Auckland, until such time as a commercial demand for gas is established.

An important factor governing future plans for electric power development is that the remaining hydro potential is mainly in the lower half of the South Island and the preponderence of population in the North Island. In 1965 the inter-Island transmission link began transmitting electricity from Benmore to Haywards, but this link is limited in capacity and in any case by the end of the century the South Island consumers are likely to require all the output from hydro generation in the South Island. For the North Island thermal generation is being developed to meet the increasing demand.

An oil-fired steam station has operated since 1967 at Marsden, near Whangarei, and gas turbines have been generating at Otahuhu since mid-1968. Except for additional gas turbines, future stations will be steam stations using coal, oil, and within 10 years nuclear fuel. It is also likely that another geothermal station will be built within 10 years.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in four stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was completed in 1925; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1927. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the state generating system grew by 135,590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58,449 to 284,235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired two small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland.

In spite of the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikeremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952, Maraetai the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948, and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single machine, power station which was commissioned in 1951. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations began operating in July 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station of the New Zealand Electricity Department came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato river, 40 miles south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few miles north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 4, 6, and 8 in. in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft and 4,000 ft.

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS:Hydro—In February 1963 the Government announced it would take over the development of the Manapouri scheme, which includes an underground powerhouse using the waters of the connected lakes Te Anau and Manapouri as they are discharged through a 6 1/4 mile tunnel to Doubtful Sound. Ultimately the station will have a capacity of 700 MW and the power not required for the Bluff aluminium industry will be fed into the national grid. The first four machines are expected to be operating by April 1970 and the last three a year later. The purpose, planning, and development of the Manapouri power project are fully described in parliamentary paper D. 7, 1967.

A catchment area of more than 1,000 square miles in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro electric power development. Known as the Tongariro scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and tributaries, and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another. The diverted waters will eventually flow into Lake Taupo and down the Waikato river, increasing the output from the existing Waikato stations by approximately 18 percent. Also included in the scheme is a 200 MW power station being built at Tokaanu. The total output from the development will be equivalent to one-third of the present output from the Waikato stations.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato river is being doubled by the building of a second powerhouse in which five additional machines will be installed. The yearly output from Maraetai will not be increased although useful peak-time capacity will be added.

In July 1968 Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo, Pukaki, and Ohau and diverting the stored waters through canals to five new power stations tentatively named Mayburn, Pukaki, Ostler, Ohau I, and Ohau II; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 MW; also the extra storage provided by the scheme will enable the output from the existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work has begun on the scheme with the construction of a township at Twizel.

Therreal—A 600 MW coal-fired station is to be sited at New Plymouth and is scheduled to produce its first electricity in early 1973. Fuel of the order of 950,000 tons per year is to be shipped from the Buller coalfields. Future plans include a nuclear station on the Kaipara Harbour for commissioning about 1977 and a new geothermal station.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission line and undersea cables. It was considered more economical to transmit electricity from the lower half of the South Island which has abundant hydro resources, rather than develop less attractive North Island schemes or build extra thermal stations.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 25 miles in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 354 mile, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards substation. Also complex converting equipment had to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable world-wide interest has been shown in this scheme, which is the largest of its type outside the U.S.S.R. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER—Forward planning is continually under review to ensure that future demands are met. The use of committees has become an important feature of planning and for some years the following procedure has taken place. The Power and Finance Utilisation committee of the Electrical Supply Authorities Association, on which the New Zealand Electricity Department is represented, collates detailed estimates of unit consumption and peak demand in each area for a period of five years in advance. These estimates, which are revised and extended each year, show when and where power will be required in all parts of New Zealand. The Committee to Review Power Requirements then considers the estimates. This committee has as chairman the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department, with his Chief Engineer, a representative of the supply authorities, a representative of the Treasury, and the Government Statistician as members. Its function is to combine and project the supply authority estimates for a further five years for the North and South Island requirements and for New Zealand as a whole, also comparing them with the New Zealand requirements as arrived at by statistical methods. A Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, with the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department as chairman, considers the findings of the Review Committee.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

Estimates made in 1968 by the Power Planning Committee of prospective generation were as follows (in million kWh): 1968–69, 12,15; 1969–70, 13,265; 1970–71, 14,278; 1971–72, 15,330; 1972–73, 16,577; 1973–74, 18,031; 1974–75, 19,371; 1975–76, 20,790; 1976–77, 22,303; 1977–78, 23,887.

There has been a great upsurge in the consumption of electric power. Power generated to meet the demand doubled between 1959 and 1968 to reach 11,605 million kilowatt hours a year. In the same period generating capacity of power plants more than doubled to reach over 2.93 million kilowatts. Projected power requirements are expected to double again by 1978, to reach 23,887 million kilowatt hours. To meet the estimated power needs the generating capacity must be increased to 5.7 million kilowatts by 1978.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1958 some $459 million had been expended in generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was $335 million. By 1968 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $854 million, and with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on distribution, the total capital outlay had increased to $1,131 million. By 1978 the provision of barely sufficient generating capacity to meet the expected power needs could call for a further expenditure by Government of some $822 million. To this must be added the capital needs of the electrical supply authorities who must also increase the capacity of their distribution systems in step with the increasing power demand. In all probability the capital investment in 1978 in all branches of the electrical supply system will be over $2,000 million. Since 1961 a direct contribution has been made from revenue towards capital requirements.

Figure 20.1. GROWTH OF DEMAND FOR ELECTRICITY YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH

GROWTH OF DEMAND FOR ELECTRICITY YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH

LEGISLATION—Under the Electricity Act 1968 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the networks which supply electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Various local authority Acts from the eighteen eighties onwards made provision for counties and municipalities to supply electricity in addition to their other functions, but in 1918 legislation was passed enabling local authorities to be set up with the sole function of supplying electricity. The legislation, amended and consolidated under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, provided for the constitution of electric power districts controlled by boards.

Of the 41 electric power boards actively functioning at 31 March 1968, 14 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 35,056 kW. There were also 31 municipal electric supply authorities, 9 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 78,065 kW. Two Government Departments, New Zealand Electricity and Tourist and Publicity, act as distributing authorities for Southland and Rotorua respectively. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand isolated people in more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. A Rural Reticulation Council can make a levy of up to 1/2 percent of the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings to subsidise the annual cost of supply in remote areas. The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March1968 had approved subsidies on 9,037 route-miles of line to supply some 14,539 consumers. At this date 8,515 miles of line were completed and 13,681 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at $14,564,158 and the subsidy approved for the year amounted to $486,860.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following tables cover all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1968, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual energy generation. Stations are State owned unless otherwise indicated.

Name of StationInstalled capacity at 31 March 1968Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1968Annual Load Factor
Number of UnitsM.W.

*Owned by Dunedin City Council.

†Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

‡Commissioned 1967.

§Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

Hydro  ftmillionpercent
    kWh. 
Arapuni8157.8175800.655.24
Karapiro390.0100521.457.96
Maraetai5180.0200842.751.69
Whakamaru4100.0124471.552.22
Atiamuri484.081264.838.26
Waipapa351.053247.850.02
Ohakuri4112.0115367.736.46
Aratiatia390.0110269.938.12
Matahina272.0200265.437.02
Mangahao519.289665.336.27
Waikaremoana—
  Kaitawa232.044398.139.21
  Tuai352.0676209.5
  Piripaua240.0370135.3
Cobb632.01,950163.3 
Arnold23.14223.380.21
Coleridge934.5490155.842.18
Highbank125.233097.142.85
Waitaki7105.070514.553.99
Benmore6540.03022,347.047.93
Tekapo125.2100117.045.47
Roxburgh8320.01501,634.656.29
Monowai36.015438.266.83
Waipori*1165.2113.8
Auxiliary 37.2205.3
Sub-totals 2,273.4 9,969.9 
Thermal     
Meremere7210.0 325.521.09
Wairakei13192.4 1,057.672.18
Marsden2240.0 230.719.79
Auxiliary§10.7 20.9
Sub-totals 653.1 1,634.7...
Totals 2,926.5 11,604.6...

Figure 20.2. NEW ZEALAND ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT TRANSMISSION LINES POWER STATIONS & SUBSTATIONS

NEW ZEALAND ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT TRANSMISSION LINES POWER STATIONS & SUBSTATIONS

ANNUAL GENERATION—During the year ended 31 March 1968 a total of 11,584 million kWh was generated by public utilities, of which 9,970 million kWh (86 percent) was generated by water power, 1,614 million kWh by steam plant, and 301,368 kWh by oil plant. A further 20.6 million kWh was purchased by public supply authorities from generating stations operated by industrial establishments and fed into the supply system, making a total of 11,605 million kWh available for distribution. By far the major portion of the generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants, which, in the period under review, generated 9,651 million kWh by the use of water power and 1,614 million kWh by use of steam power.

Figure 20.3. NEW ZEALAND ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT TRANSMISSION LINES POWER STATIONS & SUBSTATIONS

NEW ZEALAND ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT TRANSMISSION LINES POWER STATIONS & SUBSTATIONS

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS—The following table gives information concerning generation and distribution by Government establishments, local authorities, and electric power boards for the year ended 31 March 1968.

ItemGovernment EstablishmentsElectric Power BoardsAll Establishments*
*Includes 12 city councils, 16 borough councils and three county councils. Excluding stocks and materials.
EstablishmentsNo.264198
Persons engagedNo.4,6255,20911,966
Salaries and wages paid$(000)11,99013,55830,942
ConsumersNo.40,480688,3001,014,463
Prime movers—
    Hydrob.h.p.(000)3,062393,211
    Thermalb.h.p.(000)81711832
Totalsb.h.p.(000)3,879504,043
Generators (capacity)—
    A.C.kW(000)2,862352,975
Revenue—
    Sales of power —
        Retail$(000)6,94779,736120,240
        Bulk and interchange$(000)68,2583,99272,258
    Other (including rates)$(000)4351,4352,427
Total revenue$(000)75,64085,163194,925
Expenditure—
    Power purchased (including interchange)$(000)97551,47172,368
    Generating costs$(000)6,6752187,136
    Transmission and distribution costs$(000)3,7108,35315,439
    Management and general$(000)4,3526,03212,877
    Capital charges$(000)47,34913,48765,396
Total expenditure$(000)63,06179,561173,216
Capital expenditure†—
    Total expenditure to date$(000)835,992195,6741,105,308
    Expenditure during year$(000)80,53514,069100,293
Generation—
    HydroMillion kWh9,6511429,970
    SteamMillion kWh1,6141,635
    OilMillion kWh
TotalsMillion kWh11,26514211,605
Retail salesMillion kWh7516,4909,893

Generation per head of mean population was 4,240 kWh for the year ended 31 March 1968.

Employment—Details concerning the number of employees and the salaries and wages paid to them are given in the following table for the year ended 31 March 1968.

Category of StaffPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesTotalCharged to Operation and ManagementCharged to CapitalTotal
 No.No.No.$(000)$(000)$(000)
Managerial and clerical2,4218803,3018,3544068,760
Wage earners8,4931728,66517,2094,97322,182
Totals10,9141,05211,96625,5635,37930,942

Capital Expenditure—The following table gives capital expenditure during 1967–68 and total outlay to 31 March 1968.

ItemExpenditure During YearTotal Capital Outlay to 31 March 1968
*Accumulated adjustments due to audit during year.
Generating system—$(000)$(000)
    Head works, pipelines, etc.44,996407,944
    Powerhouse buildings, cottages, etc.5,69182,408
    Generating plant and machinery, etc.10,448130,017
Transmission and distribution lines, substations, land and houses32,046387,872
Public lighting3,1468,251
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, service buildings1,51325,091
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, equipment61828,268
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, loan conversion premiums, surveys, preliminary expenses, interest during construction)2,45334,538
Stock and materials (including trading department stocks)*—31725,363
Other items not capable of inclusion above*—616919
Total capital outlay99,9781,130,671

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1967–68 totalled $101,205,000 while deductions, i.e., sales and amounts written off, amounted to $1,227,000. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year.

General Balance Sheet as at 31 March 1968—The next table summarises the balance sheet at 31 March 1968 for all establishments.

Liabilities
 $(000)$(000)
Capital raised—
    Original amount of current loans843,407 
        Less amounts repaid122,893 
            Balance owing on 31 March 1968720,514
Temporary loans596
Sundry creditors—
    Bank overdraft1,780
    Other26,492
Reserves—
    Loan repayment reserve134,991
    Capital expenditure out of revenue78,467
    Sinking fund reserve7,806
    Depreciation reserve122,596
    Renewal fund reserve4,037
    General and other reserves85,660
    Surplus in Appropriation Account13,396
Total1,196,335
Assets
 $(000)
Total capital expenditure1,105,308
Stocks and materials25,363
Sundry debtors33,174
Cash in hand and bank balances—
    Loan accounts1,065
    Other5,034
Investments—
    Loan accounts1,370
    Other24,939
Deficit in Appropriation Account82
Total1,196,335

Power—The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column “Other Sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNonproductive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
 million kWh
19648,652300118,9637,5771,386
19659,375331129,7188,1891,529
196610,2433221310,5789,0041,573
196710,9793231411,3169,6021,714
196811,2653192111,6059,8931,712

Analysis of Units Retailed—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units, and “Commercial” both commercial and dairy water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticCommercial and IndustrialStreet LightingTramways and Trolley BusesElectric RailwaysOther PurposesTotal
 million kWh
19644,4083,05665212347,577
19654,7153,35472222328,189
19665,1923,68681212329,004
19675,5603,90887212339,602
19685,6974,06589212019,893

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

Figure 20.4. ELECTRICITY GENERATION

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

Revenue—Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1967–68 this source was 98.0 percent of the total. The following table sets out the revenue from all sources (excluding bulk sales) for the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchSale of Power (Retail)Profits from TradingMiscellaneousTotal*
*Excluding revenue from interchange of power.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
196483,6292501,66885,547
196589,9903301,88992,209
196698,6603321,808100,800
1967107,1413591,925109,425
1968120,2403362,091122,667

Expenditure—Of the total expenditure of $100,958,766 (excluding cost of interchange of power in bulk) recorded in the year ended 31 March 1968, 77.5 percent represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating expenses of prime costs stood at 22.5 percent.

Power may be sold more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority, and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the State electricity supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure, excluding the cost of bulk interchanges.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1965196619671968
*Does not include the interchange of power between supply authorities.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Operating Expenditure
Cost of power purchased*528267111
Cost of generation2,2022,4563,6803,913
Fuel2,8262,7872,7942,222
Repairs and stores2,0642,3469711,001
Cost of transmission and distribution12,21713,27213,83715,077
Public (street) lighting281308339362
Totals19,64221,25121,68822,686
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Cost of management8,8339,94311,24212,606
Losses from trading24172648
Other expenditure and insurance515409247223
Totals9,37210,36911,51512,877
Capital Charges (Including Taxation)
Interest26,29125,38727,97834,217
Sinking Fund1,2671,1691,4302,056
Renewals2,0403,0222,2222,799
Depreciation8,30711,38712,83214,172
Loan repayment8,6449,38210,61512,152
Totals46,54950,34755,07765,396
Grand totals75,56381,96888,280100,959

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

ExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
1965196619671968
 centscentscentscents
Operating expenses0.2400.2360.2260.229
Miscellaneous expenses0.1140.1150.1200.130
Capital charges0.5680.5590.5730.661
Totals0.9220.9100.9191.020

20 B—GAS

HISTORY—Gas produced from coal was an early source of light and heating in New Zealand. The first gasworks was erected in 1862 at Auckland which at that time had a European population of about 25,000. By 1869 there was a gasworks in each of the four main centres. There were 56 establishments engaged in the generation and supply of gas to the public in 1916. Since that date the number of works has declined steadily, although the output of gas has increased through the expansion of remaining works. The number of consumers is steadily decreasing, and has dropped from 175,910 to 126,874 in the last 10 years; totals in recent years have been: 1963–64, 149,953; 1964–65, 142,892; 1965–66, 136,937; 1966–67, 130,952; 1967–68, 126,874.

In the 1950s, the decline of the gas industry was viewed with concern by the Government and the authorities which are required to supply the country with electric power, because of the additional demand for electricity which must follow any reduction of the gas supply.

The Electricity and Gas Co-ordination Act 1956 established an Electricity and Gas Co-ordination Board to advise the Minister on the co-ordination of the electricity and gas industries. Following a report from the Board regarding the difficulties to be overcome in effecting local mergers, legislation was passed in 1958 setting up a Gas Council in place of the Board. The main functions of the Council are to advise the Government and the industry regarding the preservation and expansion of gas supplies. Subsidies, grants, and loans may be made to assist the industry. The Gas Council has pursued a basic policy of spending funds available for the purpose of promoting efficiency and confidence in the gas industry. Much new plant has been installed, assisted in some cases by grants towards interest and capital repayment charges on loans until the new plant becomes revenue producing.

Pipelines are being constructed to deliver natural gas from the Kapuni field in Taranaki to Auckland and Wellington. The conversion from manufactured gas to natural gas in these two cities and in Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, and Lower Hutt is expected in 1970. The gas and condensate field at Kapuni was discovered by Shell BP and Todd Oil Services Ltd., in 1959. The field will be operated by the discoverers who will separate the condensate for shipment to the oil refinery at Whangarei and sell the untreated gas to the Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand. This Corporation was set up by the Government in 1967 and will operate a carbon dioxide removal plant which is being built at Kapuni and will sell gas at the city gate to the gas undertakings in the nine urban areas mentioned. The retail price of natural gas is expected to be competitive with electricity and light oil.

GAS SUBSIDY—Gasworks receive a gas sales subsidy from the Government at the rate of 25c per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas sold up to 150 million cu. ft. and thereafter at 16 2/3c per 1,000 cu. ft. for gas produced from coal: the same rate applies to oil-reformed gas but is limited to 30 percent of total annual sales. There is also a subsidy covering freight charges on coal which applies to 15 undertakings.

Annual average prices of gas in the four main centres are shown in the following table. The average price per 1,000 cubic feet for all consumers in 1967–68 was $1.34 compared with $1.29 in 1966–67.

AVERAGE PRICE OF GAS TO CONSUMER PER 1,000 CUBIC FEET

YearAucklandWellingtonChrist-churchDunedin
 $$$$
1929–300.700.690.700.63
1939–400.720.610.640.59
1949–500.880.680.680.62
1959–601.341.050.880.74
1964–651.461.270.930.79
1965–661.451.260.970.90
1966–671.521.270.960.90
1967–681.511.351.031.08

GAS PRODUCTION—There follows an analysis of the 1967–68 statistics. It will be seen that 65 percent of the total quantity of gas available for distribution was in the North Island and 35 percent was in the South Island.

ItemNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
WorksNo.131326
Value of land and buildings$(000)2,3418953,237
Value of machinery, plant, and equipment$(000)8,1076,05414,161
Value of transport equipment$(000)21282294
Capital additions during year—
    Land and buildings$(000)262046
    Machinery, plant, and equipment$(000)268224492
    Transport equipment$(000)32133
Persons engaged—
    MalesNo.8023741,176
    FemalesNo.9331124
                TotalsNo.8954051,300
Salaries and wages paid—
    To males$(000)2,0009282,928
    To females$(000)10446150
                Totals$(000)2,1049743,078
Motive power—
    Engines in useNo.386313699
    Total horsepowerh.p.4,3742,5276,901
Materials used—
    Coaltons(000)15593248
 $(000)2,0551,0703,125
    Oilgal(000)1,7368122,548
Products—$(000)18988278
    Gas available for distributioncu.ft.(m)3,8622,1105,972
    Gas sold retailcu.ft.(m)2,9361,7794,715
    Value (including subsidies)$(000)4,8912,4227,313
    Coketons(000)203656
 $(000)400517917
    Targal(000)1,2179772,194
 $(000)254184438
    Other residuals$(000)12348171
Total expenditure$(000)5,9523,0789,030
Total revenue$(000)5,9993,0569,055
ConsumersNo.84,38042,494126,874

Chapter 21. Section 21 MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Products of animal origin average annually over 90 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of primary produce. New Zealand is the largest exporter in the world of butter and (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese. Exports of milk powder and casein have grown rapidly since 1947 and now exceed in value traditional exports such as tallow and hides and skins.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of primary products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceCaseinMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk Powder, etc.Total (incl. other)

*Of New Zealand produce.

† Provisional.

$ (million)
196390.937.09.5138.08.4173.0214.025.4620.0
1964109.635.111.0157.111.3183.2271.430.4728.4
1965119.640.718.9180.916.8212.5208.631.7733.7
1966109.641.722.0175.420.0196.7231.940.0756.8
1967109.445.129.8186.718.6205.0174.133.6717.6
1968111.745.930.2190.118.0249.6155.239.1785.5

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is used for domestic consumption, and only about 6 percent of world output enters into international trade. About three-quarters of all meat exports come from five countries. In order of importance these are New Zealand, Denmark, Argentina, Australia, and the Netherlands. The import trade is dominated by the United Kingdom, which takes about two-thirds of the total exports. Next in importance as importers are the United States of America, and the Western European countries such as Italy and West Germany.

Beef and veal comprise about half the world exports, with Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and the Republic of Ireland the main exporters. Exports of pig meats are made mostly by European countries and of mutton and lamb mostly by New Zealand and Australia. The United Kingdom remains the largest market for sheep meats.

The population of the United Kingdom is increasing only slowly, and the consumption per head of carcass meat has remained fairly stable in recent years. At the same time the United Kingdom home production has risen considerably following encouragement by a system of guaranteed agricultural prices.

Though the United Kingdom is traditionally New Zealand's export market for meat and must remain so in the foreseeable future, there has been for some years a growing realisation of the need for supplementary markets.

Until about 1955 New Zealand had not been able to establish permanent markets of any size for meat outside the United Kingdom, sales to Western Europe being limited to years of shortage. All countries in Western Europe have traditionally protected their agriculture. The establishment of the European Economic Community has not only formalised but also greatly extended these policies. Among the main supplementary markets are Japan, West Germany, West Indies, Canada, and the United States of America. Previous to 1955 nearly all New Zealand meat went overseas in carcass form. Now more than a quarter of it is exported precut or otherwise processed and it is packaged in some 6 million New Zealand made cartons. A small amount of specialised cuts is now air freighted to new markets.

In 1957–58, as a result of changes in the composition of the United States of America beef herd, a strong demand developed for manufacturing grades of beef. New Zealand and Australia helped to meet that demand. Although the quantities shipped from New Zealand each year have fluctuated since then, the United States has absorbed the bulk of the exportable surplus of beef.

Exports of New Zealand meat to the United States form only a very small proportion of national consumption. In February 1964 the United States and New Zealand Governments reached an agreement which guaranteed New Zealand continued access to the United States market with provision for a steady growth in the quantity exported each year from New Zealand.

The following table shows the main destination of exports from New Zealand of frozen and chilled beef and veal for the three latest years.

Country of DestinationYear Ended June
196519661967
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
United Kingdom27,65211,92926,41913,50916,2179,253
United States58,71229,63451,00528,90670,17543,360
Canada1,8811,0041,1777401,9961,464
Other countries31,23014,84220,99811,42416,1859,828
Totals119,47557,40999,59954,579104,57363,905

Imports into the United States of some classes of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
196519661967196519661967
 tons (thousand)
New Zealand466576554
Australia137179189142825
Canada312511
Republic of Ireland31736
Mexico212521
Other countries223041
Total imports261341375193430
United States production8,8039,1989,365290290288

Wool—New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from all the main importing countries to make their purchases of wool. A small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale on the London market. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool.

The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research. World wool production and wool utilisation were approximately in balance until 1966 when consumption fell behind production.

World wool production has been increasing steadily, particularly in Australia, New Zealand and the Soviet Union; this growth reflects improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep), and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population, the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. Since the war there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production, which remains heavily concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whose clips enters the international market to any significant extent. These countries account for 76 percent of world production; of the world total, Australia alone produces 30 percent and with New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa some 55 percent.

The distribution of wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population since the production of wool, or yield per sheep varies considerably. While there is undoubtedly scope for improvement in a number of the lower yielding countries, the yields, which are averages over the sheep populations as a whole, are determined by the type of pasture, breed of sheep, average age of flock, and age of the sheep at slaughter. Variations in yield between countries, therefore, do not necessarily reflect variations in efficiency, but rather differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

CountrySheep NumbersWool Production
1964–651965–661966–67*1965–661966–671967–68*
*Provisional.
 millionmillion lb (greasy)
Australia170.6157.6164.41,6631,7621,768
New Zealand53.757.360.0695709728
Argentina48.348.748.7430441428
South Africa36.937.436.8329292307
Uruguay21.721.821.8183176179
United States22.422.422.4241236227
United Kingdom29.930.029.0129131128
U.S.S.R.125.2129.8135.5787818871
Whole world933.0931.0945.05,7255,8425,912

Dairy Produce—For the sale of dairy products New Zealand is very largely dependent on the United Kingdom market. In 1960 the total production of butter by 32 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to 4.2 million tons. In the same year world exports by 19 of the leading exporters amounted to about 560,000 tons, that is, only about 13 percent of world production entered into international trade. Of this quantity, 408,000 tons (73 percent) came on to the United Kingdom market. Of the exports of 431,000 tons of cheese from 20 countries in 1960 there were 133,000 tons sent to the United Kingdom. These figures show that relatively small changes in demand-supply relationships in individual countries can have a most disturbing effect on the United Kingdom market.

Some countries have adopted agricultural income and price support policies to maintain and stabilise farming incomes. Only industrialised countries with a relatively low proportion of their national income derived from agriculture can continue support measures on a large scale. International trade is adversely affected in several ways. To maintain prices at support levels many countries have restricted imports of agricultural products, so that entry into markets, in which New Zealand's exports could effectively compete, has often been denied. High support prices and consequent high domestic prices discourage consumption and often lead to the accumulation of supplies which are surplus to domestic requirements. Surpluses generated in this manner are frequently disposed of in other markets at prices well below the cost of production. New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market was adversely affected in 1958 when some European countries dumped on the market such quantities of butter that there were serious falls in prices.

Since 1958 price reductions in some European countries have to some extent stimulated consumption in them, but not a great deal of progress has been made in the reduction of subsidised dairy production that leads to dumping. It is essential for New Zealand to maintain strong and consistent pressure in international councils so that these measures are furthered. There were signs in 1960 that European countries were prepared to exercise restraints to ensure a normal flow of supplies to the United Kingdom market, but dumping by a number of countries led to a serious fall in prices early in 1961. Discussions between countries subscribing to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) were aimed at finding a remedy to the situation. Some alleviation of New Zealand's position was afforded in November 1961 when the British Government asked all countries currently supplying butter to Britain to agree to limit their shipments to the quantities proposed by GATT up to 31 March 1962. Britain has restricted imports of butter from 1 April 1962. This involved a waiver by New Zealand of the agreement for unrestricted entry to the United Kingdom market on the understanding that New Zealand would be granted a fair share of imports. When the New Zealand Government agreed in May 1963 to the request of the British Government (in connection with EFTA discussions involving Denmark) that the tariff of $1.50 a hundredweight on non-Commonwealth butter be suspended for the duration of the present system of quota restrictions, Britain agreed that New Zealand would be entitled to two-fifths of total permitted imports. The United Kingdom consults New Zealand before the opening of each quota year about the supply of butter to the United Kingdom market. The basic quota for 1966–67 was set at 430,000 tons, including an addition of 10,000 tons to Ireland's basic quota under the Free Trade Agreement. New Zealand had a basic quota of 168,000 tons, but was entitled to supply 174,200 tons. Under the 1966 Trade Agreement the minimum quantity of butter that will be imported from New Zealand was raised to 170,000 tons with the provision that New Zealand would share in any expansion of the level to total imports. For 1967–68 the total quota was 470,000 tons, consisting of 440,000 tons basic quota and 30,000 tons supplementary quota. New Zealand's basic quota was 176,000 tons; this was increased by a supplementary quota of 8,000 tons. For 1968–69 the total allocation was reduced to 462,000 tons but New Zealand's basic quota remained at 176,000 tons; restrictions were also placed on imports to the United Kingdom of near-butters and butterfat mixtures which threatened the quota system. For 1969–70 the total allocation was further reduced to 397,000 tons and New Zealand's share is 170,000 tons.

In 1968 there was serious oversupply of the cheese market in the United Kingdom and cheese suppliers were asked in August 1968 to limit their shipments to the British market. Out of a quota of total imports of 123,000 tons for the year ended 31 March 1969, New Zealand was allotted 77,100 tons.

Milk Powder—The world production of milk powder has been expanded in recent years. With skimmed-milk powder (the main form) the output of 11 Western European countries, and Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, rose from 2.1 million tons in 1966 to 2.4 million tons in 1967 and to an estimated 2.8 million tons in 1968. World trade in skimmed-milk powder increased in 1967 to approximately 800,000 tons, compared with 658,000 tons in 1966 and 716,000 tons in 1965; world prices dropped sharply in 1968 to about half of the amount of $274 a ton ruling in early 1967. These low prices have resulted in particular from heavy subsidisation of exports by the EEC countries; the system introduced under the common dairy policy whereby with milk production stimulated, and consumption of products hindered by high prices, returns to producers are maintained by support purchases of butter and its by-product skimmed-milk powder, means that manufacture is likely to be concentrated in these products while others are produced only as consumer demand dictates.

One of New Zealand's main markets for milk powder has been the United Kingdom where in the face of growing stocks and cheap imports the price of skimmed-milk powder dropped from $230 to $130 a ton in 1968. Other important markets have been developed in Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Peru.

The chief countries exporting and importing milk powder are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Export196519661967
 tons (000)
United States393.2180.4188.3
France82.4166.9179.6
New Zealand91.398.6150.5
West Germany20.974.8135.7
Netherlands95.477.169.3
Japan68.977.1111.7
Netherlands104.297.596.2
Italy35.571.795.9
United Kingdom80.658.469.7
Belgium47.040.933.6

New Zealand is moving towards the development of more supplementary markets for dairy produce, although quantities of the major products that can thus be disposed of are relatively small compared with exports to the United Kingdom, New Zealand's long-standing market. Major industrial countries where income levels and food-consumption habits could provide important markets have adopted trading policies aimed at restricting imports of foodstuffs to protect their agriculture. The Kennedy Round discussions of GATT in 1967 produced only meagre results as regards reducing the barriers to trade in agricultural products. A renewed attempt was made by New Zealand in November 1967 to achieve a meaningful negotiation for liberalisation of trade in dairy products. Preliminary negotiations were begun in the Committee of GATT in December 1968; objectives are: (a) the establishment of minimum prices for butter and butterfat products, and for skim milk powder; (b) permanent arrangements for consultations in trade for dairy products; (c) co-operation in the development of the use of milk products as food aid.

TRADE AGREEMENTS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for primary produce. New Zealand's trading relations with the United Kingdom are governed by a number of formal commitments. Under the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 New Zealand undertook to maintain a preferential tariff on imports from the United Kingdom, while the United Kingdom for its part was obliged to grant duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and maintain specified duties on some foreign products of interest to New Zealand. The United Kingdom also undertook to place quota restrictions on foreign meats.

On butter the foreign tariff rate, and therefore the margin of preference fixed in 1932 was $1.50 a hundredweight (this has since been suspended). On cheese the tariff preference was 15 percent; there was no preference set for mutton and lamb but a negligible tariff preference for beef, coupled with a foreign quota on meat which was designed to ensure an expanding share of the United Kingdom market was arranged. There never has been any preference on wool.

In 1958 the provisions of the Ottawa Agreement were reviewed. The new agreement which came into force on 25 November 1958, gave new flexibility to New Zealand's international trading and negotiating position. It was agreed that the levels of preferences in favour of the United Kingdom set by the 1932 Agreement could be modified but the basic principle was retained to ensure that the close and mutually beneficial economic partnership between the United Kingdom and New Zealand would continue. All the existing rights and preferences for New Zealand goods entering the United Kingdom were preserved. These included the 1957 supplementary agreement providing for annual consultation on the agricultural production and marketing policies of the two countries as well as the 10-year right of entry to the United Kingdom market, without restriction as to quantity, of butter, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, casein, and chilled and frozen pork. Access for these products was guaranteed until 31 May 1967. The 15-year right of entry for New Zealand meat, agreed to in 1952 outside the 1932 pact, remained in force.

In 1966 further negotiations were carried out for the revision and extension of our trade arrangements with Britain. The final text of the new agreement was signed in New Zealand on 24 November 1966. Britain agreed to admit until 30 September 1972 without restriction of quantity, imports of New Zealand beef, veal, lamb, mutton, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, casein, and chilled and frozen pork. In 1961 New Zealand had voluntarily waived a similar right of unrestricted access for butter in favour of a quota system designed to protect the price of New Zealand butter against dumped and subsidised supplies.

In the 1966 Agreement the United Kingdom Government reaffirmed its intention not to remove quota restrictions on butter so long as the circumstances for which they were imposed remained, that is, the protection of New Zealand against dumping. The minimum quantity of butter to be imported from New Zealand while quotas remained was raised from 164,000 tons to 170,000 tons. The Agreement also provided that New Zealand would share in any growth of total imports above the existing level.

In return for concessions New Zealand guaranteed duty-free entry for certain British goods and minimum margins of preference of up to 20 percent in some instances for a further number of goods. The total value to the United Kingdom in current trade of these items is about $16 million.

These are the formal arrangements. In practice they are of considerable importance because of New Zealand's dependence on the United Kingdom market. Of our total exports, nearly half is sent to Britain but for certain products the degree of dependence is much greater. In recent years over 80 percent of butter, cheese, mutton and lamb exports have been sent to the United Kingdom.

Restricted Alternative Outlets—Deriving from history and continuing British demand for New Zealand's food products, the link between New Zealand and Britain is a major element in New Zealand's trade pattern. At the same time New Zealand's efforts to reduce its economic vulnerability and dependence on Britain by diversifying markets for existing export products and developing new markets for new exports have met with some success. Significantly increased export markets have been the United States, the European Economic Community, and Japan.

However, formidable barriers restrict the further expansion of New Zealand's exports, the greatest being the agricultural protectionist policies in force in many of the countries which are consumers or potential consumers of the food products (particularly dairy products) New Zealand exports. In many cases these policies are backed up with measures—tariff and non-tariff—which either limit access for efficient producers and exporters or deny access altogether. Not only do these policies make it difficult for New Zealand to export but they also frequently result in dumping of surpluses by other countries on relatively free markets.

New Zealand has fought these restrictive policies for many years through bilateral means and in the forum provided by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It has been New Zealand's hope throughout the post-war period that a wider acceptance of the whole philosophy of the GATT—universal, multilateral, and non-discriminatory trade—would form a basis for the policies and actions of all trading nations.

Other factors too, make it difficult for New Zealand to expand its export markets. Developing countries often cannot afford to import freely dairy produce and meat which to them are luxuries. Moreover, consumer preference for local foodstuffs, the lack of cold storage facilities, and the existence of religious and social barriers against meat consumption are all significant barriers to trade with these areas. Difficulties such as these make New Zealand more conscious of the restrictions on imports in the countries of Europe and North America which could be expected to be “natural” markets for our products.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries are Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of Customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the six countries gave way to a single tariff, the external customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the common agricultural policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place.

In 1961–63 Britain attempted to negotiate entry to the EEC. However, the negotiations ended in failure in January 1963 with France's insistence on strict application of the Rome Treaty to Britain without special dispensations, particularly for agricultural products.

In 1966–67 Britain probed the attitude of the Six to the possibility of re-opening formal negotiations.

On 3 May 1967 the Prime Minister of Britain announced that a decision had been reached to make application for membership of the European Economic Community. In his statement the Prime Minister said “There are highly important Commonwealth interests, mainly in the field of agriculture, for which it is our duty to seek safeguards in the negotiations. These include in particular the special problem of New Zealand . . .” At the Council of Ministers on 23 October 1967 the French Foreign Minister stated that Britain cannot start negotiating for membership of the European Economic Community until the pound has ceased to be an international reserve currency and until the British balance of payments is in equilibrium, and this view was confirmed by the French President on 28 November 1967.

The prospect of Britain negotiating entry to the EEC is a vital issue for New Zealand, and the success of any such negotiations could have the most far-reaching consequences. The basis of the EEC's agricultural policy is that all internal output should be disposed of profitably before imports are permitted from non-member countries. This policy has led to expanding agricultural production in the Community at the expense of potential exporters to the members of the Six. The Community's common price system involves levies on imports of cheaper agricultural commodities from non-member countries to raise prices to the EEC level. If Britain joined the EEC New Zealand would face a most serious problem for dairy products, especially butter, under the import system that would apply (as well as difficult problems for meat). Unless there were adequate agreed safeguards, New Zealand would have to find alternative markets or cut back production. This would be disastrous for the New Zealand dairy industry since our exports of butter to Britain in 1965–66, at $93.6 million, were nearly 86 percent of total butter exports and 12.6 percent of all exports of New Zealand goods.

The entry of Britain into the European Economic Community upon the basis of the Common Agricultural Policy would be disastrous for New Zealand's butter trade. Instead of being an import to the United Kingdom market protected by a quota system, New Zealand butter would lose the protection and in addition could be called upon to face a price levy greater than the usual London prices. The market for butter would tend to move further into over-supply as higher retail prices for butter would result in a switch to margarine by some British consumers. There are similar implications for cheese.

However, New Zealand has made its case widely known overseas. During 1966 and 1967 the Minister of Overseas Trade toured EEC capitals where he gained renewed recognition in many quarters that New Zealand was a special case and would require special treatment. In 1968 the Minister of Agriculture also held discussions in the EEC countries, and early in 1969 the Prime Minister discussed this problem with heads of government in the countries concerned.

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)—On 27 May 1959 Sweden invited Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom ("The Seven") to join with her in exploring the possibility of forming a free trade area. Discussions began in Stockholm in June 1959, and a Convention for a European Free Trade Association, agreed by Ministers of the Seven on 20 November 1959, became effective on 3 May 1960. Finland has been included as an associate member.

The Convention defines the objects of the Association as (1) to promote economic expansion in the area of the Association and in each member state; (2) to ensure that trade between member states takes place in conditions of fair competition; (3) to prevent significant disparity between member states in the conditions of supply of raw materials produced within the area; and (4) to contribute to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade and to the progressive removal of barriers to it.

Members agreed to abolish their tariffs on industrial goods originating in the area within 10 years by means of a series of reductions and also undertook to abolish quantitative restrictions on imports of goods from the free trade area within 10 years. There is no common external tariff for the Association, each member country being free to fix the level of its tariffs against the countries outside the area. Various rules govern trading within the area of goods manufactured wholly or in part from materials originating outside the area and fair conditions of competition—such matters as government subsidies, restrictive practices, dumping, etc. Special arrangements are in force in relation to agricultural produce and fish.

EFTA Tariff Reductions—By 1963 tariffs were lowered to half their original level. Following the breakdown of negotiations for Britain's entry into the European Economic Community a new phase of activity was begun by the European Free Trade Association. Plans were made to hasten the removal of all tariffs on industrial goods and new proposals were put forward for agricultural and fishery products. In May 1963 agreement was reached to set up a completely free trade area in industrial goods by the end of 1966, and this position was virtually reached by then.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce—New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table, showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, as is also the domestic output of milk powder. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder
19381966196719681938196619671968196519661967
 tons (thousand)
New Zealand13016518417682687574472332
Australia90786154127815433
Canada2341413191-
Denmark11810096102199111
Netherlands3619201810161519211
Other countries1008392907273740253134
Total imports476445453440146141157178805870
United Kingdom production203037514310712011810597109

On average, over 86 percent of New Zealand's total exports of butter and almost 78 percent of the total exports of cheese go to the United Kingdom.

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Product19381962196319641965196619671968
 lb per head
Butter24.120.319.319.719.420.020.519.5
Margarine10.013.113.313.312.012.011.711.4

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country (of Export)Mutton and LambBeef and VealAll Meats*
19381966196719681938196619671968196619671968
*Including pig-meat, offal, and canned meat.
 tons (thousand)
New Zealand184271299317521999311331353
Australia95109161156819251064258
Argentina4520183541181013416213240
Denmark347316318
Other countries221515146880140189342304548
Totals3463163413475892852692571,2681,1261,317
United Kingdom production2112652572416048549088892,0992,0762,069

New Zealand is one of the leading suppliers of meat to the United Kingdom, accounting for about four-fifths of the imports of mutton and lamb and over one-fifth of total meat imports. Nearly 90 percent of New Zealand's exports of lamb goes to Britain.

It has been recognised by New Zealand meat exporters that the dispatch of ever-increasing quantities of lamb to Britain could lead to over-supply and a drop in prices. A Market Development Committee, made up of five members of the Meat Producers Board and five representatives of the export industry was established under the Meat Export Control Amendment Act 1966. This Committee asked meat exporters to divert 10 percent of lamb sales for the 1966–67 season to markets other than the United Kingdom. The percentage was raised to 12 percent for the 1967–68 season and then to 13.5 percent for the 1968–69 season. Failure to meet the target percentages set each season involves payment of a levy at the rate of 2.5 cents a pound assessed on the poundage of the short-fall.

New Zealand's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that the New Zealand share of the United Kingdom's beef imports has been relatively small.

It should be noted that, partly as a result of agricultural support, well over half the meat consumed in Britain is now obtained from domestic supplies. A five-year National Economic Development Plan of the British Government released in September 1965 proposes to increase further the productivity in agriculture to meet the major part of the food-demand growth expected by 1970 with the object of lessening the need for imports. Support for agriculture is given in the form of guaranteed prices for the main agricultural commodities and direct farming grants mainly designed to raise farm productivity. In general, the price guarantees are maintained by payments to farmers of the difference between guaranteed prices and average market prices (deficiency payments) and imports are not restricted. Meat is considered to have one of the most important parts to play in any selective expansion programme, but it is proposed that this will be done consistently with commitments to overseas suppliers. The main emphasis is to be on beef and veal production and as two-thirds of the home-produced beef comes from the dairy stock there will be an accompanying increase in output of milk and its products.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance. Since the gradual abandonment of the principles of laissez faire from the First World War onwards, great changes have taken place, and developments have been described in detail in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Broadly speaking, the policy of controlled marketing of primary products has exhibited five phases:

  1. In the early 1920s the producer organisations made moves to rationalise the organisation of marketing.

  2. The next stage was for the State to trade directly, buying products outright, bearing losses and retaining profits. The Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 established the Marketing Department, which confined its pre-war operations to dairy produce.

  3. This was followed, after the outbreak of the Second World War and the establishment of bulk purchase, by the formation of financial pool accounts for each industry, the profits, subject to the general policy of stabilisation, being paid out to the suppliers, and any reserves held for the benefit of the industry. During the war the United Kingdom Government was the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of dairy produce, meat, wool, and tallow.

  4. The fourth phase was the direction of policy by boards and committees with the assumption of executive and not, as previously, merely advisory powers. Each body continued to use the marketing organisation for assembly, storage, transport, distribution, and accounting which the Marketing Department had built up, these services being made available at cost.

  5. The fifth phase was the progressive transfer from 1947 to various boards or authorities representative of the industry concerned (with Government representation to protect the public interest) of the responsibility and authority for the effective marketing of their own products, or the return to private enterprise with the boards assuming mainly their former pre-war functions.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Act of 1956 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Commission Act 1931, the Milk Act 1944, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (as regards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all New Zealand butter, cheese, milk powder and casein intended for export, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. It operates under the Dairy Board Act 1961. In selling the industry's exportable surplus of milk powder and casein, the Board is guided by an advisory committee for each product. The Board owns in the United Kingdom a company, Milk Products (N.Z.) Ltd., through which all New Zealand milk powder sold in the United Kingdom is distributed. It also owns Empire Dairies Ltd., which acts as one of the 17 first-hand agents through which New Zealand butter and cheese are distributed in Britain. The Board carries out extensive advertising and publicity of New Zealand produce in the United Kingdom.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the interests of the producers. The Board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals) the levy being at present 0.075c per pound. Its main functions are (a) to ensure that all export meat is graded to a standard; (b) to negotiate shipping freight, organise shipping, and allocate space; (c) to organise advertising or allied promotional work.

Under the Meat Export Control Amendment Act 1959 the Meat Producers Board may purchase meat for sale outside New Zealand to promote the sale of meat in other countries, provided such action establishes new markets. A further amendment to the Act in 1962 gives the Meat Board power, with the approval of the Minister of Finance, to provide financial backing to export companies operating in any markets.

To encourage the export of lamb to North America, a company was formed in 1960 on the initiative of the Meat Producers Board. The capital is provided by the New Zealand freezing companies, but these companies and the Meat Producers Board appoint an equal number of directors. The company ensures that new markets are adequately supplied and that reasonable pricing policies are followed.

Wool—By the Wool Commission Act 1951 there was established a Wool Commission with the principal function of assuring minimum prices for greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool in accordance with the table of minimum prices (effective only after agreement with the Minister), for New Zealand wool sold in New Zealand or the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the Commission. The Commission is also the statutory collecting agent for the Wool Board's levy on growers, which has since 1964 been at the rate of 0.7 cents a pound.

From the operations of the Joint Organisation set up to clear stocks of wool accumulated during the Second World War, the Wool Commission received an initial capital fund of $53 million consisting of profits from the Joint Organisation of about $40 million and also the balance of $13 million remaining from contributory charges paid by woolgrowers. The initial capital of the Commission was augmented by interest earnings on investments, and by profits on the resale of wool bought in at the floor prices. It accumulated fairly steadily until the 1966–67 season when it was heavily drawn upon. At 30 June 1966 the Commission's capital funds amounted to $73.7 million, most of which was invested in Government Stock; at 30 June 1967 the capital was $70.7 million, most of which was invested in wool stocks; and by 30 June 1968 the capital had been reduced to $59.6 million, represented by wool stocks less the bank overdraft.

A substantial fall in demand for crossbred wools began towards the end of 1966 primarily as a result of economic restraints in several European countries and a marked reduction in speculative demand for wool in face of increased volume and sharply reduced prices of man-made fibres; lesser factors tending to reduced demand for wool were change of fashion, the cost of money, the effect of continually extending central heating facilities, and changes in quality of wool offered. To maintain stability in the market, the Wool Commission was forced to buy 39 percent of the wool offered at auction. This amounted to 645,786 bales and cost $62.8 million. (The Wool Commission announced that it proposed to hold these stocks until they could be disposed of in an orderly fashion at satisfactory prices.)

After buying a further 60,000 bales in the early part of the 1967–68 season, the funds of the Wool Commission were exhausted by mid-November 1967 and arrangements were made with the Government to borrow from the Reserve Bank against wool held in stock the amount required to make supplementary payments to growers to meet the reduced minimum price of 25 cents a pound for the 1967–68 season and to purchase wool that did not realise the new buying-in price of 16.25 cents a pound. After reduction of the buying-in price, the Commission bought very little wool.

From 1954 to 1967 the Commission was required by statute to subsidise the Wool Board levy from its own investment income, but because the Commission's income had virtually ceased in 1967–68, the subsidy to the Wool Board was suspended for that season. For 1968–69 and future years the Commission's obligation to subsidise the levy was amended to an amount to be agreed upon between the Commission and the Wool Board, and consented to by the Minister of Finance.

The Commission began its programme of stock disposal in 1967–68, when 16,800 bales of wool bought earlier that season were sold at auction. In the 1968–69 season to Christmas 1968 a further 102,000 bales were sold at auction. After taking into account these sales and minor adjustments for scouring and fire loss, the stockpile in mid-December 1968 stood at 586,000 bales. The proceeds of the sales enabled the Commission to liquidate its Reserve Bank overdraft in January 1969.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This Board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it now is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the Board with private sales to growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the Board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the Board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the Board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the Board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954.

The Board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The Board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the Board exceed the amount which the Board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the Board, is apportioned equally between a reserve fund and the growers. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the Board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
*It was agreed that the growers' share be invested in a processing factory. †Retained by Board to offset previous seasons' losses.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1956–577413703702,977
1957–583141571573,134
1958–59— 868— 8682,266
1959–60609609*2,875
1960–61— 270— 2702,605
1961–624723232,628
1962–63— 139— 1392,489
1963–64—1,248—1,2481,241
1964–65439439†1,680
1965–66—1,823—1,823—143
1966–671,3651,3651,222
1967–685013941071,616

A Committee of Inquiry into the sale of apples and pears on the local market reported to Parliament on 4 October 1961—see parliamentary paper H. 29A. The Committee supported continuance of the existing form of marketing with minor variations.

Potatoes—The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the Board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the Board. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the Board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the National Milk Scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The Board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of seven members—four producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the Authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs, or, as directed by the Authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control. A subsidy, at present at the rate of 3.33c per dozen, is paid by the Government in respect of eggs received at authorised egg floors (as the licensed distributors are known). This is to offset floor charges and distribution costs which would otherwise be passed on to the consumers.

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas—Since the beginning of 1951 the importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, and pineapples have been taken over by a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The Authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture as the Government member who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the Authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The Authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, and Tauranga.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and for export, and operates the blending plant in Auckland. A levy is made at the rate of 1c per pound on all honey sold locally and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which is administered by the Authority for the benefit of the industry in general.

The Authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Primary produce forms the bulk of New Zealand's exports and it comes to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year but production is considerably higher in the six months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least two to three months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Export and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand's export trade particularly as it relates to transport services. Shipping has received special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisation.

The Council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the Associated Chambers of Commerce, and the Federation of Labour. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport and other services, produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines. The Council works through committees concerned with the following subjects: shipping allotment procedure; peak shipping requirements; packages and cargo handling; cartoned meat; port facilities and transport; marking, stowage, and sorting; development markets; import licensing year.

PRICES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTS: Wool—Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand (compiled from information supplied by the New Zealand Wool Commission) are shown in the following tables. The first table gives total quantities and values as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the relative quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per pound of wool sold shown in this table includes variations on account of these additional factors. Under the Wool Commission Act 1951 the Wool Commission prepares a table of minimum prices for various classes of wool, which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture. Where wool does not realise the minimum price, the Commission may supplement the sale price so as to increase it to the minimum price, or, alternatively, may buy such wool at a price not greater than the minimum price. The Commission has not purchased wool to any extent except in the 1957–58, 1958–59, 1966–67, and 1967–68 seasons. After the start of the 1967–68 season the Commission decided not to purchase unless auction prices were below 16.25 cents a pound, but also decided to make supplementary payments to enable growers to receive the average minimum price of 25 cents a pound. Supplements were paid on half the offering of an average of 3.1 cents a pound; the total cost was $8.5 million. The buying-in price was retained at 16.5 cents a pound for the 1968–69 season, but the average minimum price to growers was set at 22.25 cents.

WEIGHT, SALE VALUE, AND AVERAGE VALUE PER POUND OF GREASY WOOL SOLD AT AUCTION

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per PoundAverage Minimum Price per Pound of Greasy Wool
*See Latest Statistical Information.
 lb (m)$ (m)cc
1954–55338.6140.241.3921.67
1955–56341.6131.538.4925.00
1956–57356.2162.645.6325.00
1957–58370.4127.034.3027.50
1958–59406.3122.130.0627.50
1959–60409.2132.237.2127.50
1960–61420.9141.633.5127.50
1961–62423.4138.232.6527.50
1962–63444.1158.535.7027.50
1963–64433.9199.145.8927.50
1964–65443.2155.635.1229.17
1965–66509.2176.634.6929.17
1966–67533.8156.929.3930.00
1967–68539.8123.422.8725.00
1968–69***22.25

In the next table details of a wool price index on base: average over all sales 1963–64 season (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values. A description of the make-up of this index is given in a supplement to the December 1964 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

SeasonIndex Numbers* Base: 1963–64 (= 1000)

*Based on price on floor. clean.

†See Latest Statistical Information.

1947–18466
1948–49473
1949–50689
1950–511,584
1951–52749
1952–53840
1953–54903
1954–55886
1955–56832
1956–57985
1957–58750
1958–59663
1959–60812
1960–61745
1961–62731
1962–63788
1963–641,000
1964–65780
1965–66775
1966–67683
1967–68533
1968–69

Dairy Produce—The following table shows the London wholesale prices for butter and cheese at the end of March for the last 11 years.

End of Last Week in MarchButter FinestCheese
Crated (White Waxed) FinestCartoned (Rindless-White) Finest
40 lb60 lb
*On 21 November 1967 with devaluation Stg. 1 became equal to NZ$2.1429.
shillings per cwt
1959290291306296.5
1960290231243.5238.5
1961250231241238.5
1962285231246243.5
1963315231246243.5
1964335241251250
1965350261271270
1966300256271268
1967300256271268
1968*300256271268
1969*300226241238

Basic Prices for Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) for butter and cheese were introduced by the Government on 1 August 1936 to give stability to the dairy industry, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 set out the principles which underlay the fixing of the price. (See the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.)

Under the Dairy Board Act 1961 prices for butter are fixed by the Dairy Products Prices Authority after taking into account the following matters:

  1. The necessity in the public interest of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry.

  2. The amount which butter and cheese acquired by the Board is realising and the market prospects for the coming year.

  3. The state of the Dairy Industry Account, the Dairy Industry Reserve Account, and the Dairy Industry Capital Account.

  4. Any submissions made by the Dairy Board.

  5. Any other matters deemed relevant.

The price fixed for butter in any season must not vary by more than 5 percent from the maximum price fixed for the previous season.

The Authority must consult with the Minister before it fixes any prices. The members of the Authority are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture, and comprise three representatives of the Government, three members nominated by the Dairy Board, and a Chairman approved by the Board before appointment.

The price of cheese is fixed by the Dairy Board in relation to the price fixed by the Prices Authority for butter, together with an allowance related to the returns from milk powder and casein. The objective is to ensure that suppliers of whole milk for manufacture into cheese will, on average receive a return equivalent to the average return they would have received had the milk been manufactured into butter plus milk powder and butter plus casein.

In a normal trading year not more than 50 percent of any surplus will be distributed to dairy companies and the balance placed in reserve.

In 1963 there was held a Commission of Inquiry into the return for butter sold for consumption within New Zealand. The report of the Commission was printed as parliamentary paper B. 8. Another related paper is the Report on the Economic Position of the Farming Industry (parliamentary paper B. 4. of 1963).

The basic prices in cents per pound of butter and cheese for export paid to dairy factories are now given.

SeasonCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93-93 1/2 pt)Whey Butter (First Grade)Cheese (First Grade 92-92 1/2 pt)
*These additional amounts are surplus payments expressed on a product basis.
Ended 31 July—cents per lb (gross weight)
    1958-5924.74123.07514.135
    1959-6024.82923.16315.266
3.019*-1.467*
    1960-6124.77523.10815.257
Ended 31 May—
    1961-6224.74923.08315.377
    1962-6324.71923.05314.953
    1963-6424.67823.01215.070
1.029*-0.502
    1964-6525.89824.23216.328
0.686*-0.335*
    1965-6625.90224.23517.820
    1966-6725.88424.21717.860
    1967-6824.59022.94017.040
    1968-6924.67023.02016.820

Produce of other grades incurs differential premiums or penalties according to grading points. Differentials used since the introduction of basic purchase prices are as follows.

CREAMERY BUTTER

Grade1936-37 to 1957-581958-59 and 1959-601960-61 to 1966-671967-68 and 1968-69
 cents per lb
Finest 94 points and over+ 0.104+0.156+0.167+0.15
Finest 93-93 1/2 points (basic)----
First 92-92 1/2 points-0.052-0.156-0.167-0.15
First 90-91 1/2 points-0.208-0.469-0.625-0.65
Second grade-0.625-1.667-1.667-1.65
Third grade (from 1955-56)-5.0-5.0-5.0-5.0

CHEESE

Grade1955-56 to 1959-601960-61 to 1966-671967-68 and 1968-69
 cents per lb
Finest 94 points and over+0.260+1.042+1.05
Finest 93-93 1/2 points+0.179+0.833+0.85
First 92-92 1/2 (basic)---
First 91-91 1/2 points-0.052-0.208-0.20
Second 88-90 1/2 points-0.896-1.042-1.05
Second 87 and under-3.125-3.125-3.10

The prices quoted in the preceding table were designed to enable average dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in cents per pound of butterfat used for butter or cheese manufacture. Also given is the actual average net revenue per pound of butterfat supplied.

SeasonPrice per Pound of Butterfat Used for—
Butter-making (Basic Price)Cheese-making (Basic Price)Butter-making (Average Net Revenue)Cheese-making (Average Net Revenue)

*Plus 3.666c surplus payment at end of season.

† Plus 1.25c surplus payment at end of season

‡ Plus 833c surplus payment at end of season.

 cents per lb
1958-5926.66729.16726.96029.393
1959-6026.667*31.667*26.955*31.883*
1960-6126.66731.66726.96532.128
1961-6226.66731.66726.92431.740
1962-6326.66730.83326.98931.219
1963-6426.66730.83327.11331.853
1964-6528.25034.08328.68435.348
1965-6628.25037.59228.67238.217
1966-6728.25037.62528.53738.148
1967-6826.59035.05026.77735.242
1968-6926.59032.620  

Where a factory receives whole milk and makes butter, the residual skim milk can be manufactured into any of several products, the main ones being skim-milk powder and casein. Production of milk powder and casein has been growing rapidly to meet the needs of growing markets. The increasing value of these “by-products” is reflected in the greater return per pound of butterfat (about 8c per lb) paid to wholemilk suppliers, compared with suppliers who separate off the cream on the farm. The supply of whole milk, which is collected in stainless steel tankers, has become increasingly popular with farmers. Four-fifths of all butterfat processed is now collected as whole milk. Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A, Farming. The destinations of exports of milk powder and casein is shown in Section 22B, Exports. Lactic casein is now extensively used in Japan and the United States in foodstuffs and pharmaceuticals; it is used as high grade protein in sausage and other food fillings and as the bulk material for various types of drugs, and its end use in these fields is multiplying year by year. In 1966-67 casein exports from New Zealand were valued at $18.6 million.

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices for New Zealand meat at the end of the last week in the month. One half of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat are generally accounted for by lamb, and the two first-quality weight grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 5 percent and 40 to 50 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported. Beef accounts for one quarter of the total exports of frozen and chilled meat (by value), but mutton comprises only about 5 percent of the total value of frozen-meat exports. With the reduction of regular supplies of quarter beef to the United Kingdom, price quotations have been infrequent.

In 1960 imported lamb and mutton prices in the United Kingdom improved considerably, but towards the end of the year lamb values again took a downward turn, which continued during 1961. United Kingdom domestic production of lamb and mutton showed still further increases during 1961 and this, combined with larger stocks of imported lamb held in United Kingdom stores, had the effect of keeping lamb prices at the lower levels until there was a recovery in prices in the second quarter of 1962. After a drop early in 1963 there was a good recovery which was further assisted by a shortage of beef in the middle of 1964, and this was sustained until August 1966. Prices recovered at the beginning of 1967 but in mid-1967 heavy supplies tended to outstrip demand with a consequent fall in prices. In 1968 prices improved again.

End of Last Week in MarchLambMuttonBeef
First QualitySecond QualityEweBoneless Cartoned Ox G.A.Q.
28 lb and Under29 to 36 lb37 to 42 lb28 lb and Under29 to 36 lb57 to 64 lbRumpsSilverside
*Prior to 1968 10 cents equalled one shilling; from 1968 10.7 cents equals one shilling following devaluation.
 cents per lb equivalent
195918.717.5–18.317.517.1–17.517.1–17.57.9–8.3  
196020.0–20.818.3–19.217.9–18.320.0–20.818.7-19.28.3  
196118.7–19.217.9–18.316.2–16.719.218.3–18.79.2–9.6  
196217.517.1–17.517.116.217.19.2  
196316.7–17.516.2–17.116.716.7–17.516.78.7  
196421.2–21.720.419.2–19.621.7–22.120.4–20.8   
196522.121.2–21.721.2–21.721.7–22.521.7–22.112.9  
196622.9–23.320.8–21.219.223.3–23.721.7 41.7–42.537.5
196720.8–21.720.4-20.820.020.8–21.220.4–20.8 38.3–39.238.3–39.2
1968*24.0–24.524.0–24.524.023.6–24.023.6–24.015.653.4–55.245.4–46.3
196924.9–25.824.5–25.424.024.5–24.924.5–24.912.545.4–46.342.7–43.6

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by meat operators in New Zealand. The Meat Producers Board keeps a close watch on the prices being received for the meat and all by-products and on processing costs to ensure that the schedule prices give a just and equitable return to producers.

The opening schedules for the last five seasons are given below. Prices quoted are for dressed weights “on the hooks” at freezing works. The 1966-67 season's prices for lambs, wethers, and ewes do not include wool, but from 1967-68 the prices for these classes of stock are for the bare meat only with an additional payment being made for both wool and pelt.

ItemSeason
1964-651965-661966-671967-681968-69
*From 1963-64 to 1966-67 the Ox range was 740 lb and under.
 Price of Lamb, Wether, and Ewe Mutton, in Cents per Pound
Lambs—
    Downs (29–36 lb)18.7517.512.911.714.7
    Canterbury (29-36 lb)18.317.512.511.714.7
    Crossbred (29–36 lb)18.7517.512.9....
    Seconds (29–36 lb) (N.I.)18.317.512.911.313.8
Wethers—
    Primes (48 lb and under)—
        North Island10.49.68.36.56.0
        South Island9.88.957.96.56.0
    Seconds (48 lb and under)—
        North Island9.68.758.36.56.0
        South Island8.958.17.96.56.0
Ewes (48 lb and under) (N.I.)8.956.77.55.54.0
Quarter beef, North Island—Price in Dollars per 100 lb of Beef (N.I.)
    Ox, chiller beef (680 lb and under)15.0015.0015.5014.0018.00
Ox—
    G.A.Q. (680 lb and under)15.0015.0015.5014.0018.00
    F.A.Q. (“ “ “)15.0015.0015.5014.0018.00
Heifer—
    G.A.Q. (560 lb and under)*14.5014.5014.5013.0017.00
    F.A.Q. (“ “ “)14.5014.5014.5013.0017.00
Cow, G.A.Q. (600 lb and under)*11.2012.0012.5012.5015.50
Boner beef (cow) all weights10.5011.2514.0012.5017.00

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The institution of a system of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand was provided for by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955. A Meat Export Prices Committee was established, and consists of two members of the Meat Board, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, and a Chairman nominated by agreement between the Government and the producers. A schedule of minimum prices is fixed at the beginning of the season. Regard must be paid by the Committee to the average of the prices received for each class of meat during the preceding three seasons, the ruling level of minimum prices, and the Committee may have regard to the market trend and future prospects for the sale of meat, prices ruling for other farm products, and the general level of costs, prices, and wages in New Zealand.

The following table gives the minimum prices which apply for the year ending 30 September 1969.

Class of MeatGrade of MeatMinimum Price per Pound f.o.b.
  c
LambPrime down cross 29-36 lb14.0
Wether muttonPrime 49–56 lb7.5
Ewe muttonPrime 49–56 lb5.5
Chilled beefOx 680 lb and under15.0
Ox and heifer quarter beefG.A.Q.: 680 lb and under15.0
Quarter cow beefG.A.Q.: 600 lb and under12.0
Boner cow, ox, and heiferAll weights, boned-out value18.0
Boner bull
Veal (sides or quarters)Under 280 lb12.0
PorkersPrime 60–100 lb15.0
BaconersPrime 111–140 lb15.0

Deficiency Payments—Payments are made from the Meat Industry Reserve Account when the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices paid to farmers fall below the minimum price determined for any class of meat in the week to which the schedule relates.

Deficiency payments each season have been as follows: 1955-56, $734,338; 1956-57, $223,950; 1957-58, nil; 1958-59, $158,000; 1959-60, $1,860,000; 1960-61, nil; 1961-62, $4,825,000. No deficiency payments have been required in later seasons.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Although the details of wartime bulk-purchase agreements are now of historical interest only, it was during the period of bulk purchase that the present farm industry reserves were built up. Following the introduction of the Government stabilisation scheme in December 1942, agreement was reached between the Government and farmers' organisations in May 1943 regarding the stabilisation of meat and dairy prices. It was agreed that other than those increases necessary to meet higher costs of production, all increases in overseas realisations would be paid into a special fund which would be used in subsequent years for the benefit of the industry concerned. A meat pool account was already in existence, having been created to assist those producers who were affected by restrictions imposed on the export of particular classes of meat as a result of the shipping shortage. Subsidies designed to keep down farm production costs were also paid out of these funds. The wool reserve account was created in a somewhat different fashion, arising in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a levy on all wool sold at auctions.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve accounts at given dates.

YearDairy Produce Account at 31 May*Meat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SeptWool Commission Account at 30 June

*At 31 July up to 1961.

†Most of this was invested in wool stocks.

 $ (thousand)
195727,82682,58459,502
1958-14,69884,45661,046
19594,26486,43662,536
19603,87286,88865,014
1961-10,33889,62666,636
1962-13,38086,33668,470
1963-8,42888,08870,312
1964-7,13089,48271,897
196537390,94072,800
1966-57893,49773,709
1967-11,19195,29670,700
1968-12,84497,33759,630

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL—Surveys of domestic trade are a comparatively recent development in international statistics. They have been advocated by United Nations and are made by most economically advanced countries. In New Zealand the Department of Statistics has conducted Censuses of Distribution in 1953, 1958. 1963, and 1968. These censuses have covered retail trade, wholesale trade, and some service establishments. Quarterly sample surveys of retail and wholesale trade have been based on the Census of Distribution; these provide valuable economic indicators on the value of sales by the various types of stores and the value of stocks held. The results of the census for the trading year 1967-68 are not yet available.

The Census of Distribution for 1962-63 revealed retail trade sales of $1,516 million or an average turnover of $54,748 for each of the 27,688 stores. At 31 March 1963 there was one retail shop for every 91 persons, nearly one-half of them selling food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, there being 3,052 such stores covered in the census with a total turnover of $986 million. The 3,170 service establishments covered in a limited survey at the Census had total receipts of $55 million at an average of $17,351 per establishment. Notable exclusions from the Census were petrol and oil sales, newspaper sales other than in shops, and sales by bread bakers and milk vendors. A full report of the census is given in the publication Census of Distribution 1963; this report is out of print but is available in libraries.

In the following table the main results of the Censuses of 1958 and 1963 for retail trade are set out; the 1958 statistics have been adjusted to make them comparable, that is, by the exclusion of returns for bread bakeries and milk vendors.

Item19581963Percentage Increase
Number of stores25,63427,6888.0
 $(000)$(000) 
Sales1,174,8021,515,89029.0
Purchases919,7621,160,67626.2
Opening stocks179,076233,17830.2
Closing stocks194,108235,97221.6

Some other features of retail trade shown by the 1963 Census together with comparative figures for 1958 are shown in the following table.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per StoreAverage Labour Force per StoreTurnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per Store
  $ $$ 
Food and drink1,96336,8283.610,242195.4188
 1,95831,1563.49,144167.8186
Apparel1,96338,2183.810,01260.4633
 1,95833,9643.98,72057.6590
Furniture1,96367,2565.113,29438.61,742
 1,95857,7805.310,87034.01,696
Automotive1,963173,4944.736,73079.42,184
 1,958122,3186.020,37055.62,200
Hardware1,96385,0505.415,61228.82,956
 1,95879,0025.813,62427.02,933
Chemicals1,96337,9083.810,01015.82,409
 1,95828,2103.67,85811.02,563
Miscellaneous—
    General, department, and variety1,963221,36621.910,10267.03,308
 1,958202,48421.89,29061.43,295
Other1,96357,7924.313,430114.6504
 1,95848,3304.311,338103.0469
All retail stores1,96354,7484.512,304599.891
 1,95845,8304.410,370517.489

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1963: Retail Establishments—Of the 27,688 retail stores covered by the census, 19,205, or 69.4 percent, were situated in the North Island, and 8,483, or 30.6 percent, in the South Island.

The following table shows details by statistical areas. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Statistical AreasPopulation at 31 March 1963Number of StoresPurchases During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
 (000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Northland88.986832,91642,6086,896
 (3.5)(3.1)(2.8)(2.8)(2.9)
Central Auckland549.56,295251,832334,20648,282
 (21.7)(22.7)(21.7)(22.0)(20.5)
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty369.73,989172,796221,65435,016
 (14.6)(14.4)(14.9)(14.6)(14.9)
East Coast47.140917,69623,9384,060
 (1.9)(1.5)(1.5)(1.6)(1.7)
Hawke's Bay120.11,29651,49266,97411,412
 (4.8)(4.7)(4.4)(4.4)(4.8)
Taranaki102.41,06845,72858,2789,516
 (4.0)(3.9)(4.0)(3.8)(4.0)
Wellington - Hutt492.95,280228,700300,90047,958
 (19.5)(19.1)(19.7)(19.9)(20.3)
Marlborough28.833213,22216,9002,856
 (1.1)(1.2)(1.1)(1.1)(1.2)
Nelson65.476427,14435,7945,928
 (2.6)(2.8)(2.3)(2.4)(2.5)
Westland24.83348,68211,5901,782
 (1.0)(1.2)(0.8)(0.8)(0.8)
Canterbury359.03,911174,758227,51234,452
 (14.2)(14.1)(15.1)(15.0)(14.6)
Otago180.82,05581,664105,55016,316
 (7.2)(7.4)(7.0)(7.0)(6.9)
Southland97.81,08754,04669,98611,498
 (3.9)(3.9)(4.7)(4.6)(4.9)
Totals2,527.127,6881,160,6761,515,890235,972
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

In 1963 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 60.6 percent of New Zealand's people, but contained 65.8 percent of all retail stores, with 70.3 percent of total sales or turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Location GroupPopulation at 31 March 1963Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)

*Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin.

†Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Nelson, Timaru, Invercargill.

‡Boroughs outside urban areas with population over 4,000.

 (000) $(000)$(000)
Main urban areas* (including Hutt Urban Area)1,083.412,448714,680106,188
 (42.9)(44.9)(47.1)(45.0)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)446.55,779351,27658,530
 (17.7)(20.9)(23.2)(24.8)
Smaller centres192.23,286198,36233,118
 (7.6)(11.9)(13.1)(14.0)
Other urban132.82,684122,63220,966
 (5.2)(9.7)(8.1)(8.9)
Rural672.23,491128,94017,170
 (26.6)(12.6)(8.5)(7.3)
Totals2,527.127,6881,515,890235,972
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

Leading results of the Census relating to principal urban areas are shown in the following table.

Urban AreaPopulation March 1963Percentage of N.Z. Total PopulationNumber of StoresPercentage of N.Z. Total StoresSales or Turnover During YearPercentage of N.Z. Total SalesStocks at Close of YearPercentage of N.Z. Total Stocks
     $(000) $(000) 
Auckland482,30019.15,73220.7311,32020.545,14619.1
Wellington155,4006.11,8456.7133,6888.819,9488.5
Hutt105,6004.29023.345,5043.06,6582.8
Christchurch232,7009.22,7069.8157,05010.424,14210.2
Dunedin107,4004.21,2634.667,1184.410,2944.4
Whangarei23,7000.93271.219,6901.33,2281.4
Hamilton55,6002.27422.756,8643.89,0363.8
Tauranga27,9001.14491.621,1781.43,3521.4
Rotorua28,1001.13281.218,8161.23,0681.3
Gisborne25,9001.03061.120,0541.33,4621.5
Napier35,1001.44141.521,2841.43,4741.5
Hastings35,0001.44431.624,3641.64,2681.8
New Plymouth34,1001.34381.626,9921.84,6102.0
Wanganui37,2001.54261.520,6361.43,4541.5
Palmerston North45,8001.86132.233,6082.26,2062.6
Nelson26,9001.13581.322,1001.53,5961.5
Timaru27,3001.13641.323,6541.63,8381.6
Invercargill43,9001.75712.142,0362.86,9382.9

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 1,000 population not included in the 18 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63
  $(000)
Kaitaia753,710
Kaikohe622,940
Dargaville744,158
Helensville291,462
Pukekohe1126,164
Waiuku441,860
Tuakau361,912
Thames1144,176
Paeroa803,590
Waihi632,144
Te Aroha884,138
Huntly824,590
Morrinsville1125,576
Ngaruawahia401,498
Te Puke805,072
Matamata1055,508
Cambridge985,242
Whakatane16511,754
Opotiki612,862
Te Awamutu1528,594
Putaruru855,488
Kawerau432,368
Otorohanga633,542
Te Kuiti944,952
Taupo1146,290
Taumarunui927,110
Wairoa824,234
Waipawa401,768
Waipukurau634,596
Dannevirke1045,962
Woodville341,070
Waitara582,872
Inglewood442,164
Stratford1097,010
Eltham411,720
Hawera1478,184
Patea361,390
Ohakune271,014
Raetihi331,424
Taihape683,536
Marton784,586
Feilding1408,674
Pahiatua603,120
Foxton461,412
Shannon20866
Levin1627,398
Otaki692,044
Masterton21613,204
Carterton612,624
Greytown27774
Featherston331,252
Martinborough281,204
Picton461,250
Blenheim19312,902
Motueka663,158
Richmond491,512
Westport1003,936
Rangiora784,424
Kaiapoi541,792
Runanga11364
Brunner5112
Greymouth1516,960
Hokitika722,284
Ashburton16812,976
Geraldine363,116
Temuka542,116
Waimate684,320
Queenstown29914
Oamaru18214,654
Alexandra432,296
Milton441,880
Balclutha735,292
Kaitangata13352
Gore14512,702
Winton441,984
Mataura261,070
Riverton27700
Bluff361,362

Just under half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink groups—grocers, butchers, dairies, etc. This group accounted for only 33 percent of the turnover however, the average turnover per store being $36,800. As against this, the automotive group, which accounts for only 4 percent of all retail stores, handled 13 percent of the turnover, with an average turnover of $173,500 per store.

The following table shows details by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963Average Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
MalesFemalesTotal
       $(000)$(000)$$(000)
Food and drink13,41016,35013,71630,06648,2153.637,814493,85210,24227,470
Apparel3,9923,4908,10211,59215,2393.814,616152,56810,01247,738
Furniture1,4514,3121,8936,2057,3415.19,80497,58813,29421,920
Automotive1,1573,8996264,5255,4654.77,770200,73236,73022,818
Hardware8552,9181,0433,9614,6585.46,25872,71815,61216,486
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)1,0491,3311,7703,1013,9733.84,41639,76810,0107,366
Department, variety, and general stores7645,98310,15516,13816,74221.919,262169,12410,10233,944
Miscellaneous5,01010,8086,08116,88921,5604.324,900289,54013,43058,230
Totals, all retail stores27,68849,09143,38692,477123,1934.5124,8401,515,89012,304235,972

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963Salaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
MalesFemalesTotal
$$     $(000)$(000)$(000)
Under 10,0003,8934991,4801,9796,6391,64223,9044,724
    10,000-19,9996,0492,1204,5746,69414,1106,26889,42214,870
    20,000-39,9998,6696,5248,87515,39926,06017,908248,43436,036
    40,000-99,9996,55213,28610,62423,91030,61333,348385,68255,486
  100,000-199,9991,4638,2274,54012,76713,70719,314201,95231,908
  200,000-499,9997407,9204,74812,66812,95219,052224,64836,546
  500,000-1,999,9992927,5925,33412,92612,97718,696247,89042,610
2,000,000-and over302,9233,2116,1346,1358,61293,95813,792
    Totals, all retail stores27,68849,09143,38692,477123,193124,8401,515,890235,972

Of the 27,688 retail stores, 11,499 (41 percent) were operated by private registered companies, 9,947 (36 percent) were under individual ownership, 4,396 (16 percent) were run by partnerships, and 1,271 (5 percent) were run by public registered companies.

The following table shows details by type of organisation. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of OrganisationNumber of StoresTurnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
  $(000)$(000)
Private registered companies11,499796,572135,302
 (41.5)(52.5)(57.3)
Public registered companies1,271316,23655,706
 (4.6)(20.9)(23.6)
Individual ownership9,947211,67623,872
 (35.9)(14.0)(10.1)
Partnership4,396128,20811,960
 (15.9)(8.4)(5.1)
Other57563,1989,132
 (2.1)(4.2)(3.9)
Totals27,6881,515,890235,972
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trade represented only 11 percent of the total stores, but accounted for 31 percent of the total turnover. A multiple store is defined as one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at
Start of Year (April 1962)Close of Year (March 1963)
Multiple Stores
  $(000)$(000)$(000)
Food and drink1,1278,4863,8024,092
Apparel42027,2028,2487,862
Furniture19527,0544,9785,102
Automotive10549,2705,0905,328
Hardware11431,0945,6666,126
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)413,888516588
Miscellaneous1,109259,39054,08052,814
Totals3,096476,38482,38281,912
Other Stores
Food and drink12,298415,36622,46423,378
Apparel3,572125,36639,67039,876
Furniture1,25670,53416,56616,818
Automotive1,052151,46216,96617,490
Hardware74141,6249,97810,360
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)1,00835,8806,4426,778
Miscellaneous4,665199,27438,71239,360
Totals24,5921,039,506150,796154,060

The following table shows the disposition of the different methods of selling by store-type group and by location group. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

GroupTurnover (1962-63) in the Form of—Total Sales or Turnover (1962-63)
CashCharge AccountHire Purchase Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesHire Purchase Assigned to Finance CompaniesBudget Store Credit, etc.Cash-Order CouponsOther Instalment
Store-type Groups $ (000)
Food and drink428,18664,9988416554410493,852
 (46.7)(13.8)(0.1)(–)(4.7)(1.1)(0.1)(32.6)
Apparel124,24019,2908828423,6882963,330152,568
 (13.5)(4.1)(1.5)(1.7)(31.4)(80.4)(45.8)(10.1)
Furniture28,84237,09821,4068,968478479297,588
 (3.1)(7.9)(35.4)(18.7)(4.1)(1.1)(10.9)(6.4)
Automotive102,41051,07815,49031,69014-50200,732
 (11.2)(10.9)(25.6)(65.9)(0.1)(-)(0.7)(13.2)
Hardware16,81454,79831865818211072,718
 (1.8)(11.6)(0.5)(1.4)(0.2)(0.5)(1.5)(4.8)
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)37,6681,852--248--39,768
 (4.1)(0.4)(-)(-)(2.1)(-)(-)(2.6)
Department, variety, and general stores89,83262,10611,4687742,818422,084169,124
 (9.8)(13.2)(19.0)(1.6)(24.0)(11.4)(28.7)(11.2)
Miscellaneous89,476179,28010,8225,1303,92020892289,540
 (9.8)(38.1)(17.9)(10.7)(33.4)(5.5)(12.3)(19.1)
    Totals, all retail stores917,468470,50060,47048,07811,7383687,2681,515,890
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups $ (000)
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)480,922162,37036,04425,5824,5322265,004714,680
 (52.4)(34.5)(59.6)(53.2)(38.6)(61.4)(68.9)(47.1)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)201,062118,15414,90211,3104,5101381,200351,276
 (21.9)(25.1)(24.6)(23.5)(38.4)(37.5)(16.5)(23.2)
Smaller centres101,12883,0226,0546,6426904822198,362
 (11.0)(17.7)(10.0)(13.8)(5.9)(1.1)(11.3)(13.1)
Other urban64,11651,4382,6403,462822-154122,632
 (7.0)(10.9)(4.4)(7.2)(7.0)(-)(2.1)(8.1)
Rural70,24055,5168301,0821,18488128,940
 (7.7)(11.8)(1.4)(2.3)(10.1)(–)(1.2)(8.5)
    Totals, all retail stores917,468470,50060,47048,07811,7383687,2681,515,890
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following table shows, by the store-type group, average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over each year.

Store-type GroupAverage Sales or Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentSales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceSales or Turnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
 $ $$ 
Food and drink36,8283.610,242195.418.0
Apparel38,2183.810,01260.43.2
Furniture67,2565.113,29438.64.5
Automotive173,4944.36,73079.48.8
Hardware85,0505.415,61228.84.4
Chemicals37,9083.810,01015.85.4
Miscellaneous79,4366.611,974181.65.0
All retail stores54,7484.512,304599.86.4

Self-service Grocery Stores—As might be expected, self-service stores are most common among the larger establishments. A total of 83 percent of grocery stores with turnovers of $100,000 or more have self-service units, 73 percent of those in the $80,000-$99,999 group and 67 percent of those in the $60,000-$79,999 group. The percentages decline steadily with size of turnover to 20 percent of stores in the $10,000-$19,999 group and only 10 percent of those in the under $10,000 group.

Turnover SizeWith Self-service UnitsWithout Self-service UnitsPercentage of Self-service Units to Total Stores
Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Value of StocksNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Value of Stocks
Start of YearClose of YearStart of YearClose of Year
$$ $(000)$(000)$(000) $(000)$(000)$(000) 
Under 10,0001713822261619481221409.5
  10,000-19,0001061,6681882084326,6386266519.7
  20,000-39,99963219,4801,8501,9401,20635,2903,1243,2734.4
  40,000-59,99956827,5502,2002,36652525,1862,2162,26252.0
  60,000-79,99931821,6301,6681,78015710,51692492266.9
  80,000-99,99912711,286820878464,03636237673.4
100,000 and over14020,5961,4861,674293,61639036282.8
Totals1,908102,3488,2348,8722,55686,2307,7647,99242.7

Wholesale Establishments—The total of 3,052 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of $985,866,000, or an average turnover of $323,023 per store.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 89.6 percent of wholesale stores with 96.1 percent of total turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 46.6 percent of stores and 57.0 percent of turnover.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trade by statistical areas and by main location groups. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

AreaPopulation at 31 March 1963Number of StoresPurchases During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
 (000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Statistical Areas
Northland88.9579,37011,1641,406
 (3.5)(1.9)(1.2)(1.1)(1.0)
Central Auckland549.5924270,058337,99446,414
 (21.7)(30.3)(34.0)(34.3)(32.8)
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty369.721541,69451,2645,526
 (14.6)(7.0)(5.3)(5.2)(3.9)
East Coast47.1234,1505,042620
 (1.9)(0.8)(0.5)(0.5)(0.5)
Hawke's Bay120.111018,76022,8263,270
 (4.8)(3.6)(2.4)(2.3)(2.3)
Taranaki102.48114,22217,2222,422
 (4.0)(2.6)(1.8)(1.7)(1.7)
Wellington - Hutt492.9700218,910268,93840,390
 (19.5)(22.9)(27.6)(27.3)(28.5)
Marlborough28.8232,6363,040358
 (1.1)(0.8)(0.3)(0.3)(0.3)
Nelson65.4579,82412,0961,610
 (2.6)(1.9)(1.2)(1.2)(1.1)
Westland24.8224,5805,502598
 (1.0)(0.7)(0.6)(0.6)(0.4)
Canterbury359.0528133,492168,23825,098
 (14.2)(17.3)(16.8)(17.1)(17.7)
Otago180.821448,73861,04010,616
 (7.2)(7.0)(6.1)(6.2)(7.5)
Southland97.89817,85221,5003,264
 (3.9)(3.2)(2.2)(2.2)(2.3)
Totals, all wholesale stores2,527.13,052794,286985,866141,592
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)1,083.42,060619,004773,420114,286
 (42.9)(67.5)(77.9)(78.5)(80.7)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)446.5676144,112174,48623,364
 (17.7)(22.1)(18.2)(17.7)(16.5)
Smaller centres, other urban and rural997.231631,17037,9603,942
 (39.4)(10.4)(3.9)(3.8)(2.8)
Totals, all wholesale stores2,527.13,052794,286985,866141,592
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following tables show details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963
MalesFemalesTotal
Food and drink7846,9742,5089,4829,986
Apparel3091,7911,2613,0523,242
Furniture1651,0863621,4481,515
Automotive2632,7816393,4203,487
Hardware4194,2309865,2165,370
Chemicals1241,1085691,6771,706
Miscellaneous9888,4073,01811,42511,858
    Totals, all wholesale stores3,05226,3779,34335,72037,164
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
  $(000)$(000)$$(000)
Food and drink12.716,188321,02832,14821,840
Apparel10.55,68284,86026,17615,378
Furniture9.22,72842,82028,2645,502
Automotive13.36,09692,83826,62415,054
Hardware12.89,364117,84421,94426,464
Chemicals13.82,68236,84821,6007,452
Miscellaneous12.020,454289,62824,42449,902
    Totals, all wholesale stores12.263,194985,86626,528141,592

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under $40,000 turnover numbered 755 (24.7 percent), but accounted for only $13,976,000, or 1.4 percent of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of $462,696,000 (46.9 percent) was accounted for by only 212 stores (6.9 percent), which had a turnover of $1,000,000 or more.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963Salaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
MalesFemalesTotal
$$     $(000)$(000)$(000)
Under 10,00021282901724141581,160242
    10,000-19,9992111681513195393563,056500
    20,000-39,9993326653299941,2291,4509,7601,970
    40,000-99,9996622,1087622,8703,2094,77844,9228,814
  100,000-199,9995472,8699273,7963,9966,79879,45815,718
  200,000-499,9995916,1301,8097,9398,08414,564188,34032,084
  500,000-599,999871,5085022,0102,0263,53047,8167,970
  600,000-799,9991352,2947893,0833,1075,58493,28212,080
  800,000-999,999631,7284602,1882,1944,00255,3768,372
1,000,000 and over2128,8253,52412,34912,36621,974462,69653,842
      Totals, all wholesale stores3,05226,3779,34335,72037,16463,194985,866141,592

Service Establishments—Only a selected group of services was included in the Census of Distribution 1963. These were grouped in three broad divisions, personal, business and community, and other services.

Of the total number of service establishments, 85.7 percent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary form of trading was also carried on.

Services covered by the census totalled 3,170 establishments of which 2,243, or 70.8 percent, were in the North Island and 927, or 29.2 percent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 71.9 percent of service establishments with 87.4 percent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

ItemPersonal ServicesBusiness and Community ServicesOther ServicesTotal
Number of establishmentsNo.2,1323017373,170
Sales or turnover during 1962-63$(000)28,71818,8827,40455,004
Location of establishments
    Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)No.9881893401,517
    Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)No.52563174762
    Smaller centresNo.29134104429
    Other urbanNo.220867295
    RuralNo.108752167
Paid employees on 9 April 1963—
    MalesNo.3,4418557105,006
    FemalesNo.7,5764851388,199
        TotalsNo.11,0171,34084813,205
Total labour force on 9 April 1963No.13,1951,6221,65916,476
Salaries and wages paid during 1962-63$(000)11,1782,6821,27615,136

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force 9 April 1963Salaries and Wages During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63
MalesFemalesTotal
$$     $(000)$(000)
Under 2,0003668778547144444
    2,000-3,999747583944521,2522842,128
    4,000-5,9995461075696761,2514842,592
    6,000-9,9995352797631,0421,6139504,062
  10,000-19,9995207101,1101,8202,3851,9647,128
  20,000-39,9992549607621,7221,9752,2506,914
  40,000-99,9991211,0141,3732,3872,4702,9247,388
100,000-199,999426461,5382,1842,2052,0445,814
200,000 and over391,2241,6132,8372,8544,19218,534
Totals3,1705,0068,19913,20516,47615,13655,004

Special Analyses—Special analyses were taken out to show total retail trade by retail and service establishments and, at the same time, details were also obtained of total services provided.

The following table shows details of retail trade as above by commodity groups.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1962-63
AmountPercent of Total
 $(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)191,87012.7
Meat and fish (uncooked)79,5725.3
Fruit and vegetables45,3803.0
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)44,9263.0
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks42,6442.8
Beer, wine, and spirits94,5606.3
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries48,7623.2
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)43,8082.9
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods182,28812.1
Footwear35,0322.3
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles66,8544.4
Television sets and spare parts15,6041.0
Radios, radiograms, and record players10,0040.7
Other musical instruments6,9020.5
Household appliances and electrical goods41,3882.7
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware28,5741.9
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)50,5283.4
Books, stationery, and newspapers38,6642.6
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)206,45813.7
Bicycles, parts and accessories3,1000.2
Coal, coke, and firewood5,6080.4
Fertilisers and manures28,6881.9
Florists' goods2,4840.2
Grain, seed, and fodder29,5302.0
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)10,1860.7
Leather, luggage, and harness3,8180.2
Agricultural machinery28,8561.9
Office machinery12,0240.8
Other machinery13,6960.9
Paint, glass, and wallpaper13,3980.9
Photographic supplies and equipment3,2760.2
Plumbing equipment and piping454
Professional and scientific equipment1,3220.1
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)9120.1
Sewing machines and accessories2,4840.2
Sports goods (including toys and games)10,3080.7
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies5,1700.3
Other goods57,3043.8
Totals, retail commodities1,506,436100.0

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedSales or Turnover During 1962-63
Personal service provided by establishments classified as— $(000)
    Service establishments2,13228,718
    Retail stores7882,968
Totals, personal services2,92031,686
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as—
    Service establishments30118,882
    Retail stores191484
Totals, community and business services49219,366
Other services provided by establishments classified as—
    Service establishments7377,404
    Retail stores1,5277,672
Totals, other services2,26415,076
Grand totals, all services5,67666,128

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1962-63
AmountPercent of Total
 $(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)165,58616.8
Meat and fish (uncooked)22,4482.3
Fruit and vegetables51,5485.2
Other food (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)18,1901.8
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks21,1042.1
Beer, wine, and spirits45,4344.6
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries47,1204.8
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics44,7124.5
Clothing, drapery, and piece goods79,4268.1
Footwear13,6161.4
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles32,9023.3
Television sets and spare parts9,8421.0
Radios, radiograms, and record players4,4180.5
Other musical instruments2,2080.2
Household appliances and electrical goods39,8864.1
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware21,2742.2
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)47,3284.8
Books, stationery, and newspapers15,6961.6
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)94,7349.6
Coal, coke, and firewood3,3320.3
Fertilisers, manures, grain, seed, and fodder24,3502.5
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)5,2840.5
Leather, luggage, and harness3,9500.4
Agricultural machinery8,2640.8
Other machinery40,3584.1
Paint, glass, and wallpaper14,7041.5
Photographic supplies and equipment5,5340.6
Plumbing equipment and piping10,5481.1
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)2,7000.3
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies2,2840.2
Sports goods (including toys and games)6,0760.6
Other81,0108.2
Totals, wholesale commodities985,866100.0

Statistics of capital assets (both new and secondhand) acquired or sold in 1962-63 are shown in the following table.

Store-type GroupNew Assets AcquiredSecondhand Assets AcquiredAssets Sold
Plant and MachineryFittings and InstallationsMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryMotor Vehicles
$(thousand)
Retail Stores
Food and drink2,8562,0661,8001,3281,3646421,102
Apparel948144904421434292
Furniture1663166482218426328
Automotive2222561,20054612181,578
Hardware208210608169826252
Chemicals441821781411212116
Miscellaneous1,4661,9622,4361104022721,246
Totals5,0565,8067,3601,5882,9861,0304,914
Wholesale Stores
Food and drink1,6362581,622134122108596
Apparel701824428586278
Furniture386623422402174
Automotive1741525322326262
Hardware384234792128434332
Chemicals60563606164
Miscellaneous1,1141,0361,8189218288936
Totals3,8241,9805,9082505182502,742
Services
Personal58228855212029076264
Community and business4646112440456
Other1,0203610616604850
Totals1,648370770140390128370
Grand totals10,5288,15614,0381,9783,8941,4088,026

Interest paid and depreciation charged during 1962-63 are shown in the next table.

Store-type GroupInterest Paid on Bank Overdraft and Other Business BorrowingsBusiness Depreciation Charges in Respect of—
BuildingsPlant, Equipment, Furniture, and FittingsMotor VehiclesTotal
$(thousand)
Retail Stores
Food and drink2,0608744,4881,5466,908
Apparel7801367483261,210
Furniture806106306416828
Automotive616226342252820
Hardware552128280416824
Chemicals10242208120370
Miscellaneous3,1547262,2961,6184,640
Totals8,0702,2388,6684,69415,600
Wholesale Stores
Food and drink9403241,0569282,308
Apparel47830220252502
Furniture17022218132372
Automotive20084260242586
Hardware7141728344761,482
Chemicals9444124148316
Miscellaneous1,3623361,1549082,398
Totals3,9581,0123,8663,0867,964
Services
Personal174606423741,076
Community and business1267250128
Other58615088244
Totals244728645121,448
Grand totals12,2723,32213,3988,29225,012

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade is made by the Department of Statistics.

The present sample survey excludes certain types of retail stores which were included in the Census of Distribution 1963; these store types are hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the complete automotive group. Besides the above exclusions, for purposes of the sample survey some changes in the grouping of store types apply.

Retail Sales or Turnover—The following table gives quarterly sales.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER—STORE-TYPE GROUPS

Quarter EndedTurnover for Store-type Group
Butcher, poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Groups
1959—$(million)
    Mar15.136.425.04.622.78.68.814.25.831.348.0220.5
    Jun16.837.725.85.629.510.09.615.06.336.153.3245.7
    Sep17.438.527.04.725.010.410.115.16.434.655.5244.8
    Dec17.942.529.76.231.412.312.617.57.744.165.8287.6
1960—
    Mar16.339.129.05.025.59.910.215.46.735.164.2256.3
    Jun17.240.329.06.531.911.810.716.16.938.759.7268.9
    Sep18.242.430.45.727.812.212.017.37.537.362.3273.2
    Dec18.545.833.37.335.114.213.319.18.747.372.6315.2
1961—
    Mar17.442.031.75.827.611.610.917.67.837.366.9276.7
    Jun17.942.730.37.133.712.711.717.78.241.564.8288.3
    Sep19.144.231.75.828.712.213.318.18.637.665.1284.4
    Dec19.348.235.47.435.413.815.220.210.049.273.4327.3
1962—
    Mar17.844.333.05.828.110.811.717.58.637.165.5280.3
    Jun18.545.231.47.033.112.013.417.88.741.161.9290.2
    Sep18.946.332.45.929.012.314.117.49.039.166.3291.0
    Dec19.150.536.67.435.414.217.219.610.650.976.5337.9
1963—
    Mar18.446.234.16.028.711.714.719.09.238.173.2299.3
    Jun19.347.432.77.334.813.417.018.39.145.067.3311.5
    Sep20.148.732.86.130.914.218.218.89.343.166.7309.7
    Dec20.752.337.47.737.015.719.622.111.157.079.0359.5
1964—
    Mar19.047.634.66.030.112.816.920.19.443.072.7312.2
    Jun20.448.832.87.736.314.918.020.99.749.570.1328.9
    Sep21.050.834.26.432.215.518.421.010.247.271.8328.6
    Dec22.258.038.88.239.918.021.024.512.559.787.7390.5
1965—
    Mar20.152.036.46.332.514.116.322.310.043.785.8339.5
    Jun21.554.235.17.939.916.518.123.210.350.378.4355.4
    Sep22.256.736.56.635.317.017.523.910.848.978.9354.3
    Dec23.662.040.88.642.819.320.027.612.965.996.3419.8
1966—
    Mar21.755.337.96.533.415.116.823.910.647.693.3362.1
    Jun23.257.436.78.843.117.518.623.710.957.085.0381.9
    Sep23.660.138.67.539.018.118.523.411.952.885.6379.0
    Dec24.363.742.49.345.519.819.327.013.965.199.9430.2
1967—
    Mar22.359.540.07.035.314.516.123.011.748.692.3370.3
    Jun23.261.039.38.842.716.416.523.711.555.284.9383.0
    Sep22.764.040.97.036.015.415.222.511.849.984.3369.6
    Dec23.369.444.69.043.617.318.226.314.264.095.5425.3
1968—
    Mar21.664.042.76.534.614.115.723.612.248.593.9377.4
    Jun23.065.841.08.642.815.815.222.812.054.987.3389.1
    Sep23.268.342.76.537.616.514.923.412.651.986.7384.4
    Dec24.374.247.49.146.220.217.226.415.569.1107.9457.3

The information in the preceding table on turnover has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER—COMMODITY GROUPS

Quarter EndedGroceries and small Goods (Including Butter, Bacon, etc.)Meat and FishFruit and VegetablesOther Foods (Baked and Cooked Foods, Meals, etc.)Milk, Ice Cream, Confectionery, Soft Drinks, etc.Tobacco Cigarettes, and Tobacconists' SundriesChemists' Goods, Toiletries, Cosmetics (Including Dispensing)Clothing, Drapery, Dress Piece GoodsFootwear
$(million)
1966—Mar56.223.512.013.511.712.812.647.78.3
            Jun58.724.911.114.511.013.213.463.011.4
            Sep61.825.312.415.610.713.614.455.39.6
            Dec65.625.614.616.012.714.817.466.612.0
1967—Mar60.723.712.814.612.213.613.950.59.0
            Jun62.224.912.315.511.713.913.962.011.3
            Sep64.824.213.616.111.714.414.251.39.0
            Dec70.324.615.416.713.815.717.764.411.8
1968—Mar63.822.913.615.612.814.714.449.48.5
            Jun65.824.312.316.412.114.914.562.111.4
            Sep68.324.513.716.911.815.315.354.28.9
            Dec74.525.716.117.514.016.819.769.312.1
Quarter EndedFurniture, Bedding, Floor Coverings, Soft Furnishings, and Household TextilesMusical Instruments (Including Radios and Television Sets)Household Appliances and Electrical GoodsDomestic Hardware, China, and GlasswareBuilders' Hardware and Materials (Excluding Timber, Bricks, and Roofing Tiles)Books, Stationery, etc.Other CommoditiesTotal Sales or Turnover
$(million)
1966—Mar19.07.312.08.514.49.992.7362.1
            Jun22.48.712.98.814.69.284.1381.9
            Sep23.47.812.88.615.29.483.1379.0
            Dec24.57.314.811.515.212.798.8430.2
1967—Mar18.76.011.48.613.710.989.9370.3
            Jun20.76.212.38.315.29.982.8383.0
            Sep19.86.111.38.014.79.680.8369.6
            Dec21.27.214.511.214.912.393.7425.3
1968—Mar18.65.811.68.814.111.791.1377.4
            Jun20.65.911.88.614.110.384.1389.1
            Sep20.95.711.88.515.010.283.7384.5
            Dec24.96.614.711.815.413.7104.7457.3

Retail Stocks—The following table shows quarterly stock values.

QUARTERLY STOCK VALUES—STORE-TYPE GROUPS

Quarter EndedStocks for Store-type Groups
Butcher,Poulterer,etc.Grocerother Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department and VarietyOtherAll Groups
$(million)
1962—Mar0.916.84.68.841.912.410.316.06.634.454.3206.9
            Jun1.016.84.58.740.812.510.716.66.733.454.8206.3
            Sep1.017.14.68.942.112.311.416.06.835.857.6213.7
            Dec0.917.04.78.439.312.511.116.16.932.955.2204.8
1963—Mar1.016.94.88.938.812.911.516.77.033.955.7208.1
            Jun1.017.44.88.338.413.111.617.37.235.353.9208.2
            Sep0.917.84.89.140.213.612.516.77.337.359.6219.8
            Dec0.917.94.78.938.413.211.917.37.335.658.1214.2
1964—Mar1.018.64.99.041.113.513.217.97.535.957.7220.5
            Jun1.119.64.98.943.213.813.518.97.736.258.7226.5
            Sep0.918.75.010.145.115.614.018.07.644.261.0240.3
            Dec0.718.64.99.843.115.314.118.67.639.058.1229.8
1965—Mar0.918.64.910.346.316.014.518.67.941.760.3240.1
            Jun1.018.94.910.446.016.114.818.08.240.765.2244.1
            Sep0.918.95.111.248.116.315.219.18.145.171.1259.0
            Dec0.819.45.310.246.116.215.220.08.142.669.4253.1
1966—Mar1.020.25.410.549.316.115.520.28.444.069.8260.4
            Jun1.019.85.310.747.517.015.219.58.642.273.6260.2
            Sep0.920.35.511.550.217.516.120.19.044.877.5273.4
            Dec0.920.25.811.148.817.215.319.69.141.176.9266.0
1967—Mar0.921.15.711.451.616.815.019.99.343.777.4272.7
            Jun0.920.85.711.250.717.514.819.39.243.177.9271.2
            Sep1.020.95.811.453.516.914.619.49.446.379.3278.5
            Dec0.921.26.010.749.816.414.119.39.541.175.1264.0
1968—Mar0.921.95.910.552.216.613.919.99.544.078.5273.7
            Jun0.922.15.89.950.516.614.019.79.840.379.0268.5
            Sep0.922.26.110.250.516.914.320.010.043.985.0280.1
            Dec0.822.36.49.948.417.415.520.19.841.983.4276.0

Retail Trade Statistics Corrected for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally corrected values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal correction factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately centred moving averages). The factors have been revised from time to time as later figures indicated changes in the magnitudes of the seasonal fluctuations. Those in use from the June quarter 1967 are calculated from averages over the period June quarter 1961 to March quarter 1966; prior to this the factors used (from June quarter 1963) were calculated from averages over the period March quarter 1958 to December quarter 1962.

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957-58 dollars.

Finally, a further adjustment has been made to express the series in terms of turnover per head of population.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER—ALL STORE TYPES

Quarter EndedTotal Sales or Turnover
In Current $sIn Constant 1957-58 $s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
*Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (= 1000).
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1959—March220.5235.6963211.8226.4925
            June245.7248.01,014236.0238.4974
            September244.8252.61,033233.6241.0986
            December287.6258.41,056274.6246.81,009
1960—March256.3273.81,119244.6261.21,068
            June268.9271.41,110256.2258.61,057
            September273.2282.01,153258.0266.21,088
            December315.2283.21,158295.4265.41,085
1961—March276.7295.61,208260.8278.61,139
            June—288.3291.21,190271.4274.21,121
            September284.4293.61,200265.4273.81,119
            December327.3294.01,202304.2273.21,117
1962—March280.3299.41,224260.6278.21,138
            June290.2293.01,198269.8272.41,113
            September291.0300.41,228269.0277.61,135
            December337.9306.81,254311.4282.81,156
1963—March299.3317.21,297275.8292.41,195
            June311.5317.01,296286.6291.61,192
            September309.7319.81,307283.6293.01,198
            December359.5325.61,331326.0295.41,208
1964—March312.2330.21,350281.8298.21,219
            June328.9334.61,368293.8298.81,222
            September328.6339.41,387290.0299.61,225
            December390.5353.81,446339.8307.81,258
1965—March339.5359.21,468295.6312.81279x
            June355.4361.61,478308.6314.01,284
            September354.3366.01,496306.0316.01,292
            December419.8380.21,554360.0326.01,333
1966—March362.1383.01,566309.4327.41,339
            June381.9388.41,588325.2330.81,352
            September379.0391.41,600320.6331.21,354
            December430.2389.61,593361.8327.61,340
1967—March370.3391.81,601304.2321.81,316
            June383.0390.91,598308.0314.31,285
            September369.6384.01,570295.0306.41,253
            December425.3383.71,569340.6307.41,257
1968—March377.4396.31,620298.6313.51,282
            June389.1397.11,623303.1309.31,265
            September384.4399.41,633295.6307.11,256
            December457.3412.61,687347.1313.21,280

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER—ALL STORE TYPES

Quarter EndedTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $sIn Constant 1957-58 $s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
*Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (= 1000). Per head figures for all quarters June 61 to December 1965 have been adjusted in line with 1966 census results.
 $$ $$ 
1959—March95.0101.693291.297.6895
            June105.6106.6978101.4102.4940
            September104.8108.2993100.0103.2947
            December122.4109.81,009116.8105.0964
1960—March108.4115.81,063103.4110.41,014
            June113.4114.61,051108.0109.01,001
            September114.8118.61,089108.4112.01,028
            December131.6118.21,086123.4110.81,018
1961—March114.8122.81,127108.2115.61,062
            June119.3120.41,106112.4113.41,042
            September117.0120.81,109109.2112.71,035
            December133.6120.01,102124.1111.51,023
1962—March113.6121.31,114105.5112.71,035
            June117.1118.21,086108.8109.81,009
            September117.0120.71,109108.1111.51,024
            December134.9122.51,124124.4112.91,037
1963—March118.7125.81,155109.4116.01,065
            June123.1125.31,150113.3115.31,058
            September122.0126.01,157111.7115.41,059
            December140.6127.41,169127.5115.51,061
1964—March121.3128.31,178109.5115.81,064
            June127.3129.51,189113.7115.71,062
            September126.8131.01,203112.0115.71,062
            December149.8135.71,246130.3118.01,084
1965—March129.4136.91,257112.7119.31,095
            June135.2137.61,263117.4119.41,097
            September134.4138.81,275116.1119.91,101
            December158.2143.31,316135.7122.91,129
1966—March135.6143.41,317115.9122.61,126
            June142.6145.21,333121.6123.61,135
            September141.2145.91,339119.4123.41,133
            December159.2144.21,325134.0121.41,114
1967—March136.2144.01,323111.9118.41,087
            June140.5143.41,317113.0115.31,059
            September135.4140.61,291108.0112.21,030
            December155.2140.01,286124.3112.21,030
1968—March137.2144.11,323108.5114.01,046
            June141.3144.21,324110.1112.41,032
            September139.6145.01,332107.3111.51,024
            December165.3149.11,369125.4113.21,039

The information in the two preceding tables is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

Figure 21.1. RETAIL TRADE

RETAIL TRADE

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—The quarterly survey of wholesale trade commenced in September 1960 and was revised in 1966. The revision was made to cover some new businesses and changes in method of selling from mostly retail to mostly wholesale disclosed by the 1963 Census of Distribution, together with additional businesses commencing operations in later quarterly periods. Reclassification of stores also took place. The major reclassification of store type occurred in the “General Merchants” category; a number of such firms are now included in the “Food and Drink” store-type group. All data supplied by the firms were reclassified back to the inception of the survey.

In this survey stores have been classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

It should be noted that this survey has altered coverage of wholesale store types as compared with the coverage of the Census of Distribution 1963. For this reason, and because of the lack of uniformity in the trading year for which firms supplied census returns, care should be exercised when comparing the survey statistics with the census.

The survey covers businesses which are dominantly wholesale. Certain store types, which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted to facilitate collection and compilation of data. For the firms which have been excluded the value of closing stocks recorded in the Census of Distribution 1963 was $8,220,000 (comprising food and drink store-type group $6,628,000, apparel $630,000, and miscellaneous $962,000), representing only 5.8 percent of the total value of all stocks recorded by wholesale businesses in the census.

The following table shows, by store-type group, values of stocks held by wholesalers at quarterly intervals.

QUARTERLY STOCK VALUES—STORE-TYPE GROUPS

End of QuarterFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicalsGeneral MerchantsMachinery (Agricultural, Heavy Electrical and Industrial)
$(million)
1967—Mar29.122.012.536.835.417.19.925.5
            Jun29.623.913.237.934.617.010.024.7
            Sep31.322.714.038.535.118.210.825.4
            Dec29.523.812.737.834.918.210.125.7
1968—Mar31.123.911.737.034.018.310.824.9
            Jun32.722.511.338.735.618.111.826.1
            Sep33.023.412.739.438.020.812.627.2
            Dec31.923.413.040.141.021.112.526.7
End of QuarterElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryGrain and SeedsRubber, Leather and Canvas GoodsOffice, Printers' and Photographic SuppliesOtherAll Groups
$(million)
1967—Mar13.56.52.73.35.914.7235.1
            Jun14.46.62.73.35.516.0239.5
            Sep15.37.42.73.25.816.1246.6
            Dec14.97.22.43.25.418.0243.8
1968—Mar16.06.92.53.25.816.4242.5
            Jun15.47.12.73.35.816.2247.3
            Sep13.57.52.63.36.817.9258.8
            Dec14.27.72.33.37.016.5261.0

The following table shows, by store-type group, for stores covered by the survey, values of sales or turnover by wholesalers for quarterly periods.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER—STORE-TYPE GROUPS

Quarter EndedFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicalsGeneral MerchantsMachinery (Agricultural, Heavy Electrical and Industrial)
$(million)
1967—Mar78.328.318.850.940.923.323.120.2
            Jun78.729.321.656.042.924.522.319.5
            Sep80.830.819.551.243.122.224.820.5
            Dec94.327.619.249.743.622.125.518.7
1968—Mar85.027.517.952.841.923.725.019.4
            Jun84.628.019.950.241.322.223.018.5
            Sep88.829.921.857.646.826.925.521.6
            Dec104.430.421.757.450.128.928.823.8
Quarter EndedElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryGrain and SeedsRubber, Leather and Canvas GoodsOffice, Printers' and Photographic SuppliesOtherAll Groups
$(million)
1967—Mar12.211.75.74.05.626.8349.8
            Jun14.211.96.34.75.626.6364.1
            Sep13.512.66.64.35.828.2363.6
            Dec12.112.25.74.36.631.0372.4
1968—Mar11.212.16.54.36.828.0362.2
            Jun13.412.95.64.84.426.3355.1
            Sep14.514.26.75.15.128.9393.2
            Dec13.914.36.15.16.333.7424.9

INSTALLMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadly in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on Instalment Credit Trading published as parliamentary paper H. 49, 1968, is a useful reference.

Though international comparative statistics are usually open to qualification in this field the following figures indicate the general position New Zealand has come to occupy in relation to some other countries using instalment credit on a widespread basis. (The term instalment credit covers hire purchase agreements, credit sales agreements, and budget accounts.) Source—parliamentary paper H. 49, 1968.

CountryInstalment Credit Outstanding Per Head at 31 Dec. 1965
 $N.Z.
United States250
Canada206
Australia102
United Kingdom50
New Zealand40
Germany, West26
France22

Regulations to curb hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. Restrictions in recent years are now set out.

CommodityDate EffectiveMinimum Deposit PercentMaximum Repayment Period Months
*Reduced by 3 months from 6 December 1968, except television sets.
New motor cars and light trucks17 Apr. 1961662/312
Secondhand cars and light trucks17 Apr. 19615018
 1 Sep. 19655012
 11 Feb. 1967662/312
 17 May 19685018*
Motor cycles11 Feb. 19675012
 17 May 1968331/318*
Furniture and furnishings3 May 1962524
 11 Feb. 19671518
 22 Mar. 19681024*
Other consumer goods3 May 1962524
 24 Apr. 19641024
 11 Feb. 19671518*

A quarterly survey is made by the Department of Statistics of hire-purchase trade. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and is estimated to cover about 58 percent of hire-purchase business. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey and the percentage deposit to total value of goods so sold.

PeriodValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseDetails of PurchasePercentage in Cash to Total Value of Goods Sold on Hire Purchase
Cash PaymentsAmount Financed Under Hire-purchase Agreements
 $(000)$(000)$(000)percent
 Motor Vehicles
Quarter ended—
1966—31 March13,5427,1466,39652.8
            30 June16,2629,1227,14056.1
            30 September15,7168,1267,59051.7
            31 December16,4768.4428,03451.2
1967—31 March13,7267,5166,21054.8
            30 June14,1148,4725,64260.0
            30 September13,2617,8815,38059.4
            31 December14,1598,0986,06157.2
1968—31 March12,0086.8765,13257.3
            30 June14,3337,7096,62453.8
            30 September17,3809,2758,10553.4
            31 December18,2139,4378,77651.8
 Plant and Machinery
1966—31 March6,2562,3303,92637.2
            30 June4,1801,4922,68835.7
            30 September4,5001,7282,77238.4
            31 December5,5521,9823,57035.7
1967—31 March3,6861,2582,42834.1
            30 June4,0341,8382,19645.6
            30 September5,0162,4322,58448.5
            31 December3,2371,4851,75245.9
1968—31 March4,1611,9692,19247.3
            30 June3,7341,5432,19141.3
            30 September4,2521,8812,37144.2
            31 December3,8621,5852,27741.0
 Television Sets
Quarter ended—
1966—31 March94018475619.6
            30 June1,19022097018.5
            30 September1,17822095818.7
            31 December77014063018.2
1967—31 March67412055417.8
            30 June79215463819.4
            30 September63512551019.7
            31 December4729837420.8
1968—31 March3627628621.0
            30 June5338944416.7
            30 September47210237021.6
            31 December3507127920.3
 Other Household and Personal Goods
1966—31 March6,2121,0765,13617.3
            30 June7,0621,1405,92216.1
            30 September7,1801,1885,99216.5
            31 December8,5041,3247,18015.6
1967—31 March5,3321,0164,31619.1
            30 June5,8901,1844,70620.1
            30 September5,3901,1484,24221.3
            31 December6,5961,3335,26320.2
1968—31 March5,2991,2364,06323.3
            30 June6,3081,1735,13518.6
            30 September6,3811,2475,13419.5
            31 December7,9281,7736,15522.4
 Total
1966—31 March26,95010,73616,21439.8
            30 June28,69411,97416,72041.7
            30 September28,57411,26217,31239.4
            31 December31,30211,88819,41438.0
1967—31 March23,4189,91013,50842.3
            30 June24,83011,64813,18246.9
            30 September24,30211,58612,71647.7
            31 December24,46411,01413,45045.0
1968—31 March21,83010,15711,67346.5
            30 June24,90810,51414,39442.2
            30 September28,48512,50515,98043.9
            31 December30,35312,86617,48742.4

The following table shows the amount owing under hire-purchase agreements and the percentage of payments overdue at the end of each quarterly period. As stated previously the statistics are estimated to cover about 58 percent of total hire-purchase business.

As at—Amount Owing Under Hire-purchase AgreementsPercentage of Payments Overdue
 $(000) 
1966—31 March61,7023.9
            30 June62,7043.9
            30 September64,3244.0
            31 December65,9804.2
1967—31 March62,4084.0
            30 June62,3564.5
            30 September58,0525.2
            31 December58,9565.1
1968—31 March57,1445.3
            30 June56,7455.3
            30 September58,3675.0
            31 December61,1714.6

The following table shows the average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in each of the four categories of sales for each quarterly period.

PeriodMotor VehiclesMachineryHousehold and Personal Goods
Television SetsOther Household and Personal Goods
 $$$$
Quarter ended—
1966—31 March6564,40219866
            30 June7183,97020054
            30 September7403,37220460
            31 December7663,48620458
1967—31 March7603,18620458
            30 June7324,29620252
            30 September7043,17119948
            31 December7322,41718052
1968—31 March6952,99917948
            30 June7443,47319653
            30 September7183,77418866
            31 December7872,93017851

Chapter 22. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL

GENERAL—Throughout its short history New Zealand has been dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Early trade was principally with Australia. In the 1840s the foundations of the agricultural industries were laid. Sheep had already been introduced and the first shipment of wool was exported to Hobart in 1839. Dairying was established, grain and potatoes were cultivated, and kauri gum was dug from the ground in the far north. In 1853, when the population of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris, was only 32,000, trade data were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole. The values of the main exports were: timber, $186,000; wool, $134,000; potatoes, $60,000; whale oil, $44,000; kauri gum, $32,000; and grain $38,000. At this time Australia was experiencing its “gold rush” period, and the demands of the rapidly increasing Australian population created an opportunity for increased exports from New Zealand, and quantities of butter and cheese were shipped across the Tasman. A rapid change then took place in the pattern of the trade. In 1855 the principal items were wool (25 percent of total value), grain (22 percent), and potatoes (25 percent). By 1860 wool accounted for 76 percent of total exports, and with the opening of the goldfields in 1861 wool and gold together accounted for 93 percent of exports in that year.

During this period imports far exceeded exports, being about double in value, and consisted mainly of capital goods for the development of new industries, together with clothing and foodstuffs to sustain the growing numbers of new settlers. The borrowing policy initiated by Vogel in 1870 for an extensive public works programme had the immediate effect of increasing imports and later gave an indirect impetus to exports.

The introduction of refrigeration in 1882 further changed the pattern of the export trade, making possible the shipment of perishable foodstuffs to more distant markets. This had a marked effect in New Zealand's trade with the United Kingdom. In 1870 only 52 percent of the exports went to the United Kingdom; by 1880 the proportion had increased to 75 percent. Australia, which had been New Zealand's main trading partner in the early years, was receiving only 21 percent of the exports by 1880 and 15 percent by 1890.

The United Kingdom has remained New Zealand's predominant market for exports and the biggest supplier of imported goods, although in recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually been declining. In 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports but by the year ended June 1967 its share had fallen to 44 percent. However, the United Kingdom remains New Zealand's best export market by far, taking almost all New Zealand's lamb, cheese, and butter, and about one fifth of the wool. The marketing of primary products is discussed in Section 21A.

So far as export markets are concerned, New Zealand has until recently enjoyed unrestricted access to the United Kingdom, but increased competition is being met from United Kingdom producers and countries exporting primary products. Perhaps the most important development in recent years has been the expansion of British agriculture fostered by Government subsidies. New Zealand butter has also had to face competition from blended butter and margarine. Because the market became oversupplied during the European summer of 1961, the United Kingdom placed quotas on countries supplying butter. These quotas, initially for a period of six months, were placed on a formal basis in April 1962, and have since been maintained.

New Zealand has found it necessary in recent years to develop supplementary markets. There has been a marked expansion of New Zealand's overseas markets, notably in the United States, and countries bordering on the Pacific. For example, exports made to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $63.2 million in the June year 1967. About one-third of the exports to Japan in the year ended June 1967 was wool ($21.4 million). Other principal commodities were meat (mainly mutton), dairy products, timber, and casein.

Since the Second World War New Zealand's external trade has expanded considerably. Moreover, the value per head of New Zealand's overseas trade is one of the highest for any country in the world, particularly if re-exports are excluded.

Except for the growth of trade in pulp and paper products, the composition of New Zealand's exports today does not vary greatly from that of pre-war years. Of recent years from 85 to 90 percent of the total value of exports is still derived from wool, meat and dairy produce.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data only, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v. (by country of origin).

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaOther Countries

* Gold is included in figures up to 1950.

† Provisional.

‡ Alaska and Hawaii included since 1965.

Percent
Exports*
    18607027-3
    18705246-2
    1880752122
    1890751564
    1900771463
    191084934
    1920745165
    1930803512
    194088345
    19506631021
    19605341330
    19615141530
January-June
    19625031433
June Year
    19634741732
    19644751533
    19655151331
    19664551436
    19674451635
    19684371634
Percent
Imports*
    1860564211
    1870583615
    1880563149
    18906717610
    190061171012
    19106214816
    192048171817
    19304781827
    194047161225
    19506012721
    196043181029
    19614516930
January-June
    19624321828
June Year
    19634219930
    19643921931
    196537191133
    196638191132
    196737191331
    196830211138

The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement signed on 31 August 1965 completed its third year of operation on 1 January 1969. The Agreement provides for the phasing out of duties over a period of up to 8 years on the range of products which it covers. A system of annual reviews of the Agreement provides for an increase in the range of goods subject to the phasing out of duties. To date products have been added under two such reviews, on 1 January 1968 and 1 January 1969 respectively, and negotiations are in progress on a further list of products to be added under the third review.

A part from annual additions to the list of goods subject to the free trade provisions of the Agreement, the second step in the phasing out of duties included in the original list was taken on 1 January 1968, and as from 1970 the commencement or each succeeding year will see further duty reductions on products added under previous annual reviews. The gradual phasing out of duties in both Australia and New Zealand on products covered by the Agreement's free trade provisions, together with the opportunities which exist for special trading arrangements under Article 3, paragraph 7, of the Agreement should make possible a further expansion in mutual trade between the two countries. (Details of the Agreement are provided in parliamentary paper A. 17 1965.)

The growing importance of the trade in forest products between Australia and New Zealand resulted in the establishment in 1967 of the Joint Consultative Council on Forest Industries provided for in the Agreement. The Council, which had its inaugural meeting in June 1968, is an advisory body comprising senior officials from Government departments in both countries having as its aim the achievement of a harmonious and mutually beneficial expansion of trade between the two countries and the promotion of the most efficient use of combined forest resources.

The Agreement has various safeguard provisions but one of the main ways of dealing with problems has been through consultation procedures. Regular meetings of Ministers and officials of both countries are held at which both negotiation and consultation are carried out.

The distribution of New Zealand's overseas trade by broad grouping during the latest 11 years is given in the following table (excluding gold and current coin).

YearSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other CountriesSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other Countries
*Provisional.
 Percentage of Total Export Trade (f.o.b.)Percentage of Import Trade (c.d.v.)
195863.0116.8814.220.705.1977.329.236.342.234.88
195963.4816.4814.470.584.9973.6710.736.302.656.65
196060.8514.9516.690.666.8569.8214.406.952.386.45
196158.4616.8815.750.768.1568.5914.198.032.466.72
Jan-June
196255.8616.2820.641.046.1871.5912.817.072.026.51
June
196355.9919.3217.570.706.4368.8613.526.602.348.68
June
196455.6316.8818.601.117.7767.8613.946.563.538.11
196560.3014.9416.191.177.4065.0315.806.393.149.64
196654.9316.2915.741.0711.9865.6415.876.612.519.37
1967x54.1518.4711.651.0414.6964.0417.287.382.708.60
1968*56.2018.7910.690.9213.4162.3816.297.142.8311.36

The direction of external trade is shown graphically in the following diagram.

Figure 22.1. DIRECTION OF EXTERNAL TRADE

DIRECTION OF EXTERNAL TRADE

TRADE PER HEAD—The next table shows the value of exports (including re-exports), imports, and total trade per head of mean population. Val are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency. In this table the valuation used for imports is current domestic value in the country of origin.

YearTotal ExportsImportsTotal Trade
*Provisional
 $$$
    1947142.78130.06272.84
    1948160.48127.37287.85
    1949156.72116.59273.32
    1950191.12150.41341.53
    1951253.95192.80446.75
    1952240.22229.88470.10
    1953229.74159.70389.44
    1954232.92203.48436.41
    1955242.20234.37476.57
    1956254.02215.51469.52
    1957247.48234.42481.90
    1958218.68221.14439.82
    1959251.26175.64426.90
    1960254.35212.94467.29
    1961233.76237.48471.23
Jan - June
    1962134.3295.88230.21
June Year
    1963249.42208.16457.58
    1964286.72247.88534.60
    1965282.95252.64535.59
    1966288.54274.31562.85
    1967x268.57278.16546.73
    1968*292.02225.02517.04

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RELATIVE VALUE OF TRADE—For New Zealand exports of goods are of greater importance to the national economy than is the case for most other countries. (Many other countries have a greater proportional income from the exports of services such as travel, investment, insurance, and shipping activities.)

In the following table the values of the exports of goods (excluding services) for some of the main trading countries in 1966 are given as a percentage of the gross national product, and also the value of total external trade in goods in 1967 per head of population, using c.i.f. valuations for imports. (Source: United Nations Statistical Office.)

CountryExport of Goods as Percentage of Gross National ProductValue of External Trade per Head
19661967

* Exports include a large volume of goods originating in inland Europe passing through ports.

† Fiscal year beginning 1 April.

‡ Exports of goods and non-factor services.

§ Fiscal year beginning 1 July.

 Percent(NZ) $
Netherlands34*1,108
Belgium29*1,279
South Africa23219
Switzerland221,125
Norway211,058
Israel20420
New Zealand20638
Sweden191,048
Canada18901
Austria17502
West Germany17583
Philippines1551
France15425
United Kingdom14504
Italy13314
Australia13§519
Japan10198
Mexico1057
Argentina899
Spain6135
Pakistan514
United States4260

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold and specie totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
* Provisional.
 $(000)
1962-6350,915
1963-6443,234
1964-6517,711
1965-66-25,489
1966-67x-86,984
1967-68*132,669

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—As from 1 July 1962 the processing of external trade statistics was transferred from the Customs Department to the Department of Statistics.

Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstracts of Statistics within a month of the period to which they relate. A publication entitled External Trade of New Zealand (Country Analyses) is published quarterly.

Annual volumes are also published by the Department of Statistics, the latest available issues being Exports 1966-67, Imports 1966-67 Part A Commodity by Country, and Part B Country by Commodity.

New Zealand adopted the Standard International Trade Classification as from 1 January 1955, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. This classification remained in use until 30 June 1962 when it was replaced by the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised); the S.I.T.C. order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification, but a move to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was made on 1 July 1967.

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1966-671967-681968-69
Exports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. ValueImportsExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. ValueImportsExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. ValueImports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
 $(million)
Month of July56.553.057.655.051.153.259.874.377.8
2 months ended August108.5124.5135.0109.8108.3115.8139.1137.6146.0
3 months ended September163.5188.5204.4146.2160.6172.3192.1207.1219.7
4 months ended October209.3248.0269.8189.7203.1218.8263.6281.7299.1
5 months ended November257.6310.1337.1257.8246.0265.9333.6348.3371.7
6 months ended December315.5366.7397.7315.4286.9310.1415.8413.0440.7
7 months ended January373.8426.2462.9380.0343.9371.8507.0487.8519.8
8 months ended February464.0484.6526.7466.4403.4437.0620.9545.5580.0
9 months ended March532.7544.1591.9553.2456.0493.3711.9602.4642.3
10 months ended April595.3597.6649.5637.4502.7544.1815.4659.0703.2
11 months ended May663.5652.9709.2712.7560.4606.0898.3731.4780.5
12 months ended June725.5721.5783.2801.2617.4668.5987.5796.8849.6

In the subsections dealing with exports and imports, information is given regarding the nature of the transactions which are included in the trade statistics, there being particular inclusions and exclusions which require to be considered when using the figures.

Of considerable consequence in the use of external trade statistics are the methods used in valuing the commodities comprising the trade. In New Zealand it has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when a departure from this procedure was effected in respect of wool exports. Wool was valued for export at the appraisal prices and, as the prices later realised were higher than the appraisal prices, and New Zealand shared in this profit, export values for the years concerned were understated. On the other hand, the export values recorded for meat and dairy produce during the Second World War and in the years following up to 1954 were generally accurate, while for earlier and later years they can only be regarded as approximations. During the period mentioned almost all meat and dairy produce exported was sold f.o.b. at firm prices to the United Kingdom Ministry of Food under bulk contracts. Under the free marketing conditions of earlier and later years most meat and dairy produce exports have been consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which consigned. Price changes in these markets before the actual sale of the produce could be quite substantial.

Up to the end of 1951 imports were recorded on the basis of their value for Customs purposes, this being their current domestic value (c.d.v.) in the country of export at the time of shipment, plus 10 percent. For several years the limitations of this basis of valuation for economic studies, particularly those relating to balance of trade and of payments, had been apparent. There was a tendency generally to regard the Customs value of imports as being equivalent to at least a conventional c.i.f. value (cost including freight and insurance). In fact the Customs value of some bulky low-unit-cost items such as fertilisers fell short of the actual c.i.f. cost by amounts ranging up to 50 percent or more. The domestic and export price levels in the exporting country may differ on account of price controls, subsidies, etc., while external packing, railway freights, etc., generally tend to raise the f.o.b. cost of goods above the current domestic price. For some few types of commodities the 10 percent allowance is more than adequate to cover insurance and freight charges. For a larger proportion of imports, particularly those where the value relative to weight or bulk is low, the allowance is inadequate to cover these costs.

As from 1 January 1952 a change was made in that imports were recorded in the trade statistics without the additional 10 percent required for duty purposes, i.e., at current domestic value, generally, as indicated above, equivalent to but not identical with the f.o.b. cost. Provision was also made to record statistical class totals and the grand total of imports on the c.i.f. basis. For the period of use of the Standard International Trade Classification from 1955 to June 1962, division totals replaced class totals for presentation on the c.i.f. basis. A description of the changed classification appears later in this Section. From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis are available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—will vary from period to period depending on (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential changes in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. The relatively high freight rates and insurance charges in wartime resulted in c.i.f. costs rising considerably above Customs values. The high charter freights of 1951-52 had a similar effect. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries, either for home consumption or into bonded warehouse, passed by the Customs Department. Under the system in use it is possible for an importer to pay the duty involved, if any, and have the import entry passed very shortly after he receives the shipping documents; this enables him to take delivery of the goods on arrival. Thus the import may be recorded before the carrying vessel has reached New Zealand. Generally, however, the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf. On the other hand, it may sometimes occur that goods may have been unloaded and in the custody of a harbour board for some time before the importer has the entry passed (and the import is recorded) and takes delivery.

New Zealand trade statistics were compiled on a calendar year basis up to June 1962 but since then a June year has been adopted. In New Zealand the farm production year fits reasonably well to the year ended 30 June, and trade statistics compiled for years ended 30 June accordingly include the export values of approximately a whole season's production from the pastoral and agricultural industries.

The statistics of the external trade of New Zealand given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands; statistics for these territories are given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

In the following table are given the values of the export and import trade for years ended 31 December, 31 March, and 30 June. The movement of specie is not included in these figures and gold is excluded from 1963 onwards.

YearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsYearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
*Provisional
$ (million)
Year ended 31 December
1953471.7327.2384.41,961568.0576.6649.8
1954488.9426.3491.61,962575.6491.6544.0
1955518.6501.3574.31,963664.3595.7650.7
1956555.0469.6536.81,964773.8643.8701.5
1957553.1523.5594.21,965729.2703.9766.9
1958500.3505.6570.21966x780.0722.4787.0
1959587.3410.2462.81967x727.1673.4726.6
1960605.2506.3564.7    
Year ended 31 March
1953476.8397.4481.51,961560.3541.3602.7
1954485.6346.6403.81,962580.6536.5606.1
1955470.0453.5519.51,963577.0513.9571.1
1956557.6491.4562.91,964720.7618.2672.4
1957551.3473.8540.71,965759.6642.9700.2
1958550.9534.1606.91,966747.2729.3794.4
1959500.4466.9526.21,967766.9722.4786.9
1960627.5433.6487.81,968747.7665.1715.6
Year ended 30 June
1953488.2343.2416.41,961561.4582.7649.6
1954483.7364.2420.31,962582.9507.8572.3
1955479.5483.3554.41,963627.6523.7576.6
1956541.3483.6553.71,964737.3637.4694.0
1957555.2486.4553.41,965742.2662.7724.5
1958544.0536.6610.41,966767.3729.4792.8
1959521.5434.5489.31967x727.2753.2814.2
1960629.5454.4509.21968*801.2617.4668.5

The following table shows for the June year 1967 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at current domestic value in country of purchase and in country of origin. The New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results, in respect of its trade with any given country, from those obtained from the trade statistics of that country, since in the latter New Zealand's exports will in most cases be valued c.i.f. in the given country and New Zealand's imports f.o.b. in that country.

These systems, however, are not universally used, and the methods of valuation in any particular country with whose trade statistics any comparison is attempted must be considered separately.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1966

CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase
 $(000)
Sterling Area Countries
    Aden1211212621
    Australia32,53735,215142,957150,207
    Bahamas314314––––
    Bahrain––––940218
    Barbados1,2191,21966
    Bermuda1,0311,0312191
    Botswana--66
    British Honduras12--
    British Solomon Islands79––––
    Brunei––––371-
    Burma44144187
    Ceylon5895894,4474,443
    Cyprus1,1771,180174172
    Fiji3,1873,7791,2111,326
    Ghana1351351,1681,079
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands224228724724
    Guyana73738024
    Hong Kong2,0652,0989,4629,949
    India1,3271,3327,0405,988
    Ireland, Republic of4104331001,558
    Jamaica3,5153,516389345
    Jordan1616––––
    Kenya136139828961
    Kuwait12412414,0577,481
    Leeward and Windward Islands251251103
    Libya11––-
    Malawi28285852
    Malaysia5,5155,5415,8745,127
    Malta, including Gozo28283019
    Mauritius and Dependencies90902018
    Nauru3133203,9383,643
    New Hebrides Cond.8128––––
    New Zealand Re-Imports--478381
    Nigeria16816823042
    Norfolk Island25729219
    Pakistan5805831,6991,568
    Papua and New Guinea18118620294
    Pitcairn Island710-––
    Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms111,515-
    Rhodesia221––
    Seychelles11––––
    Singapore3,9413,9513,0193,695
    South Africa5,7565,7812,4321,914
    Swaziland--1919
    Tanzania (incl. Zanzibar and Pemba)8888933419
    Tonga782866633644
    Trinidad and Tobago3,1493,1505552
    Uganda55848555
    United Kingdom313,616314,754275,247291,167
    Western Samoa1,4711,641860904
    Zambia16116298
Totals, Sterling Area385,050390,025482,343495,022

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1967

CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase
 $(000)
E.F.T.A. Countries (Excluding United Kingdom)—
    Austria3939830768
    Denmark2,4282,4421,9121,906
    Norway8398403,1933,153
    Portugal1,4611,461451439
    Sweden1,7491,8807,2987,001
    Switzerland and Liechtenstein8408476,6595,394
Totals, E.F.T.A.7,3557,51020,34418,661
E.E.C. Countries
    Belgium and Luxembourg11,63211,6363,5383,204
    France and Monaco24,81624,8255,9875,565
    Germany, West20,27020,51726,84225,856
    Italy and San Marino14,99915,00810,58510,201
    Netherlands11,84811,9538,6547,725
Totals, E.E.C.83,56583,94055,60552,550
Dollar Countries
    American Samoa744764––4
    Canada10,49110,60929,50728,054
    Colombia333312
    Costa Rica121210195
    Dominican Republic--55
    Ecuador33555553
    El Salvador11––-
    Guam932932-––
    Guatemala––––119
    Haiti2424––-
    Honduras--11
    Liberia22--
    Mexico3043041,3211,315
    Panama Panal Zone300300-15
    Panama Republic325325180181
    Philippines5,0805,134214197
    Puerto Rico991310
    Ryuku Islands134134--
    U.S. Trust Terrs. in Pacific9999––––
    United States of America113,551114,22396,535100,661
    Venezuela1671671,6911,691
Totals, Dollar Area132,182133,046130,168132,803
Other Countries
    Algeria55--
    Angola incl. Cabinda--1717
    Argentina90901211
    Brazil1128792
    Bulgaria63863899
    Burundi114-
    Cambodia––––88
    Canary Islands11––––
    Chile14814810023
    China (Mainland)8,2178,2173,0812,649
    Congo (Brazzaville)--1515
    Congo (Leopoldville)--7-
    Czechoslovakia1,3291,3311,5791,488
    Ethiopia and Eritrea994843
    Finland6486481,3301,327
    Formosa615616129111
    French Guiana8080--
    French Polynesia1,5591,746396327
    French West Indies190190--
    Gabon--11
    Germany, East1,6321,632392365
    Greece3,2653,2681414
    Hungary35935910154
    Indonesia21211,768729
    Iran2602605,754967
    Iraq3335115112
    Israel8708706164
    Ivory Coast--120114
    Japan63,60663,77243,92842,706
    Korea, Republic of5005002517
    Lebanon202065
    Macao1121
    Madagascar1142
    Mongolian People's Republic--21
    Morocco8585116
    Mozambique36436485270
    Nepal1415--
    Netherlands Antilles782782126120
    New Caledonia37339011
    Peru4,8024,8024328
    Poland1,6461,646169565
    Rumania––––95
    Rwanda11--
    Saudi Arabia553,8331,040
    Senegal11--
    South Vietnam614--
    Spain1,5271,529453359
    Sudan--4728
    Surinam66--
    Syria991310
    Thailand1,0731,082206188
    Togo--20-
    Turkey20208936
    U.S.S.R.9,1839,184307234
    United Arab Republic1331551-
    Uruguay3939--
    Yugoslavia1,1901,190217
Totals, Other Countries105,356105,77864,74654,169
Totals, All Countries713,509720,298753,206753,206
    Passengers841,993--
    Ships' stores4,0294,933--
Grand Totals717,623727,224753,206753,206

Figure 22.2. VALUE OF NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL TRADE WITH INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

VALUE OF NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL TRADE WITH INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

The next table shows the values of New Zealand's trade with several groupings of countries since 1959.

YearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports c.d.v.Exports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports c.d.v.
According to Country of OriginAccording to Country of PurchaseAccording to Country of OriginAccording to Country of Purchase

*Provisional.

†Belgium, Luxembourg, France, West Germany, Italy, and Netherlands.

‡Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

$(million)
  Sterling Area  Dollar Area 
1959371.4302.1302.396.444.043.0
1960367.2353.4359.590.472.971.6
1961329.7359.4400.795.281.880.4
Jan - June      
1962184.9169.9172.953.930.429.9
June Year—      
1963349.9360.7371.0120.770.868.8
1964408.4432.5442.5123.988.985.9
1965440.8430.9443.8109.4104.7106.6
1966418.3478.8495.5124.0115.7104.9
1967x390.0482.3495.0133.0130.2132.8
1968*445.6385.2 149.0100.6 
 EEC CountriesEFTA Countries
195984.725.825.33.410.910.5
1960100.735.234.14.012.011.5
196188.846.344.84.314.213.6
Jan - June      
196268.316.816.03.44.84.6
June Year—      
1963109.834.632.84.412.311.9
1964136.541.840.08.222.521.9
1965119.142.339.78.620.819.9
1966119.848.245.48.118.316.1
1967x83.955.652.67.520.318.7
1968*84.844.1 7.317.5 

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The series for exports of New Zealand produce are a linked chain-series. Up to 1949 the exports of each year were revalued at the unit values of the immediately preceding year and the aggregate so obtained was compared with the recorded value in that (preceding) year. Each year's index was, therefore, a Laspeyre type index on base previous year. From 1950 on, aggregates have also been calculated for immediately preceding years at the unit values of the latest year, which, compared with the recorded value in the latest year, gives a Paasche type index. The final index for the year is then obtained as the geometric mean of these two—i.e., a Fisher “Ideal” index—and in the table the successive annual movements are linked. The quarterly indices are similarly calculated on base previous year, but only a limited number of the more important commodity headings are used in the calculation. When the final indices for the year become available the quarterly indices are adjusted to accord with these; consequently, the indices for quarters are provisional.

The series for total exports includes an allowance for re-exports of imported goods. Since these are normally approximately 1 percent of total exports the approximate volume movements are obtained by “deflating” the recorded values by the import price index as the best indicator available of price movements for these commodities. The two indices, exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports, are then combined by weighting by their relative values in 1960, which is the base period for the current series.

The import volume index up to 1946 was calculated by revaluing each year's imports at 1937 unit values, assuming comparable price movements in the unpriced items as in the priced items. Thereafter a change was made to the calculation of each year on base previous year and the linking of these annual movements. Anterior year weights were used up to 1949 to give a Laspeyre type index. From 1950 on, a Fisher “Ideal” index has been obtained as the geometric mean of both anterior year and current year weighted indices. The quarterly indices, too, are calculated on base previous year, and, like the export series, are provisional until the calculation of the annual index. Currently, the items for which quantities are recorded (and consequently unit values obtained) represent approximately two-thirds of the total value of imports. Price movements are imputed to the remaining third on the basis of the price movements of items in the same statistical groupings.

The total exports and imports series are combined into the total trade series by weighting by their relative values in 1960, being the base period for the current combined series. Index numbers of volume of external trade for the latest 11 years are given below on the base: calendar year 1960 (= 1000). Since July 1962 trade statistics have been compiled on a June year basis and consequently the figures given in this table cover June years only, but quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstracts of Statistics and in the annual Analysis of External Trade Statistics. These also give series for calendar and March years.

VOLUME INDEX NUMBERS OF EXTERNAL TRADE

Base: calendar year 1960 (= 1000)
June YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
New Zealand ProduceTotal Exports
Dairy ProduceMeatWoolTotal
*Provisional.
19581,0658768789359351,068999
19591,057917985976975874926
19601,1249571,0091,0191,019914967
19619751,0179849889881,1511,066
19621,1221,0041,1101,0721,0761,0081,043
19631,0701,1301,1071,1111,1141,0531,084
19641,1611,1361,0871,1491,1531,2501,200
19651,2411,1041,0211,1431,1471,2991,220
19661,2621,0421,1791,1861193*1413*1299*
19671,3641,0929751,1791,1841398*1298*
1968*1,3341,2011,1291,3201,3321,1031222*

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—Descriptions of the index numbers of export and import prices compiled in New Zealand and of the terms of trade are given in Section 23, together with the index numbers.

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION—To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licences regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption. The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence must be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition, the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Licensing Control Regulations 1964 (related to the authority of the Customs Act 1913) consolidated and amended the Import Control Regulations 1938 and their amendments. Under the Import Control Regulations 1964 importation into New Zealand of any goods is prohibited except by a written licence, an exemption or a written permit granted by the Minister of Customs.

Export Control—Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have ben purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

Import Selection—The Import Control Regulations are administered through Import Licensing Schedules. The first four Schedules were for six-monthly periods and the first three were confidential to Government Departments. From 1941 to 1961 the Schedules were issued for calendar year, with occasional extensions into the following year. From 1 July 1962 the Schedules have been for years ending 30 June.

The items in the Import Licensing Schedules were originally divided into: basic items for which licences were allocated according to the applicant's import history in a base year; items subject to individual consideration (C); and items for which no licences were available (D). In the case of basic items there were differentiations between the sources of supply, with emphasis on sterling area countries, and several hard-currency countries were excluded from the allocation of basic licences.

Import licences are issued by the Customs Department which is advised by the Department of Industries and Commerce on the import of materials and machinery for existing or planned New Zealand manufacturing industries and on the import of goods of a kind made in New Zealand.

In the 1949 Schedule provision was made for token licences to allow old-established cases where no allocation for such items had been made. The amount of token licences was business connection with United Kingdom exporters to be maintained on a small scale in a percentage of 1938 imports from the United Kingdom.

An extension of import licences on sterling area countries to all non-scheduled countries commenced with the 1951 Schedule. Scheduled countries were those enumerated in the annual Import Licensing Schedule for which only individual licences, limited to the specific country, were issued, and remained in force until 1961. From 1962 on, however, the restriction was withdrawn and imports are now permitted from any source.

In May 1950, as a further liberalisation of import licensing, the Government made provision for the issue of no-remittance licences which could be financed out of the applicant's own overseas funds. As no limit was placed on the nature or extent of imports that could be made, nor of the funds to be used, abuses soon became apparent and it was necessary to amend the scheme. A limitation was placed on the type of overseas funds which could be used and the amended scheme applied in general only to imports required by private individuals for their own use and not for purposes of resale.

From 1 December 1950 innovations were: the freeing of a large number of items from licensing if the goods were imported from non-scheduled countries; the introduction of world exemption items ("EE"); and the introduction of two categories of modified “D” items.

The 1958 Import Licensing Schedule was initially released in August 1957 but, because of New Zealand's balance of payments crisis it had to be replaced by one which restored import control on virtually all private imports. The allocations for items were based on 1956 imports but some items were given a “B” category (or “B” plus percentage classification) and these allocations were related to the old 1958 Schedule provision. Other categories were the “C” (individual consideration) and “D” (no allocation), but the “E” (exempt) and “EE” (world exempt) categories were cancelled. It was also necessary to withdraw the scheme for token imports. However, a new category “A” was introduced under which licences were granted for imports from non-scheduled countries up to the full value sought.

Because of the further deterioration of New Zealand's balance of payments, the 1959 Schedule provided for lower imports than in 1958. One feature of the Schedule was the reintroduction of “global” licences, which could be used for imports from any source, for all items except a limited number designated “M”. Licences for “M” items were available for non-scheduled countries only. However, it was later decided to issue licences for scheduled countries on the same basis as that which applied to the same goods from other countries.

Towards the end of 1958 there was a considerable improvement in the overseas prices received for New Zealand's exports. This rise continued in 1959 and enabled the Government to make additional funds available for imports. Two major relaxations in April 1959 and June 1959 greatly extended the 1959 provision for imports.

The improvement in New Zealand's overseas reserves was reflected in the 1960 Import Licensing Schedule. The 1960 Schedule provided for a much higher value of imports than in 1959 and introduced several new features in licensing procedures. These new departures were aimed at giving the maximum flexibility to importers while retaining those minimum restrictions which were necessary for the effective protection of the balance of payments.

The 1960 Schedule had an increased number of basic allocations, a total of 401 items being in this category. The basis was mainly the value of 1959 Licences, although in several cases other bases were used. Many items which were previously considered individually were made basic to let the importer know his entitlement as soon as possible, so eliminating delays in dealing with applications for licences.

The exemption of items from import licensing was reintroduced. Although the number of items was not large, their import value was a considerable sum. The items were: raw sugar, crude oil, motor spirits, certain bulk oils (kerosene and lubricating oils), explosives, crude sulphur in bulk, and manures. These items were particularly suited for exemption as they are essential, of major value, and are imported by relatively few firms so that actual and likely expenditure can be readily ascertained.

The token licence provision which had been cancelled because of the critical circumstances at the beginning of 1958 was reintroduced in a new form. Over a wide range of items, for which no other allocation had been made, token licences were available for imports from any source to the extent of 10 percent of the value of imports of the same goods from any source in 1956. For a few items which were severely restricted in 1956 the basis was 100 percent of the value of 1956 licences. The token licence procedure permitted overseas suppliers and their New Zealand customers to maintain trading contact; it also introduced variety and kept overseas standards before manufacturers and consumers.

The most important new features of the Schedule were the replacement licence ("R") scheme and the industry group scheme. The replacement scheme permitted an importer to obtain his genuine import needs for an item. (In 1960 an importer was entitled to an initial licence representing 50 percent of the value of his normal 1959 licence for the “R” items. Further licences were issued up to the ceiling of 150 percent in replacement of the value of actual imports made under his 1960 licence.) The “R” system applied also to new importers.

The application of “global” licences introduced in the 1959 Schedule was extended in 1960 so that the only goods remaining in the “M” category were motor vehicles (excluding spare parts). For this item the allocation for “scheduled” countries was the same as “non-scheduled” countries.

The 1961 Import Licensing Schedule further liberalised the import licensing allocations. The number of “Replacement” ("R") and “A” items was increased and the initial entitlement to “R” licences raised from 50 to 100 percent. It was estimated that 55 percent of private imports was either exempt from import licensing or subject to the “R” or “A” allocations which made licences available to regular or prospective new importers.

A fall in export receipts, particularly from dairy produce, and a large increase in private imports forced the Government to adopt more restrictive measures in 1961. In April 1961 the replacement ("R") scheme was suspended and the “A” category abolished in June 1961.

The qualifying date for the use of overseas funds for personal imports, mainly of motorcars, was advanced from 18 November 1953 to 31 December 1958.

In June 1961 two major decisions were taken to reduce imports to the level of lower export earnings. The 1961 licences were spread over an 18 months' period to 30 June 1962 and a limited Supplementary Schedule was introduced for the first half of 1962 to cover urgent needs beyond the 1961 entitlements. The Supplementary Schedule provided for a reduction of $100 million on current import levels.

While the exempt items of the 1961 Schedule were continued in the Supplementary Schedules, the “A” and “R” category remained cancelled, token licences were eliminated, and the number of items without allocation ("D") or subject to individual consideration ("C") was greatly increased.

Import Licensing Schedules now apply to the 12 months ending 30 June, the first Schedule covering the period from 1 July 1962 to 30 June 1963. This Schedule issued in March 1962 provided for private imports at a level of about $500 million and represented a considerable easing in relation to the supplementary period in the first half of 1962. In general the provision made for essential raw-material imports was expected to allow manufacturers to maintain actual usage at a level consistent with that for 1960. The Schedule was based on the new Customs Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962. A new “A” category was introduced for a limited number of items to ensure continuity of supply while avoiding any undue build-up of stocks. The token licence scheme was withdrawn but was reintroduced in October 1962 and is still operative.

In October 1962 provision was made for increased basic licences for a wide range of goods and for the reintroduction of token licences. Most of the increases in basic licences were for those consumer goods which had been severely restricted before. No extra provision of funds was involved, the reallocation being possible through a review of actual licence issue and use.

Innovations of major importance introduced in 1962 were the Free Funds and the Export Incentive schemes.

The Free Funds Scheme extended the no-remittance policy to commercial imports. It permitted the use of privately held funds of the following kinds: (a) Legitimately acquired overseas earnings held by the applicant on or before 28 February 1962. These funds comprised mainly royalties and commissions; (b) Sterling area currencies or securities, including shares, purchased legitimately from other New Zealand residents on or before 31 December 1958.

To offset inequities between those importers who had repatriated or never held “approved” funds and those who had retained such funds it was decided that for every $10 of approved funds $2 must be repatriated to New Zealand through normal banking channels, only the balance of $8 being available for imports. Where goods were purchased for resale, licences would be granted only to those with a history of importing goods of a similar class.

The Export Incentive Scheme was made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so, whether or not they have an entitlement to import licences for raw materials or components. Licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacture of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

For the 1963-64 import licensing year $500 million was provided for private import payments-the same as for the previous year. Particular efforts were made to increase the flexibility of operation of the licensing system. Over 100 items were included in the “A” category compared with 15 in the previous schedule. These covered a wide range of industrial raw materials together with many essential goods for retail sale. Licences for “A” items were granted initially to the extent of 75 percent of the value of licences (other than “special” licences) granted for imports of similar goods during the 1962-63 licensing period. On evidence of full commitment of their initial licence, importers were granted further licence in the light of sales performance or use in manufacture.

Two general schemes were introduced for the 1963-64 year to assist manufacturers holding licences for raw materials for use in their own plant: (a) General “A” licences—Manufacturers entitled to “A” licences in more than one item were permitted to amalgamate these into one general licence which might be used at the licence holder's discretion to import goods up to the full monetary limit of the combined licences. This gave greater freedom of choice and enabled changes in demand to be met more readily; (b) General entitlement licences—A similar arrangement was introduced to provide for amalgamation of licences covering over 100 items relating to raw materials or components for use in manufacture.

Additional flexibility was provided by placing approximately 140 items in 14 “interchange-ability groups”. A licence holder with a 1963-64 licence for one or more of the items in a group might use 25 percent of that licence to import any of the other items in that group.

Following experience with the new Customs Tariff, and a study of the pattern of imports during the 1962-63 period, it was possible to reduce the number of item codes by 15 percent. To the existing list of exempt items was added the major item of printed books (other than magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and comics). The issue of separate licences for motor vehicles from dollar and non-dollar sources was discontinued and licences became available for imports from any source.

During the 1963-64 import licensing period commercial and industrial growth expanded rapidly. Additional funds totalling slightly more than $16 million were made available for further imports of cars, agricultural tractors, on extension of the “token” import scheme, additional components for television manufacture, and further industrial raw materials.

However, by the time of issue of the 1964-65 Import Licensing Schedule in April 1964, it became apparent that private import payments for the licensing period 1 July 1963 to 30 June 1964 would reach a considerably higher figure than the $516 million provided. This was due to three main factors: (a) The value of imports of goods exempt from import licensing control had increased sharply, due principally to the large increase in the price of raw sugar, greater use of petrol, and of agricultural fertilisers; (b) There was a larger carry-over than usual from the previous period of goods imported and paid for under 1962-63 licences; (c) Increased flexibility in the 1963-64 Schedule provisions, together with increasing demand, resulted in a greater utilisation of licences than normal.

In preparing the Schedule for 1964-65 it was decided that the principle of allowing as much flexibility as possible in the use of licences should be continued. An increase in the range of industry groups and provision for further transfers to interchangeability groups reflected this decision. Accordingly it was considered wise to budget on a non-utilisation figure of 10 percent for 1964-65 compared with the previous 15 percent. Therefore, although the Schedule was framed on approximately the same funds basis, a reduction was necessary in calculating the total value of licences that could be issued. This meant that the level of allocations for individual items had to be reduced in many cases. However, the position was reviewed in September of that year, when in most cases, the allocations were increased to 100 percent 1963-64 licences. Licences for 1964-65 for “A” items were again based initially on 75 percent of the value of licences (other than “special” licences) granted on or before 31 January 1964 for imports of similar goods during the 1963-64 licensing period. Licences for additional requirements were to be considered in the light of commitment of basic licences, usage in manufacture or sales performance, and stock holdings. In line with the general reduction of allocations, it was necessary to place a ceiling on the value of “A” licences issued. This was fixed at 100 percent of licences issued in 1963-64.

A revision was undertaken of the industry groups, and the items which might be imported under each group were set out in detail in the Schedule. Previously, these groups were defined in terms of the former Customs Tariff. Opportunity was taken to bring the contents of these groups into line with current demands, and attention was given to the effect of growing domestic manufacture of many components. In order to extend the advantages of the industry group scheme to further defined manufacturing industries, some additional groups were introduced—those for materials and components for the manufacture of garments, carpets, and electric storage batteries; and materials for use in the tanning of hides and skins. Two groups which were deleted from the 1963-64 Schedule, because of the introduction of the Manufacturers' General Entitlement Scheme, were revived. These were the groups relating to the manufacture of soaps and paints. A major departure was to permit the inclusion of “A” items in industry groups.

Following the revision of existing industry groups and the introduction of further groups, together with the inclusion of “A” items, there was no further need for the manufacturers' “A” and “General” licence groups. These were accordingly cancelled. Interchangeability groups, which were introduced during the 1963-64 period, were continued, and, generally speaking, licence holders were permitted to transfer a further 25 percent of their individual item entitlements to these groups. Where materials or components for use in manufacture did not fit into an industry group, it was decided to give consideration, on individual application, to the “consolidation” or “aggregation” of licences. In these cases, one “consolidated” licence, specifying the item codes for which it was valid, would be issued.

In accordance with New Zealand's undertaking to assist the trade of less fully economically developed countries, tea imported in packages of 5 lb net weight or over was removed from import control. This was previously an “A” item, and actual requirements were freely imported. Tea in smaller packages, that is, for retail sale, continued to be a restricted item. Control was also removed from fresh, chilled, or frozen meat (except poultry); dried, saltea, or smoked meat; greasy or scoured wool; undressed hides and skins (except furskins).

A major innovation in 1964-65 was the introduction of a new procedure under which importers were relieved of the need to make application for basic licences under a wide range of items. For the great bulk of basic items, licences were issued automatically with considerable saving in time and paper work.

Under the review held in September 1965, additional overseas funds were allocated to restore licences, chiefly for manufacturers' raw materials, to 100 percent of 1963-64 licences. As a result of the review 10 more items were exempted from import licensing. The more important of these were cotton meat wraps, crude rubber, raw tanning materials, crude gypsum, and timber preservatives.

In the 1965-66 Import Licensing Schedule 90 items representing imports then valued at $90 million were exempted from licensing as from 1 July 1965. With this increase, about $200 million, or 331/3 percent, of New Zealand's import trade was free of licensing. The items exempted were: (a) raw materials—coffee beans, cocoa beans, unground spices, sausage casings, artificial and jute fibres, asbestos, shellac, kapoc, certain base metals, and a wide range of textile piece goods; (b) consumer goods—iodised salt, certain drugs, razor blades, keys and key blanks, x-ray film, pipe cleaners, and sewing threads; (c) various agricultural equipment, e.g. tractors, combine harvesters, corn pickers, pick-up hay balers, cream separators, and parts for the repair of many classes of agricultural equipment; (d) heavy-duty trucks.

The ceiling on “A” licences was raised to a maximum of 1331/3 percent of licences issued in 1964-65.

The principle of licence aggregation was extended in 1965-66. Importers automatically received in aggregate form basic licences for which they qualified under certain item codes and industry groups. In addition, consideration was given on application to aggregation of or transfers from licences held under other item codes.

Some progress was made in meeting the needs of established businesses which did not hold licences. Businesses which had been in operation for at least three years and which had to rely on obtaining goods classified in the “A” category from regular licence-holders could apply for a licence based on the c.i.f. value of 25 percent of their average annual purchases from importers of such goods over the last three licensing years.

The 1965-66 Schedule also continued arrangements for industry and interchangeability groups, token licences, the export incentive scheme, and the automatic issue of basic licence against the bulk of the basic items appearing in the Schedule.

The 1966-67 Import Licensing Schedule reflected the need for some restraint on the level of importing in view of the balance of payments position. It provided for general reductions in the allocations for licensed imports including a reduction of 15 percent of the value of 1965-66 licences for most raw materials and components used for manufacturing. Other reductions were for consumer goods, a reduction of 20 percent for motor vehicles, a more restricted level of imports of industrial plant and machinery, and an initial allocation of 662/3 percent of the value of 1965-66 licences for woollen piece goods. As a result of a public inquiry into woollen and synthetic fibres, yarns and fabrics by the Tariff and Development Board, lightweight woollen piece goods were removed from import licensing for the 1966-67 licensing period and the import allocation for heavier weight woollen piece goods weighing more than 51/2 ounces was increased to 90 percent of imports of the same goods under 1965-66 licences.

Under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) some goods of Australian origin were exempted from import licensing. Classes of goods covered under the agreement include strawberries; peas; beans; lentils; dried, dehydrated, or evaporated vegetables; dressed and undressed timber; veneer plywood; and flooring of laminated wood.

All other exempt items, with minor exceptions, were continued in the 1966-67 Schedule and comprised approximately one-third of the value of private imports.

The token licence scheme was continued, the “A” Scheme was suspended and no continuation or extension of the provisions relating to new importers were made. New importers, however, who had received licences under previous provisions had their entitlement continued in terms of the allocation in the 1966-67 Schedule.

Overall, the 1966-67 Schedule provision was the second highest on record being exceeded only by that provided for in 1965-66.

On 10 February 1967 the Government announced its intention to phase out the no-remittance import licensing schemes. At that date, a repatriation requirement of 15 percent of licence value was introduced as a condition of no-remittance imports, by private individuals to be effective also throughout the following licensing period.

The 1967-68 Import Licensing Schedule provided for further general reductions in the allocations for licensed imports; allocations were in the main reduced by 20 percent. The provisions of the Export Incentive Scheme were extended as from 1 July 1967 to allow manufacturers who supply components to another manufacturer for incorporation in goods for export to qualify for Assistance and Replacement licences, and to allow Bonus licences to be used for the importation of approved plant and machinery.

The Government has continued firm in its intention of gradually freeing goods from import licensing as conditions permit. Measures taken to restrain internal demand and the decision to devalue the New Zealand dollar in November 1967 enabled further goods to be exempted from import licensing as from December 1967. The items exempted covered a variety of goods including raw materials for industry, chemicals, and foodstuffs. Care was taken to select goods which were not expected to show a marked increase in import spending.

The 1968-69 Schedule extended the relaxation from import control to the extent that just on half of private imports have been freed; for most of the items still under licensing provision was made for a value of 115 percent of the 1967-68 level (this contained a factor in compensation for the devaluation of the currency in November 1967).

In the context of its policy to progressively release items from import control and to enable industry to have access to the necessary plant and machinery to enable it to maintain maximum efficiency with a view to competing with imported products and in export markets, the Government in August 1968, exempted a list of plant and machinery from import licensing and announced the adoption of a more liberal attitude in dealing with applications for licences where plant and machinery remained subject to licensing.

In addition to those items made exempt, a list was shown in Appendix XII to the Schedule, of goods which would become exempt from licensing on and from 1 July 1968 provided that no request for a variation in the Customs Tariff was made to the Emergency Protection Authority by 30 April 1968.

The 1969-70 Import Licensing Schedule provided for an increase of about 5 percent in the value of licences for nearly all commodities. The Schedule also freed goods worth $10 million annually from licensing.

Where representations had been made to the Authority relating to at least part of the content of an item code listed in Appendix XII, immediate exemption was not possible. However, for goods (other than those under investigation by the Authority), included in the item codes concerned, licensing policy was eased considerably to allow more liberal issues of licences—including the issue of licences to new importers.

From the commencement of the 1968-69 licensing period, the repatriation requirement for both private and commercial no-remittance imports was increased to 30 percent of licence value. The Government also announced that this amount would be increased to 50 percent from 1 July 1969 for both schemes.

TARIFF AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD—The Tariff and Development Board was established under the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961. The Board was constituted on 1 June 1962 and since then has comprised between four and six members. The Board has the functions, when so requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Industries and Commerce or the Minister of Overseas Trade, to inquire into and report on any of the following matters, with such recommendations as it thinks fit:

  1. The desirability of new, increased, or reduced Customs duties, or of exemption from such duties;

  2. The general effect of the operation of the Tariff on the trade and commerce, and the farming, manufacturing, and distributing industries of New Zealand and also on the interests of consumers;

  3. The desirability of providing or continuing to provide assistance, whether by means of subsidies, grants, bounties, Tariff concessions or preferences, or otherwise, for the protection and encouragement of any New Zealand industry or for the development of New Zealand's overseas trade;

  4. The relationship between the rates of Customs duties on raw materials and those on finished or partly finished products;

  5. Any matter relating to the licensing of imports, including any appeal against a decision to decline, in whole or in part, any application for an import licence;

  6. Any matter relating to the application of Customs duty under any item of the Tariff, or to the granting of concessions as provided for in the Tariff or in the Customs Acts;

  7. Any other matter affecting the protection or development of industry or the development of overseas trade, whether by means of the Tariff or otherwise.

The Board may also from time to time, of its own motion, inquire into and make recommendations to any of the said Ministers on any matter of policy.

Two of the first questions which the Board had referred to it for inquiry and report were “the need for criteria in the light of which industrial growth and development should proceed” and “the need for additional medium- and long-term establishment and developmental finance”. Reports have been furnished on these subjects, and published as parliamentary papers, H. 48 and H. 49, 1963. The Board has held a number of public inquiries into other subjects, including the commercial, economic, and social implications of hire purchase and credit transactions and practices New Zealand. It has also inquired into the rates of import duty which should be imposed on various classes of goods.

The Board held public inquiries in 1968 into the rates of duty and import licensing provisions which should apply to imports of the following goods: agricultural aircraft; handbag and change purse frames; narrow woven fabrics; stampings, findings and beads for use in the manufacture of imitation jewellery; diamond and tungsten carbide tools; and yarns of acrylic fibres.

At the request of the Minister of Overseas Trade, the Board, in 1967 and again in 1968 inquired into and reported on the question of whether certain goods should be added to Schedule A of the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement. The goods on which public inquiries were held were: beer; deerskin leather and deerskin garments; terry towels and various other textiles; articles of wood; articles of cement; animal identification tags of plastic; seat belts, polyethylene and polystyrene, and reel mowers.

Emergency Protection Authorities—The Tariff and Development Amendment Act 1967 made provision for the appointment of Emergency Protection Authorities. The Minister of Customs or the Minister of Industries and Commerce or the Minister of Overseas Trade may, where it appears to the Minister that urgent action may be necessary to protect a New Zealand industry in relation to imports of goods, request an Authority to undertake an inquiry in relation to the importation of such goods and to report to the Minister on the following matters:

  1. Whether urgent action is necessary to protect that industry in relation to the importation of such goods; and

  2. If such action is considered necessary, the nature of the protection that is considered by the Authority to be appropriate in all circumstances, and the extent and duration of such protection.

An Authority which undertakes an inquiry is required to report back to the appropriate Minister not later than 30 days after the date on which he received the request for the inquiry. If the Authority considers that urgent action should be taken to protect the industry, it may recommend to the Minister that protection be effected by either or both of the following measures:

  1. The imposition of a temporary Customs duty.

  2. The temporary restriction of the importation of such goods.

When the Authority so recommends, action may be taken within the terms of the Customs Act 1966, to impose a temporary protective Customs duty or restriction on importation. However the matter must have first been referred to the Tariff and Development Board for its consideration before any temporary protection is imposed. There are limits placed on the duration of temporary protection which is regarded as “holding action” pending the completion of the Tariff and Development Board's inquiries.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Industries and Commerce through the service of 23 Trade Commissioner posts—Athens, Auckland (for the Pacific), Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, London, Los Angeles, Melbourne, Montreal, New Delhi, New York, Paris, Rome, San Francisco, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Trinidad, Vancouver, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's growing interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. In addition, agreement was reached with Air New Zealand in 1961 that some of its overseas managers should act as trade correspondents of the Department of Industries and Commerce. At present there are Air New Zealand correspondents in Fiji, Tahiti, American Samoa, and Honolulu. Most Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are: representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government Departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Industries and Commerce in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 41, Official.

TRADE PROMOTION—A Trade Promotion Council was set up in March 1962 as a coordinating and advisory agency in a concerted continuous New Zealand trade drive. The Council advises in the exploration of new or potential markets including trade surveys and missions; the co-ordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity; and the improvement of facilities, both within New Zealand and overseas, which may assist exporters. An Export Development Conference called by the Government, was held in June 1963 to examine the problems to be met in a programme of expanded exports. The need to diversify markets and products was underlined when Britain applied in 1961 to join the European Economic Community. A trade drive was recognised as essential to earn more overseas exchange to continue to improve the standard of living for a steadily increasing population and to expand economic and national development. A scheme of export aids was developed by the Government following the conference, among them an export guarantee scheme to provide guarantees to exporters against losses which might result from circumstances not insurable with commercial insurers. To promote the export of manufactured goods, exhibitions have been arranged at trade fairs and trade missions conducted in selected areas overseas.

Not only has the Trade Commissioner Service been enlarged and strengthened, but groups of trade commissioners have been brought back to New Zealand to meet exporters at Export Seminars. The first series—on Australia—was held in 1966; the second—on Asia—in 1967. Contacts with exporters and prospective exporters have been widened by the work of export liaison officers, who travel widely in New Zealand, explaining the facilities and taxation and import licensing incentives that are available to exporters.

22 B—EXPORTS

GENERAL—In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of exports statistics.

Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”, except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty, which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

With the adoption of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for classifying external trade for statistical purposes from 1 July 1962, June year figures are separately tabled, and are the commencement of a new series from June year 1963.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS—The table following gives total exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 9 years and the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneNew Zealand Produce
Meat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsFruit and VegetablesHides, Skins and PeltsWool
ButterCheeseTotal
f.o.b. value $(million)
1960142.4122.746.7180.87.829.0207.5
1961157.580.232.0121.56.723.7188.8
1962139.984.443.0136.69.926.7207.4
1963173.090.937.0138.07.525.4214.4
1964183.2109.635.1157.19.630.4271.4
1965212.5119.640.7180.910.731.7208.6
1966x196.7109.641.7175.412.340.0231.9
1967x205.0109.445.1186.810.733.6174.1
1968†249.6111.745.9190.113.339.1155.2
Year Ended JuneNew Zealand Produce—
Sausage CasingsTallowCaseinPulp, Paper, and Paper BoardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports

* Including commodities not listed.

† Provisional.

f.o.b. value $(million)
19607.55.88.412.9624.35.3629.5
19617.36.27.511.7555.95.5561.4
19628.96.39.810.9575.17.8582.9
196310.54.88.413.8620.07.6627.5
196412.07.111.317.3728.48.8737.3
196511.17.016.817.0733.78.5742.2
1966x10.96.520.018.3756.810.5767.3
1967x12.06.818.616.6717.69.6727.2
19689.46.818.023.9785.515.7801.2

The commodity groups shown above normally account for more than 90 percent of the total value of merchandise exports.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade has varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. In the preceding subsection is set out a table of volume index numbers for these commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

New Zealand's reliance upon grassland farming for her exports is brought out by the figures in the next table showing total exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent of the total exports of New Zealand produce.

EXPORTS OF PASTORAL PRODUCTS

YearValuePercentage of Total Exports of N.Z. Produce
*Provisional.
 $(000) 
1941124,47595.6
1942148,72294.3
1943122,05888.8
1944117,89683.9
1945136,22488.4
1946179,16490.4
1947240,68495.0
1948275,49994.4
1949277,40495.3
1950348,79996.3
1951478,27397.4
1952456,35896.0
1953447,49395.9
1954458,40894.7
1955492,18695.8
1956519,33494.5
1957515,35194.0
1958462,56593.4
1959546,54194.0
1960561,58893.7
1961526,66594.0
1962530,68993.4
June year  
1963579,70093.5
1964678,98593.2
1965675,56492.1
1966x688,50491.0
1967x645,58190.0
1968*658,64583.9

Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance in the June year 1968 were: newsprint ($15.8 m.), woodpulp ($6.1 m.), apples ($5.5 m.), grass and clover seeds ($3.7 m.), fish and fish products ($10.9 m.), logs of radiata pine ($11.5 m.), sawn timber ($4.5 m.).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce of primary source are next given for the three latest years, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968*
*Provisional.
Mining products—    
    Pumice(cwt)16,44014,69112,768
    Cement(cwt)3081218,711
Fishery products—    
    Fish, fresh and frozen(cwt)54,74058,27568,631
    Crayfish(cwt)30,11240,77454,595
    Fish oils and fish-liver oils(gal)7,4417,6843,124
Forest products—    
    Kauri gum(ton)412122
    Timber—    
    Logs, radiata pine(cu. ft.)17,129,23619,946,36842,448,682
    Sawn(sup. ft.)30,639,49929,362,26762,204,469
    For cases in shooks(sup. ft.)2,266,8091,078,2632,680,315
    Wood pulp(ton)70,33272,32674,342
    Newsprint(cwt)2,341,2101,890,1272,481,795
    Building board(sq. ft.)3,300,9503,444,3116,223,619
    Plywood(sq. ft.)10,01676,295363,264
Pastoral products—    
    Butter(cwt)3,808,3283,999,0874,008,879
    Casein(cwt)846,114851,640803,665
    Cheese(cwt)1,929,7572,054,2281,921,258
    Milk, dried and condensed(cwt)1,991,0812,661,9752,762,826
    Sugar of milk(cwt)114,869123,802128,851
    Eggs—    
        In shell(doz)53,83516,43325,901
        Not in shell(lb)1,019,172936,5681,814,123
    Honey(lb)748,1401,190,768528,352
    Meat, frozen and chilled(cwt)9,884,6359,952,71511,061,728
    Meat, canned(cwt)70,37176,52580,124
    Meat extract(lb)347,041481,546438,041
    Other preserved meat(cwt)32,56337,41834,287
    Sausage casings(hanks)5,754,4376,552,5536,639,384
    Liver meal(cwt)9,04015,46818,129
    Cattle hides(number)953,258900,2241,176,469
    Horse hides(number)3,4282,8702,738
    Calf skins(number)956,391917,6091,170,798
    Deer skins(number)73,67173,78897,698
    Opossum skins(number)512,993710,086751,212
    Sheep skins and pelts(number)27,661,96328,513,72436,738,384
    Horse hair and other coarse animal hair(lb)39,94655,03135,228
    Wool(lb)613,381,154500,777,545512,728,551
    Lard(cwt)301265161
    Edible tallow(ton)3,2166,2475,936
    Edible stearine(ton)874671752
    Inedible tallow(ton)46,49856,57464,751
    Neatsfoot oil(ton)537497413
    Live cattle(number)9479733,880
    Live sheep(number)3,59111,48915,299
    Live horses(number)744756873
Agricultural products—    
    Barley(cental)--66,594
    Apples(lb)107,936,84085,830,72085,312,923
    Pears(lb)8,370,6755,831,9996,881,020
    Hops(lb)235,391174,860408,449
    Potatoes(ton)14,9786,2055,060
    Onions(ton)2,8504,8129,940
    Canned vegetables(lb)3,598,1633,693,6873,465,132
    Frozen vegetables(cwt)73,91473,800106,391
    Peas, food(cental)164,822225,607266,174
    Peas, seed(cental)212,210200,404204,223
    Seeds, grass and clover(cwt)203,184223,164234,286
    Seeds, other(cwt)10,7186,60120,045
Miscellaneous—    
    Biscuits(cwt)5,17314,59121,680
    Ale, beer stout(gal)375,275388,348376,121
    Sugar(cwt)1,0353,0387,086
    Cigarettes(lb)63,10267,08078,958
    Cut tobacco(lb)195,135162,929145,626
    Textile waste(lb)2,607,6002,146,9371,945,405
    Soaps(lb)2,598,9302,197,1001,877,768
    Chamois leather(sq. ft.)454,881395,712433,536

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968*
*Provisional.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Mining products—   
    Pumice222017
    Cement119
    Other665866
Totals9078103
Fishery products—   
    Fish, fresh and frozen1,1041,1751,447
    Fish, other131190265
    Crayfish4,2195,0629,115
    Fish oils and fish-liver oils826233
Totals5,5376,49010,860
Forest products—   
    Kauri gum241211
    Timber—   
    Logs, radiata pine4,3395,30811,489
    Sawn1,9421,8774,459
    For cases in shooks246117288
    Wood pulp5,9805,9046,135
    Newsprint11,90710,10615,784
    Other paper and paper board3064661,669
    Building board125138241
    Plywood2840
    Other---
Totals24,87123,93740,116
Pastoral products—   
    Butter109,606109,357111,736
    Casein19,99418,63218,012
    Cheese41,71645,13645,924
    Milk, dried and condensed21,96029,81830,235
    Sugar of milk1,2201,3111,548
    Other dairy produce2,0862,4382,192
    Eggs—   
    In shell22710
    Not in shell123114227
    Honey109176113
    Meat, frozen and chilled193,156200,870245,261
    Meat, canned2,5922,9403,538
    Meat extract316405198
    Other preserved meat588738627
    Sausage casings10,91412,0119,415
    Liver meal9099112
    Cattle hides5,7756,0095,911
    Horse hides14159
    Calf skins2,0422,0142,029
    Deer skins129118172
    Opossum skins419668585
    Sheep skins and pelts31,43124,57830,170
    Horse hair and other coarse animal hair192516
    Wool231,939174,105133,460
    Inedible offals (including dried blood)1,9703,4653,816
    Lard553
    Edible tallow508852714
    Edible stearine1458982
    Inedible tallow6,0175,9406,111
    Neatsfoot oil11410780
    Live cattle24787481
    Live sheep164180408
    Live horses1,8931,6592,544
    Other1,1851,6122,904
Totals688,504645,581658,645
Agricultural products—   
    Barley--165
    Apples6,8385,4605,535
    Pears524365431
    Hops13585189
    Potatoes706308333
    Onions197402991
    Canned vegetables538471480
    Frozen vegetables1,0118891,336
    Peas, food5498651,447
    Peas, seed1,0599701,116
    Seeds, grass and clover3,2453,1693,678
    Other seeds184177342
    Other8771,2321,865
Totals15,86314,39317,910
Miscellaneous—   
    Biscuits146323661
    Ale, beer, stout310350303
    Sugar81534
    Soups2619
    Infant and invalid food (cereal)1265841
    Cigarettes136150179
    Cut tobacco196165160
    Textile waste321223223
    Soaps198156139
    Scrap metal1,7641,3301,143
    Dairy machinery501401479
    Chamois leather164144153
    Vitamins and concentrates122
    Other18,09023,81954,301
Totals21,96327,14257,835
    Totals, New Zealand produce (excluding gold)756,828717,623785,469
    Gold (excluded from above)1227188

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) for the years ended June 1967 and 1968 are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Exports, New Zealand Produce—Section and DivisionYear Ended June
June 1967xJune 1968*
*Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals$(000)
    Div. 00 Live animals1,9543,467
    Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations204,953249,625
    Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs186,870190,325
    Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations6,41410,820
    Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations4761,031
    Div. 05 Fruit and vegetables10,71013,333
    Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations1,5311,858
    Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof79155
    Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)1,4372,745
    Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations4,374448
Totals, Section 0418,798473,807
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco  
    Div. 11 Beverages402376
    Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures391364
Totals, Section 1793741
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
    Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed33,55139,055
    Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels134
    Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed2
    Div. 24 Wood and cork7,18916,209
    Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper5,9286,177
    Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste174,609155,631
    Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones6978
    Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap1,3951,378
    Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.19,95818,481
Totals, Section 2242,699237,145
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials  
    Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes11
    Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products4,5914,558
    Div. 34 Gas
Totals, Section 34,5924,559
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats  
    Div. 41 Animal oils and fats7,3217,170
    Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed11
    Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats processed229329
Totals, Section 47,5517,500
Section 5. Chemicals$(000)
    Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds8191,106
    Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1
    Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials56258
    Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products452528
    Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations382411
    Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured2631
    Div. 57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products1242
    Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins101266
    Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products19,39018,784
Totals, Section 521,23921,427
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material  
    Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs354507
    Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.4271,035
    Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)223701
    Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof11,04718,232
    Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products1,0193,996
    Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.s.407834
    Div. 67 Iron and steel60126
    Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals2,1163,076
    Div. 69 Manufactures of metal725880
Totals, Section 616,37929,387
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment  
    Div. 71 Machinery other than electric2,0343,929
    Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances1,2992,268
    Div. 73 Transport equipment295676
Totals, Section 73,6286,874
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles  
    Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings3348
    Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures105206
    Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles117263
    Div. 84 Clothing119383
    Div. 85 Footwear87129
    Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks100312
    Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.s.1,2432,006
Totals, Section 81,8033,346
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions not Classified According to Kind  
    Goods under $20 in value2930
    Other111652
Totals Section 9141682
        Total New Zealand produce exports717,623785,469
          Re-exports9,60115,727
        Grand total, merchandise exports727,224801,196
          Exports of gold (excluded from above)7188

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS—Since the 1850s the United Kingdom has been New Zealand's principal trading partner, replacing Australia, which took the bulk of the trade in early days of settlement. The proportion of our exports (including re-exports) going to the United Kingdom market in the years prior to the Second World War was between 70 and 80 percent of the total value of all exports. With the growing diversification of our markets in recent years the proportion of New Zealand's exports going to this market has fallen and by 1968 (June year) represented only 43 percent of the total value of exports to all countries.

Trade with the Commonwealth countries has always greatly exceeded that with foreign countries. During recent years, however, there has been a decline in the proportion of the export trade going to Commonwealth countries, occasioned mainly by the export of wool to European countries and meat to the United States of America. In 1948 Commonwealth countries took 80 percent of the total exports. By 1968 (June year) this proportion had fallen to 57 percent. (These percentages exclude passengers' purchases and ships' stores.)

In recent years trade has been recorded with over 100 countries each year.

TOTAL EXPORTS TO INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES—The following table gives exports (including re-exports but excluding gold, current coin, passengers' purchases, and ships' stores) to each country for the four latest June years.

EXPORTS TO INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

CountryJune Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968*

* Provisional.

†Burma, included in Sterling Area up to 1967.

‡Singapore included with Malaysia up to year ended June 1965.

Sterling Area$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Aden4522891216
Antarctic Stations (British)-1-1
Australia34,56836,37835,21557,431
Bahamas260315314242
Bahrein2-
Barbados1,0641,0211,2191,200
Bermuda6779581,0311,262
Botswana---1
British Honduras4621
British Solomon Islands63915
Brunei-3
Burma229206441
Ceylon595721589765
Cyprus1,1781,2831,180927
Enderbury-Canton2---
Falkland Islands-22
Fiji3,6283,9103,7795,752
Ghana250291135125
Gilbert and Ellice Islands191203228219
Guyana2161287333
Hong Kong1,5001,6332,0982,611
Iceland1--
India1,4172,1181,3321,015
Ireland5976814331,034
Jamaica3,4993,7383,5164,933
Jordan-13169
Kenya205155139400
Kuwait5749124113
Leeward and Windward Islands278221251298
Libya-11
Malawi-112846
Malaysia6,2014,6825,5416,718
Malta23172844
Mauritius and Dependencies1448590185
Nauru293286320368
New Hebrides101112885
Nigeria353229168117
Norfolk Island49133292284
Pakistan216472583382
Papua, etc.26431118636
Pitcairn Island551023
Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms28112
Rhodesia217130215
St. Helena, Ascension, etc.1---
Seychelles1112
Sierra Leone317
Singapore3,2383,9516,061
South Africa and S.W. Africa5,3789,1075,7811,998
Tanzania13898895
Tonga5016538661,294
Trinidad and Tobago3,6693,6483,1503,443
Uganda14511
United Kingdom374,802338,983314,754344,139
Western Samoa1,7351,7491,6411,533
Zambia12109162328
Totals, sterling countries444,797418,281390,025445,623
    E.F.T.A. (Excluding U.K.)    
Austria102113929
Denmark1,7611,9362,4421,641
Norway962570840800
Portugal2,5741,8851,4611,894
Sweden3,0623,1881,8801,916
Switzerland and Liechtenstein1765308471,009
Totals, E.F.T.A. countries8,6368,1197,5107,289
    E.E.C.    
Belgium and Luxembourg24,08622,40211,63611,456
France and Monaco33,94240,39824,82526,333
Germany, West29,79126,20620,51720,773
Italy and San Marino18,08320,02215,00815,274
Netherlands13,49010,80911,95310,916
Totals, E.E.C. countries119,393119,83783,94084,752
Dollar Countries    
American Samoa6046817641,258
Antarctic Territories (U.S.)5-
Canada10,5589,57510,6099,791
Colombia63185
Costa Rica -12-
Ecuador5-3-
El Salvador--1-
Guam471647932791
Haiti321424-
Liberia-222
Mexico581492304257
Panama Canal Zone2236300227
Panama Republic686549325520
Philippines3,6854,2005,1345,899
Puerto Rico, etc.21049134
Ryukus Islands, etc.5055134590
U.S. Trust Territories in Pacific889952
United States of America (including Alaska and Hawaii)93,371107,545114,223129,213
Venezuela101101167101
Totals, dollar countries110,176124,020133,046149,021
Other Countries    
Afghanistan215--
Albania--
Algeria-52
Argentina401199011
Brazil1113
Bulgaria-677638590
Burundi-21-
Burma461
Cambodia1
Cameroon2---
Canary Islands151415
Chile4821,029148283
China3,1826,2828,2175,705
Czechoslovakia6919971,331926
Ethiopia and Eritrea2593
Finland363389648740
Formosa1593576161,092
French Guiana4378080
French Polynesia9501,9361,7462,908
French West Indies378194190146
Germany, East6908951,6321,020
Greece2,7533,6863,2683,911
Hungary164172359261
Indonesia71392123
Iran77220260199
Iraq-7351
Israel2072487043
Japan32,00056,85663,77268,216
Korea, Republic of76456500922
Laos-221
Lebanon10182065
Macao--11
Madagascar--1-
Mauritania-11
Morocco562485 
Mozambique287286364448
Muscat and Oman---1
Nepal-154
Netherlands Antilles809775782509
New Caledonia414359390773
North Korea2-
North Vietnam1033--
Peru2,1321,8624,8024,043
Poland2,4131,4831,6461,343
Rumania57-
Rwanda-11-
Saudi Arabia136549
Senegal-413
Somalia5-1
South Vietnam841450
Spain1,8023,4561,5292,468
Sudan707-4
Surinam7661
Syria22-930
Thailand1446021,0821,759
Turkey-172034
United Arab Republic193312155144
U.S.S.R.2,9295,8959,1845,813
Uruguay506739110
Yemen-1-1
Yugoslavia1,0998081,1901,047
Totals, other countries54,59491,259105,778106,311
Totals, all countries737,596761,517720,298792,996
Ships' stores3,2824,2104,9335,071
Passengers1,2941,5551,9932,178
Destination optional---951
Grand totals742,172767,281727,224801,196

The table which follows shows for each of the last 10 years the percentage of total exports (excluding gold, current coin, and ships' stores) taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

Country1958195919601961June Year 1963June Year 1964June Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968*

*Provisional.

†Included with U.S.A.

 percent
STERLING
    Australia4.033.624.353.794.404.644.694.784.897.24
    Fiji0.420.390.370.390.340.380.490.510.520.73
    India0.300.230.340.330.420.150.190.280.180.13
    Jamaica0.490.540.520.420.570.340.470.490.490.62
    Trinidad and Tobago0.310.400.350.450.510.340.500.480.440.43
    United Kingdom55.8356.6353.1451.0747.4447.3850.8144.5143.7043.40
    Western Samoa0.300.280.260.270.280.260.240.230.230.19
    Other1.341.381.511.752.032.152.913.653.703.45
    Totals, sterling countries63.0163.4860.8558.4655.9955.6360.3054.9354.1556.19
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)
    Austria0.010.010.01
    Denmark0.210.140.170.210.160.230.240.250.340.21
    Norway0.020.050.040.080.080.130.130.070.120.10
    Portugal0.150.130.180.180.190.370.350.250.200.24
    Sweden0.280.240.270.280.240.350.420.420.260.24
    Switzerland0.020.010.010.010.030.020.020.070.120.13
    Totals, E.F.T.A. countries0.700.580.660.760.701.111.171.071.040.92
E.E.C.
    Belgium and Luxembourg1.811.782.542.932.683.123.272.941.621.44
    France5.895.896.726.176.576.394.605.303.453.32
    Germany, West2.823.313.532.843.583.854.043.442.852.62
    Italy2.502.052.512.393.083.432.452.632.081.93
    Netherlands1.201.431.381.411.661.811.831.421.661.38
    Totals, E.E.C. countries14.2214.4716.6915.7517.5718.6016.1915.7411.6510.69
DOLLAR
    Canada1.631.041.211.331.451.201.431.261.471.23
    Hawaii0.290.310.360.410.420.360.39
    Philippines0.090.090.200.290.210.270.500.550.710.74
    U.S.A.14.6314.7212.7614.5416.7814.7012.2714.1215.8616.29
    Other0.250.310.430.310.460.350.350.360.430.53
    Totals, dollar countries16.8816.4814.9516.8819.3216.8814.9416.2918.4718.79
OTHER
    China0.390.850.770.470.490.760.430.821.140.72
    Czechoslovakia0.400.470.580.530.040.280.100.130.180.12
    Egypt0.130.060.090.100.070.080.030.040.020.02
    Japan2.212.292.965.264.094.404.347.478.858.60
    Poland1.010.430.790.340.320.410.330.190.230.17
    U.S.S.R.0.280.050.830.540.030.290.400.771.280.73
    Other0.770.840.850.911.401.551.792.562.993.05
    Totals, other countries5.194.986.858.156.437.777.4011.9814.6913.41
    Totals, all countries100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last 21 years are given in the table below. The nomenclature used in this and subsequent tables in regard to the countries of destination refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

YearUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaFranceWest GermanyUnited States of AmericaOther Countries*Total Merchandise Exports

*Including ships' stores and passengers' duty free stores.

†Provisional.

‡Including Alaska and Hawaii from 1959 onwards.

§Including exports for which the final country of destination is not yet known.

 $(thousand)
      1948215,8165,9826,77816,6165,45014,47029,310294,424
      1949215,4104,3926,28415,3165,98811,02434,936293,346
      1950243,3627,1146,94616,15411,87836,77442,656364,882
      1951284,72217,1308,54035,70817,67257,71873,078494,566
      1952312,89210,4246,54820,91210,45454,53463,760479,524
      1953315,8365,9168,72231,19012,16836,75860,106470,694
      1954326,3865,99412,13029,35020,98227,79265,326487,958
      1955339,2868,46012,89030,57425,37630,20071,270518,056
      1956357,5108,05216,37633,52220,80639,01679,196554,478
      1957324,2628,87019,60443,39424,52043,46088,408552,516
      1958278,2108,13220,06829,36014,05672,89877,158499,880
June Year
      1959x286,6026,72819,76628,62615,98890,91872,840521,468
      1960x343,0567,25224,81842,35023,03279,096109,931629,535
      1961x295,9487,37025,61434,68415,44480,632101,712561,404
      1962x286,4887,52221,51636,78219,75086,154124,662582,874
      1963296,4509,03027,47641,05222,398107,764120,714627,550
      1964347,8128,79634,04846,92628,266110,705157,562737,252
      1965374,80210,55834,56833,94229,79193,359160,575742,172
      1966338,9839,57536,37840,39826,206107,545208,197767,281
      1967x314,75410,60935,21524,82520,517114,223207,081727,224
      1968344,1399,79157,43126,33320,773129,213213,517§801,196

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible of course that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; however, it is quite impossible to keep a record of all movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries. This table shows the importance of wool as the chief commodity in New Zealand's trade with Europe.

CountryJune Year
19631964196519661967x1968*
*Provisional.
 $(000)
Austria24102113929
Belgium16,73822,93424,08622,40211,63611,456
Bulgaria-161-677638590
Czechoslovakia2682,0626919971,331926
Denmark1,0201,7061,7611,9362,4421,641
Finland221169363389648740
France41,05346,92733,94240,39824,82526,333
Germany, West22,39828,26729,79126,20620,51720,773
Germany, East2153716908951,6321,020
Greece9833,4812,7533,6863,2683,911
Hungary75184164172359261
Italy19,23625,12718,08320,02215,00815,274
Netherlands10,34113,29113,49010,80911,95310,916
Norway473973962570840800
Poland1,9933,0162,4131,4831,6461,343
Portugal1,1672,7292,5741,8851,4611,894
Spain2,2512,7861,8023,4561,5292,468
Sweden1,5262,5953,0623,1881,8801,916
Switzerland1681611765308471,009
Turkey3020-172034
U.S.S.R.1702,0962,9295,8959,1845,813
Yugoslavia2161,4091,0998081,1901,047
Totals120,545160,468140,933146,431112,895110,192
 Percent
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries19.2121.7718.9919.0815.5213.75
 Value $(000)
Value of wool exported to European countries98,963129,923102,841104,27176,43075,204
 Percent
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)82.1080.9672.9771.2167.7068.25
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)46.1647.8749.2944.9643.9048.47

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the June years 1965, 1966, and 1967.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
† Singapore included with Malaysia for 1965.
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia3,8931,8965,0732,0724,8871,751
Bulgaria--5202141,776638
Belgium54,70019,99951,92118,01723,6457,337
Canada6,9443,1166,8862,9636,6312,478
China5,7452,45910,1644,42719,3917,333
Czechoslovakia1,8626862,8569924,5341,271
Denmark2,6051,3652,8601,3633,4211,462
Finland230117300146628281
France79,57129,54098,34735,82063,94820,879
Germany, East1,7756832,2818934,1921,624
Germany, West43,61318,69636,01214,47929,49410,869
Greece2,1821,1865,3342,2983,8831,779
Italy30,33912,12634,68313,11124,3378,499
Japan32,33213,92365,59927,05354,31421,465
Mexico1,029354646193739199
Netherlands18,4236,82512,7034,34220,5586,177
Norway1,2146678364071,090504
Poland4,9872,0102,3909432,7741,001
Portugal6,6792,5495,0341,8804,5331,445
South Africa1,4737661,3626171,549671
Spain2,2968296,9442,5152,198742
Sweden3,8381,9484,1801,9922,9061,262
U.S.S.R.6,8362,64315,1125,89523,8419,183
United Kingdom130,20049,875140,20552,657111,78137,445
United States of America84,72432,70596,33534,65376,75025,413
Yugoslavia2,2358711,7907373,4651,173
Other countries1,7258063,0081,2603,5131,224
Totals531,450x208,640x613,381231,939500,778174,105
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Aden4811111622621
American Samoa2035129482403118
Bahamas208452335614738
Barbados2,5555072,0824392,317480
Belgium3,5035922,339435551107
Bermuda6982601,3765271,651594
Canada4,2131,0042,6367404,4711,464
Cyprus2,8686552,6256502,381638
Fiji1363684335328
France3,8678529621988226
French Polynesia1,5295072,8391,1031,897809
Germany, West16,6112,8833,144610545100
Ghana73159725238
Greece4,5151,0202,613666714184
Guam1,7064422,0406002,656828
Hong Kong5762691,1004221,189558
Israel--1,557282
Italy2,30147090209121
Jamaica2,3474372,3054622,295538
Japan2,2523456,7251,2256,2611,202
Leeward and Windward Islands3628736497375113
Malaysia4,0821,0061,056264411122
Netherlands6,4291,3481,17423334468
Netherlands Antilles2,2564882,1065191,690462
Nigeria2116882305117
Philippines931276761261655220
Puerto Rico113879162
Ryukyu Islands158481775123384
Singapore3,2007633,7541,075
Sweden1,2643292971273126
Tonga511173155114
Trinidad and Tobago4,2069663,2418082,933796
United Kingdom61,94011,92959,17913,50936,3259,253
United States of America131,51529,634114,25128,906157,19243,360
U.S.A. Pacific Trust Territories2161667424
Western Samoa781644109319
Other countries3,4796982,947572740226
Totals267,62557,409223,10154,579234,24463,905
Frozen Lamb and Mutton
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Barbados414655807846870
Belgium88310489211233646
Bulgaria--1,961151--
Bermuda498127555150608159
Canada15,4102,49012,0141,95612,5441,847
Cyprus1,9203192,3363862,329347
Denmark400602804733345
Fiji2,5373012,3672972,419311
France606654004045565
French Polynesia1293236290457110
French West Indies72813846687789143
Germany, West10,6691,0873,6853733,305405
Ghana1,7451531,60815498969
Greece3,9193846,3315478,9791,073
Hong Kong3015143289690117
Hungary1,062861,3019989379
Italy7111293746557295
Jamaica8501101,4971871,470187
Japan66,4515,981142,26811,914106,12910,158
Malaysia2,4793542874938654
Mozambique31351--599
Netherlands1,6801841,5331892,876442
Nigeria307562204912625
Norway55456--294
Papua and New Guinea1802412720569
Peru6946043832225
Philippines160302074733444
Singapore1,5652602,460391
Sweden4511091252121772
Switzerland79152,3453964,196667
Tonga846871,141861,317124
Trinidad and Tobago1,3591781,2671871,132170
U.S.S.R.2,807285----
United Kingdom676,013119,984608,526100,001643,485100,084
United States of America8,3541,51213,9822,8827,3731,589
Western Samoa1,081781,168901,16898
Other countries1,2592271,3822601,952356
    Totals807,849134,972814,022121,391810,953119,469
Frozen Pork
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Aden255642235851
Australia2,793636----
Belgium46696493955413
Cyprus2274630561347
Fiji199481885110231
France34786747236620298
French Polynesia2727745413521168
Germany, West151372465913745
Guam409922213237
Hong Kong207471443512937
Japan278952272
Malaysia8282032761
Netherlands2124611923258
Netherlands Antilles40764135112
New Caledonia188472426417654
Singapore608133204
Trinidad and Tobago1,1952771,006244576157
United Kingdom397651,92633210628
Other countries497133296689422
Totals8,3411,9327,2751,6572,480824
Other Frozen Meat
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Belgium22342133325613
Canada3671143467324462
Cyprus452783056231768
Fiji358503995822239
France3,7408985,1531,2944,111965
French Polynesia2004041392444119
Germany, West2,0957342,3908094,1281,440
Hong Kong1351998128015
Italy941804307231481
Jamaica1,3271811,6682631,577269
Japan324391,00318441180
Malaysia623112120226612
Netherlands1,7405671,5364911,324411
Netherlands Antilles464673445750696
Philippines78111181720626
Singapore44578574116
Trinidad and Tobago633914316444476
United Kingdom45,63810,50943,49410,91348,14411,949
United States of America8713141,0343511,080388
Western Samoa289192422116721
Other countries1,5222092,1824772,179327
Totals62,02014,17562,28415,44266,59416,573
Canned and Other Preserved Meats
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
American Samoa697236907277763286
Fiji647187599172604201
French Polynesia1405829712610850
Gilbert and Ellice Islands2389318070328131
Italy867608596752140
Jamaica48412536910533986
Nauru352118290113409168
Papua and New Guinea62162436920362
Tonga30280565154397128
United Kingdom4,1911,5013,4211,2034,4381,492
Western Samoa748210903255730235
Other countries2,0021961,4351502,386283
Totals10,7292,88010,0682,76011,2263,162
Butter
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa463062396741
Bahamas250161315189359202
Barbados195134242163319209
Bermuda309206303190288172
Canada321,009562
Ceylon104691187564
Chile492403492360--
Cyprus70491358611970
Fiji429324403308319249
French Polynesia103681509911374
Germany, West365222317203428253
Ghana2820212716
Guyana144101108727849
Haiti3019221475
Hong Kong273194348241328212
Jamaica1,8111,2161,8131,1761,7541,142
Japan1351201,4438797,3614,088
Leeward and Windward Islands694910743
Malaysia4683291,2108961,8241,247
Netherlands Antilles274190207134230148
Nigeria24816916310214083
Panama Canal Zone26194631452298
Panama Republic973670756501478311
Peru6285271,4241,0594,0392,887
Philippines7065119216621,024721
Singapore344224566368
South Africa4,3503,0159,7106,3755,2443,061
Thailand1410180134589421
Tonga543570457950
Trinidad and Tobago8055551,054683812499
United Kingdom174,941109,606166,91293,865171,19891,408
United States of America388346551402330274
Western Samoa106691096810564
Other countries310210473321258166
Totals189,144119,647190,416109,606199,954109,357
Cheese
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia276168436245389247
Barbados359168325136422188
Belgium----8738
Bermuda8742101508743
Cyprus452063285524
Fiji422149244422
French Polynesia87521096711569
Germany, West1,6967154,0861,7055,2632,242
Guyana15166229208
Hong Kong492327126831
Italy7132909094101,024434
Jamaica1,2927211,1636471,424789
Japan1,3295572,3861,0014,4461,866
Leeward and Windward Islands126681076211669
Malaysia26512381393013
Netherlands236971466214462
Singapore234102396173
South Africa7503771,7077521,444618
Trinidad and Tobago1,0174717593161,023442
United Kingdom80,48734,91274,52432,14170,47330,426
United States of America3,9571,6499,0243,79415,4397,222
Other countries285141230114202110
Totals93,24940,68196,48841,716102,71145,136
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Barbados1914029769660147
Canada----1,138229
Ceylon680284625280706352
Denmark----965165
Fiji712207670185711196
Formosa1393813242741260
French Polynesia179532045529478
Hong Kong21378417102434107
India3,8878965,2221,4921,374346
Israel--3,4846942,554536
Italy--1,857336970187
Jamaica3,2076053,5567721,545326
Japan3,4535987,2691,41542,7088,897
Kuwait255571102627363
Leeward and Windward Islands872428123015
Malaysia7,2621,62710,5982,50612,1822,972
Mauritius374663748421049
Netherlands9521727,8271,4603,074595
Nigeria9522133268817
Pakistan7941691,7253682,281531
Peru5,5121,2453,0357008,0721,834
Philippines10,6792,48311,4172,56313,0632,838
Singapore1,2612742,008449
South Africa805222903221589130
Thailand111401,0102341,987467
Trinidad and Tobago1,9688592,6101,1091,897796
United Kingdom43,1748,63131,2856,16430,2746,722
United States of America51951119120
Western Samoa218651996118656
Other countries1,6614003,2556991,994438
Totals86,65918,89099,55421,960133,09929,818
Casein
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Belgium55818129713816974
Canada13250148564015
France2,0407121,3395971,476624
Germany, West7,8402,5077,9043,8284,6332,101
India114451065717376
Italy6,7071,8895,1052,4352,346967
Japan9,0632,6928,4893,60513,0175,598
Netherlands3,0419221,0144681,178537
Spain4571791658713460
Sweden1,29842760029219385
United Kingdom7,2472,5236,7593,3434,0941,767
United States of America12,7884,4929,8394,83414,7516,553
Other countries478187541254378175
    Totals51,76316,80642,30619,99442,58218,632
Edible Tallow
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia121506
Ceylon119172604417324
China164251,04415866577
Fiji209311923212619
Hong Kong941446710015
India581852141,170185
Japan246294466156974
Malaysia7441133075467690
Singapore2224245562
Tanzania----13017
United Kingdom1,957291449721,948250
Other countries374572273218533
Totals4,4896623,2165086,247852
Inedible Tallow
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia365421,5892371,307173
Burma1,2941951,2981793,654422
Ceylon269343455335648
China5,04960510,3811,4224,685494
Fiji3254172810860071
Ghana2904272210721528
Germany, West3143558163--
India56777118191,208156
Jamaica--1181392687
Japan6,5918144,5525577,343735
Kenya1,59219490212458071
Malaysia3,7414448121104,374457
Mozambique1,6472021,5021912,734279
Netherlands1,8732081,7061922,156190
Pakistan189232143925531
Philippines728921,4071892,314257
Rhodesia1,380151957128--
Singapore742941,901206
South Africa5,0295526,4457619,269934
Spain5457510612--
Trinidad and Tobago1,4331841,0701351,240128
United Kingdom18,2992,2219,3511,1679,090912
North Vietnam761022533--
Zambia6181251757165
Other countries1,7792171,5592091,796196
Totals53,4366,46647,5556,15956,5745,940
Cattle and Horse Hides
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia1,6751971,604235775107
China855861,7872451,609218
Denmark837901,5291901,173168
Finland219203916133750
Germany, West7,1486913,4334714,849654
Italy13,7751,53811,7631,70213,3802,188
Japan2,0242136,3159745,339711
Netherlands3,2303352,8213591,207190
Norway1,374131825871,250166
Poland3,1834033,3775333,380643
South Africa794943845820733
Spain1,4141531,6031961,185157
United Kingdom5,1955293,8544712,905398
Yugoslavia1,009119----
Other countries2,4382851,4992082,332342
Totals45,1704,88441,1855,79039,9286,025
Calf and Kip Skins
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia1222531934780
France2597025510816972
Germany, West607166325138432196
Italy1,4123761,8287552,191943
Japan55811052813435889
Netherlands657166548208270122
Spain3257913956397179
United Kingdom1,3813481,491562556258
United States of America615148--4717
Yugoslavia22747----
Other countries309543097315758
Totals6,4711,5895,4552,0424,9242,014
Sheep Skins (with Wool)
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Belgium46314226567--
France4,3051,0694,6851,0722,923574
Italy7272089692581,148262
Netherlands50142377
Spain1,6264472,036526850167
United Kingdom4781541704715945
Other countries122303266314
Totals7,7712,0658,1581,9775,1801,061
Sheep Skins (Without Wool)
 doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)
Australia3188116457
Belgium1832,2791532,3081932,626
Canada6416351073
Finland1911785131204
France3223019237115694
Germany, West262884562921151
Italy303842536796775
Mexico212191319412104
Netherlands1251,5311161,7021602,272
Spain51321145
United Kingdom4164,3002864,0273723,829
United States of America1,41112,9991,51619,7671,24412,390
Other countries1711931189
Totals2,27522,4192,19729,4542,31023,509
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia7510559674429
Canada1,6993,3011,5022,9851,7653,377
Germany, West212408195358160261
Netherlands93190711622977
United Kingdom3,1145,4213,1265,6323,7296,499
United States of America7131,5477521,6178041,703
Yugoslavia27553170817
Other countries163018221448
Totals5,94911,0565,75410,9146,55312,011
Apples (Fresh) Whole Fruit
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Belgium6,47040410,64366510,204638
Canada1,9571223,8342402,497156
Denmark606381,181741,38587
Fiji512324863043627
Finland523331,3808698862
France160102,755172--
Germany, West6,28339315,2699548,639540
Hong Kong949591,68210588155
Ireland, Republic of--6013782051
Malaysia2,0091261,13471--
Netherlands1,808113----
Norway60138831522,111132
Singapore94667242
Sweden2,1001313,786237--
United Kingdom61,5693,86855,4833,44348,6813,022
United States of America1,273802,5421591,43189
Venezuela1,241781,6001002,154135
Other countries1,7381102,0701351,797116
Totals89,7995,635105,3706,56582,6965,152
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 cwt$(000)cwt$(000)cwt$(000)
Argentina1,351207,555957,07475
Australia41,88976237,74260846,546673
Belgium and Luxembourg273613744777
Canada19613520302205
Chile2,089462,253567,421142
France5,14611122,49035526,866388
Germany, West1,806362,330501,82040
Ireland, Republic of8,89516710,34617914,038190
Italy--60261,81818
Japan918188321970116
Netherlands832181,989401,35127
United Kingdom24,360719111,8981,688110,7231,511
United States of America1,118341,054194889
Uruguay936371,864661,00034
Other countries1,407261,572302,62134
Totals91,2162,013203,1843,245223,1643,169
Peas (Food) Including Frozen
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia2,4802942,9222103,395324
Belgium and Luxembourg974391,832582,51470
Fiji576326263255229
Germany, West--14841,08787
Italy5326381976021
Japan3591514251,43747
Netherlands371161,0683680924
Singapore415372792745542
South Africa25710311101,29137
United Kingdom13,39162212,21652914,259602
United States of America867363511285927
Other countries43538799621,17886
Totals20,1781,14121,3321,00428,5961,396
Peas (Seed)
 cental$(000)cental$(000)cental$(000)
Australia87,117457116,123604114,109551
South Africa2,148114,693259,85141
United Kingdom67,86638864,26530967,273335
Other countries19,06610427,1291219,17143
Totals176,197960212,2101,059200,404970
Wood Pulp and Waste Paper
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia53,3534,55357,5055,04162,5865,115
Japan2,40118410,8717626,668522
Philippines99101,5381432,774239
Other countries1,302291,479581,20352
Totals57,1554,77571,3936,00373,2315,928
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 Sup. ft. Sup. ft. Sup. ft. 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia35,0392,05328,4161,73127,5891,710
Fiji2,1121751,217101827
Nauru134172773930043
Tonga745110870351
Western Samoa343304384129725
Other countries121141011231532
Totals37,8232,29430,5591,93229,2661,868
Saw logs and veneer (Logs, conifer)
 Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia7718227723
Japan14,2963,64815,6603,94418,2644,856
Korea, Republic of84391,4663931,605430
Other countries5211
Totals14,4613,70617,1304,34019,9475,309
Fish (Other than Canned)
 cwt$(000)cwt$(000)cwt$(000)
Australia53,0061,14945,2451,01746,8731,111
France221134734283279
United States of America28,4583,64629,8624,14039,4774,751
Western Samoa2,664212,309181,86914
Other countries6,6241158,10513810,830304
Totals90,9734,94585,9945,35499,8816,259
Newsprint
 cwt cwt cwt 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia2,16311,7692,30311,7901,85810,002
Philippines4812013312259
Other countries84625871045
Totals2,21911,9362,34111,9071,89010,106

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which the Customs entries were passed.

Port19601961Year Ended June
19631964196519661967
 $m$m$m$m$m$m$m
Whangarei---6.98.021.622.5
Auckland197.3173.0196.6220.8246.3235.3233.2
Hamilton---
Tauranga16.414.518.323.524.726.929.7
Gisborne5.58.17.78.17.57.57.1
Napier58.060.160.277.770.278.672.1
Taranaki52.256.353.757.864.364.667.5
Wanganui0.40.20.30.5
Palmerston North---
Wellington89.681.786.4105.091.496.385.9
Picton2.72.71.83.43.73.12.5
Nelson4.44.45.75.16.86.65.8
Greymouth0.70.50.2-
Lyttelton49.845.756.462.061.567.060.6
Timaru35.932.335.542.836.340.034.7
Oamaru-
Otago39.335.840.347.044.644.840.0
Bluff53.252.964.476.876.674.565.5
Totals605.2568.0627.5737.3742.2767.3727.2

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually about one-third of all exports being dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-eighth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In most years, ships' and international aircraft stores, in which aviation spirit and bunker and lubricating oils loom largely, make up between one-quarter and one-third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

*Provisional.
 $(000)
    19544,187
    19554,278
    19564,767
    19574,528
    19584,377
    19595,321
    19605,400
    19617,183
Jan-June
    19623,335
June Year
    19637,563
    19648,844
    19658,512
    196610,454
    19679,601x
    196815,727*

The destination of this re-export trade for the latest June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
196519661967x1968*
*Provisional.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Australia2,4053,5242,6785,206
Fiji429604592966
Hong Kong627434329
Malaysia34532683
Tonga37398499
United Kingdom8521,2671,1381,647
Western Samoa127136170142
Germany, West146222246149
Netherlands1388810681
Canada70180118123
United States of America6749586722,639
Japan184230166268
Other countries1875477591,065
Ships' stores1,9271,038904853
Passengers1,2401,4941,9082,077
    Totals (excluding gold and current coin)8,51210,4549,60115,727

GOODS SHIPPED TO COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands and the values of goods shipped to the islands are summarised below.

YearExports
*Provisional
 $(000)
    19541,120
    19551,175
    19561,132
    19571,313
    19581,501
    19591,298
    19601,490
    19612,081
    19621,888
June Year
    19632,001
    19642,397
    19653,020
    19662,846
    1967x2,796
    1968*3,464

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 38.

22 C—IMPORTS

GENERAL—Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade.

IMPORT CONTROL—Reference to import control is made in Section 22A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by Sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised). It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its limited range of exports.

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
*Provisional.
$(thousand)
195933,7746,77418,93140,3591,63337,329
196034,1487,17520,11239,6101,08537,077
196134,9559,39925,35341,0451,07846,052
196230,8325,62523,46745,93389344,741
196335,2537,51922,60644,33595047,707
196448,6277,00327,53047,8191,10555,450
196535,4697,74531,02851,6911,08865,379
196637,1178,14634,95439,9451,27380,238
1967x31,3848,40736,68044,8631,14377,674
1968*31,9368,70431,83847,8111,35376,722
Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and Transport EquipmentMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
*Provisional.
$(thousand)
1959148,928118,05526,8601,881434,524
1960154,190128,05329,8893,072454,411
1961204,430175,40940,5704,360582,651
1962162,334156,17933,2074,617507,828
1963167,333159,45435,4463,137523,741
1964187,870217,96041,4812,523637,368
1965195,223230,98342,2261,833662,667
1966216,263,40346,8251,236729,426
1967x210,863290,90846,3573,926752,206
1968*182,023191,38143,5352,089617,392

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions for the two latest June years.

Section and Division, S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1967xJune Year 1968*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
*Provisional.
 $(thousand)
Section 0. Food and Live Animals
    Div. 00 Live animals488535316345
    “ 01 Meat and meat preparations9097204231
    “ 02 Dairy products and eggs165181116123
    “ 03 Fish and fish preparations1,6301,7551,3791,507
    “ 04 Cereals and cereal preparations5,2096,2573,4203,998
    “ 05 Fruits and vegetables9,37712,6708,99311,749
    “ 06 Sugar and sugar preparations4,9526,0886,6117,962
    “ 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof8,84911,08610,39613,075
    “ 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including un-milled cereals)181230126150
    “ 09 Miscellaneous food preparations442461376381
Totals, Section 031,38439,36131,93639,521
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco
    Div. 11 Beverages4,0394,5913,8404,075
    “ 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures4,3684,7144,8645,212
Totals, Section 18,4079,3048,7049,287
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
    Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed3864077986
    “ 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels1,0751,2401,6031,797
    “ 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed4,7265,2683,8264,223
    “ 24 Wood and cork4,5546,8672,7234,153
    “ 25 Pulp and waste paper1,9192,3021,3411,673
    “ 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste6,1536,7084,5364,981
    “ 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones15,27326,48815,34122,863
    “ 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap758296109
    “ 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.i.2,5202,7152,2922,456
Totals, Section 236,68052,07831,83842,341
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
    Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes2794814751
    “ 33 Petroleum and petroleum products44,53256,71247,70462,371
    “ 34 Gas52836076
Totals, Section 344,86357,27647,81162,498
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
    Div. 41 Animal oils and fats45524049
    “ 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed9821,1381,2081,382
    “ 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin117135105121
Totals, Section 41,1431,3261,3531,552
Section 5. Chemicals
    Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds17,89619,29019,37920,725
    “ 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas266329223293
    “ 53 Dyeing, tanning and colouring materials5,0185,0705,4245,380
    “ 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products16,22414,91016,76915,081
    “ 55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations2,5792,6362,1182,145
    “ 56 Fertilisers, manufactured5,2877,0424,8606,397
    “ 57 Explosives1,8391,9141,7741,787
    “ 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins18,04717,66216,21915,521
    “ 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products10,51811,3569,95710,784
Totals, Section 577,67480,20976,72278,113
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
    Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs1,2561,299924960
    “ 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.i.5,6765,5264,8094,891
    “ 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)1,6561,9681,4961,832
    “ 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof8,3699,0917,3757,951
    “ 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products71,97078,37962,48867,368
    “ 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.i.9,36910,1868,2208,968
    “ 67 Iron and steel60,11262,29550,94852,239
    “ 68 Non-ferrous metals26,01026,49022,22222,247
    “ 69 Manufactures of metals26,44627,13723,54225,641
Totals, Section 6210,863222,372182,023192,097
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
    Div. 71 Machinery other than electric112,169114,03081,07682,447
    “ 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances58,75560,65443,11544,043
    “ 73 Transport equipment119,984125,48367,19070,831
Totals, Section 7290,908300,167191,381197,321
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles—
    Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, lighting fittings, and fixtures867962611680
    “ 82 Furniture and fixtures150165128138
    “ 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles109119229255
    “ 84 Clothing2,7012,8682,3672,507
    “ 85 Footwear1,2921,3961,1451,227
    “ 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks15,87314,91215,16613,930
    “ 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.i.25,36726,56823,89024,887
Totals, Section 846,35746,99143,53543,624
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind3,9264,1242,0892,173
Grand totals, merchandise imports752,206813,208617,392668,527

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—The United Kingdom has been the chief supplier of New Zealand imports since the eighties of last century. Prior to that the main supply was from Australia. In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June year 1968 only 30.4 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. The proportion further increased to 21.4 percent for the June year 1968. Japan is becoming an important trading partner. In the latest year 7.9 percent of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentages received from the various currency areas.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 11 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America.

YearCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Calendar Year—
    195826789332668734505
    195919575331947433410
    196022293532209153506
    196126097532589454576
    1962   2069944491
June Year—
    196322997462199748524
    19642591325724713359637
    19652621327824212875663
    19662891437527813584729
    1967x29115010127514397752
    1968*   18813268617

The next table gives imports on a c.d.v. basis by countries of origin for June years 1967 and 1968.

CountryJune Year 1967xJune Year 1968*

*Provisional.

†Burma included under sterling area for 1967 and under Other Countries for 1968.

Sterling Area$(000)$(000)
    Aden262382
    Australia142,957132,292
    Bahrain940390
    Barbados67
    Bermuda2-
    Botswana6-
    British Solomon Islands––2
    Brunei371508
    Burma8
    Ceylon4,4474,395
    Cyprus17492
    Fiji1,211659
    Ghana1,1682,042
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands724806
    Guyana8051
    Hong Kong9,46212,995
    India7,0405,848
    Ireland, Republic of100124
    Jamaica389303
    Kenya828698
    Kuwait14,05715,524
    Leeward and Windward Island105
    Malawi58167
    Malaysia5,8744,700
    Malta, including Gozo3042
    Mauritius and Dependencies2043
    Nauru3,9384,097
    New Zealand re-imports478560
    Nigeria230537
    Norfolk Island1––
    Pakistan1,6992,050
    Papua and New Guinea202228
    Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms1,515-
    Rhodesia13
    Singapore3,0191,823
    Sierra Leone––2
    South Africa2,4322,364
    Swaziland197
    Tanzania (including Zanzibar and Pemba)933808
    Tonga633743
    Trinidad and Tobago5565
    Uganda848811
    United Kingdom275,247187,578
    Western Samoa8601,395
    Zambia94
Totals482,343385,152
E.F.T.A. (Excluding U.K.)
    Austria830742
    Denmark1,9121,862
    Norway2,193862
    Portugal451496
    Sweden7,2987,171
    Switzerland and Liechtenstein6,6596,355
Totals19,34417,488
E.E.C.
    Belgium and Luxembourg3,5382,751
    France and Monaco5,9875,186
    Germany, West26,84221,072
    Italy and San Marino10,5858,364
    Netherlands8,6546,680
Total55,60544,053
Dollar Area
    American Samoa––2
    Bolivia-3
    Canada29,50729,502
    Colombia3343
    Costa Rica10112
    Dominican Republic51
    Ecuador555251
    Guatemala11––
    Honduras1––
    Mexico1,3211,757
    Panama Republic180––
    Philippines214193
    Puerto Rico, etc.1317
    United States of America96,53567,937
    Venezuela1,691841
Totals130,168100,560
Other Countries
    Angola including Cabinda1728
    Argentina1210
    Brazil287379
    Bulgaria91
    Burma2
    Burundi4-
    Cambodia816
    Central African Republic-16
    Chile10029
    China (Mainland)3,0812,842
    Congo (Brazzaville)15-
    Congo (Leopoldville)74
    Cuba––1
    Czechoslovakia1,5791,330
    Ethiopia and Eritrea4857
    Finland1,330969
    Formosa129108
    French Polynesia39623
    Gabon11
    Germany, East392332
    Greece1411
    Hungary10164
    Indonesia1,768659
    Iran5,7549,418
    Iraq11531
    Israel6134
    Ivory Coast12062
    Japan43,92848,443
    Korea, Republic of25271
    Lebanon69
    Macao23
    Madagascar43
    Mongolian People's Republic2-
    Morocco1114
    Mozambique85101
    Netherlands Antilles126113
    New Caledonia1––
    Peru4318
    Poland16982
    Portuguese Guinea-1
    Portuguese Timor-2
    Rumania94
    Rwanda-22
    Saudi Arabia3,8333,599
    Spain453428
    Sudan4778
    Syria1322
    Thailand206145
    Togo20-
    Turkey8939
    U.S.S.R.307284
    United Arab Republic (Egypt)12
    Yemen-3
    Yugoslavia2125
Totals64,74670,139
Grand Totals752,206617,392

On a country of origin basis the following table shows for the latest 11 years the percentage of the value (c.d.v.) of total New Zealand imports.

Country1958195919601961Jan-June 1962June Year 1963June Year 1964June Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968

*Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore together formed Malaysia on 16 September 1963. Singapore independent from August 1965.

†Provisional.

‡Alaska and Hawaii included from 1966.

 percent
Sterling Area
    Australia17.2618.0817.9816.2620.5518.5520.8219.3118.5219.0021.43
    Bahrain0.370.480.480.200.400.770.230.130.030.120.06
    Ceylon0.871.080.950.860.980.920.760.670.650.590.71
    Fiji0.480.480.190.230.150.520.840.120.170.160.11
    Ghana0.200.260.240.180.300.250.180.150.270.160.33
    Hong Kong0.380.390.780.790.911.121.191.301.281.262.10
    India2.372.102.132.021.731.811.701.311.50x0.940.95
    Malaysia and Singapore*1.181.301.401.241.821.041.381.481.011.181.06
    Nauru0.210.250.290.230.400.300.360.380.400.520.66
    South Africa0.460.530.660.700.330.430.310.280.340.320.38
    United Kingdom52.5447.2943.4544.7442.8541.8838.6836.5038.13x36.5930.38
    Western Samoa0.220.330.230.160.230.180.170.170.140.110.23
    Other0.771.111.050.970.971.091.243.233.223.173.98
Totals sterling countries77.3273.6769.8268.5971.5968.8667.8665.0365.6464.1262.38
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)
    Austria0.170.160.150.180.200.180.150.140.130.110.12
    Denmark0.150.150.160.150.130.170.160.240.250.250.30
    Norway0.330.330.280.280.240.250.200.170.160.290.14
    Portugal0.100.080.070.070.070.130.080.080.060.060.08
    Sweden0.781.130.780.900.700.742.051.570.920.971.16
    Switzerland0.690.790.930.880.680.880.890.940.990.891.03
Totals E.F.T.A. countries2.232.652.382.462.022.343.533.142.512.572.83
E.E.C.
    Belgium0.770.740.920.810.820.660.790.560.46x0.470.45
    France0.720.640.831.010.920.890.920.690.720.800.84
    Germany, West3.013.023.093.463.002.962.752.833.063.573.41
    Italy0.590.720.740.791.130.970.880.921.051.411.35
    Netherlands1.24.191.371.961.201.121.211.391.321.151.08
Totals E.E.C. countries6.346.306.958.037.076.606.566.396.617.397.14
Dollar Area
    Canada2.342.343.183.763.463.413.413.874.063.924.78
    U.S.A.6.798.1610.499.438.489.169.2711.3311.4912.8311.00
    Other0.090.230.731.010.870.951.260.600.320.550.51
Totals dollar countries9.2310.7314.4014.1912.8113.5213.9415.8015.8717.3016.29
Other Countries
    China0.170.200.170.150.170.200.230.300.380.410.46
    Czechoslovakia0.180.130.170.210.150.160.170.170.160.210.22
    Indonesia1.221.041.040.370.790.800.870.100.290.240.11
    Iran0.530.820.800.590.790.830.371.840.910.761.53
    Japan1.121.752.852.912.594.624.815.546.165.847.85
    Netherlands Antilles0.791.480.360.830.740.590.360.23––0.020.02
    Saudi Arabia0.260.660.410.630.580.200.150.300.360.510.58
    Other0.600.580.641.040.691.271.161.161.110.620.59
Totals other countries4.886.656.456.726.518.688.119.649.378.6111.36
Grand totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1966 and 1967. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1965-661966-67
Unmilled Wheat$(000)
    Australia6,0594,431
    All countries6,0594,431
Oranges
    Australia1,3331,152
    All countries2,0271,668
Sugar (not refined)
    Australia1,4533,494
    Dominican Republic300-
    Fiji799689
    Formosa1,616-
    Reunion905-
All countries5,0804,191
Bananas
    Ecuador344550
    Tonga275376
    Western Samoa29930
    All countries9841,165
Dried Fruits
    Australia3,4142,751
    U.S.A.1,007791
    All countries4,7943,930
Whisky
    United Kingdom2,8252,573
    All countries2,8622,624
Tobacco
    (Unmanufactured)  
    Rhodesia996-
    South Africa156425
    U.S.A.2,1023,472
    All countries3,3764,066
Rubber (Crude and Synthetic)
    Canada351427
    Malaysia2,1892,523
    United Kingdom435293
    U.S.A.805744
    All countries4,4174,726
Wood (Shaped or Simply Worked)
    Australia1,0951,112
    Canada905959
    U.S.A.1,4821,139
    All countries4,5414,046
Pulp and Waste Paper
    Finland6201,210
    Sweden589365
    All countries1,9601,919
Wool and Other Animal Hair
    Australia2,6202,209
    United Kingdom669569
    All countries3,2962,781
Natural Phosphates
    French Polynesia1,030382
    Gilbert and Ellice Island652724
    Nauru2,9143,938
    U.S.A.1,4311,537
    All countries6,1427,663
Cocoa
    Ghana1,564872
    Netherlands770689
    All countries2,5811,587
Tea
    Ceylon4,6074,316
    India430379
    All countries5,3884,790
Petroleum Spirit
    Australia8692,744
    Iran1,1541,068
    Singapore306440
    Venezuela2921,063
    All countries2,8886,542
Kerosene
    Australia1,0971,297
    Indonesia1,009713
    Iran714392
    Malaysia152473
    Singapore282447
    All countries3,3563,895
Lubricating Oils and Greases—
    Australia1,8411,547
    United Kingdom1,020730
    U.S.A.9981,190
    All countries3,9093,543
Organic Chemicals
    Australia1,3891,440
    Germany, West772695
    Japan5471,007
    United Kingdom3,1992,948
    U.S.A.3,8323,975
    All countries11,15511,400
Inorganic Chemicals
    Australia1,5331,514
    Germany, West747597
    Japan556508
    United Kingdom2,0321,638
    U.S.A.1,019941
    All countries7,0956,446
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Products
    Australia5,1334,382
    Germany, West1,3091,026
    Switzerland2,2221,509
    United Kingdom6,6887,642
    U.S.A.666882
    All countries16,50016,224
Sulphur (Other Than Sublimed, etc.)
    Canada960756
    Mexico5861,143
    U.S.A.1,7732,523
    All countries3,3454,459
Plastic Materials, Regenerated Cellulose, and Artificial Resins
    Australia3,6774,160
    Japan1,3331,547
    United Kingdom8,6946,444
    U.S.A.3,1862,795
    All countries19,83518,047
Rubber Tyres and Tubes
    United Kingdom851733
    U.S.A.706570
    All countries2,0791,929
Paper and Paperboard
    Australia1,3121,102
    Canada395430
    Japan417593
    United Kingdom3,8633,239
    U.S.A.866775
    All countries7,9717,015
Textile Yarn and Thread
    Australia1,6931,397
    Hong Kong1,2811,379
    Japan9901,157
    United Kingdom4,5444,289
    All countries10,0449,798
Cotton Fabrics Suitable for Manufacture of Apparel
    China, Mainland677860
    Hong Kong2,7912,453
    Japan3,8593,705
    United Kingdom1,1261,061
    U.S.A.694704
    All countries10,86210,535
Cotton Furnishing and Household Fabrics
    Hong Kong1,0811,172
    India1,126593
    United Kingdom1,5951,320
    All countries5,1484,544
Manufactured Fertilisers
    Canada2,6992,174
    Germany, West1,256675
    U.S.A.1,281x1,743
    All countries6,0075,287
Woven Fabrics of Synthetic Fibres
    Japan2,8413,406
    United Kingdom889802
    U.S.A.895969
    All countries5,8376,496
Woven Fabrics of Regenerated Artificial Fibres
    Japan2,1352,325
    United Kingdom3,2372,567
    U.S.A.1,7231,814
    All countries9,8469,484
Knitted or Crocheted Fabrics
    Hong Kong1,3111,343
    United Kingdom1,188825
    U.S.A.595504
    All countries3,9143,313
Household Linens
    Hong Kong331286
    India281222
    Japan267191
    United Kingdom546565
    U.S.A.231322
    All countries2,2602,085
Glass
    Belgium182197
    Germany, West329211
    Netherlands467329
    United Kingdom1,8851,957
    U.S.A.434310
    All countries3,5873,337
Bars and Rods of Iron or Steel
    Australia1,9612,875
    Japan2,345731
    United Kingdom1,2641,065
    All countries6,1305,213
Woven Woollen Fabrics
    Australia565656
    United Kingdom2,9352,938
    All countries4,0304,159
Woven Jute Fabrics—
    India1,7291,349
    United Kingdom191104
    All countries1,9421,494
Universals, Plates, and Sheets of Iron or Steel13,19915,458
    Australia7,4595,537
    Japan5,7275,845
    United Kingdom27,49628,376
All countries  
Hoop and Strip of Iron or Steel
    Australia470672
    Japan674437
    United Kingdom978940
    All countries2,3742,370
Iron and Steel Wire
    Australia1,7211,589
    United Kingdom1,7521,252
    All countries4,1133,548
Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings of Iron or Steel
    Australia2,8852,785
    United Kingdom5,3815,008
    All countries9,2198,746
Copper and Copper Alloys
    Australia6,4277,157
    Canada2,1862,789
    United Kingdom5,3343,846
    All countries14,25114,073
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
    Australia853956
    Canada2,7804,632
    United Kingdom675446
    U.S.A.669515
    All countries5,3847,103
Nails, Screws, Nuts, Bolts, etc., of Iron, Steel, Copper
    Australia532559
    United Kingdom1,3571,312
    All countries2,7392,736
Angles, Shapes, and Sections of Iron or Steel
    Australia  
    Japan1,2642,587
    United Kingdom2,679757
    All countries2,9162,541
Aircraft Engines7,2366,157
    United Kingdom850618
    U.S.A.1,3651,021
    All countries2,4361,657
Internal Combustion Engines, Not Aircraft
    Australia862x715
    United Kingdom2,8392,997
    U.S.A.1,4521,896
    All countries6,0056,588
Agricultural Machinery and Appliances
    United Kingdom881772
    U.S.A2,4871,784
    All countries4,9913,848
Tractors
    Japan2331,034
    United Kingdom12,66910,607
    U.S.A.7,7523,894
    All countries21,84117,171
Office Machines
    Germany, West7452,736
    United Kingdom3,8386,545
    U.S.A.2,2352,487
    All countries8,35914,979
Metal-working Machinery
    Australia546333
    Germany, West428496
    United Kingdom2,2311,789
    U.S.A.575435
    All countries4,5853,916
Textile Machinery
    Germany, West785654
    United Kingdom2,6091,824
    U.S.A.441307
    All countries4,8103,822
Cutlery
    Australia403405
    Japan346283
    United Kingdom973959
    All countries2,1052,047
Excavating, Levelling, Boring, etc., Machinery
    United Kingdom2,4631,867
    U.S.A.1,6841,111
    All countries5,0323,866
Pumps and Centrifuges
    Australia1,1231,384
    United Kingdom3,4053,357
    U.S.A.1,0671,212
    All countries6,9067,804
Mechanical Handling Equipment
    United Kingdom2,8092,637
    U.S.A.1,5741,080
    All countries5,6535,145
Ball, Roller, and Needle Roller Bearings
    Sweden420408
    United Kingdom1,4201,396
    U.S.A.448426
    All countries2,9772,881
Taps, Cocks, Valves
    Australia532725
    United Kingdom1,7881,763
    U.S.A.382491
    All countries3,1223,599
Transmission Shafts and Cranks
    Australia578721
    United Kingdom2,0542,193
    U.S.A.875863
    All countries3,8784,173
Electrical Power Machinery and Switchgear
    Australia2,1872,260
    Germany, West2634,110
    Italy7311,439
    Japan5821,095
    Sweden1,0191,705
    U.S.A.7391,011
    United Kingdom9,79711,057
    All countries16,96124,243
Printing and Bookbinding Machinery
    Germany, West640605
    United Kingdom2,4771,028
    U.S.A.7921,045
    All countries4,4043,011
Electrical Measurement and Controlling tus
    United Kingdom1,7051,833
    U.S.A.638816
    All countries3,0763,319
Telecommunications Equipment
    United Kingdom6,5447,558
    U.S.A.919645
    All countries8,7678,920
Railway Vehicles
    Canada3,276698
    Japan1,6082,214
    United Kingdom773920
    All countries6,6774,698
Motorcars
    Australia14,948x17,241
    Canada671708
    France911787
    Japan737886
    United Kingdom32,14823,217
    All countries50,84444,871
Lorries, Trucks, and Vans
    Australia1,665739
    United Kingdom14,00012,830
    All countries17,17915,011
Aircraft
    United Kingdom5801,585
    U.S.A.1,51916,331
    Netherlands1,331897
    All countries3,90119,055
Ships and Boats
    United Kingdom4,10919,329
    All countries4,40120,861
Equipment for Distributing Electricity
    Australia430930
    United Kingdom6,1126,610
    All countries7,5178,596
Watches and Clocks
    Germany, West401318
    Switzerland753718
    United Kingdom498473
    All countries2,1241,996
Photographic Films, Plates, and Paper (Not Developed Cinematographic Film)
    Australia2,1562,069
    United Kingdom993881
    All countries4,1134,163
Clothing
    Hong Kong366370
    United Kingdom1,9731,561
    All countries3,0762,678
Printed Books and Pamphlets
    Australia1,1591,105
    United Kingdom4,5415,178
    U.S.A.2,1592,838
    All countries8,36110,032
Newspapers and Periodicals
    Australia1,6181,539
    United Kingdom1,8991,809
    U.S.A.575710
    All countries4,2004,135

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantity imported during June years 1965 to 1968 of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
196519661967x1968*

*Provisional.

† lbs(000).

Fish, canned, and fish preparationslb(000)5,8246,2354,6533,693
Wheat, unmilledbushels(000)6,1045,4613,6771,754
Ricecwt(000)76.366.072.093.4
Orangeslb(000)34,50539,48134,81128,700
Bananas"56,03266,55766,98062,868
Fruit—
    Dried"21,33628,92023,71421,355
    Canned"9,77811,3058,3797,549
Desiccated coconut"2,7022,8763,0423,246
Edible nuts"2,0102,0271,7911,747
Sugarcwt(000)2,4092,8382,7683,068
Coffee, rawlb(000)6,9067,9889,1018,746
Tea"16,61218,28617,69215,765
Cocoa 7,03017,6088,04015,277
Winegal(000)253295206291
Whiskyproof gal(000)574549525453
Tobacco, unmanufacturedlb(000)5,7206,9266,7767,215
Synthetic and artificial fibres"4,6705,5866,5274,855
Woven fabrics—
    Synthetic fibressq. yd(000)10,48812,79614,88216,123
    Artificial fibres"20,59823,27021,54616,482
Yarn and thread of silk, rayon, and synthetic fibreslb(000)5,2763,6503,5183,055
Yarn of wool and animal hair"523591358188
Meat wraps, cottonlb(000)3,6483,7783,4614,244
Textile fabrics coated with plasticsq. yd(000)1,6101,2401,225867
Bags, sacks, wool packsdoz(000)788976875829
Cotton yarn and threadlb(000)5,6836,5236,8166,119
Cotton fabrics, woven, unbleachedsq. yd(000)10,86811,32110,8667,398
Cotton canvas and duck"1,3301,6261,8621,023
Cotton fabrics suitable for the manufacture of apparel—
    Flannelette, winceyette, diaper cloth"10,8819,9499,2658,790
    Other kinds"33,41431,71931,07723,839
Cotton furnishing and household fabrics"16,74819,65418,80118,575
Woven silk fabrics"409.3361.6308.6240.7
Woven woollen fabrics"3,340x3,541x3,6012,442
Woven linen, ramie, and hemp fabrics"1,392x1,723x1,8511,131
Woven jute fabrics"19,42219,44718,80516,767
Rubbercwt(000)298.9272.4302.6242.8
Timber, sawnsup. ft(000)35,99838,39434,06318,439
Wood and paper pulptons17,55721,67321,69714,816
Nitrate of soda"3,7053,9232,600735
Fertilisers, phosphatic"955,8271,041,3231,075,180893,615
Gypsum, crudecwt(000)2,0882,1642,1931,731
Sulphurtons205,107211,548187,626166,425
Saltcwt(000)9901,006857889
Asbestos"151.3152.4159.0117.0
Petroleum, crudetons1,878,0661,399,7201,528,4421,519,956
Petroleum, partly refinedgal(000)176,816326,593337,985930,224
Motor spirit"156,30530,85373,81271,206
Distillate fuels"52,90824,04342,25831,586
Kerosene and white spirit"41,13440,64949,49041,839
Lubricating oils and preparations"11,86214,05912,39711,684
Cream of tartar and substitutescwt(000)38.347.142.645.2
Acids"43.633.028.431.2
Caustic soda"97.9115.2116.3141.8
Carbonate of soda"346.5466.7408.4428.1
Calcium carbide"66.156.873.563.3
Sulphate of ammoniatons13,72312,55712.83410.487
Potash"147,855177,358155.969188.584
Pig iron and ingotscwt(000)198.0188.8176.9143.0
Bars and rods of iron or steel"1,669.32,085.7x2,040.01,359.4
Angles, etc., shapes and sections of iron or steel"1,422.81,743.9x1,465.9919.7
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel"3,746.13,994.3x3,999.63,184.6
Hoop and strip of iron or steel"256.4280.3258.6204.1
Rails of iron or steel—fish plates etc."304.3362.9285.2262.3
Iron and steel wire"740.7536.4436.4336.5
Tubes, pipes, and fittings of iron or steel"758.61,049.5x934.7849.5
Silver and platinum not fully workedoz(000)1,680.91,985.8x1,631.31,273.4
Copper and copper alloyscwt(000)267.5312.6259.9207.2
Aluminium and aluminium alloys"229.5216.5310.6223.2
Lead and lead alloys"122.9146.8112.888.2
Finished structural parts and constructionscwt(000)95.887.5241.9396.5
Wire products"101.7146.4141.277.4
Nails, screws, nuts, bolts, etc."89.976.284.850.4
Hand toolsdoz(000)528.1618.8480.4303.0
Knives, kitchen and table"116.896.594.290.8
Spoons and forks"301.5282.7212.2186.5
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)number80,40876,92694.24761.399
Agricultural mowers—crops, lawn, weed, scrub cutting"3,1404,3952,5501,805
Agricultural harvesters and threshers—forage, tobacco"300446314250
Earthmoving machines"33834820161
Typewriting, calculating, and accounting machines"21,87225,70751,47721,270
Domestic sewing machines"27,48027,30926,31022,219
Electric motors—
    Under 1 b.h.p.number386,607392,534483,788435,369
    1 b.h.p. and over"18,97427,26428,96017,269
Sparking plugs(000)2,3871,192841554
Tractorsnumber4,9779,5527,6982,897
Motor cars—
    Unassembled"56,77558,74050,36638,788
    Assembled"8,5728,1057,1654,340
Lorries, trucks, buses, vans, etc.—
    Unassembled"9,50513,21910,5034,847
    Assembled"135115419180
Motor cycles"5,3314,4354,6573,557
Bicycles"26,35314,1067,9306,225
Rubber tyres and tubes (excl. bicycle)(000)1201581311,945
Plywoodsq. ft. (000)7391,4772,7261,379
Newsprint papercwt (000)90.660.134.66.0
Printing and writing paper—
    Machine made, not processed"190.4132.5105.496.4
    Impregnated, coated, or printed"104.9114.9121.4100.0
Machine made paper and paperboard n.e.s."67.179.554.743.1
Grease proof paper, etc."44.552.146.441.9
Wallpaperrolls (000)656.2481.1390.414.1
Linoleum and similar floor coveringssq. yd. (000)2,671.22,816.9x1,876.71,288.3
Carpets and carpeting of or with wool"122.4104.447.612.5
Glass plate and sheetsq. ft. (000)11,0338,9888.5177.079
Table ware and toilet potterylb (000)2,929.03,062.5x2,643.22,091.7
Footweardoz. pr. (000)96.3109.5100.873.6
Cameras, photographic(000)132.674.770.489.3
Watches"162.7183.7159.2141.0
Clocks, other than electric"237.1273.8255.2180.0
Electric clocks"28.935.637.226.1
Electrical capacitors"29,18219,35518,1136,430
Insulated wires and cablescwt (000)249.3185.8193.1106.6
Telephone handsets(000)94.866.8119.682.8
Electric accumulators"19.024.647.818.8
Electric lamp bulbs and tubes"6,425.06,370.4x6,527.55,768.9
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes"3,7632,5242,3701,252
Crystal valves"3,1152,3582,9021,712

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1968 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortJune Year 1963June Year 1964June Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967xJune Year 1968*
*Provisional.
 $(thousand)
Whangarei-7,963x30,17932,23138,63131,909
Auckland215,504256,738x267,345291,103301,230265,005
Hamilton––1,389x1,5982,5352,7372,166
Tauranga8,9969,751x7,7369,20820,4909,098
Gisborne1,190869x844830817644
Napier9,94012,10611,28814,18815,70814,842
Taranaki8,0068,423x9,7168,8659,63610,025
Wanganui724877x952980999990
Palmerston North––1,8782,1752,6662,7092,318
Wellington168,934209,961x206,747227,113219,144168,673
Picton869x439x3014253951,880
Nelson2,2282,693x1,9694,9006,6294,374
Greymouth4001,047x543531418475
Lyttelton71,94679,93879,72191,63588,54971,161
Timaru3,853x6,691x6,4023,3814,7083,426
Oamaru686610780487--
Otago23,393x25,879x25,78827,89427,92520,435
Bluff7,073x10,112x8,58210,45311,4829,972
Totals523,741637,368662,667729,426752,206617,392

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Lyttelton occupies third place and with the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached fourth place in importance. Following these, with the exception of Otago, the relative importance of the ports varies from year to year.

It should be mentioned that imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Whenuapai (Mangere since November 1965) were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Harewood in the Lyttelton figures.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to the main islands of New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with New Zealand territory overseas.

YearValue of Goods from Cook, Niue and Tokelau Islands
*Provisional.
 $
1958594,142
1959686,014
1960656,990
1961942,872
Jan-June 
1962451,758
June Year$
19631,186,938
19641,561,986
19651,866,990
19661,582,264
19671,563,834
1968*1,590,536

The value of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook, Niue and Tokelau islands during the last two years is as follows:

CommoditiesYear Ended June 1967x c.d.v.Year Ended June 1968* c.d.v.
*Provisional.
 $$
Oranges, whole fruit85,47268,852
Tangarines and mandarines, whole fruit73,0547,592
Lemons, grapefruit, etc., whole fruit13,09427,062
Bananas6,5665,781
Honey-9,004
Pineapples, whole fruit13,9224,925
Citrus fruit juices484,794511,037
Pineapple juice124,034145,451
Other fruit juices7,4446,133
Preserved fruit156,270131,521
Fresh tomatoes109,68656,506
Arrowroot, etc.33218,220
Copra186,166266,304
Coral and shells, etc., unworked or simply prepared2,3201,580
Wood manufactures (not furniture)-40,609
Textile clothing (not knitted, etc.)—
    Men's and boys' outer garments141,522154,763
    Women's and girls' outer garments8,67615,215
    Men's and boys' undergarments30,58464,091
Women's, girls' and infants' undergarments-5,516
Basketwork, wickerwork, etc.12,5208,848
Empty returns7702,239
Compressed gas cylinders, etc.106,6083,408
Other miscellaneous items-35,879
Totals1,563,8341,590,536

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF—Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in bilateral and multilateral trade agreements.

When New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 the intention was to raise revenue and to some extent to give preference to goods of British origin. The tariff changes of 1851 and 1864 widened the scope of the tariff but retained its revenue aspects, though at this time the duties were mainly specific rather than ad valorem. In 1888 ad valorem rates became more general and the rate of duty was raised to 20 percent, which was double the amount charged in earlier years.

The prevailing economic philosophy was, of course, that of free trade, and in New Zealand's case it was underlined by the fact that Parliament predominantly represented the farming community. Even so, the depression of the eighties had so affected some of New Zealand's manufacturing industries that protection by tariffs became practical politics in 1888. The tariff revision of 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries, and at the same time it eliminated the duties on many items which entered into the cost of living of those residing in urban areas. These tendencies were continued in 1900, 1907, and 1921, with British preferences becoming more evident.

In 1921 provision was made for an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This was the first occasion when the legislature tried to cope with twentieth century economic conditions which threatened to cut across tariffs designed to give protection to industries which were supposed to develop in a manner normal to the nineteenth century. In 1921 provision was made for anti-dumping duties, another attempt to meet so-called abnormal practices. The depreciated currency duties ranged from 2 1/2 to 20 percent; the dumping duty was not to exceed the difference between the sale price and the current domestic value.

The 1927 tariff revision extended further British preferences and increased the number of duties imposed for protection purposes. Further important items, if of British origin, were also placed on the free list. In 1930 surtaxes on dutiable goods were imposed for revenue purposes and the general tariff rate was increased by about 5 percent. In 1931 a primage of 3 percent was charged on imports (except in specified cases) which were otherwise free of duty.

In the meantime there had been a change in trade policy, which had tended to become one of protection rather than one of free trade.

As a result of the changing conditions the Ottawa Conference was called. The outcome of this conference was the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, the effect of which was to give further preference to British goods and to inhibit the use of the tariff by New Zealand for purely protective purposes. (The United Kingdom, for its part, granted duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and applied tariff rates on butter and cheese from foreign countries and undertook to place quota restrictions on meats from foreign countries. See Section 21A—Marketing of Primary Produce.)

In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which in the main adhered to the already established principle of British preference, and actually reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in more cases than it provided protection. The adoption of this report by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934 resulted in a wide range of items being made dutiable for revenue purposes, while a small group of items with a low to moderate duty gave limited protection against goods of British origin. Thus New Zealand's tariff remained an expression of the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

This tariff remained practically unchanged until 1960, although extended in its scope by subsequent trade agreements. In 1960 some amendments were made.

An agreement signed in Wellington in August 1959 between New Zealand and the United Kingdom made provision for the minimum margin of preference of 20 percent accorded to British goods under the Ottawa Agreement to be reduced.

The Board of Trade, in November 1957, completed a comprehensive review of the whole structure and incidence of the tariff and reported to Government.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act 1961 introduced, with effect from 1 July 1962, a revised Tariff which took its structure from the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), a document of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, designed to list in a systematic manner the goods of world commerce according to their economic significance. It was keyed to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature, (B.T.N.), an internationally agreed nomenclature which has carefully drafted rules of definition and in which articles are grouped in logical sequence often according to the nature of the material of which they are made. A new tariff based on the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was introduced on 1 July 1967. The duty rates remain unchanged and the statistical details conform to the requirements of the S.I.T.C. (Revised).

The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand. This publication is available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in “multi-column” form listing rates of duty under (a) the British preferential tariff, special rates under Australian and Canadian agreements being shown against the items concerned; (b) the most-favoured-nation tariff (under which goods from countries adhering to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and goods from certain countries with which New Zealand has separate trade agreements are admitted); and (c) the general tariff.

Duty is generally calculated according to ad valorem rates; where, in certain cases specific rates are prescribed, they are of a simple nature.

IMPORT CONTROL—Import licensing applies to approximately half of private imports and is explained in Section 22A.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities are as follows.

Beer—As from 22 August 1947 the excise duty on beer became 30c per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,036, increased by .84c for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on beer was increased to 60c a gallon where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036, advancing by 1.67c for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60°F is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco—From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on tobacco was increased to the following amounts: tobacco, cut, $2.27 per pound; tobacco, plug, $2.27 per pound; cigars and snuff, $1.20 per pound; cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight for 1,000, $7.00 per 1,000; cigarettes exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000, $2.80 per pound. From 22 July 1960 the duty was reduced, on both cut and plug tobaccos, by 25c per pound, on cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight for 1,000, by 60c per 1,000, and on other cigarettes, by 24c per pound. These rates were increased as from 4 May 1967 to the following: tobacco, manufactured, $2.82 per pound, cigars and snuff, $2.38 per pound; cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight per 1,000, $8.90 per 1,000; cigarettes exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000, $3.56 per pound. An excise duty of 7c is levied on each 1,000 cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

Sugar—There is an excise duty of $18.66 per ton on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Alcohol—Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in the manufacture of: perfumed spirits, $3.60 per proof gallon; toilet preparations, $3.40; culinary and flavouring essences $2.00; medical preparations containing more than 50 percent of proof spirit, 45c per proof gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 percent, the alcohol us is duty free.

Distilleries—Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other basically derived white spirit liquors approved by the Minister of Customs, which are produced by three rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $13.50 per proof gallon.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and excise duties is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther Excise and Customs DutiesTotal Excise and Customs Duties
BeerSpiritsTobaccoSugar
$(000)
196230,036––30,426 53,314113,776
196331,1762,70030,759 44,305108,940
196431,2603,26931,7722,14048,561117,002
196531,0883,70032,5202,04545,137114,490
196632,8284,10033,3582,23149,185121,702
196734,7355,71136,6042,38747,310126,747
196835,5915,82845,0002,48753,266142,172

Motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties; increased duty paid into the Consolidated Revenue Account is included in the total of Customs and excise duties.

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government Finance.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY—The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff and in a few cases lower.

By an Order in Council dated 18 November 1965 the General Tariff is applied to Rhodesian goods.

Reciprocity With United Kingdom—Under the Ottawa Agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 percent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 percent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom.

In 1958 New Zealand sought new arrangements with the United Kingdom and on 25 November 1958 the two Governments signed Heads of Agreement. This provided the basis for a new agreement to give New Zealand the right to reduce the margins of preference applied to United Kingdom goods entering New Zealand to 5 percent on certain imports essential for industry, to 7 1/2 percent on an extensive list of welfare and producer goods, and to 10 percent on all other goods. The formal text of the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement was signed in Wellington on 12 August 1959.

On 28 June 1966 a “Record of Understanding” was agreed between New Zealand and the United Kingdom and this formed the basis for the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement signed on 24 November 1966. New Zealand undertook to maintain duty-free entry for a short list of items and minimum margins of preference from 10 percent to 20 percent on another list of items. Otherwise the margins of preference in the 1959 Agreement are continued. On its part the United Kingdom has undertaken that, until 30 September 1972, it will admit without restriction of quantity, imports of the following New Zealand goods:

  1. Beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and the edible offals thereof, and chilled and frozen pork; and

  2. Butter, cheese, skim and butter milk powders and casein.

In respect of butter, however, the two Governments agreed to annual consultations in connection with the United Kingdom quota scheme under which allocations are provided for the importation of butter from all countries, including New Zealand.

Reciprocity With Australia—(a) An agreement, completed in April 1933 and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act of that year, came into operation on 1 December 1933, and remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the agreement each country grants to the goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods, enumerated in the Schedules to the agreement, on which special rates are fixed.

The agreement provided for lower duties than those prescribed under Australia's British preferential tariff on many classes of New Zealand products entering Australia, including fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Minor modifications have been made to the Schedules of the agreement from time to time, but they remain substantially the same as originally negotiated.

The agreement must be read subject to the 1965 Free Trade Agreement with Australia.

The setting up of an Australian - New Zealand Consultative Committee on Trade was agreed on by the Australian and New Zealand Governments in August 1960.

(b) The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the 1933 agreement, and, in particular, 1933 agreement rates which are higher than the equivalent British Preferential rates are to be reduced to the British Preferential level not later than 1 January 1974, and some of these rates have been so reduced.

The goods listed in the schedule to the agreement cover 60 percent of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. The first review of the NAFTA has resulted in the addition of further items to Schedule A, the duty reductions on which entered into force on 1 January 1968 at the same time as the second stage reductions on the original Schedule A items.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The agreement is to remain in force for 10 years and thereafter shall remain in force unless terminated 180 days after appropriate notice is given by one country and the prescribed consultations between the two countries have been held.

Reciprocity With Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

Reciprocity With Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade. The agreement remains in force until six months from the date on which notice of termination is given by either Government.

Other Trade Arrangements—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. In some earlier cases New Zealand automatically became a party to arrangements concluded by the United Kingdom; in others she became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to such arrangements. Other arrangements again resulted from direct negotiations between New Zealand and the countries concerned. In practice many of these arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) are superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, some remain separately in force, and, in addition to those countries which are contracting parties to the General Agreement, New Zealand grants most-favoured-nation tariff treatment to China, United Arab Republic, Formosa (Taiwan), Liberia, Tunisia, and Somalia.

The trade arrangements between Switzerland and New Zealand dating from 1938, under which New Zealand receives a guaranteed import quota for apples and pears, continues in force but the portion of the arrangement relating to most-favoured-nation treatment for imports has been superseded since Switzerland became a contracting party to GATT on 1 August 1966. Since 1957 the arrangement has been extended also to Liechtenstein.

The Federal Republic of Germany and New Zealand concluded a trade agreement in April 1959. The agreement is designed to facilitate as far as possible the exchange of goods and services between the two countries. New Zealand is granted quotas on certain primary products while for some others New Zealand will be considered as a source of supply for imports into Germany under the import programme. The agreement was concluded following international discussions under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on problems arising out of the Federal Republic's import restrictions. The circumstances under which the negotiations with the Federal Republic were initiated were thus somewhat different from the usual, and because of this New Zealand is not required under the agreement to make any special arrangements regarding German exports. As contracting parties to the General Agreement the two countries already granted each other most-favoured-nation tariff treatment.

A trade agreement with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics entered into force on 1 August 1963, and is subject to three months' notice of termination on either side.

The trade agreement provides for the mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matte concerning trade and shipping between New Zealand and the Soviet Union. In particular each country has agreed to grant to the other, most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to Customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on the importation or exportation of products from the other country. Similarly most-favoured-nation treatment will apply in relation to prohibitions or restrictions whether in the form of quotas, import or export licences, or other controls.

A trade agreement with the Polish People's Republic entered into force on 7 July 1965 and will remain in force for a period of five years and thereafter continue in force until the expiration of six months' notice of termination from either country. This agreement provides for mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters relating to import and export duties and charges, and also in regard to prohibitions or restrictions whether by way of quotas, import or export licences, foreign-exchange controls, regulations, directions, or other control measures.

The Republic of Korea and New Zealand entered into a trade agreement on 31 January 1967 providing for mutual most-favoured-nation treatment in all matters of trade between New Zealand and South Korea, including non-discrimination in the treatment of foreign exchange for trade purposes. A similar agreement was made with the People's Republic of Bulgaria on 7 March 1968.

A trade agreement with the Republic of the Philippines entered into force on 19 July 1968. The agreement provides most-favoured-nation treatment being extended to the trade between the two countries, including the allocation of foreign exchange. Initially the agreement runs for one year, thereafter it may be terminated by either country on six months' notice.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—Tariff negotiations took place in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each participating country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multilaterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. Concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase. The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

The foreign countries to whose products the concessionary rates (i.e., the most-favoured-nation rates) of duty apply by virtue of their membership in GATT or some special arrangement in GATT are: Algeria, Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Leopoldville), Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dahomey, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Gabon, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Haiti, Iceland, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Korea, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malagasy, Mali, Mauritania, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Togo, Turkey, United States of America, Upper Volta, Uruguay, Yugoslavia. Eire is also a member of GATT but receives the concessionary rates of the British preferential tariff.

The following Commonwealth countries are members of GATT: Australia, Canada, Ceylon, Cyprus, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Malta, Nigeria, Pakistan, Rhodesia, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (and dependent territories), Barbados.

Some other Commonwealth countries, as newly independent states, apply the GATT on a de facto basis: Botswana, Lesotho, Maldive Islands, Singapore, and Zambia.

While the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade has been the principal aim of the General Agreement it has also provided an internationally accepted code of rules in world trade, and its regular sessions have been useful as a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

Developments have tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports reasonably expected to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised countries and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries like New Zealand. This has been due primarily to the growing use of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The results of the Kennedy Round which was concluded in June 1967 have not corrected this imbalance, although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of agricultural products exported to some GATT countries. As compensation New Zealand has undertaken to reduce most-favoured-nation rates of duty by up to 50 percent of existing rates on a number of items. The first of the five equal annual reductions, which will implement this commitment, was made on 1 January 1968.

INTERNATIONAL GRAINS ARRANGEMENT—At a conference held in Rome in July-August 1967 a new International Grains Arrangement was concluded. It is based on a Memorandum of Agreement signed by the major participants in the Kennedy Round (not including New Zealand), and on the 1962 International Wheat Agreement, of which New Zealand was a member.

The new Arrangement comprises a preamble with two linked but independent instruments— a Wheat Trade Convention and a Food Aid Convention. On trade the basic provisions of the new Arrangement are similar to those of the 1962 Agreement. Member countries when importing undertake to purchase a fixed percentage of their requirements from other member countries at prices between the agreed minimum and maximum. If prices rise to the maximum a 'maximum price declaration' is made. When this occurs, importers are released from their obligation to purchase from member countries, while exporters are required to supply the average of each importer's purchases over the first four of the previous five years at a price not exceeding the maximum. The minimum and maximum prices have been raised by 20 U.S. cents per bushel in the new Arrangement. The minimum price of Australian F.A.Q. wheat f.o.b. Australia is increased from US$1.415 per bushel under the 1962 Agreement to US$1.615.

The signatories of the Kennedy Round Memorandum of Agreement (the “Geneva Memorandum”) agreed to supply between them 94.6 percent of 4.5 million metric tons of grain each year for three years in aid to developing countries. Other countries are invited to subscribe, but membership of the Wheat Trade Convention is not conditional on participation in the food aid scheme.

New Zealand has not yet decided whether to sign either of the new conventions which came into force on 1 July 1968.

INTERNATIONAL SUGAR AGREEMENT—The International Sugar Agreement of 1958, to which New Zealand acceded on 28 November 1960, came into effect on 1 January 1959. The agreement was negotiated at conferences held in Geneva in October 1958 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations Organisation. It replaced the agreement negotiated in 1953 which had marked the end of several unsuccessful attempts over a long period from before 1939 to secure international collaboration on sugar matters.

The main objectives of the agreement, which differs little from the previous one, are to assure supplies of sugar to importing countries and markets for sugar exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Under the agreement, as negotiated in 1958, participating importing countries undertook to restrict quantities of sugar purchased from non-participating exporting countries. When prevailing prices did not exceed 4 cents per lb U.S. currency, exporting countries were restricted in the quantities they might offer on the “free market” and were allocated specific quantities as “basic export tonnages”.

Provision was made in the agreement for a review of the price range and of basic export tonnages after three years. Accordingly a United Nations Sugar Conference was held in Geneva in September and again in December 1961, but there was failure to agree on export quotas for 1962 and 1963 and since that time the provisions of the agreement relating to limitation of imports, regulation of exports, and stabilisation of prices, have been inoperative.

The Agreement expired on 31 December 1963 but was extended by protocols, although those articles that related to quotas and prices remained ineffective. Negotiations in September 1968 resulted in the finalisation of a new agreement. The Agreement was signed and ratified by New Zealand on 23 December 1968 and it entered into force on 1 January 1969.

New Zealand's annual requirements of raw sugar are now about 148,000 tons. Under a Memorandum of Understanding with the parties to the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement (New Zealand is not a party to the Agreement itself) Commonwealth exporters have agreed to supply 75,000 tons annually. Since 1 January 1957 this quantity has been purchased at the world price plus the margin of tariff preference ($7.50 per ton) which Commonwealth exporters would otherwise secure by selling in the United Kingdom. The arrangement continues indefinitely, although there is provision in the Memorandum of Understanding for review if circumstances warrant it. The sugar has been supplied by Queensland and Fiji. Much of the remainder of New Zealand's needs has been bought from the same sources, but purchases have sometimes been made from more distant foreign suppliers.

Before 1 January 1957 the guaranteed quantity of 75,000 tons was purchased at the Negotiated Price incorporated in the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement which is set annually after negotiations between the parties to the Agreement. At times, and especially in 1963 and for part of 1964, world prices were above the Negotiated Price, but over the whole period since 1957 New Zealand has achieved considerable savings by buying under the revised pricing arrangements.

INTERNATIONAL COFFEE AGREEMENT—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1968 which entered into force on 1 October 1968 and is due to expire on 30 September 1973. This Agreement replaces an earlier one, concluded in 1962, to which New Zealand was also a party.

The objects of the Agreement are to ensure continuity and adequacy of supplies of coffee and to maintain stable and equitable prices for both consumers and producers.

Remunerative prices are of particular importance to coffee producing countries which are mainly developing countries of South America, Africa and South-East Asia. Their economies are in many cases heavily dependent upon coffee export earnings.

The 1968 Agreement has similar provisions to the 1962 Agreement incorporating a few changes in regard to the composition of the Executive Board and to the basic annual export quotas and their revision and adjustment. Importing members are required to purchase all but a minor portion of imports of coffee from exporting member countries, while exports from member countries are strictly controlled by means of annual quotas and certification requirements. The new Agreement also contains special consultation and arbitration provisions to deal with any disputes that may arise concerning processed soluble coffee (instant coffee). These provisions were inserted to resolve differences between Brazil and the United States which delayed the renegotiation of the Agreement.

New Zealand signed the Agreement in London on 27 March 1968 and upon Ratification by the New Zealand Government on 7 August 1968, the Agreement was extended to cover the Cook Islands, Niue Island and the Tokelau Islands.

The Customs Import Prohibition Order (Coffee) promulgated on 1 April 1967 restricts New Zealand's imports of coffee by requiring compliance with obligations under the Agreement. Coffee imports under this Order are prohibited save with the consent of the Minister of Customs. The Minister has given general consent to imports of coffee from member countries provided they are accompanied by the required documents of origin as specified in the Agreement. Imports of coffee from non-member countries can only be made with the special permission of the Minister, and total imports of non-member coffee must not exceed the small annual quota of 361 bags (of 60 kilogrammes) allocated to New Zealand by the Council.

Chapter 23. Section 23 PRICES

Table of Contents

PRICE CONTROL—Since 1948 successive Governments have followed a continuing policy of decontrolling goods and services in those fields where competition has been considered sufficient to regulate prices effectively. This has meant that progressively less stress has been placed on direct price control, which now applies to only a relatively narrow range of items; but much greater importance has been placed on price surveillance over a wide range of goods and services having a significant bearing on the cost of living. This pattern is expected to be followed in the future to a still greater extent.

Price surveillance takes the form of both the investigation of complaints made by members of the public about unreasonable prices, and the carrying out by the Department of Industries and Commerce of market surveys of key decontrolled commodities at regular intervals.

If, as a result of an investigation made by the Department, it appears that a trader has charged an unreasonable price calculated to yield more than a fair and reasonable rate of commercial profit for any goods or services, action may be taken against him in the Court for profiteering. This is regarded as a serious offence, and the relevant section of the Control of Prices Act 1947 may be invoked with regard to sales of any goods or services, whether they are subject to direct price control or not.

A schedule of goods and services still subject to price control is set out in the Control of Prices (Positive List) 1966. This comprises about 50 items as well as all drugs coming within the scope of the social security scheme. Control continues to be exercised in this latter field because of the importance of the cost of drugs in the annual expenditure on pharmaceutical benefits under the scheme.

Other items still subject to price control fall into the following two broad categories.

  1. Certain essential food items which, in the main, were until February 1967 subject to the payment of subsidies for the purpose of keeping prices down to the consumer (e.g., bread, butter, flour.)

  2. Items where retention of price control is considered necessary because conditions of monopoly or quasi-monopoly apply at the level of manufacture or distribution, or other factors exist which impede the operation of competition as an effective regulator of prices.

Important items coming within this group are sugar yeast, bananas and imported oranges, tobacco and cigarettes, woolpacks, sacks, bottles and jars, electric light bulbs and cables, inorganic fertilisers, motor vehicles, motor tyres, diesel, and fuel oil. Price control is also exercised over storage batteries, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, basins, sanitary earther ware and pipes.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation do not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act 1947. For example, the maximum price of motor spirits is fixed by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Industries and Commerce) under the Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933. Milk and cream prices are set by Order in Council on the recommendation of the New Zealand Milk Board under the Milk Act 1944.

Price Tribunal—The Control of Prices Act 1947 sets out the general duties and functions of the Price Tribunal as:

  1. The fixing of prices for goods and services;

  2. The investigation of complaints with respect to all prices; and

  3. The maintenance of a survey of the prices of goods and services and the institution of legal proceedings for offences in relation to prices and the taking of such other steps as in its opinion may be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public.

The Price Tribunal has delegated the power to perform these functions to the Secretary of Industries and Commerce, who has in turn subdelegated that power to senior officers of the Trade Practices and Prices Division of the Department. As a result, the Tribunal now exercises original pricing jurisdiction over only a small selection of reserved items for which prices are normally approved on a New Zealand-wide basis. In all other instances the Tribunal acts as an appellate authority for the purpose of considering appeals against pricing decisions made by departmental officers acting under their delegated powers.

The Price Tribunal (or officers of the Department of Industries and Commerce operating under delegated powers) with respect to items subject to direct price control may:

  1. Make price orders fixing, in such manner as is thought fit, the actual or the maximum or the minimum price for any goods (or services) sold in a specified market and under specified conditions. Price orders are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and must generally be displayed in any shop where the goods to which they relate are sold;

  2. Approve selling prices by special authorisations made in terms of section 16 of the Act. In this case approved prices are promulgated by letters of authorisation addressed specifically to the traders directly affected—or to any representative trade group acting on their behalf.

TRADE PRACTICES—Under the Trade Practices Act 1958, a Trade Practices and Prices Commission was established and an Examiner of Trade Practices and Prices appointed. The functions of the Commission are (a) to inquire into trade practices reported to it by the Examiner for the purpose of ascertaining whether they are contrary to the public interest, and (b) to make orders requiring the amendment or discontinuance, or prohibiting the repetition of any such practices found to be contrary to the public interest. A trade practice may be judged contrary to the public interest only if it has the effect of increasing unreasonably, costs, prices, or profits; unreasonably reducing or limiting, or preventing competition; or limiting or preventing the supply of goods to consumers.

There is also a Trade Practices Appeal Authority to hear appeals against decisions of the Commission.

The Examiner is obliged to investigate any trade practice, either on complaint or on his own motion, which appears to be contrary to the public interest. On receipt of a report and recommendation from the Examiner about a trade practice, the Commission is obliged to hold an inquiry unless it is satisfied that all parties likely to be affected are in agreement with the Order which the Examiner recommends should be made. In these circumstances the Commission is empowered to waive an inquiry and make an Order by consent. Inquiries by the Trade Practices and Prices Commission are generally held in public and the parties, including the Examiner, are usually represented by Counsel.

Up to December 1968, the Trade Practices and Prices Commission had considered 33 separate cases reported to it by the Examiner, and in 28 of these had made an Order. In three cases the Commission has recognised the existence of a trade practice contrary to the public interest, but has permitted the parties to vary or cease the practice and has not made an Order. The Commission has found in favour of the parties in two cases.

Of the 33 cases considered by the Commission, 21 have been in respect of trade practices concerned with the collective fixing of prices or other terms of trading, two in connection with tendering arrangements, seven in respect of refusal to supply a reseller or a refusal to admit a reseller into a trade association and three in respect of restrictive marketing arrangements.

Eight decisions of the Commission have been appealed against. Three appeals have been allowed and one allowed in part.

As well as his more formal functions in terms of the Trade Practices Act, the Examiner considers a number of cases where it is possible, by negotiation with the parties to secure, on a more informal, voluntary basis, some satisfactory amendment to the restrictive trade practices concerned.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—A Consumer Council, whose functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services was established in 1959. Since 1 April 1967 it has operated with a new constitution under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The Council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee, and additional members are the Secretary of Industries and Commerce, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health. District consumer committees are appointed by the Consumer Council.

Citizens may become associate members of Consumers Institute on payment of a fee of $1 a year, which entitles them to receive copies of a quarterly magazine, information broadsheets, newsletters, and other assistance from the organisation. By October 1966, 54,500 persons had joined Consumers Institute. Those associate members who wish to take a more active part in the work may become members of local consumers' associations which have been formed in many centres.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—A Monetary and Economic Council was established under the Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961 to report on the extent to which stability in prices and other economic objectives are being achieved. In its first reports the Council dealt with the economic situation and the longer-term problems of slow growth and instability, and subsequent reports have dealt largely with the current economic situation and outlook.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail and wholesale prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Commission. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are given in the following table, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics: The chief use made of the prices collected, is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

Retail Prices—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1968 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers' Price Index are shown hereunder.

ItemUnitPrice
  Cents
Potatoes, main croplb6.2
Appleslb15.4
Cabbagelb10.7
Carrotslb15.9
Onionslb16.5
Orangeslb16.1
Peaches, canned29 oz tin36.8
Peas, frozen10 oz packet21.5
Beef—
    Sirloinlb48.7
    Prime riblb45.4
    Rump steaklb61.9
    Blade steaklb47.5
    Mincelb38.4
    Corned silversidelb47.5
Sausages, beeflb22.2
Hogget—
    Cut leg, knuckle-endlb37.0
    Forequarterlb20.8
    Chops, middle loinlb35.5
Pork—
    Leg, wholelb45.0
    Chops, middle loinlb45.6
Tripelb14.9
Sheep's liverlb33.6
Sheep's tongueeach5.7
Ham, cooked, slicedlb98.5
Bacon, sidelb62.7
Tarakihi filletslb44.3
Groper (hapuku) pieceslb44.5
Sole or flounder, guttedlb36.7
Smoked fishlb42.1
Salmon fancy pink7 3/4 oz tin45.7
Milk, fresh, deliveredpint4.0
Butterlb27.8
Cheese, tasty, rindlesslb41.0
Milk powder, full cream2 1/2 lb tin92.6
Bread28 oz loaf12.0
Block cake, madeiralb37.8
Flour25 lb141.2
Oatmeal, pre-cooked3 lb packet42.7
Prepared breakfast food, wheaten24 oz packet30.5
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten7 1/2 oz packet22.6
Ricelb15.1
Sugar6 lb36.6
Honey1 lb carton29.4
Jam, apricot14 oz tin23.8
Tea1/2 lb35.4
Cocoa1/2 lb packet26.2
Coffee, pure, ground, looselb90.7
Coffee, instant4 oz jar72.8
Salt, polythene wrapped5 lb bag24.6
Baked beans16 oz tin20.3
Tomato sauce10 oz bottle22.8
Tomato soup11 oz tin14.4
Aerated water10 oz bottle7.9
Ice-cream, vanillapint block20.4
Chocolate6 oz tablet25.9
Meal, restaurant, three-courseeach98.9
Eggs, standard (in carton)dozen52.4
  $
Weekly dwelling rent, unfurnishedeach dwelling7.76
Concrete blocksper 10024.13
Wallpaperroll1.50
Paintgallon tin9.00
Weekly costs of owner-occupancy of dwellings—
    Rateseach dwelling1.42
Coal, domestic1/4 ton5.42
Cokecwt1.46
Electric current (excluding water heating)150 kWh per month2.17
Electric current (including water heating)510 kWh per month5.45
Gas, domestic1,600 cu ft per month2.72
Kerosene, domestic usegallon0.31
Fuel oil, domestic heating, deliveredgallon0.22
Refrigerator, 9.25 cu. ft. dual temp.each199.06
Washing machine, semi-automatic, spin dryeach219.00
Vacuum cleanereach59.00
Radio, transistor, portableeach51.07
Television set, 23 in. consoletteeach273.30
Television hire2 years212.58
Electric radiatoreach39.90
Electric fry paneach31.54
Electric jugeach11.45
Electric toastereach8.43
Electric iron, dryeach10.65
Electric blanketeach31.50
Electric hand drilleach24.90
Lawnmower, hand typeeach26.50
Lawnmower, rotary typeeach154.04
Piano, uprighteach530.29
Perambulatoreach55.45
Dining room suiteeach82.62
Cocktail cabineteach109.64
Tallboyeach26.37
Child's coteach21.67
Lounge suiteeach216.09
Bedsteadeach21.87
Mattress, kapokeach16.87
Mattress, inner-springeach68.97
Mattress, foam rubbereach54.86
Venetian blinds, 72 inch wide, 54 inches dropeach24.65
Alarm clockeach7.53
Linoleumyard4.66
Floor tiles, vinyl, 9 in by 9 in (veneer)each0.13
Doormat, coireach1.64
Drapery—
    Blankets, single, all woolpair16.96
    Sheets, singlepair6.04
    Pillow, kapokeach1.77
    Towel, Turkisheach1.80
    Tea towel, lineneach0.68
Plate, 10 in., replacement typeeach0.50
Knives, table, stainless1/2 doz5.45
Forks, table, E.P.N.S.1/2 doz5.32
Preserving jars, glass, quart, 8 in.doz1.89
Casserole disheach2.49
Mixing bowl, stainless steel, 8 in.each2.40
Saucepan, aluminium, 8 in.each5.74
Broomeach3.05
Scrubbing brusheach0.66
Bucket, plastic, 2 galloneach1.15
Hammer, carpenters, steel shafteach4.01
Planeeach6.10
Spade, gardeneach4.74
Soap powder36 oz packet0.37
Detergent, plastic container19 1/2 oz can0.43
Household cleaning pastestandard tin0.28
Disinfectant4 oz bottle0.35
Fly spray12 oz can1.01
Boot polish2 3/4 oz tin0.15
Floor polish8 oz tin0.52
Electric light bulb, 100 watteach0.22
Torch battery, dry celleach0.13
Telephone rental, private (main exchange)1 year44.00
Telegram, 15 wordseach0.31
Postage, lettereach0.03
Dry cleaning, men's two-piece suitper suit1.25
Laundering sheets6 single0.71
Men's—
    Raincoat, woollen garberdineeach33.70
    Parka, unlinedeach9.49
    Raincoat, nyloneach7.77
    Hat, felteach6.93
    Suits, worsted, ready-made two-pieceeach45.49
    Sports-coat, ready madeeach29.52
    Trousers, sportspair14.39
    Trousers, jeanspair3.22
    Shirts, cotton, whiteeach4.89
    Shirt, brushed cottoneach2.10
    Cardigan, all wooleach12.40
    Bathing trunks, bri-nyloneach3.58
    Pyjamas, flannelettepair3.70
    Singlet, athleticeach0.86
    Sockspair1.21
    Handkerchiefeach0.25
Women's—
    Suit, coat and skirt, ready madeeach42.17
    Coat, woollen, wintereach40.04
    Raincoat, lightweighteach19.39
    Frock, polished cottoneach7.55
    Skirt, winter weighteach13.63
    Slacks, tailored, ready-madepair9.24
    Cardigan, all wooleach9.83
    Swimsuit, bri-nyloneach12.63
    Nightdress, nyloneach5.72
    Nightdress, winceyetteeach3.33
    Underslip, nyloneach5.03
    Vest, silk and wooleach1.83
    Panties, interlockpair0.95
    Brassiere, cottoneach2.78
    Corset, lycraeach10.50
    Nylons, seamless, 15 denierpair1.18
    Umbrella, nyloneach6.00
Boys'—
    Raincoat, cottoneach10.21
    Blazereach12.67
    Trousers, shorts, worstedpair4.66
    Shirt, cotton, college styleeach3.18
    Shirt, T-shirt, cottoneach1.20
    Pullover, woolleneach5.38
    Sockspair1.29
Girls'—
    Bereteach1.01
    Gymfrockeach11.10
    Frock, summer uniformeach7.29
    Blouse, college, cottoneach2.62
    Pyjamas winceyettepair2.35
    Bloomers, interlockpair0.71
    Sockettespair0.65
Infants'—
    Nursery squaresdoz4.50
    Baby's vesteach0.48
    Baby wool1 oz0.34
Piece goods—
    Tweed, velour coatingyard3.64
    Viyellayard2.34
    Sail clothyard0.80
    Rayonyard1.30
Dress patterneach0.68
Wool, hand knitting1 oz0.31
Men's—
    Boots, heavypair12.40
    Shoes, lightpair12.81
    Sand shoespair1.95
    Jandals (thongs)pair1.76
    Slippers, leatherpair5.16
    Shoe repairs, half-soled and heeledpair2.54
Women's—
    Shoes, heavypair9.78
    Shoes, lightpair9.92
    Slippers, feltpair2.48
Shoe repairs, cemented leather sole, heel tip, and toe platespair1.80
Boys—
    Football bootspair6.59
    Shoes, heavypair6.17
    Gumbootspair4.16
    Shoes, repairspair1.82
Girls—
    Shoes, schoolpair5.36
    Shoes, lightpair5.55
    Shoe repairspair1.48
Infant's shoes, plastic solepair1.29
Petrol, 83 octanegallon0.37
Bicycle, men's sports roadstereach55.56
Bicycle tyreeach2.13
Bicycle tubeeach1.12
Cigarettespacket of 200.33
Tobacco, cigarette2 oz packet0.58
Aspirin, packet of 25per packet0.20
Toothbrusheach0.22
Toothpaste, large tubeper tube0.31
Toilet soap, bath size tableteach0.13
Toilet paperper 3 rolls0.27
Face powder, block typeeach0.40
Hair rinseeach0.65
Razor blades, stainless steelpacket0.33
Electric razoreach20.52
Baby talcum powdersmall tin0.29
Attache case, fibreeach2.83
Leather briefcaseeach16.42
Suitcase, largeeach9.74
Men's watch, wristleteach36.44
Newspaper, dailyeach0.04
Library subscriptionper book0.10
Popular book, paper backeach0.65
Writing padeach0.15
Envelopes, 3 3/4 in. by 4 3/4 in.packet of 160.10
Developing and printing black and white filmper film0.68
Camera film, coloureach3.75
Tricycle, child'seach22.95
Teddy beareach5.95
Junior engineering construction seteach4.50
Tennis racqueteach7.77
Tennis ballspair0.71
Bowls, outdoorset of 430.39
Rifleeach30.69
Ammunition, .303box of 203.49
Optician fees, full examination and spectacles with caseeach16.30
Dental extractioneach2.41
Dental fillingseach1.98
Denturesset62.22
Medical expenses (excess over Social Security) private general hospitalper day5.13
Cinema admissionseat0.46
Football admissioneach0.26
Football club subscriptioneach2.37
Tennis club subscriptioneach9.85
Radio licence1 year3.00
Television licence1 year13.00
Haircut, meneach0.50
Haircut, womeneach0.60
Hairseteach1.27
Permanent waveeach5.54
Union dues (annual subscription)per member6.13
Funeral, burialeach184.77
Funeral, cremationeach157.81

International Comparisons—The two tables following provide comparisons of retail and wholesale prices respectively between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices, which relate generally to the month of December 1968, have been converted into New Zealand currency and the Imperial liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity. In the first table prices shown for the United States of America do not include sales tax. Currency conversion basis: Australia, A$1=NZ$1; Canada, Can$1=NZ82.59c.; Great Britain, 1=NZ$2.1429; South Africa 1 Rand=NZ$1.25; United States, US$1=NZ$0.89286.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS(At December 1968 in New Zealand Currency)

ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)Canada (Dominion Average)Great Britain* (London)South Africa (Cape Town)United States of America (Average 56 Cities)

* November 1968.

† 1 3/4 lb.

‡ At price for 3 lb lots.

§ Loose.

‖ December quarter, 1968.

¶ Sirloin.

** Cooking quality only available.

g Hogget.

p 29 cz.

  centscentscentscentscentscents
Bread2 lb12.020.029.716.711.940.5
Flour25 lb137.5207.5243.7133.9146.3255.8
Tealb70.761.6 64.390.8 
Coffeelb90.8§ 68.597.399.068.2
Sugarlb6.111.08.37.79.410.9
Milk (fresh)pint4.011.013.310.08.913.8
Butterlb27.851.259.533.949.974.8
Cheeselb41.048.471.929.544.480.5
Baconlb63.091.875.758.070.071.5
Pruneslb39.1  24.639.1 
Canned peaches30 oz tin36.1p30.6p53.425.430.8 
Beef, rib roastlb45.253.389.664.351.990.6
Mutton, leglb36.630.2g66.7 50.0 
Pork—
    Leglb45.063.4 46.449.6 
    Chopslb46.157.793.282.150.491.2
Margarinelb**39.427.518.825.324.7

Sources:Australia: Commonwealth Statistician.Canada: Dominion Bureau of Statistics.Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner.South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics.U.S.A.: Bureau of Labor.

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES

ItemUnitNew Zealand, November 1968*Canada, December 1968Great Britain, November 1968United States of America, December 1968

* Priced once each quarter.

† Price excluding tax.

  $$$$
Wheatbushel1.331.591.341.54
Oatsbushel0.850.860.740.79
Flourshort ton96.65138.92 106.25
Sugarcwt5.837.17 10.20
Butterlb0.270.560.290.62
Cheeselb0.22 0.220.51
Motor spiritsgallon0.33 0.620.12

Sources:

Canada: Prices and Price Indexes - Dominion Bureau of Statistics.

Great Britain: Wheat and Oats - Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food: butter and cheese-New Zealand Dairy Board: motor spirits - Ministry of Power.

U.S.A.: Survey of Current Business.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—An historical survey of retail prices in New Zealand was given in the report Consumers' Price Index, 1955 Revision. Extracts from that publication were also reprinted as an appendix to the 1957 Yearbook (pages 1214-37).

The Consumers' Price Index was revised in 1965. Complete details of the revised index are contained in the Consumers' Price Index Revision 1965 report. A brief summary of the salient features of the latest index is as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates primarily to urban and country town dwellers living as families.

  3. About 90 percent of personal expenditure is covered.

  4. The number of items regularly priced is 535.

  5. The base is: 1962-63 consumption costed at 1965 prices.

  6. The sources of group and commodity weights were (1) Census of Distribution 1962-63; (2) Industrial or factory statistics; (3) Import and export data; (4) extension of regularly compiled statistics of consumable goods. Where considered desirable the base weight assigned to selected items was broadened to allow for expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  7. Prices are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including two combined areas.

  8. A scientific sample of rented houses and flats was selected.

  9. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits, vegetables and eggs, and for transport charges.

  10. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its subgroups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and subgroups at quarterly intervals.

  11. Individual index numbers are published for the four chief centres, 10 larger centres, six smaller North Island centres combined and similarly five smaller South Island centres, showing each centre or group of centres on a common base and on its own base.

  12. To provide a continuous series the pre-revision all-groups index has been converted to a 1965 base.

Costs of the following items are, for various reasons, outside the scope of the index: hotel accommodation, licensed and private; air transport; legal fees, commissions on sales, other than those incurred in the erection of house properties; gambling; church and charitable donations; private and boarding school fees; instalment credit interest and similar financial charges; personal accident insurance; photographers' charges; wages of domestic servants, jobbing gardeners, etc.; fees to chiropractors, herbalists, chiropodists, etc.; sundry licences (marriage, dog, etc.); direct taxation; savings, including amortisations of capital debts, investments, and life insurance; spirits and wine; jewellery and florists' goods; durable goods other than replacements; private holiday transport.

In general the index assumes a constant pattern of expenditure for all centres, whether large cities or provincial centres, whether with warm or cool climates, etc. In transportation, however, the index compromises by setting up a constant base expenditure on transport for all centres, but allowing a varying dissection between the various modes of transport from centre to centre, according to local circumstances. Consequently there are no true “each on all” indices for transportation, but “each on each” indices can be used to produce “all on all” indices. ("Each on all" means an index for an individual centre which uses as base the average for all centres, etc.)

Long-term Linked Series—The table immediately following provides a long-term linked series of retail price (all groups) index numbers combining the present Consumers' Price Index with its predecessors back to 1907, the whole being placed on a uniform base, i.e., the calendar year 1965.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX (ALL GROUPS)LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES

Base: Calendar year 1965 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
1907234
1908235
1909232
1910234
1911233
1912240
1913245
1914252
1915271
1916291
1917315
1918341
1919366
1920409
1921415
1922382
1923385
1924395
1925403
1926405
1927402
1928404
1929403
1930394
1931364
1932336
1933319
1934324
1935336
1936347
1937370
1938382
1939397
1940415
1941431
1942445
1943455
1944464
1945470
1946474
1947488
1948527
1949536
1950566
1951629
1952678
1953709
1954741
1955760
1956786
1957803
1958839
1959871
1960877
1961893
1962916
1963935
1964967
19651,000
19661,028
19671,090
19681,137

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers' price index numbers, the data being drawn from the figures given in the preceding table (long-term linked series) and the quarterly table following.

Figure 23.1. CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX NUMBERS EQUATED TO BASE - CALENDAR YEAR 1965 (=1000) PERCENTAGE INCREASE PER ANNUM

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX NUMBERS EQUATED TO BASE - CALENDAR YEAR 1965 (=1000) PERCENTAGE INCREASE PER ANNUM

Current Consumers' Price Index—The tables which now follow relate to the current Consumers' Price Index only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMER'S PRICE INDEX—QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (= 1000)
 FoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
    Percentages of base expenditure30.0917.9911.2113.129.4418.15100.00
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    19661,0181,0531,0101,0161,0371,0341,028
    19671,0921,1171,0631,0441,1021,1051,090
    19681,1261,1771,1051,0711,1701,1671,137
Quarter ended—
    1966—31 March1,0201,0331,0031,0071,0261,0211,019
                30 June1,0191,0461,0071,0121,0371,0271,025
                30 September1,0181,0621,0101,0201,0391,0391,031
                31 December1,0151,0731,0211,0261,0481,0471,036
    1967—31 March1,0711,0911,0271,0351,0641,0601,062
                30 June1,0981,1131,0671,0441,1011,1031,091
                30 September1,1051,1271,0701,0481,1171,1261,103
                31 December1,0931,1381,0881,0501,1241,1291,104
    1968—31 March1,1031,1541,0921,0551,1491,1361,115
                30 June1,1211,1711,1011,0641,1671,1521,130
                30 September1,1331,1841,1081,0751,1761,1741,143
                31 December1,1461,2001,1201,0891,1901,2041,160
 FoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruits and VegetablesMeat, Fish and poultryOther Foods and EggsRentHome OwnershipFuel and LightHome FurnishingsDomestic Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
    Percentages of base expenditure5.899.2214.985.5012.492.825.592.80
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    19661,0301,0401,0001,0481,0561,0201,0031,014
    19671,1051,0731,0991,1121,1201,0831,0231,122
    19681,1381,1011,1361,1661,1821,1601,0601,140
Quarter ended—
    1966—
        31 March1,0561,0291,0001,0351,0321,0109991,005
        30 June1,0621,0279971,0451,0461,0121,0001,014
        30 September1,0131,0401,0061,0541,0651,0211,0011,017
        31 December9891,0639961,0581,0791,0391,0111,022
    1967—
        31 March1,1081,0791,0521,0741,0981,0431,0151,033
        30 June1,1301,0761,0991,1131,1131,0661,0221,156
        30 September1,1301,0701,1171,1291,1261,0771,0271,150
        31 December1,0501,0661,1261,1311,1411,1451,0271,150
    1968—
        31 March1,1331,0761,1081,1431,1581,1581,0331,144
        30 June1,1641,0781,1301,1631,1741,1591,0511,143
        30 September1,1371,1041,1501,1751,1881,1601,0681,137
        31 December1,1201,1441,1571,1821,2081,1641,0891,137
 ApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
    Percentages of base expenditure10.912.212.387.067.645.664.85100.00
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    19661,0131,0301,0211,0431,0231,0371,0471,028
    19671,0391,0691,0821,1081,0981,0961,1251,090
    19681,0671,0901,1041,1931,1591,1541,1931,137
Quarter ended—
    1966—
        31 March1,0061,0091,0051,0331,0231,0111,0291,019
        30 June1,0091,0281,0151,0451,0231,0241,0381,025
        30 September1,0171,0371,0141,0471,0231,0501,0531,031
        31 December1,0221,0451,0521,0471,0231,0621,0691,036
    1967—
        31 March1,0301,0611,0651,0641,0231,0811,0921,062
        30 June1,0401,0651,0781,1091,1051,0871,1201,091
        30 September1,0431,0731,0921,1251,1291,1101,1411,103
        31 December1,0431,0781,0921,1351,1341,1051,1481,104
    1968—
        31 March1,0501,0811,1031,1641,1371,1141,1611,115
        30 June1,0591,0861,1041,1881,1371,1451,1851,130
        30 September1,0711,0911,1041,2001,1581,1671,2071,143
        31 December1,0871,1011,1051,2181,2021,1911,2211,160

Compared with 1967, when the average level of consumer prices rose by 6 percent, mainly on account of the removal of subsidies in February and the imposition of other fiscal measures in February and May of 1967, the rise of 4.3 percent in retail prices during 1968 was more moderate. In the latter year increases in the prices of imported goods and goods manufactured from imported materials were observed following the devaluation of New Zealand's currency in November 1967. Dearer local meat also reflected the higher returns earned by meat-processing industries in the same period.

In the table which follows monthly figures for the food group are shown for all index centres combined.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS (FOOD) TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (= 1000)
PeriodFruits and VegetablesMeat and FishOther FoodsAll Food
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,000
    19661,0301,0401,0001,018
    19671,1051,0731,0991,092
    19681,1381,1011,1361,126
Month—
    1967—January1,0761,0721,0071,041
                February1,1291,0831,0551,078
                March1,1191,0821,0931,095
                April1,1141,0771,0971,094
                May1,1161,0751,0991,095
                June1,1561,0741,1021,104
                July1,1771,0681,1051,108
                August1,1371,0701,1121,104
                September1,0761,0731,1331,103
                October1,0571,0711,1361,101
                November1,0551,0611,1231,091
                December1,0391,0661,1201,087
    1968—January1,1151,0711,1071,098
                February1,1511,0781,1071,107
                March1,1321,0791,1091,104
                April1,1481,0761,1191,112
                May1,1851,0781,1271,124
                June1,1601,0801,1431,127
                July1,1681,0821,1451,130
                August1,1371,0941,1451,128
                September1,1061,1351,1581,141
                October1,1471,1381,1481,145
                November1,1031,1481,1631,146
                December1,1101,1471,1621,147

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indices are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first place current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES

Base: Weighted average each centre, and grouping, separately, 1965 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968
Auckland1,0001,0921,1371,0001,1211,1921,0001,0841,1291,0001,0511,076
Wellington-Hutt1,0001,0821,1181,0001,1221,1751,0001,0761,1161,0001,0431,068
Christchurch1,0001,0981,1241,0001,1221,1721,0001,0461,0911,0001,0581,085
Dunedin1,0001,0921,1291,0001,1151,1861,0001,0531,0921,0001,0401,068
      Four chief centres1,0001,0911,1291,0001,1211,1841,0001,0701,1131,0001,0491,075
Hamilton1,0001,0981,1261,0001,1131,1461,0001,0451,0851,0001,0261,054
Tauranga1,0001,0841,1241,0001,1421,1891,0001,0691,1181,0001,0411,063
Rotorua1,0001,0951,1161,0001,1661,2481,0001,0451,0921,0001,0421,077
Napier-Hastings1,0001,0731,1191,0001,1171,1941,0001,0651,1081,0001,0421,067
New Plymouth1,0001,0951,1301,0001,0981,1651,0001,0611,1001,0001,0471,065
Wanganui1,0001,0981,1291,0001,1081,1531,0001,0681,1161,0001,0401,075
Palmerston North1,0001,0901,1271,0001,1191,1901,0001,0581,1011,0001,0321,059
Nelson1,0001,0951,1281,0001,1141,1651,0001,0731,1101,0001,0281,051
Timaru1,0001,0911,1261,0001,1101,1381,0001,0401,0821,0001,0471,068
Invercargill1,0001,0951,1121,0001,1101,1481,0001,0401,0791,0001,0321,064
      Ten larger centres1,0001,0911,1241,0001,1171,1711,0001,0541,0961,0001,0351,062
      Six smaller North Island centres1,0001,0931,1181,0001,1121,1701,0001,0611,1021,0001,0501,074
      Five smaller South Island centres1,0001,0961,1201,0001,0841,1641,0001,0521,0971,0001,0421,074
      Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,0921,1261,0001,1171,1771,0001,0631,1051,0001,0441,071
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968
Auckland1,0001,1031,1741,0001,1081,1781,0001,0951,150
Wellington-Hutt1,0001,1011,1551,0001,0991,1671,0001,0901,135
Christchurch1,0001,1061,1771,0001,1081,1761,0001,0941,138
Dunedin1,0001,1141,1711,0001,1101,1661,0001,0891,136
      Four chief centres1,0001,1051,1701,0001,1061,1741,0001,0931,142
Hamilton1,0001,0931,1631,0001,0961,1541,0001,0851,124
Tauranga1,0001,1101,1851,0001,1051,1611,0001,0941,140
Rotorua1,0001,0901,1551,0001,0941,1511,0001,0951,142
Napier-Hastings1,0001,0971,1721,0001,1071,1601,0001,0841,136
New Plymouth1,0001,1081,1791,0001,1061,1591,0001,0881,134
Wanganui1,0001,1061,1801,0001,0991,1491,0001,0891,133
Palmerston North1,0001,0961,1701,0001,1061,1641,0001,0871,136
Nelson1,0001,0961,1681,0001,0991,1511,0001,0881,130
Timaru1,0001,0971,1761,0001,1061,1611,0001,0861,127
Invercargill1,0001,1091,1791,0001,1101,1781,0001,0851,126
      Ten larger centres1,0001,0991,1711,0001,1031,1591,0001,0871,132
      Six smaller North Island centres1,0001,0981,1721,0001,1021,1591,0001,0891,132
      Five smaller South Island centres1,0001,0981,1701,0001,1061,1621,0001,0841,131
      Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,1021,1701,0001,1051,1671,0001,0901,137

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES—

Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968
Auckland1,0141,1071,1531,1141,2491,3289951,0791,1231,0131,0641,089
Wellington-Hutt1,0121,0951,1311,1821,3271,3909791,0531,0929991,0411,067
Christchurch1,0021,1011,1279261,0381,0851,0011,0481,0939901,0471,074
Dunedin1,0121,1951,1438959981,0621,0231,0771,1161,0101,0501,079
        Four chief centres1,0111,1031,1411,0611,1901,2569961,0661,1091,0041,0541,080
Hamilton9851,0811,1099671,0771,1099641,0081,0469851,0111,038
Tauranga1,0211,1071,1481,1041,2611,3139721,0391,0871,0041,0461,068
Rotorua1,0021,0971,1181,0111,1781,2611,0041,0491,0979931,0351,070
Napier-Hastings9621,0321,0779121,0181,0891,0361,1041,1481,0061,0481,074
New Plymouth9791,0721,1069261,0171,0799841,0441,0829951,0411,060
Wanganui9731,0681,0988139019379811,0481,0949941,0341,069
Palmerston North9791,0671,1039181,0281,0929801,0381,0791,0191,0521,079
Nelson9551,0461,0779311,0371,0849711,0421,0781,0051,0331,056
Timaru9931,0831,1191,0171,1291,1581,0221,0631,1061,0051,0521,073
Invercargill1,0241,1211,1389531,0481,0941,0421,0841,1251,0081,0411,073
        Ten larger centres9851,0751,1079511,0621,1139931,0471,0881,0001,0361,063
        Six smaller North Island centres1,0021,0961,1219151,0171,0701,0301,0921,1349811,0301,054
        Five smaller South Island centres9861,0811,1058979731,0441,0221,0741,1209941,0361,068
        Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,0921,1261,0001,1171,1771,0001,0631,1051,0001,0441,071
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968Annual 1965Annual 1967Annual 1968
Auckland1,0001,0131,1749991,1071,1771,0261,1231,179
Wellington-Hutt1,0001,1011,1551,0191,1201,1881,0371,1301,177
Christchurch1,0001,1061,1779981,1061,1739861,0781,122
Dunedin1,0001,1141,1719831,0921,1469861,0741,120
        Four chief centres1,0001,1051,1701,0011,1081,1751,0151,1091,159
Hamilton1,0001,0931,1639931,0891,1469821,0651,104
Tauranga1,0001,1101,1859991,1041,1601,0221,1191,166
Rotorua1,0001,0901,1551,0161,1111,1691,0051,1001,148
Napier-Hastings1,0001,0971,1729941,1011,1539771,0581,109
New Plymouth1,0001,1081,1799961,1011,1559771,0641,108
Wanganui1,0001,1061,1809971,0961,1469551,0401,082
Palmerston North1,0001,0961,1709931,0981,1569781,0631,111
Nelson1,0001,0961,1688981,0861,1389691,0541,095
Timaru1,0001,0971,1761,0101,1171,1731,0061,0931,133
Invercargill1,0001,1091,1799911,1001,1671,0031,0881,130
        Ten larger centres1,0001,0991,1719961,0981,1559851,0711,115
        Six smaller North Island centres1,0001,0981,1721,0091,1131,1709881,0761,118
        Five smaller South Island centres1,0001,0981,1709951,1011,1579781,0601,106
        Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,1021,1701,0001,1051,1671,0001,0901,137

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX—The latest Wholesale Prices Index is described in the special supplement to the October 1959 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices. A brief summary of the salient features of this revision appeared in the 1960 Yearbook (pages 992-994).

The index is not a single wholesale prices index, but a series of price index numbers related to broad groupings of the inter-industry transactions distinguished in the Department's input-output tables for the New Zealand economy. Thus each of the index numbers relates to a group of commodity transactions occurring at certain price-levels between defined sectors in the economy. Capital goods as well as goods for current consumption or usage are represented in the various commodity flows.

Wholesale Prices Index Numbers—The table which follows is divided into two parts; the first covers “input” prices and the second “output” prices. Within the first part of the table there is a break-up into goods for industrial use (analysed by sector destinations), for consumption, and for export. In each flow imported goods are distinguished from locally produced goods. In this part of the table all prices are inclusive of sales tax and excise duties and net of subsidies; the prices for exports marketed overseas are the prices in these markets brought to an f.o.b. basis, i.e., their “input” prices to other countries.

In the second part of the table the broad producing sectors are distinguished. Here the prices of their outputs are used. They are taken before the addition of sales tax and excise duties or the deduction of subsidies. The prices for export meat and dairy products are those payable to producers under the different stabilisation and minimum export-meat-prices schemes.

The primary produce processing industries group comprises the two major industries, meat export works and dairy factories, processing farm products mainly for export.

The expression base for the index is the calendar year 1958.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX

Base: 1958 (= 1000)
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sectors of Destination*
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by—All Commodities
Domestic IndustryConsumersDomestic Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
*The prices used in this table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e, including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are N.Z. f.o.b. equivalents of overseas market prices.
19581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
19591,0159981,0041,0551,0341,0391,0251,0111,0151,1411,0251,0391,035
19601,0081,0181,0151,0191,0281,0261,0101,0221,0181,1391,0101,0471,038
19611,0121,0051,0081,0251,0341,0321,0151,0151,0151,0231,0151,0171,016
19621,0119929981,0331,0351,0351,0161,0071,0091,0491,0161,0161,016
19631,0341,0131,0201,0401,0501,0471,0351,0251,0281,1601,0351,0541,050
19641,0391,0711,0601,0371,0881,0761,0381,0771,0651,2591,0381,1161,097
19651,0581,1111,0931,0541,1111,0971,0571,1111,0941,1841,0571,1261,109
19661,0751,1311,1131,0761,1241,1131,0751,1291,1131,1591,0751,1351,120
1967x1,1041,1231,1171,1431,1981,1851,1141,1481,1381,0421,1141,1251,122
1968‖1,2381,1711,1931,2871,2631,2691,2501,2021,2161,1461,2501,1901,205
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesAll other IndustriesManufacturing Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
FarmingAll Other industriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesAll Other Industries

†This consists of manufacturing industries (excluding primary produce processing industries) building and construction, transport and communication, wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, public utilities and services.

‡Other than Primary Produce Processing Industries.

§Includes wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, public utilities and services.

‖Provisional.

19581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
19609869581,0149851,0071,0051,0051,0101,0361,0241,0061,0241,0661,025
19611,0129481,0169861,0459409431,0111,0481,0311,0061,0261,0691,026
19621,0038391,0239409909199211,0121,0521,0341,0061,0341,0381,021
19639898481,0269439649529531,0391,0711,0561,0481,0391,1131,061
19649999671,0309979951,0491,0471,0431,1071,0781,0431,0801,1811,085
19651,0281,1491,0561,0911,0591,0911,0901,0611,1221,0941,0441,0841,1721,084
19661,0461,2611,1061,1621,0881,0751,0751,0771,1411,1131,0631,0921,2091,105
1967x1,0681,1621,1471,1391,1331,0031,0071,1071,1751,1441,0911,1631,1541,125
19681,1541,0581,2101,1341,2561,0721,0781,2451,2361,2401,2501,2311,2241,239
Calendar yearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Building and ConstructionTransport and CommunicationOther Industries§
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
19581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
19601,0421,0301,0349871,0421,0021,0031,0271,020
19611,0521,0561,0549801,0519991,0091,0421,033
19621,0461,0721,0639921,0721,0141,0161,0601,048
19631,0421,0721,0611,0091,0661,0251,0211,0631,051
19641,0701,0951,0861,0171,0541,0271,0341,0861,071
19651,0961,1411,1241,0721,0721,0721,0831,1031,097
19661,1101,1711,1491,0731,0821,0761,1081,1061,107
1967x1,1491,2031,1831,0961,1111,1001,1371,1871,173
19681,2841,2541,2651,1891,1481,1781,2131,2461,237

Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sector of Origin*

Calendar YearPrices Received for Commodities Produced in New Zealand
Output ofUsed by
FarmingOther Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesPublic UtilitiesAll Domestic IndustryIndustry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)

*The prices used in this part of the table are those receivable by producers, i.e., before addition of indirect taxation or deduction of consumer or user subsidies; prices for dairy produce and meat are those payable to producers under the schemes to stabilise returns from year to year.

†Comprises the outputs of the five sectors mentioned in this part of the table.

‡Provisional.

19581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
19601,0431,0521,0371,0251,0351,0341,0201,079
19619971,1139411,0381,0441,0091,014992
19629571,1469541,0411,0661,0031,005995
19631,0201,1569791,0621,0761,0371,0241,079
19641,1111,1861,0711,0961,0941,0991,0781,166
19651,1131,2311,0951,1091,1061,1121,1141,106
19661,1181,2861,1171,1261,1161,1261,1331,105
1967x1,0271,3271,0461,1581,1781,1021,134994
19681,0481,4311,1391,2301,2921,1641,1891,083

Long-term Linked Series—Since the index incorporates a major change in construction method, linking to obtain a long-term series is not very satisfactory. Nevertheless, some such link will be required occasionally in making longer-term surveys of price movements. Accordingly, in the table which follows, the previous index, converted to base 1958 (= 1000), has been linked to the component “Commodities used by Domestic Industry and Consumers”. The subdivisions “Imported” and “Home Produced” commodities have similarly been linked. When using these linked series it should be borne in mind that the price sources and weighting pattern of the current index are quite different from its predecessors.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX NUMBERS—LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES

Base: Calendar year 1958 (= 1000)
YearImportedHome ProducedTotal
1913268254263
1914270274271
1915274319292
1916312331320
1917379360372
1918481389444
1919504407465
1920626455557
1921555463518
1922461392433
1923412393405
1924406407406
1925400410404
1926375393382
1927352380363
1928344385361
1929341385358
1930335370349
1931328326327
1932326307319
1933345301327
1934341310329
1935342335340
1936342344343
1937371370371
1938375378376
1939379403389
1940448412434
1941503436476
1942552456514
1943609461549
1944629472565
1945638481575
1946636489577
1947650523598
1948730574667
1949714586662
1950758667721
1951883777840
1952996842933
1953947891924
1954904932915
1955920935926
1956944985960
1957968977972
19581,0001,0001,000
19591,0251,0111,015
1,0601,0101,0221,018
19611,0151,0151,015
1,0621,0161,0071,009
19631,0351,0251,028
19641,0381,0771,065
19651,0571,1111,094
19661,0751,1291,113
19671,1141,1481,138
1,2681,2501202*1216*

EXPORT PRICES—The Export Prices Index has a weighting base of 1959 quantities at 1960 prices. The wool prices used are derived from the clean, on-floor prices used in the Wool Price Index brought to an f.o.b. basis. For dairy produce the prices used are selling prices at time of shipment brought to an f.o.b. basis. Meat exporting is conducted by numerous private operators, and there is no central organisation capable of reporting realised selling prices; prices obtaining in the Smithfield market, in the United Kingdom, converted to f.o.b. New Zealand equivalents, are used. Unit values from export statistics are used for other commodities. The prices for those goods which are consigned for sale in overseas markets therefore represent generally the ruling prices in those markets at time of export rather than the realised prices on sale.

Owing to fluctuations in the proportions of the different exports consigned to the United Kingdom and to other countries it was considered desirable, during 1963, to alter the published group and all-groups index numbers to an “all-exports” basis, that is, a single all-destinations unit-value (or price) with a single weight was substituted for the separate unit-values and weights for the two destinations used previously. The differentiated destination weights and unit-values for each commodity are, of course, still used in the separate indexes for the two destinations.

A description of earlier indices may be found in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

In the following table are given export price index numbers for calendar years and for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Export prices during 1960 (= 1000)
PeriodButterCheeseAll Dairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and ByproductsAll Pastoral and Dairy Produce
Calendar year—
    19579557038921,0971,2131,1481,064
    19588218478431,046857929901
    19591,2121,2151,2019709229521,033
    19601,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    1961890990920949950951942
    19621,0479981,022955929936961
    19631,1459731,0771,0121,1161,0551,061
    19641,2069901,1391,1121,2231,1681,160
    19651,1851,0501,1781,2269561,0911,116
    19661,0681,0281,1111,2159451,1051,107
    19671,0511,0721,1031,1877709621,003
    19681,0991,1711,1561,3777301,0401,074
Year ended 30 June—
    19579871,0009941,0541,2481,1481,098
    19587986507701,059953990918
    19599711,1611,0291,030843921956
    19601,1961,1021,1599531,0311,0081,059
    1961896991927992948966955
    1962968995972905930921936
    19631,0959861,0481,0031,0039931,009
    19641,1819621,1011,0661,2701,1671,148
    19651,2261,0381,1851,2269871,1011,125
    19661,1051,0341,1361,1989791,1131,119
1967x1,0491,0361,0951,1998731,0371,054
1968*1,0771,1431,1391,3086779691,019
PeriodAll FoodsAll Non-foodsAll ExportsAll Groups
To United KingdomTo Other Countries
*Provisional.
Calendar year—
19579851,1621,0591,0421,095
1958936854902922858
19591,0999371,0301,068951
19601,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1961937954945933954
1962992930964982931
19631,0491,0671,0561,0691,036
19641,1311,1741,1501,1671,128
19651,2011,0021,1111,1701,034
19661,1521,0371,1001,1001,090
1967*1,1378401,0031,035941
1968*1,2608591,0801,1171,031
Year ended 30 June—
    19571,0211,1961,0951,0831,121
    1958901938917910934
    19591,031853955999864
    19601,0671,0361,0541,0641,034
    1961960953957954961
    1962942934938938933
    19631,0299821,0081,034974
    19641,0891,1991139x1141x1,134
    19651,2101,0091,1191,1851,034
    19661,1581,0581,1131,1221,093
    1967x1,1389471,0521,0681,026
    1968*1,2167781,0181,081939

The fact that the calendar year does not coincide with the farm production year is especially significant in New Zealand, since the great bulk of export goods is farm produce. For a number of purposes the portion of the foregoing tables relative to years ended 30 June is the more important, in that the figures relate more closely to the farming year.

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined.

Base: Export prices during 1960 (= 1000)

YearIndex Numbers
All Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Exports

*Upward trend in 1949 masked by appreciation in August 1948 of New Zealand pound to parity with sterling.

†Provisional.

‡Downward trend in 1968 would have been greater but for devaluation of New Zealand currency in November 1967.

1914283283
1915323321
1916384380
1917431430
1918438438
1919466463
1920475472
1921451449
1922349353
1923417416
1924466462
1925491486
1926396396
1927394393
1928439435
1929421419
1930327329
1931247253
1932224230
1933222230
1934277283
1935268276
1936310315
1937366369
1938336342
1939328335
1940381386
1941389396
1942401406
1943418423
1944440446
1945476481
1946521526
1947659661
1948733734
1949711710*
19501,0101,003
19511,1861,177
1952947947
19531,0571,053
19541,0751,073
19551,1031,102
19561,0771,075
19571,0641,059
1958901902
19591,0331,030
19601,0001,000
1961942945
1962961964
June year
19631,0091,008
19641,1481,139
19651,1251,119
19661,1191,113
1967x1,0541,052
19681,0191018

The brisk demand for New Zealand wool displayed after the resumption of auction sales in September 1946, and greatly heightened during 1950 and the early part of 1951, resulted in the peak index numbers reached in 1951. After that wool prices fell away, and this, combined with low prices for dairy produce resulted in troughs in the index in 1958 and 1961. Wool prices had a like effect in 1967 and 1968.

IMPORT PRICES—Since 1949 the Import Prices Index has been derived from chained Fisher “Ideal” indexes. In this method two price indexes are calculated for each year on base previous year, one using the quantitative weighting pattern of the previous year and the other the quantitative weighting pattern of the latest year. The geometric mean of these two becomes the definitive index for the year, on base previous year, and is linked on to the index for that year on some earlier expression base. Since the trade statistics are now prepared for years ended June, the definitive import and export price indexes, and consequently terms of trade, are calculated accordingly. As from 1959 the price index is designed to reflect changes in the true c.i.f. cost of imports. Previously the calculations were based solely on the current domestic values of imports in the countries of origin as verified by the Customs Department. Over a half of the total tonnage of imports is made up of fertilisers and mineral oils and fuels, with a low value per unit of weight, for which freights constitute a substantial proportion of the total c.i.f. cost. In a further range of items from salt, wheat, sugar, fresh fruits, and timber to iron and steel, pulp and paper, freights make up a significant proportion of the total c.i.f. cost. Consequently differential changes in prices and freight rates can result in current domestic valuation changes being only a poor indication of c.i.f. cost movements. By measuring current domestic valuation price changes at the item level, and adjusting for changes in c.d.v. and c.i.f. valuation ratios at the divisional level, the index now shows more accurately than in the past, changes in the true cost of imports to the New Zealand economy.

The year 1959 has now been adopted as the standard expression base. The following table includes the series for past years converted to this base.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: 1959 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
*Provisional.
1926435
1927416
1928393
1929386
1930382
1931356
1932337
1933346
1934341
1935336
1936335
1937355
1938356
1939357
1940411
1941457
1942501
1943555
1944581
1945592
1946661
1947787
1948803
1949731
1950801
1951938
19521,024
1953965
1954952
1955972
1956997
19571,030
19581,025
19591,000
19601,015
19611,020
19621,001
June year
1963993
19641,005
19651,009
19661,015
1967*1,009
1968*1,094

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of 100 is made for arithmetical convenience, not to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have also been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices and of export prices and terms of trade for major commodity groups and total exports.

INDEX NUMBERS OF IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE

All Countries—Base: 1957 (= 100)
YearImport PricesButterCheeseMeatWoolAll Exports
Export PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of Trade
*Provisional
1957100100100100100100100100100100100
19581008686120121959671718586
1959971271311731788891767897100
196099105106142144919382849496
1961999394141142878778798990
196297110113142146879077799194
Year ended 30 June—
196396115119140146919583869599
19649812412713714097100105107108110
1965981281311481511121148183106108
1966991161171471491091118182105107
1967*98110112147150109112727399101
1968*10611310616315311911256539690

SHARE PRICES INDEX—The latest Share Prices Index is described in the special supplement to the March 1961 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title of Share Prices Index—1960 Revision. The index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. Within the subgroups the weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used to combine the subgroup indexes to obtain the group and all-groups indexes are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

Share Price Index Numbers—The table which follows shows index numbers for each month in 1968, and the averages for the last twelve calendar years.

SHARE PRICES—GROUP INDEX NUMBERS

Base: 1960 (= 1000)
Calendar YearIndustrialDistributionFinanceAll GroupsMonthIndustrialDistributionFinanceAll Groups
     1968—    
1957680 770731Jan1,0716581,078997
1958659 716691Feb1,1246991,1581,053
1959749 809783Mar1,1697171,1911,091
19601,0001,0001,0001,000Apr1,2487431,1981,144
1961990930944968May1,3357411,1951,196
19629588641,026963Jun1,3717511,2381,229
19631,0949741,1421,089Jul1,3777501,3361,255
19641,3301,1431,1531,252Aug1,4157611,4601,307
19651,3691,1191,0581,245Sep1,4417781,5591,348
19661,2799021,0421,153Oct1,4618011,5451,361
19671,1257381,0281,031Nov1,4848241,6061,391
19681,3347531,3481,232Dec1,5158111,6111,409

A table showing annual averages follows.

SHARE PRICES INDEX—SUBGROUP AND GROUP INDEX NUMBERS

Base: 1960 (= 1000)
GroupYear Ended
31 December 196731 March 196830 June 196830 September 196831 December 1968
Industrial—     
    Frozen meat1,1411,1001,1331,2171,336
    Other foods1,2221,2171,2301,3021,414
    Beverage industries9779921,0261,0711,120
    Textiles and apparel9328878729031,008
    Wood, pulp, paper1,3241,3761,5131,6651,825
    Leather, rubber, chemicals1,0059659649811,015
    Construction and materials1,0951,0741,1081,1731,246
    Other industrial1,2591,2471,3051,4211,581
All industrial1,1251,1171,1571,2321,334
Distribution—     
    Chain stores633629634639654
    Department stores764737721718730
    Other distribution764735727746794
All distribution738714707719753
All finance1,0281,0691,1171,2171,348
All groups1,0311,0321,0651,1351,232

Long-term Linked Series—A long-term linked series is presented in the following table. It was thought reasonable to link the old finance group with the latest finance group. There is, however, no old series comparable with the distribution group of the latest series.

SHARE PRICES INDEX NUMBERS—LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES

Base: 1960 (= 1000)
YearIndustrialFinanceAll Groups
1926376404398
1927352399386
1928363414399
1929397423418
1930345365362
1931279293291
1932276271276
1933333309322
1934412349378
1935456356400
1936444332380
1937444339384
1938413318359
1939396301342
1940423311359
1941422313360
1942415323363
1943478378422
1944516415460
1945531445484
1946567509534
1947597540564
1948591512546
1949566498527
1950620571592
1951647645646
1952526540534
1953503556533
1954561652612
1955599689650
1956608719670
1957680770731
1958659716691
1959749809783
 IndustrialDistributionFinancialAll Groups
19601,0001,0001,0001,000
1961990930944968
19629588641,026963
19631,0949741,1421,089
19641,3301,1431,1531,252
19651,3691,1191,0581,245
19661,2799021,0421,153
19671,1257381,0281,031
19681,3347531,3481,232

The trend in share prices is clearly shown in the accompanying diagram, which is based on the foregoing index numbers.

Figure 23.2. SHARE PRICES INDEX

SHARE PRICES INDEX

Dividend Yield Index—An indication of changes over time in the yields obtainable on investments, at current market prices in representative parcels of company shares, is measured by means of this index. The index is complementary to the 1960-based Share Prices Index and uses the same companies with appropriate weightings.

INDEX NUMBERS OF DIVIDEND YIELDS ON MARKET PRICES OF COMPANY SHARES

Base: 1960 (= 1000)
PeriodIndustrialDistributionFinancialAll Groups
Calendar year—    
    19601,0001,0001,0001,000
    19611,1511,1251,1351,143
    19621,2571,2611,1591,228
    19631,1591,1761,1301,153
    19641,0371,0701,1331,067
    19651,0541,1381,2821,120
    19661,1661,4321,3681,250
    19671,3691,7181,4261,433
    19681,1961,5971,1701,238
Month—    
    1968—January1,4311,8911,3821,480
            February1,3551,7811,2871,395
            March1,3321,7381,2521,366
            April1,5571,2451,4911,489
            May1,1971,6321,2511,262
            June1,1691,6101,2081,231
            July1,1621,5951,1951,221
            August1,1291,5721,0931,171
            September1,1321,4841,0241,146
            October1,1191,4471,1111,157
            November1,1091,4061,0771,138
            December1,1001,4291,0731,133

SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS—A comparative table of index numbers of various related prices series from the year 1926 onward is as follows. All index numbers are quoted on a New Zealand currency basis, and on the base: 1965 (= 1000).

YearImport PricesExport PricesWholesale Prices*Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll ExportsImportedHome ProducedTotalFoodAll Groups

*The three series have been individually linked.

†Provisional.

1926430355356354354349370405320
1927411353354333342332355402310
1928389393392326347330362404321
1929382377377322346328365403336
1930378293296317333319351394391
1931352221228310293299305364234
1932333201207308276291280336222
1933342199207326271299264319259
1934337248255323279301279324303
1935332240248324302310301336321
1936331278284324310313314347305
1937351328332351333339345370309
1938352301308354340344357382389
1939353294302358363355379397275
1940407341347423371396388415288
1941452349356476392435398431289
1942496359365523411470407445292
1943549375381576415502409455339
1944575394401595425517416464369
1945586427433604433525415470389
1946654467473602440527416474429
1947778591595615471547442488453
1948794657661691517609499527439
1949723637639676528605513536424
1950792905903717601659563566476
19519281,0631,059836699768647629519
19521,013849852942758853713678429
1953955947948895802844756709428
1954942963966855839837795741492
1955961988992870841846814760522
1956986965968893887878860786538
19571,019953953916880889858803587
19581,014807812946900914871839555
1959989926927970910928876871629
19601,004896900956920931889877803
19611,009844851960914928897893778
1962986861868961906922902916773
1963985951950979923940919935875
19641,0011,0391,0359829699739729671,006
19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
19661000992x990x1,0171,0161,0171,0181,028926
196710138999031,05410341,040x1,0921,090828
196811849629721,183108211121,1261,137990

Various price index numbers for March and June years are given in the following table.

YearBase: Calendar Year 1965 (= 1000)
Import Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale Prices*Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalFoodAll Groups

*The two component series have been individually linked.

†Provisional.

Year ended 31 March
1940....368367362384401280
1945....597425518415465371
1946....607432527416471400
1947....596447527417474437
1948....637484565460500452
1949....690521611502530434
1950740..679534610517539432
19518091,087738634685584580493
1952969879875720799669647498
19531,000863937764853723685419
1954954964881814842768718442
1955944975855846840801747504
19569651,001876840849819764527
1957996962900885882862792543
19581,020915917889893865809596
19591,011822959909924875853549
1960991948966913929876872675
19611,004881956919931894881823
19621,005842961913927899900758
1963979888964906924902921791
1964989990984932948929941913
19651,0031,0239839809829859781,026
19661,0029941,0061,005x1,006x1,0061,007974
19671,0029711,0241,0191,021x1,0311,039900
19681,0459031,0821,0431,0561,1001,103829
Year ended 30 June
1940..341383371373387405284
1945..426599426520416467374
1946..445609435529416472411
1947..548594452527419475446
1948..660660500585479513447
1949..634687523609504532428
1950757732687549621528545443
19518371,134767657711605596508
1952998857903734822687560474
1953978917926775851732692415
1954949970870827840783728459
1955947964860846842806751512
1956977984880849855827769533
19571,005986908888887865797555
19581,016825919889894867813587
19591,003860972912930875864557
19601,001949962918931876873726
19611,001861957917930897884827
19621,002844962910925902907755
1963982907971908927906926808
19649941,024982945956941948945
19659981,0079909889899939861,034
19661,0041,0021,0071,011x1,010x1,0141,015957
1967998947x1,0361,025x1029x1,0511,055877
19681,0829161,1131,0511,0701,1061,113855

Chapter 24. Section 24 CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Table of Contents

CONSUMPTION IN NEW ZEALAND—The figures given for the consumption of various foodstuffs, as well as liquor and tobacco, represent available supplies in New Zealand. They are obtained by deducting exports from the aggregates of local production and imports. Adjustments are made in some cases for changes in stock, wastage, and industrial and other non-food usage. It must be realised that, owing to a lack of comparability in the basic data of production and trade, these estimates cannot be compiled with absolute accuracy. Nevertheless, they do provide a useful indication of the levels of consumption.

Farm Products—The proportions of the main farm products which are consumed in New Zealand and the proportions which are exported are shown in the next table, giving average percentages over the three-year period 1965-66 to 1967-68.

ProductConsumed in New ZealandExported
 percentpercent
Butter20.379.7
Cheese8.092.0
All meats31.768.3
Beef and veal42.757.3
Mutton42.857.2
Lamb7.692.4
Pig meat96.73.3

Dairy Produce—Measured in terms of butterfat content, it is estimated that 24.7 percent of total dairy production during 1967-68 was used for local human consumption. A further 3.1 percent was accounted for by stock feeding, wastage, etc., leaving 72.2 percent for export in the form of butter, cheese, processed milk, and casein. Estimated figures of annual consumption per head of mean population for the main items of dairy produce are given below.

Product1933-381949-541964-651965-661966-671967-68
Whole milk (pint)220.0322.0290.0290.0290.0290.0
Cream (pint)6.93.95.25.35.35.1
Ice cream (pint)3.213.220.421.021.424.2
Cheese (lb)4.55.97.47.17.37.9
Butter (lb)41.239.243.143.042.440.6
Condensed milk and whole milk powders (lb)4.77.05.15.45.55.2

Meats—In estimating the average annual consumption of meats an allowance has been made for killings on farms. The consumption per head of mean population for the various items is as follows, the weights in each case being on a bone-in dressed-carcass basis.

Product1937-401949-521964-651965-661966-671967-68
Beef (lb)114.0111.1101.6101.3101.698.7
Veal (lb)7.55.77.97.28.18.4
Mutton (lb)69.064.873.064.063.766.1
Lamb (lb)10.216.318.422.121.5
Pork including chopper meat (lb)9.011.115.214.513.614.3
Ham and bacon (lb)17.019.517.2x16.815.116.1
Edible offal (lb)9.09.79.29.79.410.0

Vegetables and Fruits—Domestic garden production is taken into account for fruit and vegetables, although it is difficult to calculate likely consumption from this source. The estimates include, at fresh weights, New Zealand produced fruits and vegetables canned for local consumption; imports of canned produce are excluded. Annual consumption per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Product1936-391949-521963-651964-661965-67
*Includes cauliflower, lettuce, silver beet, sprouts, and spinach.
Potatoes (lb)119113134138133
Kumeras (lb)7.55.03.13.33.9
Cabbages and leaf greens* (lb)30-3535-4560-8060-8060-80
Carrots (lb)10-1510-1517-2218-2320-25
Tomatoes (lb)2020272625
Apples (lb)4537444545
Pears and quinces (lb)69111211
Stone fruits (lb)1316242527
Citrus fruits (lb)2218191919
Bananas (lb)2010242323
Pineapples (lb)0.90.50.20.20.2

Canned Fruit and Vegetables—Total annual consumption per head of mean population of canned fruits and vegetables is estimated as follows. The figures include New Zealand produced canned fruit and vegetables already accounted for as fresh fruit in the preceding table.

Product1936-391949-521963-651964-661965-67
Canned fruit (lb)10.113.014.715.916.8
Canned tomatoes, including sauces and soups (lb)––4.25.15.24.9
Canned vegetables (lb)1.69.111.811.211.8

Consumption of imported canned fruit per head, annually, is as follows:

Product1936-391949-52196519661967
Canned fruit (lb)7.610.23.23.5x3.3

Most canned fruit requirements were formerly imported and consisted mainly of pineapples, peaches, and apricots, but except for pineapples the market is now largely met from local canning factories.

Most of the demand for canned vegetables is now met from local production. With the falling off in production of canned peas in favour of quick-frozen peas, baked beans have increased in relative importance, as have canned asparagus, sweet corn, and other vegetables.

Quick-frozen Fruit and Vegetables—There has been rapid development in the quick-frozen foods industry in recent years coupled with a growing export trade. Consumption, annually, per head of mean population in New Zealand for recent years is estimated as follows.

Product1960-19621961-19631963-19651964-19661965-1967
Fruits (lb)0.10.10.10.10.1
Vegetables (lb)—     
    Peas7.28.07.78.29.6
    Beans1.41.41.21.31.8
    Other0.81.01.41.82.5

Other Foodstuffs—Estimated annual consumption figures per head of mean population for other items of food-stuffs are given hereunder.

Product1937-391949-511964-661965-67
*Cocoa powder equivalent of imports for all purposes, including chocolate manufacture.
Poultry (lb)3.53.58.58.9
Fish—edible portion, excluding processed imports (lb)11.011.011.311.7
Shellfish—edible portion (lb)1.32.02.02.3
Eggs (dozen)20.022.025.826.5
Honey (lb)..5.13.73.7
Refined sugar (lb)97.099.087.489.8
Dried peas and beans (lb)1.63.03.23.3
Flour, wheaten (lb)178.0182.0180.8176.6
Oatmeal, oaten products (lb)9.17.74.44.4
Rice (lb)5.42.62.92.9
Tea (lb)6.67.36.36.4
Cocoa (lb)*1.92.02.12.3
Coffee (lb)0.30.63.03.0

Beer, Wine, Spirits, and Tobacco—Annual consumption per head of mean population of these items is estimated at:

Product19381951196519661967
*Figures relate to 12 months ended 30 June of year stated.
Beer (gallons)11.118.822.723.624.2
Grape wine (gallons)0.220.440.610.70.81
Spirits (proof gallons)0.280.450.470.470.43
Tobacco (lb)3.85.45.0*5.3*5.3*

In interpreting the big increase in beer consumption from pre-war years it should not be overlooked that as a war measure the alcoholic strength of beer was, in 1942, reduced by about one-quarter, and it is possible that, on account of this, consumption was higher than it would otherwise have been. Although this restriction was removed at the end of 1948 the additional duty on beer exceeding the reduced strength has had much the same effect as the former restriction in limiting the production of stronger beers. In 1967 beer consumption per head in Australia was 24.3 gallons and in the United Kingdom 20.3 gallons.

Domestic wine production has increased during recent years and now accounts for approximately 90 percent of total consumption of wines. The production of spirits is now being undertaken in New Zealand and 600,000 proof gallons of locally produced gin, geneva, schnapps and vodka were released for home consumption in 1967.

Tobacco consumption in Australia in 1967 was 5 lb per head and in the United Kingdom 4.3 lb per head. Over half the tobacco leaf used to produce cigarettes and tobacco is grown in New Zealand.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The table which follows presents for selected countries statistics on food consumption from the Food and Agriculture Organisation's Production Yearbook, and the United Nations Statistical Yearbook. Total consumption in calories per person per day is shown and also the percentage derived from livestock products (meat, poultry, eggs, fish, milk, butter, cheese, slaughter fats, marine oils). The total calories figure includes also foodstuffs not specifically mentioned in the table.

CountryCerealsPotatoes, etc.SugarPulses and NutsMeatMilk and Milk Products*Fats and OilsCalories
FatProteinPer Person Per DayPercentage of Animal Origin

*Excluding butter.

†Including butter.

‡Negligible.

|Includes present territory of Pakistan.

¶Tentative data.

  Kilogrammes per Person per Year
AustraliaPre-war1014953212065163,30040
 1964-65854350410687143,16043
CanadaPre-war93604366287193,02039
 1964-6567724668678193,09043
New ZealandPre-war875048310988173,26048
 1,96786665051091010233,46850
United KingdomPre-war958242567525213,11038
 1963-64801014667088243,28044
Ireland, Republic ofPre-war1311953825559143,40035
 1,9641011364936999193,46040
South AfricaPre-war15616212383332,34019
 1960-6116614414443352,82020
United States ofPre-war92674487287213,28037
America1965664540810088223,14038
ArgentinaPre-war106662721075592,78038
 1,963120753329744163,04030
DenmarkPre-war941205057588273,45035
 1964-65751064886399293,33044
FrancePre-war1241432485545162,880..
 1960-62981003077767..3,050..
NetherlandsPre-war1071162953878212,84032
 1964-6573934355188222,890 
SwedenPre-war95122443491110183,12038
 1964-65699639352109222,95042
IndiaPre-war|139813223322*1,9508
 1963-641421117221223*1,9806
JapanPre-war158461317312,0504
 1,964147671715101172,32011

Butter and cheese consumption per head in selected countries is shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

CountryButterCheese
1938 or 1938-391950 or 1950-511966 or 1966-671938 or 1938-391950 or 1950-511966 or 1966-67
 lblblblblblb
Australia32.630.121.94.36.57.5
Canada31.922.117.83.65.59.2
Denmark18.310.621.814.111.521.6
Netherlands12.36.08.817.011.619.6
New Zealand42.837.242.44.55.97.3
Sweden24.130.018.412.817.917.9
United Kingdom24.116.919.78.910.110.4
United States of America16.610.65.75.97.69.8

In considering New Zealand's relatively high consumption of butter it should be noted that the use of margarine as a spread, common in some countries, is unknown in New Zealand.

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies, mainly on food items, were introduced in 1942 as part of the economic stabilisation policy during the war. The subsidies on butter, bread, and flour were removed from 11 February 1967. The amount of subsidy being paid on the main remaining food items as at March 1968 was as follows: Eggs, 3.33c a dozen; milk 19.93c a gallon, this represents the average subsidy per gallon for the year ended 31 August 1967.

The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving relatively small amounts, are included in other Government expenditure. Total amounts, paid in subsidies (e.g., $39.2 million in 1966-67) will be found in the section on National Income and Expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968
 $(thousand)
Butter7,6289,85810,2708,991-
Milk9,17010,77412,39714,18714,676
Eggs1,0461,0401,0601,2541,249
Bread and flour10,57011,59011,6809,730-
Gas8761,1261,1521,2291,358
Industrial coal (rail transport)238261607420550
            Totals29,52834,64937,16635,81117,834

Chapter 25. Section 25 NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

25 A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

INTRODUCTORY—National accounting can be described as the preparation of a comprehensive statistical statement about the economic activity of a country. One of its main objectives is to measure the overall value of production in a country's economy. The system of accounts presents the inter-relationships as well as the magnitudes of the major economic flows of the country in terms of the consolidated transactions of the principal sectors.

The principal aggregate is that of “National Income”, which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways, and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments represent the return to labour for services rendered, and include in this concept supplementary income in kind such as board and keep provided by the employer.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rent (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farm houses).

Other personal income (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income other than salary and wages received by salary and wage earners—e.g., rent and interest. Included under this heading as current income is the surplus of primary-produce stabilisation accounts, and moneys retained under authority of the Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and not as personal income.

Apart from these incomes, which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a “non-productive” nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These transfer incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of private income, which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned transfer incomes received by or accruing to persons. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of private disposable income. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.—are, however, excluded both from private income and national income.

In general, only incomes arising from the production of goods and services destined for the market form part of the national income; it follows, therefore, that the services of housewives, or the produce of home gardens are excluded. On the other hand, farm produce consumed on farms is part of the national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local authority trading profits and the deduction of transfer incomes, as already detailed, gives the concept of net national income at factor cost or, more briefly, national income. This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the national income to market price valuation.

Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to national income at market prices, and represents the value of output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence attributable to the factors of production supplied by New Zealand residents during the year.

The first following table on income shows the major aggregates making up national income and the adjustments required to arrive at a value of gross national product. The second following table gives a similar analysis of the national expenditure showing the major components of expenditure by New Zealand residents (gross domestic expenditure) and the transactions with the rest of the world which have to be taken into account in order to reconcile gross domestic expenditure with the value of gross national product.

Gross Domestic Expenditure can, after being adjusted for changes in stock, be analysed into expenditure on goods and services for immediate consumption and expenditure for capital purposes, and into expenditure made by Government (including local authorities) and that made by individuals. The first four columns of the expenditure table make these distinctions.

Personal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and Services shows the value of the purchases of households and non-profit-making organisations. Besides the day-to-day expenditure on food, clothing, rent, travel and other services, etc., it includes expenditure on such items as motorcars for private use and household durables. The notable exception is expenditure on the purchase of houses; this is recorded under private capital formation.

Public Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and Services shows the current expenditure of the non-trading organs of the Central Government and local authorities. It does not include payment of pensions, monetary social security benefits or subsidies which are transfers and do not, in themselves, represent an expenditure on production. A more detailed analysis of public authority current expenditure is shown in the table on page 714.

Gross Capital Formation represents the expenditure in New Zealand on real reproducible assets such as buildings, roads and other construction, plant, machinery and motor vehicles for business use. It does not include the value of land purchased during the year which is a transfer of an asset. Nor, does it include expenditure on financial assets such as company shares; such transactions do not result in direct expenditure but transfer claims from one person or organisation to another.

By adding the value of exported goods and services to gross domestic expenditure and deducting the value of imports an estimate of the Expenditure on gross national product is arrived at. This represents the value of goods and services produced in New Zealand during the year. As the table shows the deduction of payments for the use of overseas-owned factors (capital and labour) completes the reconciliation of expenditure with the value of gross national product.

The following tables show the principal of the above aggregates and the manner in which they are derived one from the other.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE

March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeCompany IncomePublic Authority Trading IncomeLump Sum Payments from United Kingdom GovernmentLess Public Debt Interest Paid in New ZealandNational Income at Factor CostPlus Indirect TaxationLess SubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesPlus Depreciation AllowancesGross National Product
*Provisional.
PCT $(million)
1938-39223213109391 — 1439041—143034464
1947-4842013222601062810— 31828106—2790658964
1948-494549232689726 — 3184592—2391464978
1949-5050092531411629 — 32961100—291,031701,101
1950-51557122748714234 — 341,225111—191,318781,396
1951-52656173038316040 — 351,250142—321,360861,446
1952-53696213340815539 — 341,317134—301,421961,517
1953-54769243744818150 — 371,471135—311,5751061,681
1954-55862244046319560 — 411,603161—271,7381221,860
1955-56937244347318864 — 421,688171—251,8331321,965
1956-57990244650219761 — 471,773168—271,9151462,061
1957-581,068264850421165 — 531,870182—272,0261582,184
1958-591,116255049621974 — 571,923208—272,1041662,270
1959-601,181265155324282 — 592,075217—262,2661682,434
1960-611,277275256929191 — 652,243226—312,4381852,623
1961-621,3652761545288100 — 702,316231—282,5192042,723
1962-631,4452980598323105 — 772,503228—292,7022192,921
1963-641,5543088666366123 — 892,741254—302,9642323,197
1964-651,7233299691412136 — 952,997276—353,2382493,487
1965-661,89035113708441147 —1043,230289—393,4802643,744
1966-672,05439121690427149 —1133,367301—393,6292823,911
1967-68*2,17441128675392163 —1213,452317—213,7482954,043

EXPENDITURE

March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesPublic Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksGross Domestic ExpenditureExports of Goods and servicesImports of Goods and ServicesExpenditure on Gross Domestic ProductNet Factor Payments to Rest of WorldExpenditure on Gross National Product
PrivatePublic Authority
*Provisional.
EXPENDITURE $(million)
1938-39322633544104746480—16464
1947-4858112389651129706976—12964
1948-4969712610178— 3896426990—12978
1949-5070914011694281,087201,107— 61,101
1950-51830153152100981,333429—3541,408—121,396
1951-52956186186106741,508526—5751,459—131,446
1952-53938212202147261,525516—5131,528—111,517
1953-541,049226215158— 421,606525—4411,690—91,681
1954-551,201227277164581,927507—5571,877—171,860
1955-561,275249266187382,015565—6011,979—141,965
1956-571,326274256203202,079595—5962,078—172,061
1957-581,445287287214322,265593—6572,201—172,184
1958-591,459302290214312,296576—5782,294—242,270
1959-601,464324297226262,337671—5552,453—192,434
1960-611,723346366233452,713630—6832,660—372,623
1961-621,794363393241242,815634—6952,754—312,723
1962-631,880394387255352,951670—6542,967—462,921
1963-641,997417423286863,211787—7593,239—423,197
1964-652,132460500312973,501838—7933,546—593,487
1965-662,3335165663421423,899832—9333,798—543,744
1966-672,3815665923711384,048884—9553,977—663,911
1967-68*2,4765915403691244,100855—8614,094—514,043

Estimates of gross national product from 1932-33 to 1937-38 are as follows: 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 1937-38

Gross national product—$(million) 227.4 254.0 271.2 310.8 384.6 423.8

These estimates are based upon former computations of aggregate private income, with suitable adjustments to bring them into line with present-day concepts.

The various aggregates are conventionally measured in New Zealand over periods of one year, ending 31 March. Monetary values in all cases are given in New Zealand currency without adjustment for price changes between individual years. Full details of the methods used and a description of the items in the tables are given in National Income and Expenditure 1967-68, obtainable from the Government Printer, Auckland, Wellington, Hamilton, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—It is necessary to point out that the estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. On the other hand it is well to realise that, whatever inherent error there may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be much more accurate, simply because the method of estimation remains the same.

The method adopted by necessity does not permit a check to be made on the present national income aggregates, in which no allowances have been made for any possible under-statement of incomes shown in the taxation returns on which the estimates are based.Nor do these aggregates take into account “negative” incomes or losses of previous years allowed as a set-off against current profits for taxation purposes. Any understatement of the gross product total arising from these omissions will therefore be reflected in a similar understatement of personal consumption which is shown as a residual item in the break up of national expenditure (refer table on page 709). Direct estimates are made of public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand by private and public authority sectors, and the balance of overseas payments on current account (sometimes termed net overseas investment or net lending abroad).

After ascertaining personal consumption in the manner outlined above, it becomes possible to make an estimate of private savings. By deducting personal expenditure and direct taxation from aggregate private income, another residual is obtained—viz, private savings (refer table on page 713). Being a residual item it will, of course, contain certain minor errors of estimation inherent in the aggregates from which it is derived. It will be free, however, from the major apparent error which is caused by the understatement of incomes through tax evasion; this is due to the fact that the underestimate is cancelled out by being included both in the minuend and subtrahend, and the residual is consequently not affected.

The following table shows the relationship of some of the more important aggregates.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES OF INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

Item1938-391961-621962-631963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68*
*Provisional.
National income$m3902,3162,5032,7412,9973,2303,3673,452
Gross national product$m4642,7232,9213,1973,4873,7443,9114,043
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services$m3221,7941,8801,9972,1322,3332,3812,476
    As percentage of gross national product 6966646361626161
Gross capital formation in New Zealand$m79634642709812908963910
    As percentage of gross national product 1723222223242523
Public authority current expenditure on goods and services$m63363394417460516566591
    As percentage of gross national product 1413131313141415
Private income$m4002,5042,6942,9363,1903,4293,5833,680
Private savings$m28171300387420388429422
    As percentage of private income 77111313111211

In the year ended 31 March 1968 the gross national product was valued at $4,043 million, an increase of 3.4 percent on the 1966-67 figure of $3,911 million. Preceding annual increases were 4.5 percent in 1966-67 and 7.4 percent in 1965-66. National income was $3,452 million, an increase of 2.5 percent over that of 1966-67, whereas preceding annual increases were 4.2 percent in 1966-67 and 7.8 percent in 1965-66. Gross national product at constant prices, however, fell by 0.6 percent in 1967-68 compared with rises of 6.3 percent in 1965-66 and 3.9 percent in 1966-67.

The figures reflect the slackening of economic activity during 1967-68. The effect was most marked in company incomes which are estimated to have fallen by 8.2 percent from $427 million in 1966-67 to $392 million in 1967-68 and in other personal incomes which fell by 2.2 percent from $690 million to $675 million.

All the major sections of other personal income recorded decreases in 1967-68 compared with the previous year. Farming income is estimated to have fallen from $314 million to $310 million with the income from manufacturing and commerce dropping from $236 million to $224 million and that of professional and other services decreasing from $90 million to $88 million. Primary produce stabilisation accounts recorded net deficits totalling $19 million compared with deficits of $20 million in the previous year, while interest, rents, etc., rose from $70 million to $72 million. On the other hand salary and wage payments rose by 5.8 percent from $2,054 million in 1966-67 to $2,174 million in 1967-68.

While the gross national product rose by 3.4 percent, gross domestic expenditure at $4,100 million was only 1.3 percent greater than in 1966-67. The components of gross domestic expenditure, however, changed markedly from the previous year. Personal consumption rose by 4.0 percent from $2,381 million to $2,476 million. Government and local authority current expenditure rose by 4.4 percent from $566 million to $591 million and Government capital expenditure by 0.8 percent from $242 million to $244 million. Local authority capital expenditure, however, fell from $129 million to $125 million. Private capital formation decreased sharply from $592 million to $540 million, mainly due to lower activity in the building industry. Stocks of goods and materials, including commodities in transit and held overseas and as yet unsold, rose by $124 million compared with $138 million in 1966-67.

The reduced borrowing overseas is identical with a reduction in the deficit on current account of the balance of payments from $161 million in 1966-67 to $76 million in 1967-68; it was achieved in spite of a fall in exports from $789 million in 1966-67 to $754 million in 1967-68 (a decline of $35 million) since imports fell from $723 million to $640 million during the same period (a decline of $83 million). In addition the deficit on services, investment income and transfers fell from $226 million to $190 million in the latest year.

Gross National Product and Expenditure—The tables give the composition of the national income by factor shares plus net indirect taxation and depreciation allowances entering into the market prices of all goods and services the production of which can be attributed to New Zealand residents (gross national product); the other side of the product account is a description of final expenditure on gross national product by type of expenditure. As mentioned previously, personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct estimates.

The graph which follows demonstrates the use to which resources available in New Zealand were put during selected years. The numerical values for this graph are derived from the expenditure part of the preceding account, and total resources available in New Zealand are equivalent to gross national product plus deficit or minus surplus on current balance of payments accounts.

Figure 25.1. FINAL EXPENDITURES

FINAL EXPENDITURES

The first four of the following tables provide some more detailed analysis of particular aspects of the national accounts.

Private Income and Outlay—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes are spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. An analysis of other personal income is given for each of the years.

The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table and this time private savings is obtained as a residual item. The limitations of these two residual items have already been mentioned.

Revenue Account of Public Authorities—The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of Central Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was available for capital investment and other capital transactions.

Combined Capital Account—This account indicates the manner in which resources for capital formation have been made available (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of public authorities, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, Central Government, and the local authority sectors, plus the net change in stocks by trading concerns.

Rest of World Account—An account of external economic transactions between New Zealand and other countries; it is, in essence, a balance of payments on current account for the period, presented here in abridged form.

These five tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy over a period of 30 years which has included the dislocating effects of a major war. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures are at prices current during the period and consequently are inflated to a greater or less extent by price movements over the period.

The following are the five tables mentioned.

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY

March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value of Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeCompany Income Before DistributionPrivate Income (Before Tax)
FarmingManufacturing and CommerceProfessional and Other ServicesSurplus of Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsWool Retention Moneys and Supplementary PaymentsInterest, Rent, etc.
*Provisional.
INCOME $(million)
1938-3922321513512210—3––2939400
1947-48420137422120602226––32106894
1948-4945497823128622422––3297928
1949-5050098425168682818––321161,048
1950-5155712942723682323566361421,319
1951-526561710530209963611— 5361601,350
1952-536962110733232104388—12381551,420
1953-547692411537259115423—11401811,572
1954-558622412240263126441—11401951,706
1955-5693724128432571324611—13401881,794
1956-57990241324629014250—10—12421971,891
1957-581,068261394828715658—39––422111,997
1958-591,1162516050249145581––442192,065
1959-601,18126198512791515820––462422,251
1960-611,277272135228917766—11––482912,430
1961-621,365272186125118668—11––502882,504
1962-631,4452921980272194746––523232,694
1963-641,55430229883152047698543662,936
1964-651,723322349932021684112584123,190
1965-661,89035242113330229882— 5644413,429
1966-672,0543925212131423690—16— 4704273,583
1967-68*2,1744126912831022488—13— 6723923,680
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesNet Transfers to Rest of WorldDirect TaxationPrivate SavingsPrivate Outlay
Undistributed Profits of CompaniesOther Private Savings
*Provisional.
OUTLAY $(million)
1938-3932224828400
1947-48581215442115894
1948-4969721881724928
1949-507094192361071,048
1950-518304226572021,319
1951-52956— 428449651,350
1952-53938— 3292391541,420
1953-541,0491308581561,572
1954-551,2012336571101,706
1955-561,275––348421291,794
1956-571,326––370461491,891
1957-581,445— 1345451631,997
1958-591,459344264972,065
1959-601,4646420772852,251
1960-611,7238493831222,430
1961-621,7948531611102,504
1962-631,8809505872132,694
1963-641,99775421052822,936
1964-652,13210629943263,190
1965-662,333176911202683,429
1966-672,38117756883413,583
1967-68*2,47613769593633,680

The following diagram presents the distribution of private outlay (shown in the second part of the preceding table) in graphical form.

Figure 25.2. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON PRIVATE OUTLAY

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON PRIVATE OUTLAY

REVENUE ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES (CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES)

March YearTaxationTrading IncomeLess Direct Taxes Paid by Public Authority Trading UndertakingsLump Sum Payments From United Kingdom GovernmentTotal Revenue
DirectIndirect
*Provisional.
REVENUE $(million)
1938-39484118––-107
1947-4815810628— 310299
1948-491909226— 3-305
1949-5019410029— 3-320
1950-5122911134— 3-372
1951-5228814240— 4-466
1952-5329613439— 5-464
1953-5431113550— 4-492
1954-5534216160— 5-558
1955-5635417164— 6-582
1956-5737616861— 6-599
1957-5835018265— 4-593
1958-5944720874— 5-724
1959-6042521782— 6-718
1960-6149922691— 7-810
1961-62538231100— 7-862
1962-63512228105— 8-837
1963-64551254123— 9-919
1964-65640276136—11-1,041
1965-66702289147—11-1,127
1966-67767301149—11-1,202
1967-68*780317163—12-1,248
March YearCurrent Expenditure on Goods and ServicesTransfer IncomeSubsidiesBalance of Revenue Over ExpenditureTotal Expenditure Plus or Minus Revenue Balances
Social Security Benefits and PensionsNet Transfers to Rest of WorldInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand
*Provisional.
EXPENDITURE $(million)
1938-396315––14114107
1947-48123743312741299
1948-49127782312345305
1949-50140842322933320
1950-51153942341970372
1951-5218610543532104466
1952-532121073343078464
1953-542261153373181492
1954-5522712244127138558
1955-5624912834225135582
1956-5727413244727116599
1957-582871394532782593
1958-5930216045727174724
1959-6032419745926108718
1960-6134621246531152810
1961-6236321857028178862
1962-6339421947729115837
1963-6441722958930149919
1964-65460234595352121,041
1965-665162426104392201,127
1966-675662526113392301,202
1967-68*5912696121212391,248

COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT

March YearPrivate SavingsRevenue Balances of Public AuthoritiesDepreciation AllowancesTotal SavingsGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksNet Investment OverseasTotal Investments
PrivateCentral Government Trading UndertakingsLocal Authorities Trading UndertakingsPrivateCentral GovernmentLocal Authorities
*Provisional.
SAVINGS $(million) INVESTMENTS $(million)
1938-392814 34 7735321210— 1277
1947-4815741 58 254895114112— 12254
1948-494145 64 1511016216—3810151
1949-5014333 70 2461167618288246
1950-5125970 78 40615280209856406
1951-52114104 86 304186812574— 62304
1952-5319378 96 3662021093826— 9366
1953-54214819211340221511444—4271402
1954-551671381061434272771154958— 72427
1955-561711351141534372661295838— 54437
1956-571951161271644572561386520— 22457
1957-58208821351844482871407432— 85448
1958-591611741412055022901377731— 33502
1959-60362108141225636297142842687636
1960-612051521552465433661498445—101543
1961-621711781742465533931479424—105553
1962-6330011518626763538715310235— 42635
1963-6438714919727776842318010686— 27768
1964-6542021221327988050019611697— 29880
1965-663882202262810874566218125142—177874
1966-674292302393310940592242129138—161940
1967-68*4222392483611957540244125124— 76957

REST OF WORLD ACCOUNT

March YearExports ofImports ofNet Factor PaymentsNet TransfersSurplus on Current Account
GoodsServicesGoodsServicesPrivatePublic Authorities
*Provisional.
$(million)
1938-396—16— 2––— 12
1947-486—12— 2—4— 12
1948-4926—12— 2—210
1949-5020— 6—4—28
1950-51429—354—12— 4—256
1951-5250125—474—101—134—3— 62
1952-5347640—415— 98—113—3— 9
1953-5449134—362— 79— 9— 1—371
1954-5547136—459— 98—17— 2—4— 72
1955-5652441—498—103—14––—3— 54
1956-5754847—488—108—17––—4— 22
1957-5854053—545—112—171—4— 85
1958-5952848—468—110—24— 3—4— 33
1959-6062249—442—113—19— 6—487
1960-6157456—546—137—37— 8—4—101
1961-6258153—550—145—31— 8—4—105
1962-6360763—509—145—46— 9—4— 42
1963-6472067—601—158—42— 7—6— 27
1964-6576870—616—177—59—10—5— 29
1965-6675082—722—211—54—17—6—177
1966-6778995—723—232—66—17—6—161
1967-68*754101—640—221—51—13—6— 76

CONSTANT PRICE ESTIMATES OF THE MAIN AGGREGATES—National accounting aggregates are, by their nature, summations of the values of all goods and services produced or consumed in a particular year. If the values of goods and services are expressed in current prices (i.e. the market prices prevailing in each particular year) then any comparison between two or more years is affected not only by changes in the volume of production between those years but in annual price movements as well. The effect of annual price movements is eliminated if all annual values are expressed in the average prices of a base period; the base used is the year 1954-55. By expressing the aggregates in constant prices, and not in current values as in the previous sections of this Report, their real value in terms of goods and services, either produced or available for use can be better appreciated.

Three of the principal national accounts, gross national product, gross domestic product, and gross domestic expenditure, are expressed in current as well as 1954-55 prices in the following table:

YearAt Current PricesAt Constant 1954-55 Prices
Gross National ProductGross Domestic ProductGross Domestic ExpenditureGross National ProductGross Domestic ProductGross Domestic Expenditure
*Provisional.
$(million)
1954-551,8601,8771,9271,8601,8771,927
1955-561,9651,9792,0151,9321,9461,961
1956-572,0612,0782,0791,9681,9841,955
1957-582,1842,2012,2652,0712,0872,102
1958-592,2702,2942,2962,1232,1452,031
1959-602,4342,4532,3372,2132,2302,086
1960-612,6232,6602,7132,3342,3672,359
1961-622,7232,7542,8152,4182,4462,394
1962-632,9212,9672,9512,4822,5212,418
1963-643,1973,2393,2112,6402,6752,633
1964-653,4873,5463,5012,7912,8382,842
1965-663,7443,7983,8992,9683,0113,105
1966-673,9113,9774,0483,0833,1353,201
1967-68*4,0434,0944,1003,0643,1033,005

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE INCOME—The following table gives an analysis of private income, direct taxes paid on that income, and private disposable income over the years. In the two following tables the items of private income and private disposable income are shown as percentages of the whole, and as index numbers on base 1938-39 (= 100).

PRIVATE INCOME AND INCIDENCE OF DIRECT TAXATION

March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal Income (Excluding$ Company Dividends)Company Income (Before Distribution)Private Income

*Provisional.

† Includes changes in primary-produce reserve accounts.

PRIVATE INCOME $(million)
1938-39222.51.814.812.8109.039.2400.1
1939-40221.55.822.313.4118.849.5431.3
1940-41235.631.224.414.8116.547.2469.7
1941-42241.551.025.215.4124.455.2512.7
1942-43253.792.027.816.2133.965.7589.3
1943-44281.1116.630.917.2144.272.8662.8
1944-45294.396.934.317.8159.475.8678.5
1945-46323.978.741.118.8174.683.4720.5
1946-47373.116.468.620.2221.095.9795.2
1947-48420.112.874.121.8259.8105.5894.1
1948-49454.39.077.623.2267.696.6928.3
1949-50500.19.283.925.4313.8115.71,048.1
1950-51557.011.893.627.2487.0142.11,318.7
1951-52655.616.9105.429.6382.5160.21,350.2
1952-53696.021.1106.832.6408.2155.31,420.0
1963-54768.823.9114.736.6447.6180.81,572.4
1954-55862.224.2122.139.6463.0194.71,705.8
1955-56936.924.1128.243.2472.9188.41,793.7
1956-57990.224.1131.946.4502.0196.71,891.3
1957-581,068.425.8139.448.2503.9211.31,997.0
1958-591,115.824.5159.650.0496.5219.02,065.4
1959-601,180.826.1198.051.2552.6241.92,250.6
1960-611,277.427.1213.052.1569.3291.02,429.9
1961-621,364.927.5218.260.8545.3287.72,504.4
1962-631,445.229.1218.680.5597.5323.12,694.0
1963-641,554.430.3229.488.4666.5366.52,935.5
1964-651,722.632.1233.699.3690.9411.63,190.1
1965-661,890.034.6242.2113.0707.7441.23,428.7
1966-672,054.438.6251.6120.6690.2427.13,582.5
1967-68*2,173.641.4269.1128.1675.0392.33,679.5
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Company Income (Before Distribution)Total

*Provisional.

†Excludes direct taxes on Government trading profits.

DIRECT TAXES $(million)
1938-399.8––23.714.147.6
1939-4016.0––26.618.461.0
1940-4125.01.637.627.091.2
1941-4231.02.241.428.0102.6
1942-4339.06.448.139.3132.8
1943-4446.87.051.745.5151.0
1944-4548.67.652.953.3162.4
1945-4653.26.659.250.8169.8
1946-4747.62.458.448.0156.4
1947-4847.20.861.845.0154.8
1948-4949.41.075.561.1187.0
1949-5053.01.079.058.2191.2
1950-5165.01.096.064.2226.2
1951-5272.01.2131.978.9284.0
1952-5387.81.6120.281.8291.4
1953-5492.81.6131.181.7307.2
1954-5599.82.0142.991.9336.6
1955-56104.42.0141.699.8347.8
1956-57122.92.0143.8101.0369.7
1957-5893.42.2147.2102.3345.1
1958-59133.72.6200.3105.7442.3
1959-60146.03.0162.2108.6419.8
1960-61147.73.2215.8126.0492.7
1961-62167.63.0210.7149.9531.2
1962-63173.33.3183.6144.5504.7
1963-64176.63.2198.6163.5541.9
1964-65206.13.5222.7196.5628.8
1965-66236.34.3238.8212.1691.5
1966-67268.94.9250.2231.6755.6
1967-68*283.15.3245.5235.2769.1
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Company Income (Before Distribution)Total
*Provisional.
DISPOSABLE INCOME $(million)
1938-39212.71.8112.925.1352.5
1939-40205.55.8127.931.1370.3
1940-41210.629.6118.120.2378.5
1941-42210.548.8123.627.2410.1
1942-43214.785.6129.826.4456.5
1943-44234.3109.6140.627.3511.8
1944-45245.789.3158.622.5516.1
1945-46270.772.1175.332.6550.7
1946-47325.514.0251.447.9638.8
1947-48372.912.0293.960.5739.3
1948-49404.98.0292.935.5741.3
1949-50447.18.2344.157.5856.9
1950-51492.010.8511.877.91,092.5
1951-52583.615.7385.681.31,066.2
1952-53608.219.5427.473.51,128.6
1953-54676.022.3467.899.11,265.2
1954-55762.422.2481.8102.81,369.2
1955-56832.522.1502.788.61,445.9
1956-57867.322.1536.595.71,521.6
1957-58975.023.6544.3109.01,651.9
1958-59982.121.9505.8113.31,623.1
1959-601,034.823.1639.6133.31,830.8
1960-611,129.723.9618.6165.01,937.2
1961-621,197.324.5613.6137.81,973.2
1962-631,271.925.8713.0178.62,189.3
1963-641,377.827.1785.7203.02,393.6
1964-651,516.528.6801.1215.12,561.3
1965-661,653.730.3824.1229.12,737.2
1966-671,785.533.7812.2195.52,826.9
1967-68*1,890.536.1826.7157.12,910.4

PRIVATE INCOME

March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value. Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal Income (Excluding Company Dividends)Company Income (Before Distribution)Private Income

*Provisional

†Includes changes in primary produce stabilization accounts and wool retention moneys and supplementary payments.

AS PERCENTAGE OF PRIVATE INCOME
1938-3955.60.53.73.227.29.8100.0
1939-4051.41.35.23.127.511.5100.0
1940-4150.26.65.23.224.810.0100.0
1941-4247.19.94.93.024.310.8100.0
1942-4343.115.64.72.822.711.1100.0
1943-4442.417.64.72.621.711.0100.0
1944-4543.414.35.02.623.511.2100.0
1945-5645.010.95.72.624.211.6100.0
1946-4746.92.18.62.527.812.1100.0
1947-4847.01.48.32.429.111.8100.0
1948-4948.91.08.42.528.810.4100.0
1949-5047.70.98.02.430.011.0100.0
1950-5142.20.97.12.136.910.8100.0
1951-5248.61.27.82.228.311.9100.0
1952-5349.01.57.52.328.810.9100.0
1953-5448.91.57.32.328.511.5100.0
1954-5550.61.47.22.327.111.4100.0
1955-5652.21.37.22.426.410.5100.0
1956-5752.31.37.02.526.510.4100.0
1957-5853.51.37.02.425.210.6100.0
1958-5954.01.27.72.524.010.6100.0
1959-6052.41.28.82.324.610.7100.0
1960-6152.61.18.82.123.412.0100.0
1961-6254.51.18.72.421.811.5100.0
1962-6353.61.18.13.022.212.0100.0
1963-6453.01.07.83.022.712.5100.0
1964-6554.01.07.33.121.712.9100.0
1965-6655.11.07.13.320.612.9100.0
1966-6757.31.17.03.419.311.9100.0
1967-68*59.11.17.33.518.310.7100.0

THE PUBLIC AUTHORITY SECTOR—The Revenue account of public authorities shown on page 714 is a consolidation and simplification of a separate and more detailed Central Government Revenue Account on pages 722 and 723 and the local authorities Revenue Account on page 723. The consolidated account eliminates all transfers between the two levels of Government and aggregates the respective totals of economically significant flows.

The publication The Accounts of the Government Sector 1963-64 to 1966-67 contains an integrated Government account which will ultimately replace the account presented herein. There are certain differences between the two which are due to differences in coverage, concepts employed in analysis, and improved methods. The new account is a preferable description of Government transactions, being more complete and exact. In the meantime, it cannot be used here for several important reasons. The new account is available for a limited number of years and as yet it has not been possible to revise earlier years. Further-more, the national accounting concepts employed in the new Government account have not been extended to the rest of the national accounts and its introduction into the present system would cause incompatibilities in the various flows between the Government and private sector.

It is for these reasons that the existing presentation has been retained for the time being. Although the account on pages 722-723 is incomplete, its present advantage is that it can be speedily compiled.

(a) Central Government—The Revenue Account of the Central Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the Public Account. In the case of trading Department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken “net” in all cases, sundry departmental receipts being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only current revenue items and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the Public Accounts in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. I].

Government current expenditure on goods and services (shown as item 6 on page 722) increased from $418.2 million in 1966-67 to $442.4 million in 1967-68, i.e., by 5.8 percent. The proportion of Government expenditure to gross national product provides, however, a better measure of its significance. In 1966-67 this expenditure amounted to 10.7 percent of gross national product but it increased to 10.90 percent in 1967-68. The average for the post-war period of 22 years is 10.3 percent.

Although all Government transfer expenditure—social security cash benefits and pensions, interest on public debt, and subsidies—is also paid from the Government's taxation revenue and trading profits, it is not part of Government final consumption. It only becomes final consumption in the hands of recipients, or, in the case of subsidies, can be looked upon as an offset to indirect taxation which reduces prices to consumers. For this reason the best measure of transfers is the national income itself on which they are a charge and which they redistribute.

Social security benefits and pensions, the most important item of the transfer group, increased from $251.6 million in 1966-67 to $269.1 million in 1967-68, i.e., by 7.0 percent. The 1967-68 figure shows an increase when expressed as a percentage of national income, this being 7.8 percent against 7.5 percent in 1966-67. The average for the 22 post-war years is 8.2 percent. Advances on capitalisation of family benefits, a portion of this item, started to decline in 1961-62 and have continued to do so since.

Subsidies are of much lesser importance than social security benefits, both absolutely and relatively. The subsidy bill was $39.2 million in 1966-67 but decreased to $21.0 million in 1967-68, falling from 1.2 percent to 0.6 percent of national income. Interest on Government debt paid in New Zealand (interest paid overseas being treated as a factor payment to non-residents and is included in current expenditure totals) increased from $88.7 million to $94.2 million, amounting to 2.7 percent of national income in 1967-68 compared with 2.6 percent in the previous year. The figure for the last pre-war year was 2.4 percent.

Transfers to local authorities is a flow which can be most usefully measured against current Government revenue from taxation and trading profits as it represents a shift from local to national taxation. In 1967-68 $133.4 million was transferred to local authorities against $131.4 million in the preceding year, constituting a decrease from 12.0 percent of Government revenue in 1966-67 to 11.8 percent in the latest year.

The balance of revenue over expenditure is the Government's surplus on current transactions and is, together with the depreciation provisions of Government trading undertakings, available for capital formation, lending, and debt repayment. Its magnitude changes appreciably from year to year both absolutely and in relation to total current revenue and is the result of short-term changes in fiscal and economic policies pursued by the administration. Year to year changes in the Government's surplus are, however, complementary to changes (in the opposite direction) in private savings. This is of course, merely a reflection of the fact that changes in taxation policies are a major cause of the redistribution of total savings as between the private and Government sector. From a long-term point of view, however, it is important to observe the changes in Government fiscal policy from pre-war to present days: in 1938-39, 4.8 percent of the Government's revenue was saved, but in 1967-68 the figure stood at 14.7 percent.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT

 1938-391962-631963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68*

*Provisional.

†In 1964-65 the Government stopped paying hospital benefits and made direct grants to hospital boards instead. Items 6 (e) and 9 (a) are affected in this year.

1. TAXATION
        (a) Direct:REVENUE $(million)
            Income tax18.6268.2288.7362.3401.2443.4440.3
            Social security taxation11.0164.6177.8185.4204.7221.0232.5
            Land tax2.22.42.32.63.23.54.4
            Death duties3.621.621.520.522.322.521.4
            Other0.2------
                    Totals35.6456.8490.3570.8631.4690.4698.6
        (b) Indirect:
            Sales tax7.252.464.277.076.678.975.4
            Customs and excise duties23.4103.8111.6114.5121.7126.8131.1
            Motor vehicles taxation6.252.256.861.065.870.187.0
            Other3.417.618.920.721.922.220.2
                    Totals40.0226.2251.5273.2286.0298.0313.7
2. Totals, all taxation75.6683.0741.7844.1917.5988.31,012.3
3. TRADING INCOME11.681.696.5108.2117.8115.0132.8
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading departments-0.4-7.5-8.8-11.0-11.1-11.0-12.3
                    Totals11.274.187.797.2106.7104.0120.5
5. TOTAL REVENUE86.8757.1829.4941.31,024.21,092.31,132.8
6. CURRENT EXPENDITURE ON GOODS
    GOODS AND SERVICESEXPENDITURE $(million)
            (a) General administration4.440.642.445.052.053.553.0
            (b) Interest13.613.014.015.215.217.221.6
            (c) Law and order1.68.69.210.410.612.813.4
            (d) Development of primary and secondary industries1.425.626.632.235.438.440.0
            (e) Health1.667.470.258.864.269.273.3
            (f) Education8.478.887.099.0110.4124.4136.8
            (g) Other social services6.64.64.65.24.63.45.2
            (h) Defence4.254.256.272.279.486.283.7
            (i) Rehabilitation 1.61.61.41.41.31.2
            (j) Maintenance of public works and services4.67.88.47.47.812.014.2
                Totals46.4302.2320.2346.8381.0418.2442.4
7. TRANSFER INCOME
            (a) Monetary social security benefits and pensions14.8208.6220.8225.6234.8245.4263.0
            (b) Family benefit advances-10.08.68.07.46.26.1
            (c) Net transfers to rest of world0.24.25.04.85.86.26.4
8. Interest on central Government debt paid in New Zealand9.458.767.871.979.388.794.2
                Totals24.4281.5302.2310.3327.3346.5369.7
9. TRANSFERS TO LOCAL AUTHORITIESEXPENDITURE $(million)
            (a) Hospital Boards1.845.651.073.283.892.594.9
            (b) Other8.832.633.836.440.838.938.5
                Totals10.678.284.8109.6124.6131.4133.4
10. SUBSIDIES1.229.430.235.439.239.221.0
11. TOTAL EXPENDITURE82.6691.3737.4802.1872.1935.3966.5
12. Balance of revenue over expenditure4.265.892.0139.2152.1157.0166.3
13. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES86.8757.1829.4941.31,024.21,092.31,132.8

(b) Local Authorities—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the Central Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities including hospital boards. The Central Government contributed 53.9 percent of the local revenue of local authorities through transfers. Of the remainder, 12.0 percent was derived from trading profits and 34.1 percent from rates and licence fees. For 1966-67 the proportions were 53.7, 14.0 and 32.3 percent respectively. Over the 22 post-war years, the averages are 47.9, 14.9 and 37.1 percent respectively. The limitations in the scope of local government activities as compared with those of the Central Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT

 1938-391962-631963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68*
*Provisional.
14. TAXATIONREVENUE $(million)
            (a) Direct: Rates12.455.460.668.870.376.381.5
            (b) Indirect: Licence fees1.22.02.22.82.92.92.9
                Totals13.657.462.871.673.279.284.4
15. Trading income6.823.826.727.529.234.229.8
16. Transfers from central Government10.678.284.8109.7124.6131.4133.4
17. TOTAL REVENUE31.0159.4174.3208.8227.0244.8247.6
 EXPENDITURE $(million)
18. Current expenditure on goods and services17.091.996.4112.9135.0147.8148.7
19. Interest on local authority debt paid in New Zealand4.618.620.822.924.624.426.3
20. TOTAL EXPENDITURE21.6110.5117.2135.8159.6172.2175.0
21. Balance of revenue over expenditure9.448.957.173.067.472.672.6
22. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES31.0159.4174.3208.8227.0244.8247.6

THE ACCOUNTS OF THE GOVERNMENT SECTOR—The accounts of the Government sector as set out in the preceding pages are complemented by the publication The Accounts of the Government Sector 1963-64 to 1966-67 available from the Government Printer. The publication of these accounts is the first stage in a major revision of the national accounts, but until this revision is completed it will not be possible to integrate the accounts of the Government sector into the overall national accounting structure.

The accounts of the Government sector present a comprehensive and consistently classified statement of all central Government transactions. In preparing these accounts coverage has been extended to all Government accounting units, and all transactions have been classified according to a consistent economic analysis of receipts and payments. As it stands, the new system of accounts is a valuable addition to the material on Government finance available to the public and to the policy maker. The bulk of Government accounting material hitherto available has been of a detailed nature designed to permit parliamentary and audit control of various departmental expenditures. Although this detailed presentation is essential for these purposes, it has had the undesirable effect of obscuring the broad pattern of Government operations.

The assumption by Governments of overall responsibility for the health of the national economy has created a need for a presentation of Government accounts in a form which reveals the broad types of financial flows through which the Government can influence the growth and stability of the economy. Although most of the main items included in such flows as direct taxation, subsidies, and Government transfer payments are easily obtainable by any person familiar with the public accounts, it has not been possible to obtain total figures for any of these flows. The accounts of the Government sector enable such a view to be obtained.

In addition to providing improved measures of the current account transactions as recorded in the central Government Revenue Account, the new accounts include a full analysis of the Government's capital transactions. Details of Government lending and borrowing are classified according to changes in claims on, and in liabilities to, local authorities, the private sector, and the rest of the world.

The new presentation of the accounts eliminates numerous transfers between the many separate Government accounting units. The existence of these interaccount transfers has made it difficult in the past for the public to understand the net effect of Government transactions. For example, public attention is frequently drawn to changes in the public debt, which is usually regarded as measuring changes in Government borrowing from non-Government sources. In fact the Government is one of the main holders of New Zealand Government securities and what appear as changes in the public debt may in fact reflect no more than the transfer of Government money from one Government account to another.

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

GENERAL—A balance of payments account is a statement in money terms of economic transactions, over a period, between one country and the rest of the world. An economic transaction may consist of goods and services supplied and received for some valuable consideration; transfers or goods and services supplied and received without some such consideration; and transactions in a country's foreign assets and liabilities. The balance of payments is part of the national accounting system and describes the economic link between the domestic economy and the rest of the world. The present series of New Zealand balance of payments estimates is largely based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual published by the International Monetary Fund and is in conformity with the methods used in other countries. For a more detailed description of statistical concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates, refer to the Report on the Balance of Payments for the year 1967-68 obtainable from the Government Printer.

The statement is divided into a current and capital account. The balances on both accounts are, by definition, the same; the capital account shows how the surplus or deficit on current account was financed.

Current Account—The current account records all transactions between New Zealand and the rest of the world other than changes in overseas assets and liabilities. As far as possible transactions are recorded on a gross credit-debit basis rather than on the basis of net settlements. The current account includes credits and debits for goods, services (invisibles), and transfers (donations). The difference between current credits and current debits is the balance of payments surplus (deficit) on current account. This is the measure of the extent to which a country does or does not live within its current income and it is the most significant datum emerging from a balance of payments compilation.

Capital Account—The capital account records changes in claims on, or liabilities to, the rest of the world. These may consist of overseas private investment in New Zealand and New Zealand private investment overseas; borrowing or repayments overseas by the Government and official institutions and changes in Government overseas cash balances, net overseas assets and monetary gold, multilateral transfers, and other short-term capital movements. Of the items comprising the capital account, the category of net overseas assets (the overseas exchange holdings of New Zealand's banking system) is most widely known and appreciated. Its importance lies in the fact that it records changes in overseas liquid resources which by their nature can be made immediately available for purposes of imports, public debt repayments, capital investments, etc. But within the confines of the balance of payments capital account the movement in net overseas assets is only one of several other capital movements with which it forms an integral part; it is the combination of all these capital changes which must be studied in order to understand the financing of the current surplus or deficit.

MERCHANDISE TRANSACTIONS: Exports—The source of export figures is Customs information on total exports (exclusive of ships' stores) at f.o.b. valuation; exports from New Zealand to its island territories have been excluded from Customs figures, but exports from island territories to other countries have been added to New Zealand totals. The remaining adjustments are for items which are either omitted from Customs statistics (relief supplies, ships and aircraft sold and leaving under their own power), items where the valuation requires correction, e.g. parcel post or items which are accounted for elsewhere in the balance of payments (export of gold).

Imports—The basic import figures also originate in Customs statistics. Aircraft and ships arriving in New Zealand under their own power are added. New Zealand imports from its island territories have been excluded from the Customs figures, but imports into island territories from other countries have been included.

It is necessary to comment here on the valuation method adopted for imports. Balance of payments accounts treat freight and marine insurance payments on imports (as far as they are made to non-residents) as invisible payments. As a result, merchandise transactions are shown on a f.o.b. valuation basis for imports and exports alike. This method of treatment has many advantages, and international comparability of merchandise movements is one of them.

There is, however, no provision in New Zealand statistics for a f.o.b. valuation of imports; imports are valued either on the basis of “current domestic value” or c.i.f. A special estimate is therefore made of imports f.o.b. for balance of payments purposes.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade (Customs) statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b. country of export; the exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation boundary (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or off-sets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the “cash book” of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand is based on the accrual principle and approaches an “income and expenditure” account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical, as distinct from a currency, basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

The New Zealand figures include transactions of New Zealand's dependent island territories. In this respect they differ from the rest of the world account included in the national income and expenditure estimates, where the rest of the world account refers to New Zealand only, and does not cover the island territories. However, this difference in coverage only slightly affects the gross figures, and the final outcome of the balance of payments current account differs very little from that of the rest of the world account.

The regional areas and countries comprising them have been defined as follows:

Other Sterling Countries—Commonwealth countries (excluding the United Kingdom and Canada) and their trustee and dependent territories, the colonies, protectorates, and trustee territories, etc., of the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Iceland, and South Africa.

EEC Countries—The six members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany, together with their dependent overseas territories.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Asian Development Bank, the International Finance Corporation, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations are included here.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (or for a period exceeding 12 months), subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies being treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand) are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1967-68: CURRENT ACCOUNT—The main feature of the balance of payments for the year ended 31 March 1968 was the much lower deficit on current account with the rest of the world of $76.7 million, compared with deficits of $178.2 million in 1965-66 and $161.5 million in 1966-67.

Some marked changes are apparent from an analysis of transactions by trading areas. The usual current account deficit with Other Sterling Countries (principally Australia) was reduced to $138.0 million in 1967-68 compared with $171.6 million in 1966-67 but the usual surplus on current account with the European Economic Community Countries dropped to $14.0 million from $47.8 million. The deficit of $44.3 million with the United Kingdom in 1966-67 was converted into a surplus of $12.3 million in 1967-68 and the deficit of $24.9 million with the United States to a surplus of $26.3 million. At the same time the surplus with all other countries fell from $36.7 million to $14.3 million.

  1. Merchandise Transactions—The improvement in the balance of payments for 1967-68 was achieved in spite of a fall in the total value of exports from $788.2 million in 1966-67 to $753.7 million in 1967-68 because imports, valued f.o.b. in the supplying country, fell sharply from $722.7 million in 1966-67 to $640.1 million in the latest year.

    During the year 1967-68 there was an acceleration of the long-term trend towards diversification of both export markets and sources of imports. The United Kingdom took 42.7 percent of our exports compared with 43.9 percent in 1966-67; other countries in the sterling area took 12.8 percent compared with 9.4 percent; the United States and Canada, 20.0 percent compared with 17.4 percent. On the other hand the European Economic Community bought 9.2 percent of exports as against 13.4 percent, and all other countries took 15.3 percent compared with 15.9 percent in 1966-67.

    This diversification was even more obvious in import trade where the United Kingdom share fell from 39.2 percent to 35.7 percent and the United States and Canada from 18.2 percent to 17.2 percent, while the shares of all other areas rose—Other Sterling Countries from 26.9 percent to 28.5 percent; the European Economic Community from 6.4 percent to 6.9 percent; and Other Countries from 9.3 percent to 11.7 percent.

    The following table gives a short analysis of total merchandise transactions by defined geographical areas and shows the comparative changes that occurred between the financial years 1966-67 and 1967-68.

    TRADE BY AREAS

    Item.United KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther* CountriesTotal, All Countries

    *Includes International Organisations.

    †Provisional.

    Exports (f.o.b. New Zealand ports)—NZ$ (million)
        1. 1966-67345.874.5137.3105.2125.4788.2
        2. 1967-68321.696.6150.869.7115.0753.7
    Imports (f.o.b. exporting country)—
        3. 1966-67283.6194.7131.446.067.0722.7
        4. 1967-68228.4182.6110.044.374.8640.1
    Net trade—
        5. 1966-6762.2—120.26.059.258.465.5
        6. 1967-6893.2—86.040.825.440.2113.6
    Annual changes, 1966-67 to 1967-68
        7. Exports—24.222.113.5—35.5—10.4—34.4
        8. Imports—55.2—12.1—21.3—1.8+7.8—82.6
            Net trade (6-5 or 7-8)31.034.234.9—33.8—18.248.1
  2. Invisibles—New Zealand's traditional deficit on invisible items, the gap between payments and receipts, which has been increasing in recent years, fell $33.2 million from $203.7 million in 1966-67 to $170.5 million in 1967-68. The main single item contributing to the decrease was investment income relating to overseas private direct investment in New Zealand which fell from $61.9 million to $35.7 million.

    The two items which contribute most to the invisible account are transportation debits (the cost of transporting goods to New Zealand) and international investment income debits (the servicing, in the form of profits, dividends and interest, of overseas direct investment and Central Government borrowing). Other types of invisible transactions—travel, insurance, miscellaneous and government transactions—also yield a permanent deficit, but are of less importance individually.

    Gross payments on transportation account (import freights and passenger fares to non-resident shipping lines and air operators, and port disbursements of New Zealand operators overseas) rose from $105.3 million in 1966-67 to $109.2 million in 1967-68. Transportation receipts, a large portion of which are the expenditures of non-resident shipping operators and airlines and the overseas earnings of Air New Zealand increased from $51.7 million to $53.1 million.

    Payments of dividends, profits and interest on private investment, and Government borrowing decreased from $88.9 million in 1966-67 to $74.7 million in 1967-68. The largest component of this group of outgoings concerned direct private investment. (Of the total Government interest payments were $18.3 million in 1966-67 and $26.5 million in 1967-68).

    The following table illustrates the distribution of payments by areas:

    INVESTMENT INCOME RELATING TO OVERSEAS PRIVATE DIRECT INVESTMENT IN NEW ZEALAND

    YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
    *Provisional.
    NZ$ (million)
    1966-6727.720.512.70.30.661.9
    1967-68*19.516.8—0.2—0.5––35.7

    The following table gives a concise picture of invisible transactions by areas.

    NET DEFICITS ON INVISIBLES ACCOUNT BY AREAS

    YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
    *Provisional.
     NZ$ (million)
    1966-67109.634.629.510.919.2-203.7
    1967-68*86.335.914.010.923.4-170.5
    Increase (+) or decrease (-) in deficit—23.2+1.3—15.5––+4.2-—33.2

    In 1967-68 transactions with the United Kingdom accounted for 51 percent of the invisible deficit; the Other Sterling Countries accounted for 21 percent; the United States and Canada 8 percent; the European Economic Community Countries 6 percent; and Other Countries 14 percent.

  3. Transfers—Transfers, in the form of Government contributions to international agencies, migrants' funds, gifts and donations in cash or kind, differ from other current account items in that goods or services are not received in exchange. In recent years transfer receipts have shown a steady increase and they rose from $27.3 million in 1966-67 to $31.6 million in 1967-68, transfer payments rose from $50.6 million to $51.4 million in the latest year.

Capital Account—The capital account of the balance of payments represents transactions in claims on and liabilities to other countries; such changes have direct reference to current transactions and the net difference between acquisition of new claims and the increase in liabilities must be capable of explaining the current outcome of the balance of payments.

A concise picture of the provisional 1967-68 capital account is now presented.

Nature of CapitalNet Outflows of Capital (Increase in Claims)Net Inflows of Capital (Increase in Liabilities)
Long term—NZ$ (million)
    Private-43.6
    Government-69.9
    Official and banking-33.6
Short term—
    Private (including errors and omissions)-5.6
    Government6.2-
    Net exchange reserves of the banking system69.8-
    Excess of capital inflows over outflows (equals balance on current account)76.7-
Totals152.7152.7

The table serves the purpose of placing the increase in net overseas assets (i.e., liquid exchange reserves of the banking system) within its proper context. There is no necessarily close connection between the balance of payments current outcome (surplus or deficit as the case may be) and movement in exchange reserves. The latter constitute only one of the items in the capital account and they may be directly affected by other capital transactions (e.g. long-term Government borrowing) rather than by current account transactions.

The most important category of private capital movements is that of direct investment by overseas firms. In 1967-68 the amount invested was $21.5 million compared with $28.9 million in 1966-67. This decrease of $7.4 million was the result of lower direct investment by firms resident in Other Sterling Countries ($12.8 million, a fall of $2.1 million) and capital outflows to firms in the United States and Canada ($8.5 million, a change of $21.8 million) and Other Countries ($0.5 million, a change of $0.4 million). On the other hand there was an increase in capital inflow from firms in the United Kingdom ($15.3 million, an increase of $14.6 million) and European Economic Community ($2.3 million, an increase of $2.2 million).

Private capital inflows other than direct investment were $20.1 million, the largest portion of which was the liquidation of assets held overseas by New Zealand residents in order to pay for no-remittance and free funds imports and transfers of shares to the New Zealand register.

Inflows of capital on Central Government account consisted of net long-term borrowing of $60.4 million added to public debt, less an increase in overseas investments of $15.1 million.

A reconciliation of movements in the external public debt with actual amounts raised is given in the following statement.

 NZ$ (million)
Public loans raised in the United Kingdom44.7
Public loans raised in the United States28.9
Loan raised in Australia repayable in New Zealand1.4
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development loans10.2
        Total loans raised85.1
Less
    Debt repayment in the United Kingdom20.0
    Debt repayment in the United States3.5
    International Bank for Reconstruction and Development repayment1.0
    Transfer of securities from United Kingdom to New Zealand register0.2
        Total repayments24.7
Net addition to external public debt60.4

SUMMARY TABLES, CURRENT AND CAPITAL ACCOUNTS–The following table summarises current transactions with all countries.

Current Account1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68*
*Provisional.
 NZ$ (m) Credits
Exports f.o.b.718.4765.4747.9788.2753.7
Non-monetary gold
Transportation30.436.145.151.753.1
Travel11.112.613.514.517.4
Insurance0.20.11.41.61.5
International investment income—21.124.425.022.424.0
    Income from direct investment4.34.75.55.85.7
    Other private investment9.511.610.99.710.4
    Government and official institutions7.38.18.66.97.9
Government transactions—8.57.05.56.48.6
    Foreign Government expenditure3.94.53.84.04.6
    New Zealand Government receipts4.72.51.72.44.0
Miscellaneous receipts17.914.317.020.420.2
Transfers—20.722.023.227.331.6
    Government transfers-----
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers11.912.914.716.419.7
    Migrants' funds6.36.65.98.48.7
Legacies2.52.52.62.53.3
Total credits828.4881.9878.6932.4910.2
 NZ$ (m) Debits
Imports f.o.b.600.5615.3721.1722.7640.1
Non-monetary gold    ...
Transportation74.986.0103.8105.3109.2
Travel30.235.141.044.940.4
Insurance2.83.82.72.94.0
International investment income—63.383.278.788.974.7
    Income from direct investment46.860.755.061.935.7
    Other private investment3.07.38.38.712.5
    Government and official institutions13.515.215.418.326.5
    Local authority interest0.1--
Government transactions—18.817.823.330.622.6
    New Zealand Government expenditure18.817.823.330.622.6
Miscellaneous payments31.636.040.348.144.5
Transfers—33.737.045.850.651.4
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan5.84.75.96.36.4
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers11.812.615.515.715.6
    Migrants' funds11.214.619.922.425.0
    Legacies4.85.05.76.24.4
Total debits855.8914.31,056.81,093.9986.9
Balance on current account- 27.4-32.4-178.2-161.5-76.7

The consolidated capital account shown below summarises capital transactions with all countries; some of the items are presented in simplified form (by adding or offsetting capital movements where these have occurred in respect of equally defined items).

Capital Account1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68*
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus (—) sign denotes decrease.

(*) Provisional.

Long-term capital (private)—NZ$ (million)
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand...38.1...43.5...62.8...28.9...21.5
    New Zealand direct investment overseas3.7...- 0.3...2.6...2.3...- 1.9...
    Other long-term capital movements-7.7-21.5-15.3-15.1-20.1
Long-term capital (Government)—
    Government investments-10.7...2.8...-11.4...- 0.3...15.1...
    Public debt...7.8...9.1...2.4...58.5...60.4
    Local authority debt...- 0.7...- 0.3...-...-...-
    Other...- 0.64.0......16.01.7......24.6
    Long-term capital (official and banking institutions)—
    International Monetary Fund—
    Holdings of New Zealand currency...-...-...67.6...-...35.5
    New Zealand subscription......-...23.0...-...-...
    Asian Development Bank—
    Holdings of New Zealand securities...-...-...-...0.8...0.8
    New Zealand subscription-...-...-...1.6...1.6...
    Reserve Bank borrowing...-...-...-...45.6...-12.4
    New Zealand Wool Commission0.3...0.4...1.3...0.3...-11.3...
Short-term capital (Government)—
    Government cash balances24.7...-24.5...1.2...- 1.0...0.5...
    Other--27.5-0.4-- 4.3-6.7-
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions)—
    Net overseas assets- 6.2...- 7.2...-43.0...0.1...69.9...
    Monetary gold......- 0.2...0.1...-0.1...
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions13.1-38.7-12.0--13.1-5.6
Balance on capital account-27.4-32.4-178.2-161.5-76.7

DIRECTION OF TRADE—The following table shows exports and imports by areas as a percentage of the total and reveals the direction of New Zealand's trade for financial years.

United KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, all Countries
*Provisional.
       Percent
Exports (f.o.b.)—
    1950-5164.23.612.614.25.4100.0
    1955-5664.95.78.916.24.3100.0
    1960-6152.98.115.315.97.8100.0
    1963-6447.78.318.116.99.0100.0
    1964-6548.99.117.715.39.0100.0
    1965-6645.712.014.616.111.6100.0
    1966-6743.99.417.413.415.9100.0
    1967-68*42.712.820.09.215.3100.0
Imports (f.o.b.)—
    1950-5160.120.59.94.64.9100.0
    1955-5655.621.211.88.23.2100.0
    1960-6146.125.213.67.57.6100.0
    1963-6442.228.613.06.010.2100.0
    1964-6540.728.514.86.29.8100.0
    1965-6639.626.318.76.09.4100.0
    1966-6739.226.918.26.49.3100.0
    1967-68*35.728.517.26.911.7100.0

REGIONAL ACCOUNTS—The tables on the following pages give detailed figures relating to the overall current and capital accounts in the balance of payments as well as particulars for each of the main countries and currency regions. The accounts are divided into current credits (gross), current debits (gross), and the capital account.

Current Credits—The item non-monetary gold represents the purchase by the Reserve Bank of gold produced in this country. Transportation represents mainly port disbursements of overseas shipping companies operating in New Zealand; their establishment expenses, however, are included in miscellaneous receipts. The regional break-up of travel receipts is subject to revision; at present it is still shown on the basis of currency received rather than residence (nationality) of traveller. The all-countries total is, however, not affected.International investment income consists of net (after overseas taxes) earnings of New Zealand companies operating overseas, irrespective of whether these have been remitted to New Zealand or re-invested overseas.

Current Debits—Transportation consists mainly of freight and marine insurance on imports paid to non-resident shipping companies and port disbursements by New Zealand companies overseas and charters. Travel is exclusive of fares paid in New Zealand, which are included in the transportation account. International investment income is based on total earnings of overseas companies operating in New Zealand, irrespective of whether these are remitted or re-invested in New Zealand. (Refer also to Summary of Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand.) Transfers is the general term for donations or transactions where there is no quid pro quo; the item in the tables consists both of monetary payments as shown in the exchange record and Government and private supplies in kind, such as the estimated value of gift parcels, relief supplies, etc. Migrants' funds and legacies are included in the same group because, from a country's point of view, there is no “consideration” in the ordinary meaning of the word.

Capital Account—The capital account explains how the current surplus or deficit has been financed or, in other words, what changes have occurred to various overseas assets and liabilities (long term, short term, gold reserves) to account for the balance on current account. The tables are largely self-explanatory, but one or two points require mention. The item “Net overseas assets” (of official and banking institutions) is shown in the column for the United Kingdom, although this is not strictly correct. Gross overseas assets and gross overseas liabilities of the Reserve Bank and trading banks arising out of New Zealand business are to a small extent owned or due in currencies other than sterling. At present it has been found impossible to separate movements in other than net sterling assets, but the resulting error is believed to be not very significant. There is another point in connection with this item which should be explained: Net overseas assets are shown here under the description of “Short-term capital and monetary gold-official and banking institutions”. It is well known, of course, that a portion of what is commonly known as sterling exchange is held in the form of investments in United Kingdom stock or short-dated United Kingdom Government paper; these are purchased or sold according to whether there is need for liquidity or not. It is largely a matter of interpretation whether these investments should be treated as short term or long term. The treatment according to the item in the table is largely one of convenience.

Attention is drawn to the items “Other short-term capital movements (including errors and omissions)” and “Multilateral transfers”. At the present stage it is impossible to separate the two items on an area-by-area basis, and they are bracketed together. They are shown in one figure in the regional columns, and are merely the residual between the balance on capital account for each area and the capital items which are estimated and shown separately in the same area column.

In the way in which these are shown in the regional columns, they represent (a) short-term capital movements between each respective area and New Zealand, (b) multilateral transfers, i.e., the differences between current account transactions between New Zealand residents and the residents of the respective areas and the movement of financial assets or liabilities in the same area. To give an example, a difference of this kind would arise in the following instance: New Zealand imports of oil from say, Indonesia may be settled by a remittance to the United Kingdom. While the current account between New Zealand and Indonesia (included in the regional column “Other countries”) would show a debit in that column, the decrease in our overseas assets (from which the payment is made) is shown in the column for the United Kingdom. The purpose of the multilateral transfer entry is to credit the capital account of the United Kingdom, and debit the capital account of the “Other countries” column, in order to compensate the divergent movement in the current and capital accounts.

Because all multilateral transfers, as included in the area column, necessarily cancel each other out, the entry for multilateral transfers in the “Total, All Countries” column is nil; the amount shown in this column represents other short-term capital movements (including errors and omissions) only.

REGIONAL BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1967-68*

A. CURRENT ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
NZ $ (million)
Credits
Exports f.o.b.321.696.6150.869.7114.80.2753.7
Non-monetary gold..................
Transportation26.818.83.62.31.6...53.1
Travel3.29.05.00.2––...17.4
Insurance0.90.40.2––––...1.5
International investment income—
    Income from direct investment overseas1.43.90.3-––...5.7
    Other private investment income1.58.70.2––––...10.4
    Interest on investments of Government and official institutions7.8––––--...7.9
Government transactions—
    Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand0.81.81.00.11.0...4.6
    New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas2.60.21.0––0.1...4.0
Miscellaneous receipts9.24.63.91.21.3...20.2
Transfers—
    Government transfers-----...-
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers10.75.52.70.50.4...19.7
    Immigrants' funds6.41.50.50.10.1...8.7
    Legacies1.90.70.50.1––...3.3
Total credits394.8151.8169.774.3119.40.2910.2
Debits
Imports f.o.b.228.4182.6110.044.374.8...640.1
Transportation56.621.25.29.716.6...109.2
Travel13.219.75.31.20.9...40.4
Insurance3.20.50.3––––...4.0
International investment income—
    Income from direct investment in New Zealand19.516.8-0.2-0.5––...35.7
    Other private investment income5.83.52.90.10.2...12.5
    Interest on Government debt14.92.54.6-4.4...26.5
    Interest on Local Authority debt––----...––
Government transactions—
    Current Government expenditure8.07.04.00.72.9...22.6
Miscellaneous payments19.212.27.13.52.4...44.5
Transfers—
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan0.20.4––––––5.86.4
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers4.07.61.30.62.1-15.6
    Emigrants' funds7.314.22.30.70.6...25.0
    Legacies2.01.60.6––0.1...4.4
    Total debits382.5289.8143.460.3105.15.8986.9
Balance on current account (minus sign (-) denotes deficit)12.3-138.026.314.014.3-5.6-76.7
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and Canada
Increase inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
Long-term capital (private)—NZ $ (million)
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand...15.3...12.8...-8.5
    New Zealand direct investment overseas1.0...-4.1......
    Other long-term capital movements-14.53.6-1.3-1.3-0.30.6
Long-term capital (Government)—
    Government investments5.8...-...9.3...
    Public debt...24.5...1.4...25.3
    Local Authority debt...-...-...-
    Other-11.0-0.10.3-...14.1
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions)—
    International Monetary Fund—
    Holdings of New Zealand currency..................
    Asian Development Bank—
    Holdings of New Zealand securities..................
    New Zealand subscription..................
    Reserve Bank borrowing...-...-...-
    New Zealand Wool Commission-11.3...-...-...
Short-term capital (Government)—
    Government cash balances-0.6...0.1...0.1...
    Other6.7-----
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions)—
    Net overseas assets69.9...-...-...
    Monetary gold..................
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions9.6--120.148.7-
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account12.3-138.026.3
ItemEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

*Provisional.

Minus (-) sign denotes decrease.

†Included with Other Countries.

‡Includes small amounts from companies in the U.S.A. and Canada, and E.E.C. Countries.

§Monetary gold in Total. All Countries only.

Long-term capital (private)—NZ$ (million)
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand...2.3...-0.5.........21.5
    New Zealand direct investment overseas...1.2.........-1.9...
    Other long-term capital movements-0.10.1-0.20.7......-16.43.8
Long-term capital (Govt.)—
    Government investments-...-...-...15.1...
    Public debt...-...-...9.2...60.4
    Local Authority debt...-...-...-...-
    Other------- 10.*14.0
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions)—
    International Monetary Fund—
    Holdings of New Zealand currency...............35.5...35.5
    Asian Development Bank—
    Holdings of New Zealand securities...............0.8...0.8
    New Zealand subscription............1.6...1.6...
    Reserve Bank borrowing...-...-...-12.4...-12.4
    New Zealand Wool Commission-...-.........-11.3...
Short-term capital (Govt.)—
    Government cash balances............-0.5...
    Other------6.7-
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions)—
    Net overseas assets-...-.........69.9...
    Monetary gold..................-0.1§...
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions16.5-13.5-25.9--5.6
Multilateral transfer......
Balance on capital amount14.014.3-5.6-76.6

The following diagram shows New Zealand's balance of payments by monetary areas for the latest five years.

Figure 25.3. BALANCE OF PAYMENTS BY MONETARY AREAS

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS BY MONETARY AREAS

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivations, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries under control of an overseas company, branches of overseas companies, companies where the majority of shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall under this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms: they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as already mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following four tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investment assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private direct investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or associate company from which the investment flow originates, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who either individually or collectively hold a major interest in the New Zealand company or who exercise de facto control.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
NZ$ (million)
1950-519.9-0.31.10.5-11.2
1955-5626.93.11.7-0.2-31.5
1960-6120.79.32.40.71.234.2
1963-6416.810.29.6-0.72.238.1
1964-6520.29.98.02.03.443.5
1965-6622.825.815.11.4-2.462.8
1966-670.714.913.30.1-0.128.9
1967-68*15.312.8-8.52.3-0.521.5

The graph now presented shows changes in the overseas direct investment in New Zealand for the latest five years.

Figure 25.4. CHANGES IN OVERSEAS DIRECT INVESTMENT IN N.Z.

CHANGES IN OVERSEAS DIRECT INVESTMENT IN N.Z.

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the “All Countries” total correspond to the “Income from Direct Investment” debits shown in the regional current accounts.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
NZ$ (million)
A. Dividends
1950-511.20.91.20.1-3.3
1955-561.81.03.56.4
1960-614.73.15.40.213.4
1963-645.55.74.00.10.315.6
1964-654.45.27.30.10.317.2
1965-665.74.56.90.11.018.2
1966-675.75.77.40.10.319.2
1967-68*4.06.36.00.10.316.8
B. Undistributed Earnings
1950-512.70.72.30.1-5.7
1955-564.82.32.00.1-9.2
1960-616.83.52.80.313.3
1963-648.13.26.70.90.219.1
1964-6512.17.66.31.50.127.6
1965-668.09.95.20.40.323.8
1966-6712.710.04.30.20.327.5
1967-68*8.56.6-7.5-0.6-0.26.6
C. Net Earnings of Branches
1950-513.12.30.2-5.6
1955-565.21.60.10.1-7.1
1960-618.73.20.50.913.3
1963-647.63.60.8-0.112.2
1964-6511.43.70.8-0.115.9
1965-667.64.41.1-13.0
1966-679.34.81.0-15.2
1967-68*7.14.01.312.3
D. Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1950-516.93.93.60.2-14.7
1955-5611.85.05.70.222.6
1960-6120.29.88.60.90.540.1
1963-6421.212.511.51.00.646.8
1964-6527.916.514.31.60.560.7
1965-6621.318.713.20.51.255.0
1966-6727.720.512.70.30.661.9
1967-68*19.516.8-0.2-0.535.7

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1965-661966-671967-68*
*Provisional.
NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, fishing-0.4
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying-0.70.91.4
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco6.43.8
    Meat and dairy products1.8-0.4-2.1
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear0.71.60.7
    Wood, cork, and furniture production-0.3-0.1-0.2
    Pulp, paper, and printing1.41.82.4
    Leather and rubber products1.1-0.2-0.3
    Chemical and mineral products3.74.42.8
    Metalworking2.61.64.5
    Engineering and transport equipment10.22.5-1.5
    Miscellaneous manufacturing2.50.10.3
Building and construction1.01.2-1.8
Electricity, gas, water---
Wholesale and retail trade24.316.76.3
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property6.0-2.95.0
Transport and communications2.11.2-0.5
Services0.10.70.7
Totals62.828.921.5
Industry1965-661966-671967-68*
*Provisional.
NZ$(million)
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, fishing-
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying-0.10.3-0.2
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco4.05.84.5
    Meat and dairy products-2.03.41.6
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear2.02.01.3
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.50.1
    Pulp, paper, and printing4.44.04.0
    Leather and rubber products1.20.81.1
    Chemical and mineral products7.19.76.7
    Metalworking2.32.01.4
    Engineering and transport equipment9.76.63.7
    Miscellaneous manufacturing1.51.50.9
Building and construction0.5-0.2
Electricity, gas, water---
Wholesale and retail trade15.417.02.9
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property7.67.57.0
Transport and communications0.30.30.2
Services1.10.50.8
Totals55.061.935.7

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding, viz., direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Includes small amounts from companies in the United States and Canada, and E.E.C. Countries.

NZ$ (million)
Direct Investment
1962-632.03.8-1.74.0
1963-644.30.7-1.33.7
1964-652.1-1.5-0.8-0.3
1965-66-0.53.2-0.12.6
1966-67-2.52.12.52.3
1967-68*1.0-4.11.2-1.9
Income from Direct Investment
1962-631.32.91.05.2
1963-640.83.00.54.3
1964-651.13.20.44.7
1965-661.83.40.45.5
1966-671.23.61.05.8
1967-68*1.43.90.35.7

25C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

As a background to economic policy formation, and particularly with regard to planning of industrial development, it is desirable to have an overall view of the pattern and industrial relationships of all parts of the economy. This applies at a national level and also at lower levels of, say, an industry or group of industries, when decisions involving the direction of growth have to be taken.

Such a view can be provided in the first place by input-output tables, resulting from inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. These show in matrix form the transactions which took place between industries in the country and what imports they required in a chosen year to deliver an output of goods and services to final demand users such as households, government, and export. From these tables of commodity transactions, further tables of co-efficients are computed to show not only the degree of dependence of any one industry directly on other industries and on external producers but also the indirect requirements of any industry on all others for each unit of its output. The relationships thus established can be held to be reasonably stable for several years in a developed country and also, for major planning purposes, can be up-dated by mathematical procedures which incorporate more recent data which may become available. In this way the tables can be made to serve until completion of a fresh inter-industry study, an undertaking requiring several years of investigation and processing.

The input-output tables of the New Zealand economy compiled from the Department of Statistics' Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959-60 were published in four parts and depict the productive sector as divided into 110 industries. A description of the industrial classifications is contained in the final volume together with an explanation of the input-output system of analysis.

An inter-industry study for the year 1965-66 is currently being worked upon and results are likely to be published during 1969. Previous studies were completed for the years 1952-53 and 1954-55 but the classification of industries was limited to 12 groups only.

The publications are available from the Government Printer.

Chapter 26. Section 26 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic and social development of the people as a whole. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare and therefore Central Government finance is an important sector of the economy. The Central government raises money by way of taxation and loans. It controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway, road, and telegraph construction, and on other functions such as social security, other social services, defence, administration, teaching, interest on the public debt and development of industry. The Public Revenues Act 1963 is the governing legislation on the administration of public money.

The extended interpretation of the role of the Central Government in the welfare State has greatly complicated the problem of presenting comprehensive accounts covering all Government activities. In New Zealand the Department of Statistics has published a consolidated review of Government transactions, described in terms of economic flows, in the publication The Accounts of the Government Sector 1959-60 to 1967-68. In this, the Government sector of the economy is divided into two broad sections—the Public Account, including dependent administrative bodies; and Government enterprises and life accounts, outside the Public Account. In turn, each of these sections is divided into three subsections. The Public Account section is subdivided into Public Account non-trading, Public Account enterprises, and dependent administrative bodies. The Government enterprises section is subdivided into life accounts (the Government Superannuation Fund, the National Provident Fund, and the Government Life Insurance Office); financial enterprises; and trading enterprises. Details of these comprehensive accounts are given in the various sections of the Yearbook dealing with the relative activity.

THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—The present subsection of the Yearbook deals only with those accounts included within the framework of the Public Account as such. This is a single financial account held at the Reserve Bank, but the records of the Public Account in the books of the Treasury consist of a number of ledger accounts for separate funds and accounts within the Public Account. The bank balance is apportioned among these. The following funds and accounts are included in the Public Account: the Consolidated Revenue Account, Works and Trading Account, Trust Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, and National Roads Fund. The Trust Account represents only lodgments or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government money. The Loans Redemption Account is dealt with in the subsection on indebtedness.

Simplification of the Public Accounts—From 1 April 1964 a number of major changes were made in the presentation of the public accounts. These changes were:

  1. A new account, called the Consolidated Revenue Account, was substituted for the Consolidated Fund, the Social Security Fund, and the Gas Industry Account, which were abolished.

  2. A further new account, called the Works and Trading Account, amalgamated in one account the transactions formerly recorded in the Public Works Account, the Electric Supply Account, the Land Settlement Account, the State Coal Mines Account, and the Working Railways Account.

  3. Further changes were the renaming of the Deposits Account as the Trust Account, and the removal of the Earthquake and War Damage Fund outside the Public Account.

The receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund over a long period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament, which normally meets in June.

SUMMARY OF THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—The figures shown under the various headings in this subsection are on the basis of receipts and payments. In some sections devoted to the operations of various Departments, the figures are given on an income and expenditure basis, and accordingly differ to some extent from those appearing here.

ReceiptsYears Ended 31 March
19671968
$ (million)
Consolidated Revenue Account
Taxation receipts—  
    Income tax443.4440.3
    Social security income tax221.0232.5
Customs duty92.095.6
    Beer duty34.835.6
Sales tax79.075.4
    Stamp, racing, and estate duties44.641.4
    Other taxation3.828.7
    Total taxation918.6949.5
Other receipts—  
    Interest66.476.0
    Profits from trading undertakings12.410.9
    Departmental receipts54.060.3
    Total receipts1,051.41,096.7
Expenditure—  
    Social services571.4608.5
    Defence88.687.1
    Administration, etc.94.497.0
Stabilisation35.817.8
Maintenance of works, etc.38.838.0
Development of industry60.060.3
Interest and management of public debt107.0116.9
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account to—996.0996,01,025.6
    Loans Redemption Account53.653.4
    National Roads Fund-3.3
    Trust Account and Reserve Fund1.0-
    Works and Trading Account-3.3
    Total expenditure1,050.61,095.3
Other Accounts Within the Public Account
Transfers from Consolidated Revenue Account to—  
    Loans Redemption Account53.653.4
    National Roads Fund-3.3
    Trust Account and Reserve Fund1.010.0
    Works and Trading Account-3.0
 54.669.7
Miscellaneous receipts—  
    Highways revenue70.863.6
Sinking Fund contributions, etc.9.68.2
    Miscellaneous capital receipts11.811.3
    Excess receipts of trading accounts, etc., within the Public Account-5.8-1.6
 86.481.5
Receipts from borrowing—  
    In New Zealand—  
    Public and departmental140.2153.7
    Post Office Savings Bank6.0-
    Overseas—  
    United Kingdom57.043.3
    United States of America6.826.6
    IBRD Interisland Transmission Project, Railways, and Marsden Point15.49.5
IBRD Port Development Loan0.40.6
T & G Loan, Australia1.01.2
    Total—Borrowing226.8234.9
International Finance Agreements Act 1966—  
    Securities issued to Asian Development Bank0.80.8
    Totals1,420.01,483.6
National Roads Fund70.665.7
Transfer from National Development Loans Account for—  
    Housing14.014.3
    Forest development2.42.3
    Public buildings12.011.6
    Airport development1.00.5
    University and technical institute building12.014.8
    Railway construction0.60.5
    Electric supply67.061.0
    Land settlement16.016.5
    State coal mines0.81.0
    Railways6.46.8
    Post Office9.87.5
State Advances Corporation46.843.0
    Other5.04.5
 193.8184.3
Miscellaneous capital expenditure10.611.6
 204.4195.9
IBRD Port Development Loan0.40.6
International Finance Agreements Amendment Act 1966—  
    Subscriptions to Asian Development Bank0.80.8
    Securities in favour of Asian Development Bank0.80.8
 1.61.6
Repayment of loans—  
    In New Zealand36.657.4
    Overseas17.424.5
 54.081.9
Net purchase of miscellaneous investments—  
In New Zealand+20.6+ 1.2
Overseas- 5.0+20.4
 + 15.6+21.6
Balancing items—  
    Reserve Bank: Purchase (+) or sale (-) of Government securities+20.0+19.2
    Increase (+) or decrease (-) in cash balances in the Public Account+2.8+1.8
 +22.8+21.0
    Totals1,4201,483.6

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Tables are now given to show receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account.

By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Revenue Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968
 $ (million)
Direct taxation—
    Income and social security income tax466.5547.7606.0664.4672.8
    Estate and gift duty22.121.023.023.121.7
    Land tax2.32.63.23.54.4
Total—Direct taxation490.9571.3632.2691.0698.9
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty80.383.488.992.095.5
    Beer duty31.331.132.834.735.6
    Sales tax64.276.976.678.975.4
    Racing duty10.210.611.512.011.3
    Stamp and other duties8.09.59.89.68.4
    Motor spirits duty5.4---10.4
    Highways taxation52.061.165.870.163.0
    Other taxation0.50.30.40.413.9
Total—Indirect taxation252.0273.0285.9297.7313.5
Total—Taxation receipts742.8844.3918.0988.71,012.4
Interest—
    On capital liability—
    Electric supply19.020.321.724.130.0
    Post Office8.28.89.310.811.4
    Other20.021.124.127.830.4
    On other public moneys4.13.94.33.74.1
Total—Interest51.354.159.366.376.0
Profits from trading undertakings12.510.611.612.311.0
Departmental receipts49.256.552.054.756.2
Special receipts----4.8
Transfer from Reserve Fund10.0----
Total—Other123.0121.2123.0133.3147.9
Total—Receipts865.8965.51,041.01,122.11,160.3
Total taxation as percentage of national income27.1%28.2%28.5%29.2%29.3%

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968

*Includes amount for transfer to Decimal Currency Account.

*Expenditure on Airport Development now charged to Works and Trading Account.

†Trading activities (Departmental sawmills) now included in Works and Trading Account.

‡University and Technical Institute buildings now charged to Works and Trading Account.

Permanent appropriations—$ (million)
    Under special Acts of Legislature—$ (million)
        Civil List0.50.60.60.60.6
        Debt services—
            Interest81.887.194.5106.0115.8
            Transfer to Loans Redemption Account—
            New Zealand Loans Act 1953—
                Section 5918.023.224.726.328.1
                Section 57 (c)1.31.311.311.325.3
        Administration and management0.91.01.01.01.1
Total—Debt services102.0112.6131.5144.6170.4
    Special Acts—
        Superannuation Act 195613.813.915.117.217.5
        Miscellaneous2.52.02.82.52.4
Total—Special Acts16.315.917.919.720.0
Total—Permanent appropriations118.8129.1150.0164.9191.0
Annual appropriations—
    Vote—
        Legislative0.60.70.80.80.9
        Prime Minister's Office0.10.10.10.1
        External Affairs7.68.29.69.99.9
        Finance—
            Audit0.60.60.60.70.7
            Customs1.82.02.12.32.5
            Inland Revenue5.15.65.65.96.2
            Stabilisation29.534.737.235.817.8
            Treasury1.41.54.6*3.0*2.7*
Total—Finance38.444.550.147.729.9
        General Administration—
            Broadcasting
            Government Printing Office4.24.95.86.96.2
            Internal Affairs5.25.56.06.56.3
            Island Territories3.03.13.43.73.8
            Labour4.54.64.74.95.8
            Maori and Island Affairs2.62.93.03.13.1
            Marine1.82.13.03.32.9
            State Advances Corporation--
            State Services Commission0.50.60.60.70.7
            Statistics0.90.91.01.61.3
            Valuation1.11.21.31.41.6
Total—General Administration23.725.828.832.231.8
        Law and Order—
            Crown Law Office0.10.20.10.10.1
            Justice7.07.27.89.29.5
            Police8.19.39.711.112.2
Total—Law and Order15.216.717.720.421.8
        Defence—
            Air18.673.981.288.687.1
            Army20.4
            Defence
            Defence Construction and Maintenance4.8
            Navy14.5
Total—Defence58.273.981.288.687.1
        Maintenance—
            Public Works and Services28.633.335.736.836.3
            Roads, etc.4.04.02.01.94.7
Total—Maintenance32.637.437.738.741.0
        Development of Primary and Secondary Industries—
            Agriculture13.615.817.820.319.2
    Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services12.28.5*9.3*9.1*9.1*
            Forest Service7.55.35.66.36.7
            Industries and Commerce2.02.22.32.62.6
            Lands and Survey3.94.44.65.15.4
            Mines0.40.71.01.23.3
            Scientific and Industrial Research5.26.17.17.57.9
            Tourist and Publicity3.33.74.34.74.9
            Transport2.32.72.93.34.0
Total—Development of Primary and Secondary Industries50.449.454.960.063.2
        Social services—
            Social Security Monetary Benefits—
                Age49.451.051.555.157.5
                Invalids4.64.84.85.15.3
                Widows9.610.210.511.312.0
                Sickness4.53.94.14.65.2
                Family68.565.970.266.871.5
                Miners0.20.20.10.10.1
                Orphans0.10.10.10.10.1
                Unemployment0.30.20.10.12.2
                Universal superannuation54.459.362.670.276.4
            Education114.4122.9132.8146.4159.8
            Family benefit capitalisation9.18.88.67.67.2
            Health10.611.611.512.212.6
            Health benefits30.132.935.437.539.3
            Hospitals82.791.6103.8115.0119.1
            Social security expenses and emergency benefits7.07.37.68.59.6
            War and other pensions29.729.930.530.930.7
Total—Social services475.0500.7534.1571.5608.5
Total—Annual appropriations701.7757.4814.9869.7894.1
Unauthorised expenditure—
    Services not provided for0.33.00.3
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account-5.02.016.0-
Transfer to National Development Loans Account--4.0--
Transfer to Reserve Fund----10.0
                                      Total expenditure820.8894.5970.91,050.61,095.3

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1964-651965-661966-671967-68
*IBRD harbour projects.
Receipts$ (thousand)
Stock issued149,344152,927195,194208,636
Advance subscriptions1,970--2,875
    Securities issued to IMF—
        Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes-17,260--
    Securities issued to Asian Development Bank—
        Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes--811811
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account-4,000--
Totals151,314174,187196,005212,323
Payments$ (thousand)
International Finance Agreement Act:
    Encashment of securities in favour of IMF84--
Charges and expenses on raising and repaying loans1762,1881,9392,270
Transfers to Works and Trading Account—
    Public Works38,00037,00042,00044,000
    Electric supply31,00043,00067,00061,000
    Land settlement12,00013,00016,00016,500
    State Coal Mines5006008001,000
    Working Railways10,0004,4776,3816,815
Advances to—
    Post Office8.5009,2009,8007,500
    New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation----
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.-1,1821,213586
    State Advances Corporation51,40046,00046,80043,000
    Tourist Hotel Corporation1,7451,0581,142610
Christmas Island Phosphate Commission---400
Natural Gas Corporation---230
Calls on shares in New Zealand Steel Investigating Co.17525--
Calls on shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.--1,4871,487
Acquisition of shares in Air New Zealand Ltd.-8591,2001,200
Loans to Harbour Boards*
    Auckland301221301491
    Lyttelton318192-43
    Napier37207891
    Timaru51160--
    Whangarei419179--
Further subscription to IMF-5,754--
Further security in favour of IMF-17,260--
Currency subscription to Asian Development Bank--811811
Security in favour of Asian Development Bank--811811
Advance subscriptions from previous year allocated6011,970--
Totals155,232184,349197,765212,323
Balances at end of year41,27831,11729,35752,834

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT—The Works and Trading Account receipts and payments are shown in the following table.

Item1964-651965-661966-671967-68
Receipts$ (thousand)
Airport development550762790133
Electric supply56,27465,07166,79973,340
Forest development9,27510,49811,19512,053
Housing construction2,4801,7232,1601,382
Land settlement—
    Crown lands18,78419,13119,18417,785
    Maori land settlement8,9038,7298,5178,438
Public buildings101,2171,6072,460
Railway construction-265
State coal mines14,74314,35514,55813,339
University and technical institute buildings212
Working railways86,30089,29290,44988,631
Miscellaneous209291216370
Sub-totals197,531211,072215,483217,934
Contributions from National Development Loans Account91,50098,077132,181129,315
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account—
    From vote “Maori Affairs”10090--
    From vote “Mines”3506008002,950
Totals289,481309,839348,464350,199
Expenditure$ (thousand)
Annual Appropriations
  Vote—
        Airport development4,4193,0401,584612
        Electric supply63,26884,348104,68498,638
        Forest development11,68112,91813,56115,094
        Housing construction15,34014,68615,91815,680
        Land settlement—
            Crown lands18,25819,39321,12121,003
            Maori land settlement11,40612,08710,97510,816
        Public buildings12,16212,53413,29914,082
        Railway construction-418505503
        State coal mines15,90516,00416,18717,244
        University and technical institute buildings7,0478,75312,07814,788
        Working railways90,95094,77199,27999,760
Sub-totals250,436278,954309,190308,220
Subsidies to Government Superannuation Fund1,1791,3041,2391,786
Interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue Account—    
    Electric supply20,28721,69524,05730,019
    Land settlement7,2127,9069,1189,339
    Working Railways (IBRD loan)--272754
Contributions to Loans Redemption Account3,0973,4894,6015,004
Land acquired other than from annual votes2,5552,0061,7591,215
Miscellaneous expenditure295285267357
Totals285,061315,639350,503356,694

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1964-651965-661966-671967-68
Receipts$ (thousand)
Highways revenue61,05665,80470,07162,991
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account2,00010103,250
Miscellaneous694619599573
Interest42864048
Totals63,79366,51870,71966,862
Payments$ (thousand)
State Highways maintenance8,9729,3269,53310,311
State Highways construction21,64929,18226,67322,766
Local authorities' subsidised works24,21926,88728,42626,861
Administration and general expenses4,3454,4885,9225,775
Unauthorised expenditure6536
Totals59,19169,88870,55765,718
Balance at end of year6,2342,8643,0264,170

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalances at 31 March
1965196619671968
*Cash received but not yet allocated.
 $(000)
Consolidated Revenue Account16,86520,38721,11222,490
Works and Trading Account28,85223,05221,01314,518
Loans Redemption Account14,50124,07946,79252,293
National Development Loans Account41,27831,11729,35752,834
National Roads Fund6,2342,8643,0264,170
Reserve Fund27,76028,58229,50442,609
Suspense Account*6491061,135295
Trust Account21,39223,63420,89425,057
    Totals157,531153,820172,833214,266

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1965196619671968
 $(000)
Cash41,75843,06045,80847,609
Imprests5,9876,5887,1436,024
Investments in New Zealand42,68142,68463,31583,709
Investments overseas67,10461,48856,56776,924
Totals157,531153,820172,833214,266

26B—TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION—A summary of taxation revenue during the last 11 March years is given in the following table. In addition to total taxation the amounts received from direct taxes on income are also shown.

Year Ended 31 MarchDirect Taxes on Income (i.e., Income Tax and Social Security Taxation on Income)Total Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population
*Excludes $1,866,000 in 1958-59, $4,652,000 in 1959-60, $1,986,000 in 1960-61, $798,000 in 1961-62, $774,000 in 1962-63 and $792,000 in 1963-64 of duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Act; this comprises refunds to persons entitled to exemption from the additional payment of Customs duty from 27 June 1958.
 $ (million)$ $ (million)$
1958288.1128.3058.8489.8218.10
1959380.0165.3062.1610.4*265.60
1960351.8150.0059.2594.6*253.50
1961413.8173.3061.9668.9*280.10
1962457.0187.2063.8716.4*293.40
1963432.8173.2063.3684.0*273.80
1964466.5182.9062.8742.3*291.10
1965547.7210.5564.8844.5324.65
1966606.0228.9066.0918.2346.85
1967664.4246.5067.2988.9366.90
1968672.8245.8066.41,012.7370.00

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during the latest five years.

HeadRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968

*Excludes motor spirit duty included in National Roads Fund.

†Included in National Roads Fund.

‡Abolished 14 June 1965.

§Motor vehicles fees and charges now included in Consolidated Revenue Account.

Consolidated Revenue Account—$(million)
    Customs revenue85.083.4*88.9*92.0*95.5
    Beer duty31.331.132.834.735.6
    Motor spirits duty less refunds-10.4
    Motor vehicles fees and charges13.2
    Sales tax64.276.976.678.975.4
    Film hire tax0.30.30.40.40.3
    Milage tax0.20.4
    Estate and gift duties22.121.023.023.121.7
    Duty on instruments5.16.67.17.05.8
    Racing taxation10.210.611.512.011.3
    Amusement tax0.50.40.1
    Other taxation2.62.82.82.82.8
    Land tax2.32.63.23.54.4
    Income tax288.7362.3401.2443.4440.3
    Social security income tax177.8185.4204.7221.0232.5
National Roads Fund—     
    Highways revenue (less rebate)52.061.165.870.163.0§
Totals742.3844.5918.2988.91,012.7

The sources of revenue are shown in the following diagrams.

Figure 26.1. REVENUE FROM TAXATION

REVENUE FROM TAXATION

Figure 26.2. REVENUE FROM TAXATION

REVENUE FROM TAXATION

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income.

YearTotal Private IncomeNational Income at Factor CostTaxation Revenue
TotalAs a Percentage of—
Private IncomeNational Income
*Provisional.
  $(million) percent
1957-581,9971,870.3489.824.526.2
1958-592,0651,923.2610.529.631.7
1959-602,2512,074.9594.626.428.7
1960-612,4302,242.7668.927.529.8
1961-622,5042,315.9716.428.630.9
1962-632,6942,503.3684.025.427.3
1963-642,9362,740.7742.325.327.1
1964-653,1902,997.4844.526.528.4
1965-663,4293,229.7918.226.828.2
1966-673,5833,367.0988.927.629.4
1967-683,679*3,452.51,012.727.5*29.3*

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the heading of Customs does not include receipts from tyre tax and from motor spirits tax. Sales tax receipts are not counted as ordinary Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department. The following figures show Customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation
* Including excise duties other than beer duty.
  $(thousand) percent
196484,95131,260116,21115.7
196583,40531,088114,49313.6
196688,87532,828121,70313.3
196792,01234,735126,74712.8
196895,54535,591131,13612.9

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22d—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—The National Roads Fund derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits (at present 14.8c per gallon for this purpose), heavy traffic licence fees, and, a milage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. Other revenues of the Fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes have been as follows during the latest five years, excluding rebates and collection expenses.

Year Ended 31 MarchPetrol TaxMilage TaxTyre TaxRegistration and Licence Fees, etc., Under Transport Act 1962*Heavy Traffic FeesTotal
*Diverted to Consolidated Revenue Account from 1 July 1967.
$(thousand)
196437,7271,553735,6216,14151,114
196545,4171,905746,1076,62760,130
196648,5882,596-6,4517,22564,861
196750,7562,893-7,3587,22568,232
196850,4753,167-2898,49862,429

It should be noted that from 27 June 1958 an additional 10c a gallon tax (reduced to 6.7c a gallon on 4 November 1959, to 3.3c a gallon on 22 December 1959, and to 1.7c a gallon on 22 July 1960) was imposed on motor spirits, and this was credited not to the National Roads Board Fund but to the Consolidated Revenue Account for general revenue purposes. From 1 April 1964 the remaining 1.7c a gallon has been credited to the National Roads Fund. On 4 May 1967 the tax was increased by 3.3c a gallon for general revenue purposes, but from 1 April 1969, 2.3 cents a gallon has been credited to the National Roads Fund.

INCOME TAX—Income tax is levied under the Land and Income Tax Act 1954, the Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, and amendments.

Exemptions—Certain specified incomes and types of income are exempt from income tax. The incomes of local and public authorities (except for certain Government trading departments), building societies, co-operative dairy and milk treatment companies, trustees of superannuation funds, friendly societies, charitable societies, and others of similar character are exempt from income tax. The general principle is where any society or association carries on business exclusively for the purposes for which it was established and does not operate for the private pecuniary profit of any individual, the income is exempt from income tax. Monetary benefits from the Consolidated Revenue Account (except the universal superannuation benefit), sick benefits from friendly societies, workers' compensation payments, war pensions, etc., and for individuals the first $100 of income from interest are exempt from income tax.

Deduction of Expenditure from Total Income—Any expenditure or loss incurred in gaining or producing assessable income or necessarily incurred in carrying on a business for the purpose of producing assessable income may be deducted from the total income derived. Depreciation is allowed.

Interest on convertible notes offered by a company after 8 September 1960 is not allowed as a deduction from the company's assessable income and is treated as a dividend in the hands of the holder, but since 28 June 1962 interest may be deducted up to the date of conversion in the case of a New Zealand company listed on the stock exchange, provided the terms of issue require the notes to be converted within five years.

Depreciation Allowances—On buildings the allowable depreciation rates vary from 2&1/2; percent of cost price for wooden-walled and framed buildings to 1 percent of cost price for buildings of reinforced concrete. There are higher rates for buildings used as cool stores, chemical works, glasshouses, etc. Various rates of depreciation allowances have been fixed by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue for different classes of plant, machinery, and equipment. These are normally expressed as percentages of the diminishing value of the asset.

Special depreciation allowances are given on the cost of plant and machinery (excluding motor cars), employee accommodation for business and farm workers, and new buildings used wholly for farming or agricultural purposes. These are in addition to ordinary depreciation allowances, and are limited in aggregate.

In respect of farm buildings (other than residences erected for the accommodation of the taxpayer or his family), e.g., fodder sheds, roofing over stock yards, etc., farming taxpayers may claim in one sum in the year in which the building is first used, as an alternative to the special depreciation allowance, an initial depreciation allowance of 20 percent on the cost. This alternative allowance is also for employee accommodation provided for either farm workers or business workers.

Taxation of Companies:Rates—The rates of income tax for 1969 are as follows:

Resident Companies and Public Authorities—The rate of income tax for every $ of taxable income in the case of companies and public authorities is:

  1. Where the taxable income does not exceed $7,200, 20c increased by 148,000 of $1 for every $ of taxable income;

  2. Where the taxable income exceeds $7,200, tax on the first $7,200 in calculated as given above, and there is a flat rate tax of 50c for every $ of income in excess of $7,200; and

  3. The income of certain companies wholly owned or controlled by the same interests may be aggregated. A loss incurred by one company in the group may be offset against the profits of the others.

Non Resident Companies—(a) Where the taxable income does not exceed $7,200, the rate of income tax for every $ of taxable income is 25c increased by 1/148,000 of $1 for every $ of taxable income;

(b) Where the taxable income exceeds $7,200, tax on the first $7,200 is calculated as in (a) above and tax on the excess is charged at a flat rate of 55c in the $.

Excess Retention Tax—A new feature in New Zealand income tax law was introduced by the 1958 Land and Income Tax Amendment Act. This was the taxation of company dividends in the hands of individual (but not company) shareholders, and the imposition of an excess retention tax on companies which applies if the amount of dividends is less than 40 percent of the income after taxation. The basic rate of excess retention tax is 35c per $1 of the insufficient distribution of income. When first introduced it was payable by all companies. In 1961 excess retention tax was abolished except for privately controlled companies; i.e., companies in which the public are not substantially interested. In 1968 the tax was restricted to privately controlled investment companies. A privately controlled company is defined as one which is under the control of not more that four persons.

Bonus Issue Tax—This was introduced in 1965. Bonus share issues made on or after 11 June 1965 are generally subject to a flat rate tax of 171/2c in the dollar, which is payable by the company, making the bonus share issue. Bonus issues arising from capitalisations of capital profits, share premium reserves, and the writing up of capital assets are exempt.

All companies which are, or are deemed to be, resident in New Zealand are liable for the bonus issue tax on bonus share issues they make. The sole exception is a petroleum mining company.

Non-resident Investment Companies—The 1959 Land and Income Tax Amendment Act limits the income tax payable by a non-resident investment company on income from investments or assets which are used wholly or principally for developing New Zealand.

Unit Trusts—Unit trusts are treated as companies, and income and other payments to unit holders are treated as dividends.

Livestock Values—A farmer's livestock is treated as trading stock. Apart from the usual valuation options for trading stock used in a business, farmers are permitted to use a “standard value” for each class of livestock thus reducing in some degree fluctuations in income which might occur if market prices or other valuations were used. The standard value system is universally used except for high-value stud stock. The value adopted for any particular class of animal is usually somewhat below actual cost and also usually below sale value. If a farmer disposes of all or a substantial part of his livestock the result may be that his income for the year is unduly high. The tax law provides special measures designed to alleviate the tax burden if that happens in the following circumstances (1) Death of the farmer, (2) Retirement from farming, (3) Expiry of a lease or acquisition of the farm land by the Crown, (4) Forced sale of livestock due to an adverse event (e.g., fire, flood, drought, disease among livestock, etc.).

The term “adverse event” means any happening which is declared by the Minister of Finance to be an adverse event.

Incentives—A number of taxation incentives designed to encourage investment in productive activities are available to industrial and agricultural enterprises. These incentives are as follows.

Increased Livestock Incentive—An optional incentive scheme aimed at maintaining and accelerating the growth of livestock numbers is available. It applies to sheep, cattle, and pigs in a farming business and provides for the establishment of base livestock numbers. Increases in stock above the base livestock number may, at the taxpayer's option, be brought in at a nil value. Because there may be changes in the type of livestock carried from year to year a system of equivalents is provided, namely, one head of cattle equals six sheep, one head of cattle equals four pigs, and three sheep equal two pigs. The equivalents are not based on standard or market values but on food intake.

Capital Development Expenditure—This incentive is designed to encourage farmers to bring marginal land into full production, and to increase the productive capacity of existing farms. Certain items of development capital expenditure are deductible in full and may be spread over a period of up to 5 years.

Forestry Encouragement—Under a plan to ensure a future supply of timber, farmers may apply to the Minister of Forests for a loan to establish a commercial woodlot or plantation. Loan interest, expenditure not covered by the loan, and loan repayments are deductible in the year incurred.

Scientific Research—Special incentives to encourage scientific research are available. Expenditure on research equipment acquired for scientific purposes directly relating to the business of the taxpayer may be written off over a period of 5 years. Also the cost of research directly relating to the business of the taxpayer may be deducted in the year in which incurred, and gifts of money made to approved scientific bodies or companies are deductible.

Export Market Development and Tourist Promotion—A 150 percent deduction, subject to the overall limit on the actual tax savings, is allowable for qualifying expenditure as an incentive to promote the export of New Zealand goods and services overseas; the overseas use of New Zealand trade marks, patents, designs or copyright; and to develop New Zealand tourist industry.

Increased Exports—This incentive is to encourage exports by manufacturers who produce mainly for the local market. If the value of goods exported during the year has increased by comparison with the average value of goods exported during a “base period” of three years, 15 percent of the increase can be deducted.

Investment Allowance (West Coast, South Island)—10 percent of the cost of plant and machinery, and 20 percent of the cost of buildings, acquired, erected or extended, used for development projects in specified areas of the West Coast, South Island, is deductible, in addition to all depreciation. This allowance is to attract new industry to the area.

Stamp Duty Exemption on First Conveyances—To encourage builders to start private housing schemes, when new houses and sections are sold the duty payable on the instrument of conveyance is computed on the unimproved value of the land only.

Mining—The mining industry has special methods of tax assessment, and investors may make a deduction of one-third of calls paid on shares in mineral or petroleum mining companies.

Penalty—The penalty for tax remaining unpaid at the expiration of one month after due date is 10 percent, subject to a remission, in the case of companies incorporated on or before 25 July 1957 which have not elected to be assessed on a PAYE basis, and land tax, of one-half of the additional tax if paid within three months after due date.

Board of Review—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more Boards of Review. There is at present only one such board. Members of a board are appointed by the Governor-General and consist of a chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than seven years' practice, and two other members. The functions of a board are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the Inland Revenue Acts. A determination of a board is final as to any question of fact, but subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on any question of law. However, questions of fact may be referred direct to the Supreme Court if both parties consent or if the Court considers it desirable that the objection be determined by it.

Taxation of Individuals:Rates—The rates of income tax increase in steps ranging from a minimum of 7.85 percent on the first $650 of taxable income to a maximum of 67.5 percent of taxable income in excess of $12,000. The following table shows the rate of income tax for each step of taxable income.

StepTaxable BalanceRate
 $Percent
1stUp to 6507.85
2nd651-1,70021.00
3rd1,701-2,00024.50
4th2,001-2,50027.50
5th2,501-3,00033.00
6th3,001-3,50034.00
7th3,501-4,00037.00
8th4,001-4,50040.00
9th4,501-5,00043.00
10th5,001-5,50045.00
11th5,501-6,00049.00
12th6,001-6,50050.00
13th6,501-7,00054.00
14th7,001-7,50060.00
15th7,501-8,00065.00
16th8,001-10,00066.00
17th10,001-12,00067.00
finalOver 12,00067.50

Dividends: Dividends received by individual shareholders are included as part of their assessable income. After deduction of the exemptions to which he is entitled the taxpayer pays income tax at normal rates on the total taxable income. The maximum rate of income tax, in the case of dividends is limited to 42.5 percent; and for determining the rate of income tax on dividends, dividend income is deemed to be the final increment of income. A rebate of 10 percent of the taxable dividends is also allowed. Where profits from the realisation of capital assets are distributed in cash, the amount of such profits may be exempted.

Farm Income Equalisation—This is a scheme whereby farmers may deposit up to a maximum of 25 percent of their income, with a minimum deposit of $200 in an income equalisation reserve account. Deposits are deductible in the year of deposit and withdrawals constitute assessable income in the year of withdrawal. The maximum period in which deposits may be held in the reserve is five years; thus the scheme offers a means whereby a farmer can reduce fluctuations in his income.

Special Exemptions from 1 April 1969: In determining the taxable income of individuals certain special exemptions are deductible from the taxpayer's final assessable income. These exemptions are as follows:

Personal exemption—A special exemption of $275 is allowable as a deduction from the assessable income of every taxpayer, except for non-resident taxpayers.

Wife exemption—A special exemption of $240 is allowable as a deduction from the total assessable income of a married taxpayer. This exemption applies, only where the taxpayer supports his wife during the income year. It is reduced $ for $ for each $ of the wife's income in excess of $375 so that the taxpayer receives no exemption when the wife's income exceeds $615.

Child Exemption—A special exemption of $135 is allowable in respect of each of the first four dependent children of the taxpayer under the age of 18 years; for each child after the first four the exemption is $140.

Dependent Relative Exemption—A special exemption of the amount contributed towards the support of a dependent relative of the taxpayer or $135, whichever is the less, is also allowable. Where more than one taxpayer contributes towards the support of the same dependent relative, the exemption is apportioned between them. The exemption is also allowable in the case of amounts paid towards the support of a separated or divorced wife.

Housekeeper Exemption—A special exemption equal to the wife exemption or the amount of wages paid, whichever is the less, is allowable in respect of payments made to a person having the care of; a widowed, divorced, separated or unmarried taxpayer's children under the age of 18 years, or, any child who by reason of mental or physical infirmity is unable to earn a living. It may also be allowed when a housekeeper is employed to look after the taxpayer's home because of the mental or physical infirmity of the taxpayer or his spouse.

Donations and School Fees—A special exemption is allowable in respect of donations to religious and charitable organisations. Donations must be in excess of $2 and are allowable up to an aggregate amount of $100. An exemption of up to $100 is allowable in respect of tuition fees incurred in sending a child of the taxpayer to a registered private school which is not run for private pecuniary gain. The aggregate exemption may not exceed $100.

Insurance—A special exemption of the premiums paid in respect of policies of life assurance, sick and accident insurance on the life of the taxpayer and his wife and children is allowable; the maximum amount which may be claimed is limited to $500. The exemption also applies to payments to an approved superannuation fund. Where the taxpayer is not a member of a subsidised superannuation scheme the allowable maximum is $650.

Union fees—A deduction of up to $20 is allowable in respect of union fees and subscriptions paid to professional associations connected with the taxpayer's occupation.

Taxable Income—In the case of individuals, income tax is assessed on the taxable income. This comprises the total income less (a) any income exempted from income tax, (b) any income classified as non-assessable income, (c) the amount of the special exemptions.

A summary of the changes in the principal special exemptions and in the rates of ordinary income tax for the last 11 years is given in the following table.

Income Year Ended 31 MarchSpecial ExemptionsOrdinary Income Tax
PersonalWifeChildChurch Gifts (Maximum)Insurance (Maximum)For SSIT OnlyBase Year Rates EmployedRebates
RateMaximum
*$140 for each child in excess of four.
 $$$$$$  $
1959676324150-350-1,954121/2%74
1960600400150-350-1,95410%60
1961936312156-500-1,961--
1962936312156-5002081,961--
1963936312156505002081,9615%100
19649363121561005002081,96171/2%150
19659363121561005002081,96110%200
19669363121561005002081,96110%200
19679363121561005002081,96110%200
19689363121561005002081,96110%200
19699363121561005002081,96110%200
1970275240135*100500-1,969--

The following points should be noted.

Basic Rates: Prior to the introduction of the new system on 1 April 1969, income tax was levied in two parts.

  1. Ordinary income tax—Basic rates were: On taxable incomes up to $1,000 the rate of tax was 15c per $. For each successive $200 or part thereof the rate of tax increased by 21/2c in the $ until the taxable income reached $1,800. From that point on the rate of tax increased by 11/4c in the $ for each additional $200 of the taxable income until the maximum rate of 60c in the $ applied on taxable incomes in excess of $7,200. A rebate of 10 percent limited to a maximum of $200 was allowable on ordinary income tax

  2. Social security income tax: This tax was levied at the rate of 1c in every 131/3c on total income in excess of $208; it did not apply to dividends or to universal superannuation payments.

These two taxes have now been combined to form one composite tax which is termed “income tax”; at the same time the rates were reduced.

Legislation in 1968—Principal amendments to legislation in 1968 included the following:

Rates and exemptions—A new schedule of rates and exemptions for the taxation of individuals was introduced during the year, to be effective from 1 April 1969.

Provisional Tax—Non-business taxpayers whose provisional income, consisting of dividends, rents, or interest (after deduction of the $60 exemption) totals $200 or less are exempt from payment of provisional tax.

Retrospective Pay Increases—A special rebate equal to 6 cents in the dollar is allowable on application to offset any additional tax resulting from the assessment of arrears of pay. A taxpayer has the option of reopening assessment for the two years prior to the year of assessment or accepting the rebate, whichever is to his advantage.

Excess Retention Tax—This was abolished except for privately controlled investment companies.

Deductible Expenditure—Certain classes of expenditure by wage and salary earners may qualify as a deduction from assessable income. Types of expenditure which qualify are: the maintenance of tools of trade, instruments and equipment, reference books and technical manuals relating directly to the taxpayer's trade or occupation. Subscription to trade and professional journals; the maintenance of any licence or certificate essential to the occupation of the taxpayer; and short refresher courses or seminars connected with the taxpayers trade or profession.

Losses—Losses, except for those consisting of debts discharged by operation of the Bankruptcy Act, may now be carried forward indefinitely.

Land Tax—The exemption for land tax has been increased from an unimproved value of $12,000 to $60,000. Thereafter it abates at the rate of $1 for each $ in excess of $60,000 so as to extinguish at $120,000. The mortgage exemption of $20,000 was abolished.

Retiring Allowances—Employers now have the right to claim a deduction from their assessable income for retiring allowances paid to retiring full-time employees who have in the case of women attained the age of 55 years and in the case of men 60 years. Taxation of the retiring allowance in the hands of the employee is limited to 5 percent of the average annual salary for the last 3 years of service prior to retirement in the case of employees who have had more than 10 years service. For periods of employment less than 10 years the concession is reduced proportionately. The amount of retiring allowance in excess of this average is assessed at full rates.

Trusts—Trusts created after 18 July 1968, with the exception of trusts created by will or intestacy, or other specific cases such as trusts created by Court order and statutory trusts such as the Official Assignee as trustee for creditors, will be subject to a minimum rate of income tax of 35 percent on income classified as trustee's income.

Pay As You Earn Income Tax—Payment of income tax on a “pay as you earn” basis came into operation on 1 April 1958 under the Income Tax Assessment Act 1957. It applies to salary and wage earners, to self employed individuals, to other incomes of individuals and to estates. It does not apply to companies, unless incorporated after 25 July 1957, or unless the company voluntarily elects to come within the provisions of the Act.

The main features of the scheme, as subsequently amended, are:

  1. Income tax is calculated on a step system.

  2. Income tax on salary and wages is deducted by the employer. In the main, taxpayers whose income consists solely of salary and wages are required to furnish a return of income only where their income during the year exceeds $2,600. However, they may furnish a return if they wish to have an adjustment made. In such cases the taxpayer is assessed on the basis of the annual return and receives a refund where tax assessed is less than the tax deducted by the employer.

  3. All other individuals (including self employed except for certain classes of farmers), estates, and companies within the scheme, pay provisional tax in two instalments on a provisional declaration of the then current year's income. The actual income of the previous year is commonly used as a basis for computing the provisional tax. Farmers in some circumstances may pay in three instalments. There is a final adjustment at the end of the year when the return of income is furnished.

Tax Code Declarations—Employees are required to deliver a tax code declaration to the employer each year before 1 April. The tax code declaration specifies whether or not the taxpayer has a dependent wife, and the number of other dependants.

There is no obligation on the employer to check the accuracy of the tax code declaration. Except for cases where the employee ends and commences employment during the week, the employee must not have more than one tax code declaration current during the pay period. There is, however, provision for secondary tax code declarations where the employee has two or more employers at the same time.

If the employee does not wish to deliver the tax code declaration to the employer, he may deliver it to the Commissioner. The Commissioner may, on application by the employee, issue to the employer a tax code certificate which specifies the employee's tax code as determined on the basis that some or all of the employee's dependants are omitted. In such cases the Commissioner will make an appropriate tax adjustment at the end of the year. There are other circumstances such as, for example, where the employer is not the principal employer, where the Commissioner may issue a tax code certificate specifying the tax code or tax deduction rate applicable to the employee.

At the end of the year the employer completes the tax code declaration by entering the amount of wages and salary paid and the amount of tax deductions made, hands one copy to the employee, and sends the other copies to the Commissioner.

Alteration of Tax Code Declaration During Year—When the employee changes employment during the year, he must deliver a declaration to the new employer. If the declaration is delivered before the end of the first pay period, it applies from and including the first pay.

Employees who become entitled to claim allowances for new dependants during the year may deliver a new tax code declaration immediately the event occurs (e.g., marriage or the birth of a child). The new tax code applies to the pay period commencing after the pay period in which the declaration was delivered.

When it becomes apparent that a dependent wife's income will exceed $615 for the year, the employee must deliver a new tax code declaration immediately and the new code applies to the pay period following that in which it was delivered.

In other cases where a dependant ceases to be a dependant during the year—i.e., where a dependent wife dies or a child dies or reaches the age of 18 years—the employee is entitled to retain the tax code including them as dependants until the following 31 March. This applies even when the employee delivers a new tax code declaration on a change of employment.

Tax Deduction Tables: Principal Tables—The tax code declaration bears a code (M, if the taxpayer is entitled to a wife's exemption; S if not so entitled; and a number which represents the number of other dependants) and the tax deduction tables specify for each code and number the amount of tax to be deducted from the salary or wage payment for the period.

The following principles have been observed in the calculation of the amounts of tax shown in the deduction tables which came into force on 1 April 1969.

  1. The weekly income has been converted to an annual basis and after deduction of the special exemptions to which the taxpayer is entitled, the amount of income tax is computed which is then divided by 52 to arrive at the weekly deduction.

  2. Fortnightly, four weekly, and monthly tables of deductions are based on multiples of the basic weekly tables.

Eighty-five percent of amounts paid by an employee to a superannuation fund are deducted from the gross salary for the period. The amount of the tax deduction is then the table deduction appropriate to the net payment to the employee.

When there is no tax code declaration or tax code certificate, the tax deduction is at the “no declaration” rate shown in the tables. This deduction is at the flat rate of 271/2c in the dollar.

Special Tables—Special tables are provided for shearers and for casual agricultural employees. These are tables of deductions from daily earnings. There is also a table of deductions at a flat rate of 21c in the $1. This applies to payments of extra emoluments and to secondary employment unless a special tax code is issued by the Commissioner.

Extra emoluments, e.g., end of year bonuses and retrospective wage increases, are treated as separate payments. Secondary employment exists where the taxpayer has two or more employers at the same time. The secondary employer deducts tax according to the flat rate table, while the principal employer uses the normal table.

Employer's Duties—The employer is required to keep a record for each employee showing the amount of the source deduction payment and the amount of tax deducted. Not later than 20 April each year he must deliver to each employee a signed certificate showing the total amounts of payments and tax deductions for the year (or period of employment if less than one year). A similar certificate must be given to the employee within seven days from the cessation of employment.

The aggregate amount of all tax deductions is to be remitted to the Commissioner each month. Not later than 15 May each year the employer must deliver to the Commissioner a reconciliation statement showing the total amount of tax deductions paid to the Commissioner in respect of deductions made during the year, and the total amount of tax deductions shown in the employee's certificates, together with an explanation if the two totals do not agree. The reconciliation statement is accompanied by signed copies of all tax deduction certificates and all tax code declarations.

Withholding Payments—These are payments made for services rendered, but in circumstances where there is no real employer-employee relationship. Instances are company director's fees, agricultural contract work, fees for free-lance journalists, etc. Tax is deducted from the gross amounts of such payments at flat rates which vary from 71/2c to 25c in the dollar according to the nature of the work. The Commissioner may determine from time to time that a proportion of the withholding payment to specified classes is to be regarded as expenditure incurred in the production of the income. In such cases, tax is deducted from the balance of the payment. An exemption certificate may be issued by the Commissioner to any person specifying that no tax deduction is to be made from payments to that person. The income so exempted will later be included in the recipient's annual return of income.

Provisional Taxpayers—Provisional taxpayers are those who derive any assessable income which is not subject to tax at source. However, the first $60 of interest is exempted from income tax, and is therefore not assessable income. Estates, trusts, and companies incorporated after 25 July 1957 are also provisional taxpayers. Companies existing at that date may voluntarily elect to become provisional taxpayers.

Tax on provisional incomes is payable in two instalments during the year-on 7 August and on 7 February. Normally the provisional income is an amount equal to the taxpayer's income for the preceding year. When the taxpayer anticipates that the income will be less than that of the preceding year, he may make an estimate of the provisional income and pay provisional tax on the estimated income. The taxpayer may estimate or re-estimate his provisional income at any time before one month after the due date for payment of any provisional tax instalment. If he does this and his estimate of his provisional income is less than the normal provisional income (actual income of the previous year) and less than 80 percent of his actual income for the year he may be liable to a penalty of 10 percent on the amount of provisional tax underpaid.

Employees who derive in addition to their income from employment, interest, dividends, or rents not exceeding $200 in the aggregate are not required to pay provisional tax on this income which has not been taxed at source.

Provisional taxpayers are required to furnish returns of income, irrespective of the amount of income. The Commissioner makes an assessment of tax, and any difference between that assessment and the amounts of tax deducted at source or paid as provisional tax is payable by the taxpayer or credited or refunded to him.

Farmers who satisfy the Commissioner that they regularly derive more than half their income from an agricultural business and that more than half their gross cash income is derived after 7 February and whose balance date falls between 1 April and 30 September may pay provisional tax in three instalments.

Statistics relating to the incidence of income tax are given in Section 28 of this volume.

PAYE Tax Deductions—The tax rates for the purposes of PAYE tax deductions at source are actually the amounts shown in the tax deduction tables. These deductions are fixed according to the current amount of exemptions and tax rates. Some examples of these tax deductions are given for selected weekly incomes in the table which follows.

Weekly EarningsNot Entitled to Wife's ExemptionEntitled to Wife's ExemptionEntitled to Exemption for Wife and for—
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree Children
Operative from 1 April 1969
$$$$$$
100.36----
120.520.16---
140.680.320.11--
160.840.470.270.07-
181.020.630.430.220.02
201.440.790.580.380.18
221.860.940.740.540.33
242.281.310.900.690.49
262.701.731.190.850.65
283.122.151.611.060.80
303.542.572.031.480.96
323.962.992.451.901.36
344.383.412.872.321.78
364.803.833.292.742.20
385.224.253.713.162.62
405.714.674.133.583.04
508.357.086.395.765.14
6011.469.949.128.407.69
7014.8313.2612.3811.5310.67
8018.4616.7515.7914.9014.02
9022.3920.5419.5118.5317.57
10026.6324.6523.5322.4721.43

In considering the incidence of income tax in New Zealand as illustrated by the table it should be noted that under the provisions of the Social Security Act a family benefit of $78 a year is paid, usually to the mother, for every child under 16 years of age irrespective of the income of the parents or the child. The allowance may continue to be paid up to age 18 years if the child is still attending school full time.

LAND TAX—Land tax is levied on the total unimproved value of land held at 31 March by each owner after making by way of special exemption from that value the following deduction: where the value does not exceed $60,000, a deduction of $60,000; where the value exceeds $60,000 a deduction of $60,000 diminished at the rate of $1 for each $1 of that excess, so as to leave no deduction when that value amounts to or exceeds $120,000.

Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and are liable severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Provision is made for relief in cases of hardship.

Where the unimproved value on which land tax is payable does not exceed $20,000 the rate of land tax is one dollar for every 240 dollars. This rate is increased on a “step” system as follows:

Taxable valueTax rate
$$ 
20,001-30,000one dollar for every 120 dollars
30,001-40,000one dollar for every 80 dollars
40,001 and overone dollar for every 60 dollars

There is a rebate of a sum equal to 50 percent of the tax so assessed.

ESTATE AND GIFT DUTIES—The legislation dealing with estate duty and gift duty is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968.

Where the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person exceeds $8,000, estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. Exemptions are provided for the successions of a wife, husband, or infant child of a deceased person. (For this purpose an infant child is widely defined to mean, a child or stepchild, of a deceased person, under the age of 21 years; and includes any other person, other than the wife of the deceased, who is living and under the age of 21 years, and is in the opinion of the Commissioner a dependant of the deceased). These exemptions are subject to the following limitations and operate by way of a deduction from the duty of so much as is attributable to the exempted succession or exempted portion of the succession. In the case of a wife, the exemption applies to the value of her succession or $30,000 whichever is the less; in the case of a husband, to the value of his succession or $14,000 whichever is the less; and in the case of an infant child to the value of the child's succession or $1,000 whichever is the less.

There are also various exemptions which operate by way of the exclusion of certain property in computing the amount of the final balance of the estate as, for example, for an interest in a home settled under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 which passes to the surviving spouse; the property in an outright gift made before death to a charity; certain superannuation allowances for widows and infant children; and the wood value of growing trees on any land, a proprietary interest in which forms part of the dutiable estate.

Relief is provided for quick successions where estate duty is payable twice on the same property by reason of the two deaths occurring within a short period. The duty is reduced in the second estate according to the interval between the two deaths as follows: second death within four months, 75 percent reduction; within eight months, 60 percent reduction; within one year, 50 percent reduction; within two years, 40 percent reduction; within three years, 30 percent reduction; within four years, 20 percent reduction; within five years, 10 percent reduction.

Income tax in respect of a deceased person up to the date of death is treated as a debt of the deceased in all cases.

Estate duty is due and payable to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue on the death of the deceased. Interest is charged at the rate of 5 percent on all duty unpaid within 6 months of date of death. In addition a penalty of 5 percent is payable if duty is not paid within 3 months after notice of assessment, but is not imposed earlier than 6 months after death. The time for payment of duty without incurring a penalty may be extended in certain cases.

There is a right of appeal to the Board of Review constituted under the Inland Revenue Department Amendment Act 1960, against decisions of the Commissioner in the exercise of his discretion under certain sections of the Act. There is also a right of appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court.

The following table gives the scale of estate duty which applied to estates from 25 June 1964 to 25 June 1969. A new scale applies from 26 June 1969.

Final Balance of EstateRate
Not exceeding $8,000Nil
$$  
8,001-10,0005 percent of excess over$8,000
  $$
    10,001-12,000100 plus 7 percent of excess over10,000
    12,001-14,000240 plus 9 percent of excess over12,000
    14,001-16,000420 plus 11 percent of excess over14,000
    16,001-18,000640 plus 13 percent of excess over16,000
    18,001-20,000900 plus 15 percent of excess over18,000
    20,001-22,0001,200 plus 17 percent of excess over20,000
    22,001-24,0001,540 plus 19 percent of excess over22,000
    24,001-28,0001,920 plus 15 percent of excess over24,000
    28,001-32,0002,520 plus 17 percent of excess over28,000
    32,001-36,0003,200 plus 19 percent of excess over32,000
    36,001-40,0003,960 plus 21 percent of excess over36,000
    40,001-44,0004,800 plus 23 percent of excess over40,000
    44,001-48,0005,720 plus 25 percent of excess over44,000
    48,001-52,0006,720 plus 27 percent of excess over48,000
    52,001-56,0007,800 plus 29 percent of excess over52,000
    56,001-60,0008,960 plus 31 percent of excess over56,000
    60,001-64,00010,200 plus 33 percent of excess over60,000
    64,001-68,00011,520 plus 35 percent of excess over64,000
    68,001-72,00012,920 plus 37 percent of excess over68,000
    72,001-76,00014,400 plus 39 percent of excess over72,000
    76,001-80,00015,960 plus 41 percent of excess over76,000
    80,001-84,00017,600 plus 43 percent of excess over80,000
    84,001-88,00019,320 plus 45 percent of excess over84,000
    88,001-92,00021,120 plus 47 percent of excess over88,000
    92,001-96,00023,000 plus 49 percent of excess over92,000
    96,001-102,00024,960 plus 43 percent of excess over96,000
    102,001-108,00027,540 plus 45 percent of excess over102,000
    108,001-114,00030,240 plus 47 percent of excess over108,000
    114,001-120,00033,060 plus 49 percent of excess over114,000
    120,001-126,00036,000 plus 51 percent of excess over120,000
    126,001-132,00039,060 plus 53 percent of excess over126,000
    132,001-138,00042,240 plus 55 percent of excess over132,000
    138,001-144,00045,540 plus 57 percent of excess over138,000
    144,001-150,00048,960 plus 59 percent of excess over144,000
    150,001-160,00052,500 plus 51 percent of excess over150,000
    160,001-170,00057,600 plus 53 percent of excess over160,000
    170,001-180,00062,900 plus 55 percent of excess over170,000
    180,001-190,00068,400 plus 57 percent of excess over180,000
    190,001-200,00074,100 plus 59 percent of excess over190,000
    Over 200,00040 percent of the final balance

Gift Duty—A gift means any disposition of property situate in New Zealand (or of property outside New Zealand if the donor is domiciled in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without fully adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. There is provision for a deduction from the value of the gift of money payments adequately secured to the donor which were fixed or ascertainable at the date of the gift. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within 12 months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary does not exceed the value of $4,000. Gifts up to $200 in any year to the same person are not taken into account for gift duty (or estate duty) if made as part of the donor's normal expenditure. Various other exemptions, including gifts to any charitable trust, are contained in the Act.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made exceeding $2,000 (or the value of which when aggregated with the value of all gifts made by the donor within 12 months previously exceeds $2,000) are required to be furnished for assessment of duty, if any, within 3 months of the date of the gift, and if the duty is not paid within 6 months of making the gift a 5 percent penalty is imposed. Interest is also payable at 5 percent on any gift duty not paid within 3 months of the date of the gift and on any penalty from the date it was incurred.

Value of Gift (Together With Value of All Aggregated Gifts)Rate
Not exceeding $4,000Nil
$$$$
    4,001-6,0009 percent of excess over4,000
    6,001-8,000180 plus 11 percent of excess over6,000
    8,001-10,000400 plus 13 percent of excess over8,000
    10,000-12,000660 plus 15 percent of excess over10,000
    12,001-14,000960 plus 17 percent of excess over12,000
    14,001-16,0001,300 plus 19 percent of excess over14,000
    16,001-18,0001,680 plus 21 percent of excess over16,000
    18,001-20,0002,100 plus 23 percent of excess over18,000
    20,001-22,0002,560 plus 25 percent of excess over20,000
    22,001-24,0003,060 plus 27 percent of excess over22,000
    24,001-28,0003,600 plus 23 percent of excess over24,000
    28,001-32,0004,520 plus 25 percent of excess over28,000
    32,001-36,0005,520 plus 27 percent of excess over32,000
    36,001-40,0006,600 plus 29 percent of excess over36,000
    40,001-44,0007,760 plus 31 percent of excess over40,000
    44,001-48,0009,000 plus 33 percent of excess over44,000
    48,001-52,00010,320 plus 35 percent of excess over48,000
    52,001-56,00011,720 plus 37 percent of excess over52,000
    56,001-60,00013,200 plus 39 percent of excess over56,000
    60,001-64,00014,760 plus 31 percent of excess over60,000
    Over 64,00025 percent of value of gift

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest six years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
 $(thousand)
196320,5252,20522,731
196420,2861,78422,070
196518,8362,12120,957
196620,9282,10223,031
196721,1581,90623,064
196820,2411,49021,731

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Particulars of deceased persons' estates certified during the calendar year 1967 are given in the tables following. Comparative totals for the previous four years are appended. Estates of Maoris, other than hereditary interests in Maori land, are included.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Number of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
MalesFemalesTotalAggregate Net Value of Estates
Estates Passed for Duty, 1967 $(000)
    $(000)$(000)     
    Under26316311,2621,5921
    2 and under41,1851,0312,2166,630
    4 ,,61,1039032,0069,933
    6 ,,89026771,57910,9721
    8 ,,106494421,0919,80630
    10 ,,125123358479,29383
    12 ,,143862236097,899108
    14 ,,162711784496,710142
    16 ,,182271503776,399179
    18 ,,201841163005,695192
    20 ,,22156842405,029205
    22 ,,24139762154,942232
    24 ,,3032817950713,632723
    30 ,,4033717751417,8601,311
    40 ,,502359132614,5631,378
    50 ,,601664921511,7691,359
    60 ,,70100441449,2641,312
    70 ,,8087221098,0801,281
    80 ,,905214665,6431,101
    90 ,,100489575,3951,120
    100 ,,1206613798,6012,037
    120 ,,140266324,1031,121
    140 ,,160252274,0371,252
    160 ,,18083111,830585
    180 ,,2005381,528574
    200 and over3374014,5845,182
                Totals, 19677,8615,46513,326205,79021,508
                Totals, 19667,8835,42813,311204,75821,827
                Totals, 19657,7245,25112,975191,00820,632
                Totals, 19647,6565,47813,134176,85619,560

The average net value per estate certified in 1967 was $15,443 (males $17,907; females, $11,898) as compared with $15,383 (males, $17,855; females, $11,792) in 1966, duty on estates of males amounted to $15.5 million and on estates of females $6.0 million, the respective figures for 1966 being $15.4 million, and $6.4 million.

The law relating to death duties is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 which came into force on 1 January 1969. From 10 June 1965 the exemption for a widow has been $30,000 and for a widower $14,000.

The table of averages and percentages given below illustrates the increase in the amount of duty assessed in proportion to the final net value of the estate.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Average Duty Assessed per EstateAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
$(000)$(000)$$$percentpercentpercent
    Under81120.00.00.0
    8 and under101941280.20.50.3
    10 ,,1267147980.61.30.9
    12 ,,141222721770.92.11.4
    14 ,,162054863161.43.22.1
    16 ,,183266994751.94.12.8
    18 ,,204549396412.44.93.4
    20 ,,226451,2398533.15.94.1
    22 ,,247701,6451,0803.47.14.7
    24 ,,301,0632,0901,4263.97.85.3
    30 ,,401,9963,6042,5505.810.37.3
    40 ,,503,7325,5064,2278.312.49.5
    50 ,,605,7358,3106,32210.515.111.5
    60 ,,708,13611,3319,11212.617.714.2
    70 ,,8011,13914,15511,74815.119.015.8
    80 ,,9015,95819,34516,67718.722.519.5
    90 ,,10018,96723,25919,64420.024.620.8
    100 ,,12025,12629,13325,78623.126.623.7
    120 ,,14034,18738,66635,02726.929.027.3
    140 ,,16045,81353,39746,37530.734.731.0
    160 ,,18054,19750,30953,13732.530.531.9
    180 ,,20070,57673,58171,70337.038.537.5
    200 and over124,876151,632129,55834.739.135.5
                All estates, 19671,9701,1011,61411.09.310.5
                All estates, 19661,9601,1751,64011.010.010.7
                All estates, 19651,9181,1081,59011.39.710.8
                All estates, 19641,8729541,49011.79.611.1

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate, is now given. The small difference between the earlier table of aggregate net values of estates and the table showing a break-up of assets is due to rounding off to the nearest thousand in both tables.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DUTY 1967

—–Under $6,000$6,000-$9,999$10,000-$19,999$20,000-$23,999$24,000-$39,999$40,000-$99,999$100,000-$199,999$200,000 and OverAll Estates
Gross Assets—$(000), except average per estate $
    Cash6,3765,2928,8212,2245,5977,1442,46393838,853
    Average per estate1,1631,9823,4164,8875,4827,79015,68523,4502,916
    Furniture, effects, etc.1,7771,6522,2504701,1151,4253251389,152
    Average per estate3246198711,0341,0921,5542,0683,459687
    Farm stock, implements, etc.1171903971336971,8371,0681924,630
    Average per estate21711542936822,0036,8024,796347
    Private business interests1211415571801,2881,8897243225,222
    Average per estate22532163951,2622,0604,6148,046392
    Assurance policies1,5221,5902,9757602,2013,26689622713,438
    Average per estate2785951,1521,6692,1563,5625,7105,6801,008
    Loans9041,3263,6231,3805,6539,4532,71488525,937
    Average per estate1654961,4033,0335,53710,30817,28522,1211,946
    Shares, stocks, etc.8651,2033,7781,3455,42611,9115,2705,82635,624
    Average per estate1584511,4632,9575,31412,98933,565145,6402,673
    Real property7,0738,83411,9873,0237,74614,4565,0021,44859,570
    Average per estate1,2903,3094,6426,6457,58615,76531,86036,2064,470
    Other property8249421,5974811,4352,5906191,4769,963
    Average per estate1503536181,0561,4052,8243,94536,898748
    Notional estate1,2961,4372,1474551,5402,44078880810,912
    Average per estate2365388321,0001,5082,6615,01620,211819
    Foreign property1271423811977301,6641,1932,6587,091
    Average per estate23531484337151,8147,59866,442532
    Debts—
    Unsecured1,3008141,1732881,0871,5946342467,135
    Secured1,5471,1591,3423908481,765327887,466
    Total2,8461,9732,5156781,9353,35996133414,601
    Average per estate5197399741,4891,8953,6636,1228,3461,096

The number of estates in each age group for 1967 are classified below according to net value of estate.

Age Group of Deceased Person, in YearsUnder $2,000$2,000-$3,.999$4,000-$5,999$6,000-$7,999$8,000-$9,999$10,000-$19,999$20,000-$23,999$24,000-$29,999$30,000-$39,999$40,000-$59,999$60,000-$79,999$80,000-$99,999$100,000-$199,999$200,000 and OverTotal
Under 20122819415--------69
20-24123121101214311-1---106
25-2991420149253222--1-101
30-34618910729251121--91
35-39123723201330355-4---152
40-442840322320486181085---238
45-4945654644448512151915927-408
50-54651127978461422526211910971640
55-59861301289969212333942511113142929
60-641181791801561082565242494728141051,244
65-691392602341821512676161636239112141,555
70-741682672562121483525273736830201941,742
75-791703603042481433556875788536162411,963
80-8416231631924317638555737997361425141,994
85-89134230233157992525153475730142151,383
90-94568075543194181421246744488
95-991423201310195313412-118
Unspecified26268124126222212-105
    Totals1,2622,2162,0061,5791,0912,5824555075145412531231574013,326
    Percent9.4716.6315.0511.858.1919.383.413.803.864.061.900.921.180.30100.00

In the following table deceased persons' estates for 1967 are analysed by occupations.

Occupational GroupUnder $ 6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and overTotals
Males
Architects, engineers, chemists, etc.142430921156119
Doctors, dentists, and medical workers1981961425899
Teachers, clergy and jurists463049422194174
Artists, draughtsmen, and related workers322433112615141
Executive officials, directors, managers9575155309612847626
Bookkeepers, typists, and clerical workers2341631992927103665
Working proprietors, wholesale, and retail trade10990962337285388
Insurance, real estate, and all salesmen805765828113252
Farmers and farm managers27519828696295393811,624
Farm workers91381845--156
Hunters, fishermen, and loggers2917123-61
Miners, welldrillers, and quarrymen57129---78
Merchant marine officers and ratings239135-50
Aircraft crews5----5
Transport and communication workers215114851174-436
Spinners, cutters, tailors, etc.49342544-116
Furnacemen and moulders201144--39
Instrument, tool makers, machinists16580698113-336
Electricians704434104-162
Carpenters, painters, bricklayers2101219215663453
Compositors, bookbinders, etc.291319---61
Potters and clay workers43----7
Millers, bakers, and food workers5330266-115
Chemical and tobacco workers85---13
Production processors, packers, etc.1838---29
Lifting equipment and freight handlers139633946--251
Labourers, etc.286925343--438
Firemen, policemen, guards24834--39
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, cleaners692312---104
Hairdressers, launderers, and dry-cleaners95633-26
Athletes, recreation, and service workers3211733-56
Occupation not stated or not working397131115102718698
All uniformed personnel (services)171863-44
Totals2,9191,5511,5802956656881637,861
Females
Occupation not stated or not working2,5001,103967155334221345,314
Doctors, dentists, and medical workers106106-32
Teachers, clergy, and jurists1457-6-32
Bookkeepers, typists, and clerical workers136-6-25
Housekeepers, cooks, etc.104---14
Spinners, cutters, tailors, etc.3-3--6
Others181410-42
Totals2,5681,1201,005155362221345,465

NOTE-In this table for the separate occupation classes, Estates in any value group which has less than three in it have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible, no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

OTHER DUTIES—These cover a miscellany of items of taxation.

In the next table the receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads; receipts under agreement on sales of overseas lottery tickets in New Zealand have been added to the revenue items handled by the Duties Division of the Inland Revenue Department.

DutyYear Ended 31 March
19641965196619671968
*Abolished as from 14 June 1965.
 $(thousand)
Duty on instruments5,1486,6447,073x6,9755,807
Duty on cheques1,6041,7031,7321,8821,852
Racing taxation10,24210,63211,51012,02911,321
Amusement tax547360143x***
Lottery duty681807896x719722
Overseas lottery duty290255217184219
Totals18,51220,40121,57121,79019,921

Some of the more important items included in the foregoing table are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover is, under the Gaming Amendment Act 1968, effective from 1 August 1968, at the rate of 9.32 percent of gross turnover subject to a rebate of 21/2 percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty 9.32 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles investments. In the case of special races win and place investment commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles commission 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy is waived; and (c) 1/2 percent levy as provided by the Gaming Amendment Act 1965. Where the 1/2 percent levy is deducted by a racing or hunt club it is paid to the New Zealand Racing Conference and where it is deducted by a trotting club it is paid to the New Zealand Trotting Conference. Each Conference pays the money received by it into a separate account, which is applied solely for the purpose of assisting clubs to provide, maintain, and replace amenities for the public and course improvements on their racecourses. The proceeds of the levy and the amounts paid to clubs are not subject to taxation. The legislation provides that the levy is to cease on 1 November 1970.

The Totalisator Agency Board established by the Gaming Amendment Act 1949 to conduct off-course betting, receives 71/2 percent of the turnover made through the totalisator agencies. This is the same percentage as that retained by clubs for on-course turnover.

The Gaming Act 1908 and amendments provide for the Minister of Internal Affairs to grant totalisator licences for not more than 404 days in any racing year. Of these 404 days, 271 are allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 133 to trotting clubs. An amendment to the Act in 1963 enabled clubs to increase the number of races at a meeting from eight to nine.

The following table gives figures of Government taxes, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear ended 31 July
19641965196619671968

*Tax abolished 1 August 1965.

†Retained by clubs and T.A.B.

‡Includes $493,330 “Totalisator duty” from 10 July 1967 following the Stamp Duties Amendment Act 1967 which combines totalisator and dividend duty into one tax known as totalisator duty, equal to 9.32 percent of gross investments.

Government taxes—$(thousand)
    On totalisator turnover5,4466,0645,9586,49711,236
    On dividends4,8505,3925,4705,499
    On stakes3640***
                Totals10,33111,49711,42811,99511,236
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.8,4919,4319,76310,2149,637
Unpaid fractions245270270279496
Levy of 1/2 percent557620629659617

For the financial year ended 31 March 1966, Consolidated Revenue Account receipts from racing taxation amounted to $11.3 million, as compared with $12.0 million in 1966-67.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
Number of racing days271271271133133133
Number of races2,2252,2352,2221,1361,1421,154
Amount of stakes $(000)2,8882,8942,9191,2481,2911,340
    Average per race $1,2981,2951,3141,0981,1301,161
Totalisator turnover—$(million)
    On course35.737.633.315.416.415.4
    Off course55.458.155.719.319.819.7
Totals91.195.689.134.736.235.0
    Doubles (included above)37.940.438.012.013.212.8
    Amount paid in dividends75.178.873.328.629.828.8

Racing (galloping) turnover decreased by $6.6 million to $89.1 million, while the amount placed on trotting, at $35.0 million, fell by $1.2 million. The total amount placed on doubles dropped by $2.8 million from $53.6 million in the previous year to $50.9 million. Of the doubles total, $38.0 million was placed on galloping meetings and $12.8 million on trotting meetings.

The $55.7 million placed on galloping meetings with the T.A.B. in the latest season was $2.3 million less than in the previous year and money placed on trotting meetings showed a slight fall of $0.1 million. On-course turnover at both galloping and trotting meetings also showed decreases of $4.2 million and $1.0 million respectively.

Of the amount placed on the totalisator in 1967-68, 82.3 percent was returned to bettors by way of dividends. Government taxes absorbed 9.1 percent, 8.2 was retained by the racing clubs, and a special levy amounted to 1/2 percent.

FILM-HIRE TAX—Holders of renters' licences under Part V of the Cinematograph Films Act 1961 pay a film hire tax.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net quarterly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British Commonwealth films the tax is 10 percent and on foreign films 25 percent of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of $343,070 in 1963-64, $337,348 in 1964-65, $374,500 in 1965-66, $378,000 in 1966-67, and $302,544 in 1967-68.

SALES TAX—Sales tax is collected under the authority of the Sales Tax Act 1932-33 and its amendments. Numerous classes of goods were originally exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and the more important foodstuffs for household consumption. Goods exported from New Zealand were exempt, as were also certain commodities (e.g., motor spirits) which were subject to special taxation. In the post-war years a wide range of goods has been exempted from sales tax. The Sales Tax Exemption Order 1967 consolidates in one list all the existing exemptions from sales tax. Beer and manufactured tobacco were exempted from sales tax on 4 November 1959. The rate of tax is normally 20 percent; for motor vehicles it was increased to 40 percent in June 1958, reduced to 33 1/3 percent in July 1960, and increased to 40 percent again in May 1967. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable only once and, as far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax during each of the latest five March years has been: 1963-64, $64,225,000; 1964-65, $76,945,000; 1965-66, $76,633,000, 1966-67 $78,926,000, and 1967-68 $75,389,000.

Monthly figures of sales tax collected by the Customs Department during recent calendar years have been as follows.

MonthTotal Sales Tax Receipts
19641965196619671968
 $(thousand)
January6,8415,1404,1347,0666,462
February6,6616,3096,7506,6436,554
March6,0929,27310,07010,4887,746
April9,1396,9017,3787,1389,922
May
June6,1576,1746,4216,8655,749
July6,1426,1796,4617,2016,722
August6,1926,7516,5875,9415,730
September6,6836,5676,4706,8077,059
October6,5136,5696,8436,8806,735
November6,8526,9257,3186,9656,938
December8,5469,6137,2506,8308,079

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding month. Sales tax for any one month must be paid by the twenty-eighth of the following month to secure the discount. When the twenty-eighth falls on a Friday in a thirty-day month last-minute payments posted on the Friday are actually received in the succeeding month, e.g., sales tax on January sales posted on 28 February (when this is the last day of the month) is credited in March receipts.

The following table of receipts from the sales tax gives some indication of comparative trading operations in the principal centres.

Year Ended 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonRest of North IslandChristchurchDunedinRest of South IslandTotal
$(thousand)
196417,60035,9262,0865,7501,95690364,221
196521,06743,4742,3706,6692,3041,06176,945
196619,70643,8232,8086,7882,4371,07076,633
196720,95143,4783,1987,7002,4531,14678,926
196821,00940,2993,5616,9822,4071,13175,389

LOCAL TAXATION—Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes, as set out in Section 27 of this Yearbook. The amount of revenue collected by local authorities during the latest five March years was as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchGeneral RatesOther RatesLicences and Inspection ChargesPer Head of Mean Population
  $(thousand) $
196446,11622,2242,28427.60
196554,65022,5222,82830.60
196655,77824,6782,88831.40
196758,43227,4612,88932.94
196862,44629,9802,76434.79

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, etc., received by harbour boards, such receipts being regarded as charges for services.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL—The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has now dropped to 15 percent. Almost 50 percent of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries.

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. There was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, a National Development Loans Account into which all moneys from loans for national development are paid. The amounts raised by loans since the inception of this account to 31 March 1968 totalled $2,225,842,047, of which $208,636,263 was raised in 1967-68. Moneys are transferred from this account as required the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 26A.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

At 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(000)$
19511,334,466688.60
19521,307,324658.70
19531,335,376655.40
19541,408,742674.80
19551,457,186683.80
19561,470,402675.90
19571,514,240681.70
19581,564,222687.40
19591,633,104702.20
19601,689,032712.60
19611,736,346718.99
19621,807,688730.50
19631,934,286765.18
19642,021,744782.89
19652,139,584813.87
19662,255,966842.78
19672,411,954884.42
19682,616,569949.72

CONTINGENT LIABILITIES—The table following shows contingent liabilities outstanding on 31 March 1968. In addition, the Government guarantees by statute the obligations of the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office to their respective policy holders; the Reserve Bank is guaranteed against losses arising from variations in the rate of exchange of the $(N.Z.) against other currencies (this guarantee was last exercised in 1948 when the (N.Z.) was placed on a parity with the (stg.)); and there are also certain contingent State liabilities in connection with the Government Superannuation Fund.

On becoming a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and of the International Monetary Fund, New Zealand in 1961 issued non-interest bearing, non-negotiable demand notes to these international organisations. Following the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar on 21 November 1967, the amount of these notes issued to the International Bank totalled $13,280,071 and to the Fund totalled $129,244,117.

CONTINGENT LIABILITIES ON 31 MARCH 1968

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
State Advances Corporation—
    Stock held by Government agencies342,108  
    Stock held by banks, etc.10,823  
  352,931 
    Loans for industry and other purposes 15,940 
   368,870
Hospital boards: Stock and debentures  84,720
Other local authorities—
    Stock, debentures and extended credits  30,030
    Overdrafts 75 
   30,105
Licensed trade—
    Licensing trusts: Debentures and overdrafts 219 
    Other overdrafts 560 
    Other loans 5,212 
   5,991
Marketing authorities—
    Overdrafts 60,670 
    Loans 672 
   61,342
Primary production: Overdrafts  70
Secondary production—
    Timber and paper industry—
    Overdrafts 200 
    Steel industry—
    Loans and extended credits 17,026 
    Gas companies: Debentures 1,111 
    Miscellaneous—
    Overdrafts 400 
    Loans 1,500 
   20,237
Aviation loans and extended credits  41,141
Western Samoan Government loan  2,000
International Finance Organisations—
    Notes portion of subscriptions  119,261

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT—A broad classification of the public debt according to nature or purpose is contained in the following table, the distinction being made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, or housing.

ClassGross Debt at 31 March
195019601965196619671968
 $(thousand)
Ordinary716,5341,170,8281,753,8281,888,0122,089,9982,304,496
Housing114,662239,658280,520289,134299,930312,073
War loans (1914-18)53,514-----
War loans (1939-45)403,052278,546105,23678,81922,026-
            Totals1,287,7621,689,0322,139,5842,255,9652,411,9542,616,569

A more detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1968 is now given.

Allocation of DebtLoan CapitalInterest on Loan CapitalEquity Capital*Total Allocation

*The following dividends have been received during 1967-68:

(a) Air New Zealand Ltd., $276,000.

(b) Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., $614,000.

(c) Bank of New Zealand $1,429,687.

† Interest on loan capital deferred until such time as the industry has recovered its initial deficit and is operating profitably.

‡ Interest on loan capital remitted each year.

§ Includes $5 million being excess development costs not represented by sale value and not bearing interest.

‖ Interest during construction to be capitalised.

(a) Loans and investments in trading undertakings—$(000)Percent$(000)$(000)
            Air New Zealand Ltd.  10,40010,400
            Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,6006 1/44,000 
            Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.1,7144 1/42,00014,314
            New Zealand Steel Ltd.2,981...2,9745,955
            New Zealand National Airways Corporation  5,0005,000
    Bank of New Zealand shares......12,65612,656
            Railways......179,251179,251
            Railways (IBRD Railway project)20,5716 1/4...20,571
            State Advances Corporation372,5234 1/2...372,523
            Tourist Hotel Corporation8,124......8,124
    State coal mines27,806......27,806
    Electric power595,9785... 
    Electric power (IBRD Interisland Transmission project)27,0095 1/2... 
    Electric power (IBRD Marsden Point power project)11,8466 1/4...634,833
    Post Office236,3475...236,347
    Housing under construction and land development§27,2964 1/2...27,296
    Land settlement184,3344 1/2...184,334
    IBRD Harbour projects5,6765 1/2...5,676
    Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand2306...230
    Earning interest but not at full rate—    
    Housing Account (S.A.C.)284,7773...284,777
Sub-total   2,030,093
(b) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets or development works—    
            Airport development.........7,422
            Education buildings.........71,511
            Forests (State).........41,880
            Roads and highways.........82,921
            General public works.........69,478
            International finance organisations—    
            Cash portion of subscriptions.........20,251
Sub-total   293,463
c) Non-productive debt—    
            Consolidated Revenue Account.........1,518
            Devaluation exchange adjustment account.........39,368
            Railway capital written off.........140,000
            Reserve Bank exchange adjustment.........40,000
            New loan moneys on hand—    
            National Development Loans Account.........46,359
            Loans Redemption Account.........25,768
Sub-total   293,013
Total   2,616,569

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—Movement of the public debt can be gauged from the following table.

Type of DebtAmount Outstanding at 31 March
1965196619671968
 $ (thousand)
External debt: London276,466244,839283,356329,377
                            United States of America36,88258,40262,392105,604
                            IBRD17,45029,94544,87165,102
Internal debt—    
    Long-term debt1,794,5861,908,5792,007,1352,102,286
    Floating debt14,20014,20014,20014,200
Totals2,139,5842,255,9652,411,9542,616,569

A more detailed statement which shows also the main purposes for which loan moneys were raised during the year 1967-68 is now given.

External debt—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    London—
        Increases—
            Devaluation adjustment21,483  
            New issues—   
    National Development Loans Account44,748  
  66,231 
    Decreases—   
    Repayments from Loans Redemption Account—   
    From loan moneys20,000  
    Transfers to New Zealand Register210  
  20,210 
    Increase in London debt 46,021 
IBRD—   
    Increases—   
    Devaluation adjustment11,076  
    New issues—   
    National Development Loans Account10,165  
 21,241  
    Decreases—   
    Repayments from Loans Redemption Account—   
    From Revenue1,010  
 20,231  
            Increase in IBRD debt 66,252 
United States of America—   
    Increases—   
        Devaluation adjustment17,892  
        New issues—   
    Consolidated Revenue Account1,518  
            National Development Loans Account14,430  
            Loans Redemption Account12,908  
 46,748  
    Decreases—   
        Repayments from Loans Redemption Account—   
            From revenue3,535  
                Increase in U.S.A. debt 43,212 
                Increase in external debt  109,465
Internal debt—   
    Increases—   
        New issues—   
            National Development Loans Account139,293  
            Loans Redemption Account277,812  
            Transfers from London Register203  
 417,308  
Decreases—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    Repayments from Loans Redemption Account—   
        From revenue57,397  
        New issues in New Zealand264,760  
  322,157 
                Increase in internal debt  95,151
                    Total increase in public debt  204,616

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION SCHEMES AND NEW LOANS—Details of conversions and loans for preceding periods are given in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

CONVERSION LOANS—In April 1967 a conversion loan of $53.6 million was offered. Stock in conversion was 5 percent 15 June 1970, 5 1/4 percent 15 June 1973 and 5 1/2 percent 15 June 1983 at par. An amount of approximately $44.0 million was converted.

In September 1967 a second conversion loan of $4.9 million was offered. Stock in conversion was 5 percent 15 September 1970, 5 1/4 percent 15 September 1973 and 5 1/2 percent 15 September 1983. Approximately $3.4 million was converted.

A conversion loan offering 5 percent 15 July 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 July 1974, and 5 1/2 percent 15 July 1984 stock was opened in April 1968. Approximately $7.0 million was converted.

In July 1968 a conversion loan of $11.9 million was offered. Stock in conversion was 5 percent 15 August 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 August 1974, and 5 1/2 percent 15 August 1984. Approximately $7.9 million was converted.

A conversion loan of $16.4 million was offered in September 1968. Stock in conversion was 4 7/8 percent 15 October 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 October 1974, and 5 1/2 percent 15 October 1984. Approximately $11.2 million was converted.

A further conversion loan offering 4 7/8 percent 15 December 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 December 1974 and 5 1/2 percent 15 December 1986 stocks in conversion was opened in October 1968. Approximately $4.3 million was converted.

London Loans—A loan of 20 million was raised in London in April 1958. It consisted of New Zealand Government 6 percent stock issued at 99 percent and maturing in 1976-80. In May 1961 a further loan of 20 million of New Zealand Government 6 percent stock issued at 98 1/2 percent and maturing 15 November 1972 was raised in London.

A loan of 10 million was raised in London in August 1962, with 6 percent stock issued at 97 percent maturing 15 March 1975-76.

In January 1964 a loan of 15 million was floated on the London market with percent stock issued at 96 1/2 percent maturing 28 February 1974.

In August 1965 a loan of 10 million was raised in London, with 6 3/4 percent stock issued at 98 1/2 percent maturing 6 December 1971.

In October 1966 a loan of (stg.) 12 million was raised in London with 7 1/2 percent stock issued at 98 percent maturing 15 June 1983-86.

A 7.2 million sterling deutsche-mark loan was raised in London in March 1967, with 6 3/4 percent bonds issued at 97.70 percent maturing 14 March 1982.

A further sterling/deutsche-mark loan of 6 million was raised in London in January 1968, with 7 1/2 percent bonds issued at 98 1/2 percent maturing 5 February 1978.

In October 1967 a loan of (stg.) 15 million was raised in London with 7 1/4 percent stock issued at 98 percent maturing 1 January 1988 to 1 July 1992.

United States Loans—New Zealand raised a public loan in the United States of America in December 1958. An amount of U.S.$10 million bearing interest at 5 1/2 percent and maturing in 1970 was raised in New York.

In 1961 a loan of U.S.$20 million was raised in New York, with 5 3/4 percent bonds maturing 15 October 1971-76. In May 1962 a further loan of U.S.$25 million of 5 1/4 percent bonds maturing 1 May 1972-77 was raised.

In 1963 a loan of U.S.$7.1 million bearing interest at 5 1/2 percent, and maturing on 15 February 1989 was authorised by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development for port development; a loan of U.S.$32.5 million bearing interest at 5 1/2 percent and maturing on 15 March 1984 for the inter-Island power transmission project was authorised in 1964; and at the end of 1965 a loan of N.Z.$44.6 million bearing interest at 6 1/4 percent for 15 years was granted, two-thirds being for railways modernisation and one-third for power development.

In 1965 a loan of U.S.$20 million was raised in New York, with 5 3/4 percent bonds maturing 1 July 1985.

In March 1966 a loan of U.S.$15 million was raised in New York with 6 1/2 percent bonds maturing 15 March 1986. In September 1966 a further loan of U.S.$10 million of 7 percent bonds maturing 15 September 1976 was raised.

A loan of U.S. $20 million was raised in New York in July 1967, with 6 3/4 percent bonds maturing 15 July 1977-79.

Cash Loans—A cash loan was opened in June 1966 and the following stocks were offered: 4 7/8 percent 15 July 1969 at par, 5 1/8 percent 15 July 1972 at par, and 5 1/4 percent 15 July 1982 at 98 1/2 percent. An amount of $46.2 million was subscribed. A further loan of $50 million was opened in February 1967. The stocks offered were 5 percent 15 February 1970, 5 1/4 percent 15 February 1973, 5 1/2 percent 15 February 1983, at par.

A second cash loan was floated in June 1967. Stocks offered were 5 percent maturing 15 September 1970, 5 1/4 percent 15 September 1973 and 5 1/4 percent 15 September 1983 at par. An amount of $50.2 million was subscribed.

In November 1967 a further cash loan was opened and the following stocks were offered: 5 percent 15 November 1970, 5 1/4 percent 15 November 1973 and 5 1/2 percent 15 November 1983. Approximately $29.7 million was subscribed.

A cash loan was opened in February 1968. Stocks offered were 5 percent 15 March 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 March 1974, and 5 1/2 percent 15 March 1984 at par. Approximately $28.3 million was subscribed.

In June 1968 a second cash loan was opened and the following stocks were offered at par: 5 percent 15 July 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 July 1974, 5 1/2 percent 15 July 1984. An amount of approximately $53.5 million was subscribed.

In October 1968 approximately $39.8 million was subscribed to a cash loan with the following stock offered at par: 4 7/8 percent 15 December 1971, 5 1/4 percent 15 December 1974 and 5 1/2 percent 15 December 1986.

DOMICILE OF DEBT—The table following shows, for each of the latest 11 years ended 31 March, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London, United States of America, and New Zealand. All amounts shown are exclusive of the contingent liability due to the United Kingdom Government to which reference has been made elsewhere in this subsection.

At 31 MarchAmountPercentage of Total on New Zealand Currency Basis
LondonUnited States of AmericaIBRDNew ZealandLondonUnited States of AmericaIBRDNew Zealand
 NZ$ (thousand)Percent
1958199,1527,926-1,357,14412.730.51-86.76
1959236,55447,096-1,349,45614.492.88-82.63
1960235,52837,930-1,415,57413.942.25-83.81
1961216,32636,996-1,483,02212.462.13-85.41
1962254,02625,084-1,528,57814.051.39-84.56
1963272,47841,450-1,620,35814.092.14-83.77
1964279,90639,9521,8681,700,01813.841.980.0984.09
1965276,46636,88217,4501,808,78612.911.720.8484.53
1966244,83858,40229,9461,922,78010.852.591.3385.23
1967283,35662,39248,8712,023,33511.752.591.8683.80
1968329,377105,60465,1022,116,48612.594.042.4880.89

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1968 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand dollars or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*Due inTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
U.S.A. (in New Zealand Currency)London (in New Zealand Currency)New Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
*In respect of many of the loans, the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
 $ (thousand)
Treasury Bills---14,20014,200
196912,28532,60480,79445,751171,434
197011,667-84,79156,659153,117
197111,316-84,34036,832132,488
19727,84631,68041,0843,40484,014
19736,95541,58090,84946,130185,514
19746,95548,894101,75891,688249,295
19756,955-7,19980,70494,858
19768,47315,05962,22593,467179,224
19779,143-31,73098,334139,207
19786,68823,22721,14258,304109,361
19793,33914,96922,03763,486103,831
19803,51826,00938,81559,197127,539
198134,149--70,000104,149
19821,73217,87740,73141,897102,237
19831,7326,84071,79459,509139,875
198428,741-94,98377,307201,031
19851,73212,92873,88537,334125,879
19861,80425,71573,29160,104160,914
19895,676---5,676
1992-31,995--31,995
Special development bonds--731-731
            Totals170,706329,3771,022,1791,094,3072,616,569

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, $1,094,307 of the public debt outstanding at 31 March 1968 was held by various Government Departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest two years is as follows.

—–At 31 March
19671968
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account61,81642,517
Earthquake and War Damage Commission76,85486,554
Government Life Insurance36,00439,144
Government Superannuation Board109,586121,587
Maori Trustee5,6285,662
National Provident Fund69,87663,376
Post Office458,590458,590
Post Office: National Savings78,33878,338
Public Trustee6,3666,122
Reserve Bank69,69056,117
Sta Advances Corporation26,51229,812
State Insurance Office8,7669,066
Meat Industry Account80,84282,401
Wool Commission Account38,324821
Totals1,127,1921,080,107

Other holders of Government stock at 31 March 1968 included trustee savings banks ($235.2 million), private savings banks ($202.6 million), life insurance companies ($188.5 million), and trading banks ($65.3 million)—see Reserve Bank Bulletin of September 1967 for further details.

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS—The following table gives the quotations in London for the principal new stocks (excluding accrued interest).

Date4 1/4 Percent, 1970-735 Percent, 1956-716 Percent, 1976-806 Percent, 19726 Percent, 1975-765 1/2 Percent, 1974
 $s.d.$s.d.$s.d.$s.d.$s.d.$s.d.
1961 - 1 December811110 1/289194 1/293194 1/29550......
1962 - 7 December89399612610107 1/210126100194 1/2...
1963 - 6 December911009757 1/2100110 1/210031 1/210881 1/2...
1964 - 4 December8612692131 1/297150987698009457 1/2
1965 - 2 December857690189966396610 1/29512692131 1/2
1966 - 1 December810789398818992100901788163
1967 - 7 December8657 1/29010086610 1/29276892688144 1/2
1968 - 7 March84110 1/291268626921110 1/289508876
            6 June83107 1/2905084639150871138789
            5 September845091008312691131 1/28711387126
            5 December831639107 1/2827691131 1/286107 1/286176

INTEREST—The amount of interest on the public debt domiciled in the respective markets during the three latest years ended 31 March is given in the following table:

Domocile of DebtAmount of Interest— Year Ended 31 March
196619671968
 $(000)
London12,09417,21421,593
United States of America3,194
New Zealand79,21888,74494,213
All debt94,505105,958115,806

The total amount of interest credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account on account of capital liability of various enterprises during 1967-68 was $71,855,000. The contributing accounts were Post Office, $11,401,000; Electric Supply, $30,019,000; Housing, $7,717,000; Housing Construction, $971,000; Land Settlement, $7,338,000; Land Settlement under Land Act, $2,000,000; State Advances Corporation, $11,654,000.

Interest is also received from the investment of other public moneys, the total under this heading being $4,137,000—$1,900,000 from the Public Account Cash Balance Investment Account; $199,000 from the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission; $35,000 from the British Phosphate Commission; $532,000 from the Trust Account; $121,000 from the Loans Redemption Account; $1,126,000 from the Reserve Fund and $471,000 from the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. The total interest receipts of the Consolidated Revenue Account were thus $75,992,000, leaving the net interest charges for the year $39,814,000.

The following table shows the gross payments of interest together with the net interest charges for the last eleven financial years.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross PaymentsReceiptsGross Payments Less ReceiptsNet Interest as Percentage of Total Taxation (including Highways Tax)
$N.Z. (thousand)
195850,63224,78425,8485.2
195954,55427,57026,9844.4
196057,51829,95427,5644.6
196160,17032,60627,5644.1
196263,35640,38822,9683.2
196371,15447,09624,0583.5
196481,81851,24230,5764.1
196587,13654,04233,0943.9
196694,50659,34235,1643.8
1967105,95866,32039,6384.0
1968115,80675,99139,8153.9

Administration and management charges in respect of debt services amounted to $1,122,952 in 1967-68.

The following table shows the movement in external debt and annual interest charges on external debt expressed as percentages of export earnings.

Year Ended 31 MarchExternal DebtInterest Charges
AmountPercentage of Total Public DebtAmountPercentage of Export Receipts
 $(m) $(m) 
1931264.452.911.015.9
1936268.252.311.614.5
1941266.042.513.411.8
1946189.016.64.27.9
1951155.611.75.21.3
1956191.613.06.81.3
1961253.414.610.41.8
1963314.016.213.02.0
1964321.815.914.02.0
1965330.815.515.22.0
1966333.214.815.32.0
1967390.616.217.22.2
1968500.119.121.62.7

AMORTISATION OF DEBT: Public Debt Repayment—With certain exceptions, the repayment of the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953. In 1925 provision was made to repay the public debt within 60 years from 1925 or from the date of raising subsequent loans.

An appropriate annual contribution is made to the Loans Redemption Account and is utilised to redeem such securities as the Public Debt Commission determines, which are a charge upon the public revenues of New Zealand. All other moneys raised or available for the purpose of repayment of any loan forming a charge on public revenues are similarly paid into the Loans Redemption Account and utilised for the redemption of such securities charged upon the public revenues as the Minister of Finance from time to time determines.

The repayment scheme provided for under the New Zealand Loans Act 1953 does not apply to the whole of the public debt, moneys borrowed on the security of Treasury bills issued under section 41 of the Public Revenues Act 1953 being excluded. The funded debt and a contingent liability linked with it are not part of the debt nor are they covered by the repayment provisions.

Amounts devoted to the repayment or redemption of the public debt during each of the last five years are set out below, together with a brief statement of the class of debt affected by redemption operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRepayments Section 58 (a) of 1953 ActAmounts Utilised for RedemptionClass of Debt Affected by Redemption
Section 58 (b) of 1953 ActSection 58 (c) of 1953 ActTotal Amount UtilisedItemAmount
$(thousand)
1964474,01020,26234,10854,370War loans25,726
Other debt28,644
1965190,68818,28013,21831,498War loans18,554
Other debt12,944
1966190,29216,92820,95237,880War loans26,418
Other debt11,462
1967270,71530,33230,15360,485War loans50,220
Other debt10,265
1968284,76035,92526,01761,942War loans11,013
Other debt50,929

The following table shows the amounts available for redemption for each of the last five years under the repayment scheme provided for by the New Zealand Loans Act 1953, the amounts utilised, and the nominal value of securities redeemed and cancelled to date.

Year Ended 31 MarchBalance of Amortisation Contributions Unspent at Beginning of YearTransfers from Consolidated Revenue AccountUtilised to Redeem and Cancel SecuritiesNominal Value of Securities Redeemed and Cancelled from 1 April 1925 to Date
1/2 Percent of Public Debt Outstanding at Beginning of Year4 Percent of Total Amount of Public Debt Redeemed or Repaid to Beginning of YearTotal
 $(thousand)
19644,00010,10813,07023,17820,262310,686
19651,73810,69813,99824,69618,280328,966
19666,63811,28014,98626,26616,928345,894
196714,40812,06016,03728,09730,332376,226
196810,34213,08317,16130,24435,925412,151

GOVERNMENT INVESTMENTS—In the course of the year's financial transactions securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at 31 March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. New Zealand Government investments held by Treasury accounts as at 31 March of the last five years have been: 1964, $100,018,000; 1965, $42,682,000; 1966, $42,618,000; 1967, $63,315,000; 1968, $83,709,000.

In addition to the above, Government investments in corporations, etc., held at 31 March 1968 (shown in the return required by the Public Revenues Act 1953 and published in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. 1]) are given in the following table.

InvestmentAmount at 31 March
196619671968
 $ (thousand)
Owned by New Zealand Government—   
    Air New Zealand Ltd.8,0009,20010,400
    Bank of New Zealand24,03724,03624,036
    Commonwealth Fabric Corporation1,000--
    Linen Flax Corporation360360360
    Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand--230
    New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation800--
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation5,0005,0005,000
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,182--
    New Zealand Steel Investigating Co.500500500
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand3,0003,0003,000
    Tourist Hotel Corporation of New Zealand9,34710,48310,893
Owned jointly with other Government—   
    British Phosphate Commission904874900
    Christmas Island Phosphate Commission4,5354,1854,481
Share holdings in limited companies—   
    Bay of Plenty Co-operative Fertiliser Co. Ltd.405468523
    Dominion Salt Ltd.300300300
    East Coast Farmers' Fertiliser Co. Ltd.110135158
    Maramarua Coalfields Ltd.188187188
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.-1,4872,975
    New Zealand Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.400400400
    Southland Co-op. Phosphate Co. Ltd.96120144
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,4006,4006,400
    Miscellaneous1419784
International finance organisations—   
    Cash portion of subscriptions31,12031,93140,654
Totals97,82399,165111,626

CENTRAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT—The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the Central Government only, and do not include the debt of local authorities, which is dealt with in the Section of this volume relating to local government finance.

Local authorities had at 31 March 1968 gross indebtedness equivalent to $604 million and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the Central Government at 31 March 1968 ($2,617 million) the aggregate becomes $3,221 million.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of hospitals boards, and to this extent differ from those generally given in the Section on local government. Hospital board gross indebtedness at 31 March 1968 totalled $85 million.

Chapter 27. Section 27 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Constitution, and Government.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to them will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hutt Valley Drainage Board where the year ends on the last day of February, and Chatham Islands County, where the financial year now ends on 31 December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes;

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value.

For rating on either the capital value or the unimproved value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared annually by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

With harbour boards, two types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards rating area. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows the amounts levied under the various systems of rating and by annual fees or charges by the territorial local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1967. Amounts levied on behalf of other authorities are included.

System of RatingCountiesCities and BoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictTotal
 $ (thousand)
Unimproved value17,21440,2821497557,719
Capital value6,3112,30942-8,663
Flat rate7484,47229-5,249
Annual value-11,49713-11,510
Uniform fees and charges1251,01221-1,158
        Totals24,39859,5712547584,299

The total of all rates collected by counties was equal to $7.36 per $1,000 of rateable capital value at the beginning of the year. The corresponding figure for cities and boroughs was $10.91; for independent town districts, $12.46; for dependent town districts, $6.60 (excluding rates levied by county councils).

Receipts and payments for counties, cities and boroughs, town districts, and road districts for the latest three years are shown in the following table.

ReceiptsYear Ended 31 March
196619671968*
*Provisional.
 $(000)
Rates and levies70,34276,50481,638
Public utilities, licences, rents, and interest77,05681,16083,858
Government grants and subsidies33,45634,30133,331
Loan money30,45531,92232,720
Other receipts10,40312,70512,686
        Total receipts221,712236,592244,233
PaymentsYear Ended 31 March
196619671968*
 $(000)
Construction and maintenance177,599187,702182,092
Administration12,76213,40614,680
Interest on loans9,97011,49312,435
Loans repaid16,15314,19115,140
Other payments14,84615,25015,442
Total payments231,330242,042239,789

RECEIPTS—The sources of revenue of all local authorities are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates and LeviesInspection Charges and Licence FeesReceipts from Public Utilities, Rents, and InterestGovernment Grants and SubsidiesOther Receipts (Including Loan Money)Total Receipts
 $(thousand)
195741,3181,32277,80823,10037,636181,184
195845,4161,39883,28823,94247,192201,236
195948,7841,46296,34424,55445,066216,210
196051,4881,87099,84625,42858,132236,764
196154,9482,046106,71228,23659,898251,840
196257,9141,914116,97030,48848,288255,574
196362,4441,900123,59033,36862,828284,130
196468,3422,284150,90834,40085,596341,530
196577,1722,828161,12236,95485,718363,794
196680,4562,888173,48640,07678,916375,822
196785,8942,889188,34341,77177,632396,529

During the financial year 1966-67 local authorities received by way of rates, inspection charges, and licence fees a total amount of $88,783,124 which is equivalent to $32.94 per head of mean population.

Of the total receipts for 1966-67, rates yielded 21.7 percent; licences, etc., 0.7 percent; public utilities, rents, and interest, 47.5 percent; Government, 10.5 percent; and other receipts, 19.6 percent.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric light, power and gas, and fares collected for public transport. Government grants and subsidies to county councils were less than the amounts collected in rates.

The next table shows the receipts for 1966-67 (classified as in the preceding table) for each type of local authority.

Local AuthorityRatesInspection Charges and Licence FeesReceipts from Public Utilities, Rents, and InterestGovernment Grants and SubsidiesOther Receipts (Including Loan Money)Total Receipts

*Fees received from classified licences issued amounted to $861,280, the difference of $96,080 representing other inspection charges, including income from fines and pounds, hydatids control fees, and fees for service rendered, e.g., testing fees.

† Levy on milk.

‡ Harbour improvement rate of $2,508,566, and rates on land in harbour rating areas, $861,872.

§ Of this total $3,750,546 represented transport receipts, $32,189,192 sales of electric light and power, and $2,620,100 sales of gas.

 $ (thousand)
Catchment boards1,628-1544,1421,8687,791
City and borough councils53,8171,90764,197§12,70034,602167,224
County councils22,362957*13,95521,4659,86368,602
Electric power boards--75,505-7,82483,328
Fire boards--3,3043463534,003
Gas boards--3266-332
Harbour boards3,370-21,7287510,00035,173
Harbour bridge authority--2,047-9402,987
Land drainage boards320-8164107599
Local railway board--62--62
Milk boards614167-34222
Museum authority--33-126159
Nassella tussock boards--9815523275
Pest destruction boards1,436-1741,9102463,767
Pest destruction boards (county)25-25326106
Plantation board--37-138
Regional authority--4,53147,29311,829
River boards138-12299105554
Road board751465556234
Road tunnel authority--380200169749
Town boards—      
    Dependent5521914595
    Independent19586867100438
Underground water authorities---15050
Urban drainage boards2,449-17293,3776,007
Urban transport boards--1,317-3521,668
Valley authority---106113219
Water supply board17----17
Totals85,8942,889188,34341,77177,632396,529

Of the total rates of $85,893,742 collected during 1966-67, general rates levied brought in $58,432,426 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates) $27,461,316. Of the latter, $22,445,914 was received by cities and boroughs, and $3,150,810 by countries. The whole of the rates collected by harbour boards, $3,370,438, were classed as general rates.

Receipts from Central Government—In earlier issues of the Yearbook a detailed statement of revenue receipts by local authorities from the Central Government was given. This detailed breakdown is no longer available, the last analysis appearing on page 844 of the 1961 issue of the Yearbook.

EXPENDITURE—The expenditure of all local authorities during each of the latest 11 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance and ConstructionHospital Boards LeviesAdministrationInterest on LoansOtherTotal Expenditure
 $(thousand)
1957145,5021,32010,8567,31816,480181,480
1958159,238-11,7148,45017,174196,576
1959171,738-12,38210,26618,814213,198
1960180,184-12,46411,45227,092231,192
1961190,450-13,24813,15028,162245,010
1962207,860-14,32414,51430,846267,544
1963222,840-15,42015,81632,400286,476
1964241,516-18,11617,52052,470329,624
1965262,838-19,97419,17859,116361,106
1966288,668-22,86620,61655,392387,544
1967302,976-24,54322,93151,108401,558

Included in the total of other payments for 1966-67 is an amount of $29,931,678 in respect of loans repaid, which compares with the figure of $35,488,980 in 1965-66.

The main items of expenditure of the various classes of local authorities during 1966-67 are shown below.

Local AuthorityMaintenance and ConstructionAdministrationInterest on LoansLoans RepaidOther PaymentsTotal Expenditure
 $ (thousand)
Catchment boards6,0751,0451582364767,990
City and borough councils130,2108,9629,90112,20810,298171,579
County councils56,9074,3711,5581,9554,92769,719
Electric power boards67,7525,4083,0125,1093,24884,529
Fire boards3,302174168213543,910
Gas boards3211822017378
Harbour boards21,7172,4344,0215,5221,29834,992
Harbour bridge authority1,121107627386432,285
Land drainage boards48069162525615
Local railway board4112---53
Milk boards16158--6225
Museum authority65102--12180
Nassella tussock boards26721--6294
Pest destruction boards3,374358821463,806
Pest destruction boards (county)989--2109
Plantation board2518--548
Regional authority5,2265871,8292,58931310,543
River boards55833141425643
Road board16522-23193
Road tunnel authority832630541139594
Town boards—      
    Dependent731423495
    Independent34638322319457
Underground water authorities3313---46
Urban drainage boards3,2393741,2321,4482046,497
Urban transport boards1,22619446118-1,584
Valley authority9475116177
Water supply board152---17
    Totals302,97624,54322,93129,93221,177401,558

The next table shows the main items as percentages of total expenditure for some of the more important classes of local authorities for 1966-67.

Local AuthorityMaintenance and ConstructionAdministrationInterest on LoansLoans RepaidOther PaymentsTotal Expenditure
*Includes authorities not listed.
 percent
Catchment boards76.013.12.03.05.9100.0
City and borough councils75.95.25.87.16.0100.0
County councils81.66.32.22.87.1100.0
Electric power boards80.26.43.66.03.8100.0
Fire boards84.54.44.35.41.4100.0
Harbour boards62.16.911.515.83.7100.0
Pest destruction boards88.69.40.20.61.2100.0
Town boards75.99.46.24.54.0100.0
Urban drainage boards49.85.819.022.33.1100.0
Urban transport boards77.412.22.97.5-100.0
            All authorities*75.46.15.77.55.3100.0

The table following gives, in respect of cities and boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan money during the latest 11 years, classified under various heads.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoads, Streets, and BridgesDrainage and SewerageReserves, Domains, Halls, Community Centres, Libraries, Baths, and Recreational FacilitiesGasworks and Electrical WorksWater SupplyOther Public Works (Including Housing)Total
*Includes $652,340 for aerodromes; $3,047,742 for housing construction; $696,646 for parking meters, buildings, and areas; and $86,884 for central plant.
 $(thousand)
19573,4061,6261,4546824,0182,52013,706
19583,6561,5441,2421,0826,7163,80218,042
19593,6061,9721,4101,4563,0464,27015,760
19604,1582,6801,2121,4602,7463,80416,060
19613,6722,4405261,5182,5502,71813,424
19623,4362,9844962,3343,3704,12816,748
19632,6083,3541,2301,3684,0324,56617,158
19642,8884,1201,4061,5463,8126,22019,992
19653,2465,1401,9001,1224,1229,41824,948
19663,9394,8411,2971,8273,45510,77326,132
19672,9705,4428942,2722,5499,623*23,750

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES—The assets and liabilities of local authorities at the end of the financial year 1966-67 were as shown in the table following.

Local AuthorityAssetsLiabilities
Cash and InvestmentsOther (as Estimated by Authority)Net Debt (Gross Public Debt, Less Sinking Funds Held)OtherTotal Net Liabilities
*Includes works in progress.
 (thousand)
Catchment boards1,78018,3683,3084943,802
City and borough councils56,703410,374197,42921,125218,554
County councils12,21877,61733,8765,12238,998
Electric power boards17,609230,43058,98415,13774,122
Fire boards1,16010,2593,2852413,525
Gas boards-821149124273
Harbour boards26,597133,96579,3616,26885,629
Harbour bridge authority2,35417,26113,65317113,824
Land drainage boards31343029136327
Local railway board49386-33
Milk boards123290-1010
Museum authority3952,044-99
Nassella tussock boards4130-33
Pest destruction boards1,0193,863191140332
Pest destruction boards (county)1442-99
Plantation board68246-11
Regional authority5,13346,38535,3641,28436,648
River boards27847030532337
Road boards61277542983
Road tunnel authority3056,0306,127216,148
Town boards—     
    Dependent10733943548
    Independent1341,75568322705
Underground water authorities1166---
Urban drainage boards3,47436,33421,67844222,121
Urban transport boards6153,62383494928
Valley authority52101294069
Water supply boards510-11
Totals130,580974,916*455,64450,865506,508

The figures shown in the column “Other Assets” are taken from the annual statistical returns submitted by the authorities to the Department of Statistics, but are far from complete, inasmuch as no estimates are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. The greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts is made in this direction. For cities and boroughs, although the proportion is very much less, 18.27 percent of the loan-money expenditure during the last 11 years (as given in the lower table on the preceding page) was on roads, streets, and bridges. Assets of local authorities (excluding hospital boards) as returned for the latest available 12 years as under.

As at 31 MarchCash AssetsOther Assets (Estimated)
 $(000)
195659,850345,540
195764,410382,988
195874,202427,372
195980,502470,498
196077,910551,834
196190,518596,770
196290,014653,820
196399,278712,362
1964132,564768,420
1965133,974845,950
1966129,045895,500
1967130,580974,916

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to $29,300,826 at 31 March 1967, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are composed mainly of fixed assets and of stocks of stores and materials.

Cities and boroughs are responsible for 42.3 percent of the total assets, electric power districts for 20.0 percent and harbour boards for 14.5 percent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 8.1 but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure is made on roads, bridges, etc., for which no estimates are available.

REGISTERED STOCK—The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 permits local authorities to issue registered stock with the Reserve Bank as Registrar. The following table indicates the growth in this form of security. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.)

DateAmountTotal Gross Debt of Local Authorities at 31 March*Registered Stock as a Percentage of Gross Debt

*Includes hospital boards.

† Estimated.

 $(000)percent
March 195968,684294,40823.33
March 1960109,852337,21832.58
March 1961149,834373,59840.11
March 1962170,838395,33843.21
March 1963208,878433,99448.13
March 1964259,858474,26354.79
March 1965302,484511,32459.16
March 1966336,520538,48862.49
March 1967359,160563,67663.19
March 1968393,863604,07765.20

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but, in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow; under the Fire Services Act 1949 the boards of urban fire authorities must obtain the prior consent of the Fire Service Council, while the Fire Services Amendment Act 1963 brought the procedure for borrowing by fire authorities into line with the procedures of the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation, and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

INDEBTEDNESS—The gross public debt of local authorities (excluding hospital boards) at 31 March 1967 amounted to NZ$484,944,428 and net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and other securities) to NZ$455,643,602. The gross public debt at 31 March 1967 comprised NZ$484,573,228 domiciled in New Zealand and A$464,000 domiciled in Australia. When hospital boards are included, the gross public debt of local authorities at 31 March 1967 was N.Z.$563,676,466. Where overseas debt is involved, this debt has been converted to New Zealand values in the tables in this section on Indebtedness. Hospital board loans are shown in Section 5B. Since 1 April 1958 the Government has assumed complete financial responsibility for public hospital finance, apart from the raising by hospital boards of loans for major capital construction, and these must be approved by the Minister of Health.

Included in the gross public debt figure in the previous paragraph are amounts owing by local authorities to Government Departments, and the amounts of the securities held at 31 March for the last five years are shown in the following table. The percentages to the total gross public debt are given at the foot of the table.

DepartmentAs at 31 March
19641965196619671968
* Including hospital boards.
 NZ$(thousand)
Government Life Insurance Office23,36022,80022,44422,06222,343
National Provident Fund Board74,25482,80688,008101,465118,555
Public Trustee9,2569,4829,72610,13910,491
State Advances Corporation—     
    Trading16,76215,99215,10414,36413,659
    Housing Account5,5646,7428,34212,01314,486
    Rural Housing Act 19393,8404,4925,7767,7789,829
Other11,50012,96413,71416,07717,757
Totals144,536155,278163,114183,898207,120
Percentage of total gross public debt*percent 30.5xpercent 30.4percent 30.3xpercent 32.6xpercent 34.3

The outstanding loans of local authorities (other than hospital boards) at the end of each of the latest 11 years are shown in the following table.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtNet Debt (i.e., Less Accumulated Sinking Funds)
 NZ$ (thousand)
1956175,847160,929
1957198,064183,228
1958229,239214,367
1959255,831240,879
1960287,012272,907
1961318,727303,672
1962337,456320,660
1963370,090349,975
1964401,701381,368
1965436,101413,635
1966461,293435,515
1967484,944455,644

Of the net indebtedness of $455,643,602 at 31 March 1967, cities and boroughs were responsible for $197,429,012, which represents 3.7 percent of their rateable capital value at that date. For counties, which have a much lower expenditure per head on works, etc., the aggregate net indebtedness was $33,875,542, and the percentage of rateable capital value at 31 March 1967 was only 1.0.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the latest 11 years.

At 31 MarchPopulationGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
  NZ$(000)NZ$NZ$(000)NZS
19572,221,169198,06489.1719,4478.76
19582,275,515229,239100.7421,6229.50
19592,326,129255,831109.9824,09510.36
19602,370,166287,012121.0926,60811.23
19612,414,984318,727131.9830,30512.55
19622,474,588337,456136.3732,40013.09
19632,527,868370,090146.4035,91914.21
19642,582,407401,701155.5546,32717.94
19652,628,900436,101165.8952,33919.91
19662,676,919461,293172.3252,04919.44
19672,727,148484,944177.8656,81020.83

It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

At 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCounties and Road DistrictsElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
NZ$(thousand)
195789,66011,89039,57926,11913,3577,4949,966198,064
1958103,15513,57042,59931,37817,8828,29812,357229,239
1959111,81214,84845,86135,12424,1617,81716,208255,831
1960124,42417,46847,76840,06732,0917,60717,587287,012
1961132,91819,80849,29045,95640,0527,14523,558318,727
1962141,92622,32651,36348,01943,3626,62223,838337,456
1963157,13723,97954,10156,07447,5696,34624,882370,090
1964173,03128,40153,71665,40949,3125,86225,971401,701
1965187,92731,84558,14272,07050,9105,28429,923436,101
1966203,13331,54759,98579,80523,21898762,619461,293
1967215,08835,51962,00182,80624,25086864,413484,944

The road district debt at 31 March 1967, which is included with that of counties, was $54,218; the town district debt at the same date was $726,132. The debt of “Other Districts” at 31 March 1967 was mainly that of river districts ($308,040), catchment districts ($3,410,814), land-drainage districts ($324,872), gas districts ($148,868), fire districts ($3,401,082), a harbour bridge authority ($13,653,408), a road tunnel authority ($6,127,060), and Auckland Regional Authority ($36,817,478).

The total debt for the Drainage Division $29,329,674 and for the Transport Division $3,256,860 of the Auckland Regional Authority are included in “Other Districts”.

Domicile of Debt—A five-year summary of the domicile of loans outstanding is given hereunder.

At 31 MarchAmountPercentage of Total
New ZealandUnited KingdomAustraliaNew ZealandUnited KingdomAustralia
  $(000)  percent 
1963368,6071,00447999.600.270.13
1964400,93630046599.810.070.12
1965435,637-46499.89-0.11
1966460,829-46499.90-0.10
1967484,480-46499.90-0.10

Debt Charges—Particulars of the annual loan charge of local authorities during each of the latest 11 years are as follows.

At 31 MarchOn Debentures and Other SecuritiesOn Inscribed DebtTotal
  $(000) 
195719,447-19,447
195821,622-21,622
195924,095-24,095
196026,608-26,608
196130,305-30,305
196232,400-32,400
196335,919-35,919
196446,327-46,327
196552,339-52,339
196652,049-52,049
196756,810-56,810

Loan repayment charges are included in the above, the anticipated payments during 1967-68 on debt at 31 March 1967 being $32,265,804. Anticipated interest charges payable during 1967-68 on the debt outstanding at 31 March 1967 aggregated $24,544,596.

As the information is no longer available, it is not possible to classify loans outstanding according to country of domicile, by rates of interest, and maturity dates. The last analyses of these series appeared on page 852 of the 1961 issue of the Yearbook.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during the last 11 years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards are included in this instance.

YearTotal ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $(thousand)
1957-5863,86851,6001,700
1958-5943,02041,0761,084
1959-6065,69657,946474
1960-6175,37269,298950
1961-6260,68248,0863,602
1962-6362,71851,5067,158
1963-6488,98062,47424,364
1964-6590,36059,04220,316
1965-66111,13080,00615,216
1966-6793,83464,15413,390
1967-68115,74171,69213,729

From statistics of borrowing, which local authorities are required to furnish quarterly, it is possible to ascertain the amount of loan authorisations granted and exercised. The next two tables show summaries of borrowing at 31 March 1968 by each class of local authority.

LOANS AUTHORISED DURING YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1967—WITH AMOUNTS RAISED AND UPLIFTED TO 31 MARCH 1968 ON THESE AUTHORISATIONS

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1967*Amounts RaisedBalance Not Raised at 31 March 1968Amounts Uplifted
To 31 March 1967To 31 March 1968To 31 March 1967To 31 March 1968

* Adjusted for amounts revoked or lapsed.

† Original amount was $78,852,066.

 $(thousand)
Catchment boards828144368460124368
City and borough councils24,9678,01715,9818,9867,45915,804
County councils5,6821,8884,1821,5001,3553,904
Electric power and gas boards9,9162,4387,6482,2682,3787,568
Fire boards343713271651235
Harbour boards11,3953,9429,2752,1203,9429,239
Harbour bridge authority403227403-227403
Hospital boards16,1353,38811,0295,1063,32310,174
Pest destruction boards893979101379
Regional authority5,9152,3223,2712,6442,3223,271
Road board160661006046100
Town boards12612-612
Urban drainage boards2,7586011,0731,6856011,073
Urban transport boards230-230--230
Valley authority30930---
Totals78,86323,15854,00824,85521,84752,460

LOANS AUTHORISED DURING YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1968—WITH AMOUNTS RAISED AND UPLIFTED TO 31 MARCH 1968 ON THESE AUTHORISATIONS

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1968*Amounts Raised to 31 March 1968Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1968Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1968

* Adjusted for amounts revoked or lapsed.

† Original amount was $77,969,270.

 $(thousand)
Catchment boards32912320697
City and borough councils26,1929,77316,4199,211
County councils7,2122,9134,2992,238
Electric power and gas boards8,7821,9956,7871,948
Fire boards373254119118
Harbour boards11,0913,3237,7683,323
Harbour bridge authority903633270633
Hospital boards12,0984,2687,8304,268
Pest destruction boards277207
Regional authority8,3271,4696,8581,469
Town boards227157
Urban drainage boards2,3941,2021,1921,202
Urban transport boards155-155-
Totals77,90525,96751,93824,521

The following table shows comparative debt figures.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardAmounts Authorised by Orders in CouncilGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness at End of Year
*Estimated.
$(thousand)
195853,30051,434229,22248,85814,126263,954
195942,16050,858263,95445,30514,853294,408
196058,42050,070294,40859,89617,096337,208
196170,24658,134337,21853,79917,420373,598
196251,68860,726373,59842,12820,392395,338
196358,66468,828395,33859,26820,612433,994
196486,84091,818433,99482,91942,652474,263
196579,35889,126474,26382,55945,498511,324
196695,222104,394511,32471,55444,389538,488
196777,54478,852538,48864,95039,855563,584
196885,42177,969563,67677,454*37,053*604,076*

Interest Rates—The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate. The following maximum rates have been approved.

 Percent
October 19554&1/4;
March 19564&3/4;
June 19564&7/8;
July 19575
July 19604&7/8;
July 19615&1/8;
February 19625&3/8;
September 19635&1/4;
May 19665&1/2;
April 19675&3/4;

The current local authorities rates, for the different terms, are: under 6 years. 5&'1/8; percent; 6-9 years, 5&1/2; percent; 10 years and over, 5&3/4; percent.

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 31 March of each of the five years 1963 to 1967 inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local AuthorityNumber of Employees at 31 March
19631964196519661967

*As at 30 September.

†42 County pest destruction districts included.

Catchment boards702715716724731
City and borough councils14,85314,73015,25715,78815,842
County councils5,8476,0915,9565,9435,942
Electric power boards4,3644,4594,6584,8445,104
Fire boards892839893938967
Gas boards3430293329
Harbour boards*3,9824,0384,0214,0883,739
Harbour bridge authority91141150149150
Land drainage boards107122938494
Local railway board1615151515
Milk boards3836363735
Museum authority-32364155
Nassella tussock boards8056143136134
Plantation board101312118
Pest destruction boards1,1721,2001,2031,3041,400
Regional authority--121,2621,278
River boards3433383637
Road board2728272427
Road tunnel authority439393941
Town boards—
    Dependent4133373033
    Independent5989816360
Underground water authorities33457
Urban drainage boards651640643384393
Urban transport boards1,4391,4161,393422422
Valley authority1514182121
Water supply boards55555
Totals34,46634,81735,51536,42636,569

The number of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards was as follows for each of the latest five years ended 31 March. (Source: Department of Health.)

Nature of StaffNumbers Employed
19631964196519661967
Institutional medical (whole-time and part-time)1,5161,5831,6481,7191,853
Other professional and technical1,8542,0722,2312,4972,742
Nursing11,58012,01212,64613,29014,112
Other treatment staff406418411444496
Domestic and other institutional staff9,2529,4299,81210,03010,494
Administrative staff544573614642665
District nursing2352687779481,080
Farm (including vegetable gardening)3222242322
Miscellaneous363575258227201
Totals25,78226,95228,42129,82031,665

Chapter 28. Section 28 INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Comparisons between money incomes in different years should be subject to qualifications. With the changing value of money, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e. money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person. While not an ideal measure of the changes in purchasing power, in all these circumstances the Consumers' Price Index, which measures prices changes in a wide range of goods and services purchased, may be used as the best available indicator insofar as income, if expended, would be spent on these kinds of goods and services.

Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

TREND OF INCOMES: Individuals—The data required for statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means an unduly long time lag before results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample.

Past experience has shown that provisional estimates similar to those given in the following tables have normally been sufficiently accurate for most practical uses. However, it is emphasised that the data in the provisional estimates are definitely provisional and are liable to be revised substantially at a later date.

The next table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1965-661966-671967-68
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employment— $(m) $(m) $(m)
    Agriculture and livestock production—
        Sheep farming26,250105.026,00089.725,80082.6
        Dairy farming29,47086.929,50092.628,00081.2
        Other farming25,80071.225,85067.525,50063.2
                    Totals: farming81,520263.181,350249.879,300227.0
    Manufacturing8,10021.98,30022.98,25021.6
    Construction15,20047.915,25049.615,10045.6
    Commerce, wholesale and retail17,90049.018,00050.417,75047.9
    Transport5,80017.15,85016.75,65015.5
    Services—
        Professional8,65057.38,70058.58,75059.4
        Other9,90023.09,95023.79,90023.0
    Miscellaneous—
        Forestry, mining, etc.5,80013.95,85014.35,90014.2
                Totals: self-employment152,870493.2153,250485.9150,600454.2
Salary and wages1,025,0001,977.81,050,0002,153.01,075,0002,258.2
Investment incomes83,170136.688,460146.491,050153.2
                Grand totals1,261,0402,607.61,291,7102,785.31,316,6502,865.6

Farming incomes are rather more than one-half of the total incomes of all self-employed persons and are decidedly the most volatile section as far as income levels are concerned. Therefore fluctuations in the total income of self-employed largely follow the fortunes of the farming section. In 1965-66 farming incomes rose by an estimated $5.6 million; a decrease of $5.2 million in the incomes of sheep farmers was more than offset by increases of $6.6 million and $4.2 million respectively in the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers. The estimated decrease of $13.3 million in farming incomes for 1966-67 was mainly caused by the drop in wool prices, but the effect of the falling wool prices on all farming income was lessened by a further increase of $5.7 million in the incomes of dairy farmers in that year. The 1967-68 estimates revealed a decrease of $27.2 million in farming income.

The estimate of the income of the non-farming section of self-employed individuals shows an increase of $10.5 million in 1965-66 followed by an increase of $6.0 million in 1966-67 and a decrease of $8.9 million in 1967-68.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the three major sources (self-employment, salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1965-661966-671967-68
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
*An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 (previously $2,080) who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $32 million for the years 1964-65 to 1966-67 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
$$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)2,750-3,540-4,080-
      0-19974,5207.557,6805.746,5804.7
    200-39960,97018.351,31015.450,95015.2
    400-59946,33023.344,64022.344,20022.0
    600-79956,10039.254,14037.953,82037.7
    800-99973,55066.268,90062.069,21062.3
  1,000-1,19979,55087.575,79083.273,51080.8
  1,200-1,39968,84089.567,46087.568,58089.0
  1,400-1,59965,14097.765,67098.566,41099.5
  1,600-1,79972,680123.574,480126.674,970127.5
  1,800-1,99979,550151.180,740153.481,930155.5
  2,000-2,399192,390423.2215,200473.5224,810494.5
  2,400-2,799141,030366.7159,230413.9181,680472.2
  2,800-3,19989,300267.998,820296.4102,930308.6
  3,200-3,59946,810159.254,300184.555,090187.3
  3,600-3,99927,380104.129,640112.530,180114.4
  4,000-5,99953,950268.658,430289.057,340283.5
  6,000-7,99918,580129.719,580135.718,880130.9
  8,000-9,9995,16046.45,68050.75,52049.3
10,000 and over6,460102.56,480101.15,98095.2
Unknown*-35.5-35.5-35.5
Totals1,261,0402,607.61,291,7102,785.31,316,6502,865.6

The number of persons with incomes of $2,000 and over is increasing steadily. In the period covered by the preceding table such persons represented 46.1 percent of the total numbers in 1965-66, 50.1 percent in 1966-67, and 51.8 percent in 1967-68.

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by the amount of total income.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1965-661966-671967-68
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1,450-2,140-2,780-
        0-1994,0200.44,2800.44,9800.5
      200-3992,9700.92,7600.83,1500.9
      400-5993,3301.73,2901.63,5501.7
      600-7993,9002.73,9902.84,1202.9
      800-9994,8504.44,8704.45,1104.6
    1,000-1,1995,7506.35,8306.45,9606.5
    1,200-1,3995,5407.25,8607.55,9307.7
    1,400-1,5996,5409.86,6209.96,4609.6
    1,600-1,7997,14012.17,14012.17,07012.0
    1,800-1,9997,15013.57,29013.87,13013.5
    2,000-2,39915,64034.415,30033.614,76032.4
    2,400-2,79914,68038.213,65035.414,03036.4
    2,800-3,19911,80035.411,22033.611,28033.6
    3,200-3,59910,11034.410,20034.69,89033.6
    3,600-3,9997,99030.48,24031.27,68028.9
    4,000-5,99923,350115.624,630120.322,490109.3
    6,000-7,99910,08070.59,53065.78,73059.8
    8,000-9,9993,21028.93,03027.02,77024.6
10,000 and over3,37046.43,38044.82,73035.7
    Totals152,870493.2153,250485.9150,600454.2

These estimates provide for only comparatively small increases in numbers; the principal reason is that in recent years the numbers of companies have risen substantially, with corresponding deductions from the numbers of individuals operating as sole traders or as partnerships.

This practice of changing to company ownership has reached dimensions which are large enough to have some effect on the income trends disclosed in these statistics of individuals. There is a greater tendency for the higher income units to adopt company ownership.

The incomes of salary and wage earners are given in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGE EARNERS

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1965-661966-671967-68
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
*An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 (previously $2,080) who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $35.5 million for the years 1965-66 to 1967-68 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
$$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)400-400-200-
        0-19966,0006.649,0004.937,0003.7
      200-39951,00015.341,00012.340,00012.0
      400-59936,00018.034,00017.033,00016.5
      600-79943,00030.140,50028.440,00028.0
      800-99959,00053.154,00048.654,00048.6
    1,000-1,19966,00072.662,00068.259,50065.4
    1,200-1,39957.00074.155,00071.556,00072.7
    1,400-1,59954.00081.054,00081.054,50081.7
    1,600-1,79962,000105.463,000107.163,500108.0
    1,800-1,99969,500132.170,000133.071,000134.8
    2,000-2,399172,000378.4195,000429.1205,000451.0
    2,400-2,799123,000319.8142,000369.2164,000426.3
    2,800-3,19975,000225.085,000255.089,000267.0
    3,200-3,59935,000119.042,000142.843,000146.2
    3,600-3,99918,00068.420,00076.021,00079.8
    4,000-5,99927,000135.030,000150.031,000155.0
    6,000-7,9997,00049.08,50059.58,50059.5
    8,000-9,9991,60014.42,10018.92,20019.8
10,000 and over2,50045.02,50045.02,60046.7
Unknown*-35.5-35.5-35.5
Totals1,025,0001,977.81,050,0002,153.01,075,0002,258.2

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from interest, rents and royalties, “estate” income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES

Total Amount of IncomeIncome Years
1965-661966-671967-68
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)900-1,000-1,100-
        0-1994,5000.54,4000.44,6000.5
      200-3997,0002.17,5502.37,8002.3
      400-5997,0003.67,3503.77,6503.8
      600-7999,2006.49,6506.79,7006.8
      800-9999,7008.710,0309.010,1009.1
    1,000-1,1997,8008.67,9608.68,0508.9
    1,200-1,3996,3008.26,6008.56,6508.6
    1,400-1,5994,6006.95,0507.65,4508.2
    1,600-1,7993,5406.04,3407.44,4007.5
    1,800-1,9992,9005.53,4506.63,8007.2
    2,000-2,3994,75010.44,90010.85,05011.1
    2,400-2,7993,3508.73,5809.33,6509.5
    2,800-3,1992,5007.52,6007.82,6508.0
    3,200-3,5991,7005.82,1007.12,2007.5
    3,600-3,9991,3905.31,4005.31,5005.7
    4,000-5,9993,60018.03,80018.73,85019.2
    6,000-7,9991,50010.21,55010.51,65011.6
    8,000-9,9993503.15504.85504.9
10,000 and over59011.160011.365012.8
Totals83,170136.688,460146.491,050153.2

As there was a special exemption of $208 of income from social security income tax, incomes of under this amount did not have to be reported unless the individual normally received income from self-employment or sought a refund of tax deducted at sources. Numbers of purely investment incomes of under $208 are not available.

Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self-employment alone or salary and wages income alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own efforts. The following table gives estimates of incomes of self-employed persons.

Type of Self-employmentIncome YearIncome Year
1964-651965-66*1966-67*1967-681964-651965-66*1966-67*1967-68

*Revised.

†Arithmetic Mean.

 AveragesMedians
Agriculture and livestock production—$$$$$$$$
    Sheep farming4,0304,0003,4503,2003,6003,5003,0502,900
    Dairy farming2,7302,9503,1402,9002,5402,6502,7502,700
    Other farming2,6302,7602,6102,4802,2502,3002,3002,200
Manufacturing2,6002,7002,7602,6202,1902,3502,3502,250
Construction—
    Buildings2,9603,1603,2003,0002,6902,8502,9002,600
    Building, ancillary trades2,9403,1403,1902,9802,6802,8002,8502,550
Commerce, wholesale, and retail2,5602,7402,8002,7002,2202,3202,3702,300
Transport—
    Road passenger2,2902,4002,4502,3502,3302,3602,4002,300
    Road freight3,3803,4703,3803,3003,0003,1903,0803,000
Services, professional—
    Medical practitioners (includes surgeons, specialists, and physicians)8,2108,3608,4808,5507,3307,6507,8507,900
    Dental practitioners6,9507,3407,4407,5006,8307,2507,3507,400
    Legal practitioners7,5207,6007,7007,8006,6306,8506,9507,000
    Public accountants5,9806,3006,4206,5005,5705,8006,0006,100
Services, other2,1502,2902,3402,3501,8201,9001,9501,950

The following table covers particulars for salary and wage earners by broad occupational groups. All persons engaged in the activities of any one occupational group have been included therein. Thus junior and part-time workers, as well as full-time adult workers, both male and female, are included. This means these averages are not purported to be those of an adult male or female worker, the inclusion of junior and part-time workers has a depressing effect on the averages. This depression is particularly noticeable in the clerical and sales workers groups. The only group unaffected by the presence of junior and part-time workers is the company directors and managers group.

Class of salary and wage earnerIncome YearIncome Year
1964-651965-66*1966-67*1967-681964-651965-66*1966-67*1967-68

*Revised.

†Arithmetic Mean.

 AveragesMedians
 $$$$$$$$
Professional, technical, and related workers2,0902,2202,3502,4201,9502,0802,2002,270
Company directors and managers (excluding directors or managers of farming companies)4,6104,7304,9705,1603,6903,8104,0404,220
Clerical and related workers1,6201,7101,8001,8501,5001,5901,6701,720
Sales workers of all types1,4301,5101,5901,6301,2501,3201,4001,450
Workers in transport and communications occupations1,9702,0802,1902,2402,0902,1902,2902,340
Craftsmen, production process workers and labourers1,8801,9802,0902,1401,9602,0502,1602,210

In the two tables shown above the averages for the 1964-65 year are based on the normal statistical collection while those for the later years are based on the smaller sample used for provisional estimates.

Companies—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution. Actual figures for 1965-66 have been shown for purpose of comparison.

Industry Group1965-661966-671967-68
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture and livestock production4,03911.14,4009.94,6759.3
Manufacturing8,338182.78,775187.59,125176.4
Construction4,04619.34,35019.14,57517.7
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade15,789155.716,925146.817,775123.6
    Other12,66286.213,10091.213,42593.9
Transport, storage, and communication2,09212.52,22511.72,32511.0
Services, community4,17013.84,55015.04,85016.4
Miscellaneous5623.66753.37503.6
Totals51,698484.955,000484.557,500451.8

Assessable income increased by $26.6 million in 1965-66. Despite an estimated increase of 2,500 in the number of companies between 1966-67 and 1967-68 the estimates of company assessable income for 1967-68 reveal a decrease of 6.7 percent, following a decrease of 0.1 percent in 1966-67.

The largest percentage decrease occurred in the wholesale and retail trade group.

COMPILATION OF STATISTICS—In the case of individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 10 percent sample for all incomes of less than $8,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $8,000 and over.

In 1957-58, the statistics included incomes of $750 and upwards in the case of salary and wage earners and all incomes, irrespective of amount, from other sources. There was an exception in connection with incomes derived from interest. The first $24 of such incomes was exempt from income taxation, and there was no available data for interest incomes of less than this amount.

For the 1958-59 income year the statistical coverage was extended to include all salary and wage incomes, while remaining the same as in 1957-58 in respect of incomes from other sources. The first $208 of income was exempted from social security income tax from 1959-60. This exemption did not affect the statistical coverage of incomes of salary and wage earners or those of self-employed persons, but purely investment incomes (interest, rents, dividends, etc.) of under $208 no longer had to be reported. Consequently the 1959-60 income year statistics show a major fall in the numbers of investment incomes; the new level has been maintained in subsequent years.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying dates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems. It is, on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Where the operations of a source of income which would normally produce assessable income have resulted in a loss for the year, the loss may be set off against assessable profits from other sources (if any) or, in default thereof, may be set off against assessable profits in the six following years.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

In these statistics the incomes given for individuals are the net incomes after deducting losses from the same source which have been carried forward from previous years. Losses for the current year which have been set off against income from some other source are recorded in the tables in this volume as the difference between the total of the component income items and the given total income.

For companies, incomes before deduction of losses carried forward from previous years are shown in a separate column and the assessable and returnable incomes given are those after the deduction of such losses. Losses during the current year from any source are deducted from the income from any other source.

CLASSES OF TAXPAYERS—“Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government Departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but local and public authorities are generally not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Apart from the next two tables, statistics of the incomes of individuals and of companies are presented as two distinct parts of this section. The latest statistics are generally for the income year 1964-65 for individuals, and for 1965-66 in the case of companies.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX—The following tables briefly summarise the main items of information for income years. Individuals and companies are given in separate tables.

INDIVIDUALS

YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable IncomeTotal IncomeExemptionsTaxable IncomeOrdinary Income Tax Assessed*

*Includes social security income tax.

†There is no annual equivalent for exemptions and taxable income available where incomes and tax data have been derived from tax deduction certificates.

‡Returns neither processed nor published.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1959-601,050,130980,2401,675,3201,684,920585,660611,180270,660
1960-611,085,3201,028,1601,839,9801,849,260833,610580,990271,800
1961-62       
1962-631,156,8301,115,2102,048,3002,057,6801,141,930731,750285,630
1963-641,189,5301,111,7402,215,4202,219,5201,149,270826,830317,550
1964-651,227,8101,137,6302,410,2402,430,8101,148,550911,720353,810

COMPANIES

YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeTaxable Income*Income Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
*Assessable income and taxable income are identical, as “exemptions” are normally nil. In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.
   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1960-6137,54128,881324,674340,902324,674123,17023,198
1961-6239,78530,230323,460344,946323,460118,17623,130
1962-6342,01130,453361,781389,770361,781134,09225,810
1963-6444,73233,492411,700450,534411,700154,86829,458
1964-6547,87835,754458,278501,698458,278172,82832,814
1965-6651,69839,436484,880522,401484,880181,37634,427

A strict comparison of the figures for one year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The numbers of returns and the amounts of total income are shown in the following table.

Total income is used in the sense that it is the total of the various component items of income. It does not include income which is exempt from taxation, such as social security benefits (other than universal superannuation), the first $60 of income from interest, war pensions, workers compensation payments, and certain other types of income.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1962-631963-641964-651962-631963-641964-65
$$   $(000)$(000)$(000)
Losses3,7803,8104,260---
        0-19990,60088,56086,2308,4007,7707,790
      200-39965,45066,10067,00018,78019,05019,650
      400-59954,17052,67051,26027,16026,38025,630
      600-79969,29064,45062,83048,72045,27044,130
      800-99975,78076,90072,86068,06069,37065,690
    1,000-1,19974,17076,11079,14081,22083,36086,970
    1,200-1,39966,22066,07068,45086,00085,66088,810
    1,400-1,59975,78070,84064,760113,840106,29097,340
    1,600-1,79986,53079,47071,490147,140135,110121,510
    1,800-1,99989,34085,14077,750169,560161,610147,680
    2,000-2,399159,460167,180165,330348,720367,090363,520
    2,400-2,79994,130109,890126,260242,660283,710327,680
    2,800-3,19950,86062,73080,500151,400186,820241,070
    3,200-3,59927,17033,17044,33091,940112,080150,580
    3,600-3,99917,24019,71025,23065,24074,59095,660
    4,000-5,99937,30042,80052,010178,540205,260249,630
    6,000-7,99911,45014,03017,10078,22095,930116,790
    8,000-9,9993,8034,8034,70533,78042,71741,835
10,000-11,9991,8002,2792,54819,58224,78627,747
12,000-13,9999531,0731,30412,26613,81216,811
14,000-15,9994775637047,1288,40210,507
16,000-17,9992883464364,8785,8637,398
18,000-19,9992092293043,9764,3445,766
20,000-39,99948352282612,46813,58521,731
40,000-59,99960471182,9222,1845,643
60,000 and over3146662,4946,0046,047
Unknown---32,58032,47037,190
Totals1,156,8301,189,5301,227,8102,057,6802,219,5202,430,810

There is an explanation on an earlier page concerning the methods adopted to estimate the figures given in the table. Data relating to “investment” incomes of less than $208 were not generally available from 1959-60 onwards on account of the introduction of a special exemption of $208 of income from social security income tax.

Where salary and wage income returns were not available (and there was between 1958-59 and 1963-64 no obligation to furnish returns if the income was from salary and wages only and was less than $2,080 raised to $2,600 in 1964-65), the statistical information was derived from the tax deduction certificates.

There were 823,400 males and 404,410 females included in the 1964-65 income year statistics. The respective numbers of these for each total income group appear in the next table, which also gives comparisons with data for 1962-63 and 1963-64.

Amount of Total Income1962-631963-641964-65
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
$$      
Losses2,6501,1302,5701,2402,8001,460
        0-19931,27059,33038,18050,38040,53045,700
      200-39920,07045,38019,77046,33020,84046,160
      400-59916,75037,42016,70035,96015,66035,600
      600-79924,89044,40022,45042,00020,59042,220
      800-99927,49048,29026,73050,17025,51047,350
    1,000-1,19932,04042,12029,66046,46029,34049,810
    1,200-1,39937,06029,16033,36032,70031,06037,380
    1,400-1,59954,88020,90046,34024,50038,35026,420
    1,600-1,79972,18014,34062,76016,71053,28018,210
    1,800-1,99979,8109,52073,90011,24064,27013,480
    2,000-2,399148,65010,820154,22012,960147,96017,380
    2,400-2,79989,2204,910103,1806,710117,5608,690
    2,800-3,19948,0402,83059,2903,44076,0204,480
    3,200-3,59925,3301,84030,9402,23041,5102,820
    3,600-3,99916,0301,21018,4201,29023,5101,720
    4,000-5,99935,0702,23039,9502,85048,3103,700
    6,000-7,99910,83062013,39064016,0501,060
    8,000-9,9993,5972064,5442594,452253
10,000-11,9991,6751252,1341452,381167
12,000-13,999882711,005681,202102
14,000-15,999433445164765648
16,000-17,999259293252139244
18,000-19,999188212032628222
20,000-39,9994077646656724102
40,000 and over829781516024
Totals779,790377,040801,080388,450823,400404,410

The preponderance of females in the lower income groups is very evident. In 1964-65 males exceeded females from the income group $1,400-$1,599 upwards. For males, the modal $400 range income group was $2,000-$2,399 in both 1963-64 and 1964-65.

Broad trends in total income movements over the three latest available income years appear in the percentages which are given in the following table.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1962-631963-641964-651962-631963-641964-65
$$Percent
        0-1,19937.4536.0334.2712.4611.4910.44
1,200-1,99927.4825.3523.0825.5122.3419.02
2,000-3,99930.1633.0136.1044.4446.8449.23
4,000-9,9995.545.186.0314.3515.7217.06
10,000 and over0.370.430.523.243.614.25
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Incomes of $2,000 upwards have been expanding rapidly in recent years as more and more salary and wage earners passed the $2,000 milestone.

The main subdivision into incomes derived principally from self-employment, from investments, and from salary and wages by amount of total income forms the subject of the next table, which relates to the income year 1964-65.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employedInvestmentsSalary and Wage EarnersSelf-employedInvestmentsSalary and Wage Earners
$$Percent
        0-1,19917.5654.8235.133.5821.0911.45
1,200-1,99917.8621.0424.059.0718.7721.71
2,000-3,99938.5316.2537.3434.9326.0154.88
4,000-9,99923.946.833.2543.1122.509.65
10,000 and over2.111.060.239.3111.632.31
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Only 3.5 percent of salary and wage earners received $4,000 or over, compared with 26.1 percent of self-employed individuals and 7.9 percent for those with incomes principally derived from investments. The percentages in the above table related to individuals who were so classified because they obtained the largest part of their income from that source. They did not refer to amounts of income actually derived from those sources.

The 1964-65 data relating to the major sources of income are given in the next table.

Source of IncomeNumber of ReturnsIncome
Taxed at Source (Salary and Wages)Not Taxed at SourceAssessable DividendsNon-assessableTotal
Self-employedOther
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Self-employment153,49013,290442,46015,1505,440830477,040
Investments81,7108,8003,87085,72033,0408,030138,450
Salary and wages992,6101,682,27011,32081,54031,42011,7101,815,320
Totals1,227,8101,704,360457,650182,42069,90020,5702,430,810

As the terms used in this table were adopted as a consequence of the introduction of PAYE taxation, the meanings attached to them are:

Income Taxed at Source—This is essentially salary and wages, including bonuses, taxable allowances, and the like. Also included are withholding payments, which are substantially salary and wage payments made in circumstances where no true employer-employee relationship exists (e.g., company directors' fees, fees for contributions to newspapers, jurors' fees) and some “estate” income.

Income Not Taxed at Source—The principal component is income derived from self-employment, which is given separately in the table. Subdivisions of “other” such income for which statistics are available were income from estates $17,350,000 and from social security universal superannuation $33,490,000. The balance is mainly income from interest and rents, but it includes salaries of shareholder-employees of companies. In certain circumstances, such salaries are not subject to tax deduction at source.

Non-assessable Income—Primarily this is either overseas income or some dividends from companies. The latter are now generally assessable income. Details of assessable company dividends are shown separately in the 1964-65 statistics.

As has been previously mentioned, in the preceding table, as in the other statistical tables relating to individuals, the aggregate of the component income items may be greater than the given totals. This is due to the fact that “losses” for particular income sources are deducted in order to arrive at the total income. Negative incomes are, however, ignored in the totalling of incomes from any particular source.

These same 1964-65 data about sources of income are in the following table analysed by amount of total income.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTaxed at Source (Salary and Wages)Not Taxed at SourceAssessable DividendsNon-AssessableTotalIncome Tax Assessed
Self-employedOther
*See note to second table in this section.
$$ $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Losses4,26033024060---
        0-19986,2307,330240510507,790150
      200-39967,00016,5309302,1102701019,650600
      400-59951,26020,3301,7003,3603901025,6301,180
      600-79962,83034,6202,8406,1507302044,1302,270
      800-99972,86051,9504,7308,1501,0204065,6903,850
    1,000-1,19979,14070,8906,0808,8801,3204086,9706,520
    1,200-1,39968,45071,4807,4808,7401,4003088,8108,080
    1,400-1,59964,76078,7809,7207,6401,3107097,3409,920
    1,600-1,79971,490100,87012,0907,1801,500100121,51013,010
    1,800-1,99977,750126,33012,8207,2601,38040147,68016,570
    2,000-2,399165,330313,17032,13015,2703,110130363,52043,140
    2,400-2,799126,260276,41035,05013,1503,030230327,68042,470
    2,800-3,19980,500192,14034,26011,7002,750310241,07033,650
    3,200-3,59944,330103,98033,07010,3403,050210150,58023,390
    3,600-3,99925,23055,88028,4407,8303,16038095,66016,070
    4,000-5,99952,01097,630108,38028,77013,2001,860249,63050,390
    6,000-7,99917,10027,39062,15015,7808,8402,710116,79029,600
    8,000-9,9994,7056,30025,1065,9163,85570341,83513,093
10,000-11,9992,5484,16315,4133,9703,33490627,7479,797
12,000-13,9991,3042,8638,3962,3152,48777116,8116,379
14,000-15,9997041,6514,6931,3541,91290810,5073,984
16,000-17,9994361,1652,9181,1161,4977137,3982,867
18,000-19,9993049941,9658391,2437285,7662,224
20,000-39,9998263,0105,6562,6185,5304,97021,7317,610
40,000-59,9991185431,0165961,5431,9625,6431,733
60,000 and over664393706341,9382,7186,0471,475
Unknown*-37,190----37,1903,780
Totals1,227,8101,704,360457,650182,42069,90020,5702,430,810353,810

An interesting feature is that assessable dividends and non-assessable income are heavily concentrated in the hands of individuals who have incomes of $4,000 or more. They received 71.1 percent of the total of these two classes of income.

Industrial Classification of Incomes—Incomes of individuals who were classified as mainly deriving income from self-employment in 1964-65 are in the next table analysed by industrial affiliation. For the sake of completeness, the table also includes the totals for salary and wage earners and for individuals deriving income from investments, but there is no information available concerning the industrial classification of these two classes of individuals.

IndustryNumber of ReturnsIncomeIncome Tax Assessed
Taxed at Source (Salary and Wages)Not Taxed at SourceAssessable DividendsNon-assessableTotal*
Self-employedOther
*There are differences between the totals of component items and the given cross totals; “rounding off” may account for plus or minus $10,000 of the differences, but the principal reason is that “losses” have been offset against income from other sources in arriving at the given total income.
Self-employed— $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
    Agriculture and live-stock production—
        Sheep farming27,3402,270101,1004,9901,530300110,18026,280
        Dairy farming29,3701,88075,6802,3802704080,24013,390
        Other farming25,4702,20062,2601,9706004067,06011,770
Total farming82,1806,350239,0409,3402,400380257,48051,440
    Forestry, hunting, and fishing3,5602603,9304010104,250750
    Mining and quarrying250309402010-1,000200
    Manufacturing—
        Food, drink, and tobacco830501,9809020102,140390
        Apparel, textiles, and footwear1,700702,650110302,850420
        Metals and metal products2,9702508,620170609,1101,660
        Other2,3601605,99019030106,3701,160
    Construction15,0801,33042,7308102101045,0907,470
    Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services30150--15030
    Commerce—
        Wholesale and retail trade18,5801,61043,9701,5704703047,6208,310
        Other1,8405406,880300270307,9902,040
    Transport, storage, and communication5,71042015,590310501016,3702,740
    Services, community—
        Professional8,5601,40050,6701,4701,65034055,51016,660
        Other9,78081019,2907202201021,0603,570
    Unknown601030--40
Totals: Self-employed153,49013,290442,46015,1505,440830477,04096,850
Salary and wages992,6101,682,27011,32081,54031,42011,7101,815,320237,720
Investment income81,7108,8003,87085,72033,0408,030138,45019,230
Grand totals1,227,8101,704,360457,650182,42069,90020,5702,430,810353,810

As the table gives the amounts received from each major source of income, it will be appreciated that the classification is based on the source of the largest component item of total income. The United Nations' “enterprise” concept has been adopted for classification purposes. Under this concept, if an individual receives income from two or more of the separately classifiable industries, the whole of the income is classed as if derived from the industry which provided the largest amount of income, and no attempt is made to allocate the component portions of the income to the different industries from which derived. These statistics are therefore not exactly comparable with most other types of statistics where the “establishment” concept is generally used. This provides for the sub-division of the “enterprise” where more than one separately classifiable industry is carried on and each subdivision is then appropriately classified.

Exemptions—In the case of individuals certain statutory deductions are made from the assessable income, and income tax is paid on the balance. Absentees are not usually entitled to the benefit of exemptions other than the personal exemption. These exemptions in 1964-65 were:

  1. A personal exemption of $936.

  2. An exemption of $312 in respect of a dependent wife (or husband), diminished by $1 for every $1 on the wife's income in excess of $312.

  3. An exemption not exceeding $312 in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widow, widower, or divorced person to have the care and control of any child or children of the taxpayer. This is included with the wife's exemption in the statistics.

  4. An exemption for contributions not exceeding $156 towards the support of a relative by blood, marriage, or adoption, who was dependent on the taxpayer. Children of the taxpayer were included in this definition, the exemption normally continuing until the child reaches the age of 18 years.

  5. Life assurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. An exemption up to a maximum of 20 percent of assessable income or $500, whichever amount was the smaller, was allowed for life insurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation and similar contributions, in the case of a contributor to the Government Superannuation Fund or a contributor to a subsidised staff superannuation scheme. In the case of other taxpayers the maximum exemption allowed was $650 or 20 percent of the taxpayer's assessable income, whichever was the smaller.

  6. Donations and school fees. Exemptions for donations to charities (maximum $50), gifts of money and/or school fees to private schools (maximum $100) were allowed. Where exemptions were available under more than one of these headings the total maximum allowed was $100.

The scope of some of the above exemptions has been extended in later income years. Details of the later exemptions are given in Section 26B.

The next table shows the amounts of the insurance, gifts and school fees, total and excess exemptions for the income year 1964-65, classified by size of total income. Potential exemptions have been recorded and the “excess” column gives the amounts by which the exemptions exceed the assessable income. The amounts of taxable income are also given in the table.

Amount of Total IncomeExemptionsTaxable Income
InsuranceGifts and School FeesTotalExcess
$$$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Losses80105,3805,380-
        0-19910036,51032,380-
      200-3991502037,90026,360100
      400-5992002031,12015,170130
      600-7994104035,89010,600140
      800-9996907043,4604,640420
    1,000-1,1991,16015047,0302,5405,180
    1,200-1,3991,38015041,9901,63010,410
    1,400-1,5991,59017042,3401,20015,220
    1,600-1,7992,34021050,3601,05021,060
    1,800-1,9993,05025061,05061030,240
    2,000-2,3999,660700168,37061098,980
    2,400-2,79911,600770172,610120126,960
    2,800-3,19910,170670125,52010115,260
    3,200-3,5996,99052070,400-79,970
    3,600-3,9994,87035041,0101054,280
    4,000-5,99913,11095087,69020160,100
    6,000-7,9995,75044030,4201083,660
    8,000-9,9991,7501538,466-32,666
10,000 and over2,46524311,035276,939
Totals77,5105,8901,148,550102,340911,720

The preceding figures include only the exemptions and taxable incomes for the 873,620 assessments of income which have been incorporated in these statistics. Where income and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates, there is no information available concerning the amounts of exemptions or taxable income.

COMPANY INCOMES—It is perhaps desirable to draw attention to the fact that the term “companies” as it is used in connection with these statistics has been given a wider meaning than that which is commonly assigned to it. A definition of the term will be found on page 802.

The various statutory exemptions which are granted to individuals do not apply in the case of companies. The amounts of assessable income and taxable income are identical in the case of companies.

These statistics for companies have been compiled from returns for all companies, and are not estimates based on a sample survey.

The following table gives particulars of the number of companies and their aggregate assessable incomes for 1965-66 and the two preceding income years.

Amount of Assessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
1963-641964-651965-661963-641964-651965-66
*Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.
$$   $(000)$(000)$(000)
        0-1995,2315,6416,358296304336
      200-3992,1152,4902,759614712770
      400-5991,9242,0722,2079441,0081,070
      600-7991,6071,6691,8911,1241,1561,309
      800-9991,3711,5201,6181,2281,3641,450
    1,000-1,1991,4311,5121,5731,5581,6421,718
    1,200-1,3991,2301,2621,3621,5941,6341,762
    1,400-1,5991,0591,0531,2281,5841,5761,837
    1,600-1,7999109861,0431,5421,6721,767
    1,800-1,9998629059701,6341,7141,842
    2,000-3,9995,8376,1946,77616,73617,70019,378
    4,000-5,9992,7793,1713,36513,54815,47016,444
    6,000-7,9991,6451,7001,89611,31411,74813,088
    8,000-9,9999981,0781,0698,8789,5949,532
  10,000-11,9996376887936,9607,5028,661
  12,000-13,9994855725826,2807,3987,524
  14,000-15,9994113784206,1545,6426,252
  16,000-17,9992963043405,0265,1605,786
  18,000-19,9992312622804,3864,9485,309
  20,000-39,9991,1531,2581,31932,42635,16837,278
  40,000-59,99937943949418,35021,33424,041
  60,000-79,99922124025215,27816,68217,345
  80,000-99,99912313314910,91411,89613,310
100,000-199,99924929834034,59041,84247,462
200,000-399,99916318419345,52851,30652,646
400,000-599,99943576421,31227,41030,382
600,000-799,99928262418,44417,88616,420
800,000-999,99923161520,84014,15213,578
1,000,000-1,999,99934423347,07859,37845,805
2,000,000-3,999,99917181655,54063,28042,191
4,000,000 and over738,585
Current net loss8,1148,3498,630---
Assessable income before losses*3,1263,3613,632---
Totals44,73247,87851,698411,700458,278484,880

The item “assessable income before losses”, which appears in the preceding table and also in subsequent tables, requires a little further explanation. Companies, and also individuals, are permitted to offset losses for one particular source of assessable income against the profits from any other source of assessable income during the same income year. The remainder of the loss, if any, can be carried forward and offset against the assessable profits of the next six income years. This item represents the number of companies whose assessable incomes for the current year have been reduced to “nil” by the offsetting of losses incurred in previous income years.

In 1965-66, including those with “current net loss” and “assessable income before losses” about 64 percent of all companies had assessable incomes of under $2,000. Most of these companies are virtually owned and controlled by one person or are the equivalent of a small partnership. In such cases the managerial salaries paid to the proprietors are an important element in the total income drawn from the company by the proprietors.

After an increase of $46,578,000 in assessable income in 1964-65, there was a further increase of $26,602,000 in 1965-66.

In the following table the amount of assessable income of companies is classified for the 1965-66 income year.

Amount of Assessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
*Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.
$$$ (thousand)
        0-1996,3587683367,7776013922
      200-3992,7591,024770906-9854
      400-5992,2071,2311,0701,523-14277
      600-7991,8911,4391,3091,629-18495
      800-9991,6181,5401,4502,609-206105
    1,000-1,1991,5731,8121,7181,970-253125
    1,200-1,3991,3621,8351,7621,908-266129
    1,400-1,5991,2281,9261,8372,201-297135
    1,600-1,7991,0431,8981,7671,869-283131
    1,800-1,9999701,8891,8421,904243301136
    2,000-3,9996,77619,99619,37821,610113,6341,432
    4,000-5,9993,36516,58316,44416,954343,7481,222
    6,000-7,9991,89613,18113,08814,106-3,521969
    8,000-9,9991,0699,6269,53210,061-2,899706
    10,000-11,9997938,8268,6618,892-2,812638
    12,000-13,9995827,5517,5247,644-2,561559
    14,000-15,9994206,3236,2526,374-2,184462
    16,000-17,9993405,8735,7865,907-2,092429
    18,000-19,9992805,3595,3095,398-1,946391
    20,000-39,9991,31937,34737,27840,94417914,3482,740
    40,000-59,99949424,05924,04125,123-9,6231,768
    60,000-79,99925217,35417,34518,174-7,0621,274
    80,000-99,99914913,31113,31014,711-5,514987
  100,000-199,99934047,59947,46249,080-19,6543,450
  200,000-399,99919353,14152,64557,012-21,8793,849
  400,000-599,9996430,38230,38231,323-12,6642,146
  600,000-799,9992416,42016,42017,840-7,0491,230
  800,000-999,9991513,57813,57815,744-6,1011,018
1,000,000-1,999,9993345,80545,80547,646-18,7453,142
2,000,000-3,999,9991643,98442,19143,636-16,4012,584
4,000,000 and over738,58538,58539,203-14,7712,420
Net loss8,630--58226,138--
Assessable income before losses3,6329,526-142---
        Totals—1965-6651,698499,772484,880522,40126,665181,37634,427
1964-6547,878471,544458,278501,69823,522172,82832,814
1963-6444,732419,112411,700450,53422,434154,86829,458

Companies are classified by industry, the classification being identical with that used for individuals, with the minor exception that community services—professional—do not form a separate group. Attention is drawn to the remarks on page 807 regarding the difference between the enterprise and the establishment concepts. The statistics are based on the enterprise concept, i.e., the whole of the company's activities are classified according to the predominant activity. The figures in the next table give the results of this classification for the income years 1965-66.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
*Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.
 $ (thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production4,03912,10411,11211,2962,2273,122831
Forestry, hunting, and fishing23089679191521026259
Mining and quarrying3032,6142,4132,4322,617891181
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco87641,15439,36842,0092,95516,3532,950
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear97218,69118,41319,4688497,6261,380
    Metals and metal products3,33242,63540,46841,6091,66615,5533,035
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,15887,37384,42087,2872,36134,3966,328
Construction4,04621,35719,29819,5462,4976,4051,445
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services283653573572714127
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail15,789158,108155,693162,3805,39960,73311,666
    Other12,66287,34886,263107,8992,25926,8644,566
Transport, storage, and communication2,09212,81912,46612,6611,9604,378934
Services, community and business, and recreation4,17014,30713,81814,5411,6384,6501,027
Unknown or not stated1------
Totals—1965-6651,698499,772484,880522,40126,665181,37634,427
1964-6547,878471,544458,278501,69823,522172,82832,814
1963-6444,732419,112411,700450,53422,434154,86829,458

The principal sharers of the additions to the numbers of companies in 1965-66 were “commerce—other” (1,556) and “commerce—wholesale and retail trade” (630).

A large proportion of the companies in the “commerce—other” group were at one time actively engaged in some type of business operations but on the death or retirement of the principal shareholders the companies have become property holders receiving income from interest or rents. The farming community has also contributed a share of the increase in “commerce—other”. Many companies have been formed for the purpose of owning farming land and buildings, with the farmers owning and controlling the farming operations either as individuals or partnerships. An additional factor contributing to the increase in the numbers of companies in the “commerce—other” group is the formation of “own your own flat” companies.

Rates of Tax: Companies—For incomes received during the income year 1965-66 the rate of ordinary income tax payable by a company was 25c, increased by &1/120;c for every $2 of taxable income up to $7,200. Above $7,200 the rate was 85c in every $2. Social security income tax was levied at the rate of 1c in every 13&1/3;c of income and excess retention tax was levied at a flat rate of 70c in every $2 but not all companies were liable to pay these taxes. More information about taxation rates will be found in the section on taxation.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1965-66.

Industry GroupStocks at end of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and Gross RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterestRentDepreciation
*Gross profit not normally available.
 $ (thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production37,757112,0341,13529,05627,3714,5322,6276,92760,861
Forestry, hunting, and fishing69715,633462 3,9333615771,3945,310
Mining and quarrying1,75235,891222 12,2592886384,856*
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco111,5721,099,9843,435766,009115,0505,6383,90119,521173,519
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear61,495266,240888138,01566,7672,1233,6725,54564,563
    Metals and metal products103,011555,4982,328329,088112,6793,7175,56011,251122,720
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)150,247850,6854,803402,701169,5419,1018,75136,374235,304
Construction65,216435,7441,655232,582102,8092,6322,60110,43979,252
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,3067,222702,9642,137218105733,511
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail537,6683,620,23317,8622,860,917295,39719,11228,81634,207597,597
    Other8,852245,985196,5618,64866,91557,3094,2579,877*
Transport, storage, and communication2,173200,3801,22216,11264,9063,4072,28217,412*
Services, community and business and recreation10,093220,2473,00385,34559,5702,6995,4627,28747,679
Unknown or not stated---------
Totals—1965-661,091,8407,665,777233,6454,871,4361,099,335111,13869,155165,6641,390,317
1964-65976,8006,922,232203,7284,401,1041,000,34293,94060,536145,0721,250,608
1963-64902,1406,301,432177,9624,022,800906,61482,36053,262127,1681,119,556

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these two groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and Quarrying”, “Commerce, other” and “Transport, etc.”, there are a number of industries included in “Services, community” which do not show gross profit.

The assessable income, dividends, paid-up capital, and shareholders' funds for 1965-66 are given in the two following tables.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeDividends PaidShareholders' Funds
TotalPaid-up Capital
 $ (thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production4,03911,1124,133134,77964,595
Forestry, hunting, and fishing23079135312,8796,590
Mining and quarrying3032,41370447,8658,807
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco87639,36815,715299,623140,252
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles and footwear97218,4136,255100,54948,000
    Metals and metal products3,33240,46810,660186,08988,157
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,15884,42028,208457,378255,947
Construction4,04619,2985,39989,46938,166
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services283571616,1413,128
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail15,789155,69346,011887,551421,690
    Other12,66286,26325,600767,017400,170
Transport, storage, and communication2,09212,4664,197104,79358,431
Services, community and business, and recreation4,17013,8183,981107,92735,189
Unknown or not stated1----
Totals—1965-6651,698484,880151,3783,202,0611,569,121
1964-6547,878458,278187,3832,860,9781,425,655
1963-6444,732411,700139,6822,589,4761,260,934

In 1965-66 dividends paid were equal to 31.2 percent of the assessable income compared with 40.9 percent in 1964-65 and 33.9 percent in 1963-64.

Prior to 31 March 1965, a 1960 amendment to the Land and Income Tax Act, enabled a company to capitalise profits accumulated up to 31 March 1957 (or equivalent balance date) without incurring its shareholders, or the shareholders of a parent company, in a liability to dividend tax, the amount so capitalised as a bonus share issue, being treated as non-assessable income in the hands of the shareholders for rate purposes only. The fact that this concession was lost after 31 March 1965 had a substantial influence on the number of such issues made in the 1964-65 income year. This is reflected in the large increase in the amount of dividends paid and in the increase in paid-up capital in that year.

For the purposes of these statistics, the shareholders funds of a company are defined, briefly, as the amount which would be available to shareholders if the assets were realised and the liabilities discharged at the net values shown in the balance sheet. In the case of New Zealand branches of overseas companies, either the paid-up capital and the shareholders' funds are apportioned on some equitable basis, or the balance of the branch's head office account is taken. The capital loan liabilities of those Government Departments which are included in these statistics have been omitted from both paid-up capital and shareholders' funds. Advances from shareholders have been added to shareholders' funds and advances to shareholders deducted.

An analysis of companies by amount of paid-up capital for 1965-66 discloses the position shown in the next table. Those with no paid-up capital are mostly industrial and provident societies, clubs, associations, and similar incorporated bodies.

Amount of Paid-up CapitalNumber of ReturnsPaid-up CapitalShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
 $ (thousand)
$$    
Nil3,806-111,261796
        1-9993,3341,18536,4382,456
      1,000-1,9994,0804,80932,0031,931
      2,000-3,9999,61822,860111,6435,506
      4,000-5,9997,06830,88391,0315,067
      6,000-7,9994,28627,11667,4103,441
      8,000-9,9992,74022,91850,9922,710
    10,000-11,9993,05131,07979,7933,839
    12,000-13,9991,69320,86244,2372,388
    14,000-15,9991,12416,35333,2501,680
    16,000-17,99996715,80933,1381,725
    18,000-19,99969012,75423,4941,269
    20,000-39,9994,788120,514256,54412,270
    40,000-59,9991,59073,081138,8196,147
    60,000-79,99973948,55192,9754,969
    80,000-99,99938132,86959,1473,068
  100,000-119,99930331,59464,0663,525
  120,000-139,99917722,20348,1862,197
  140,000-159,99912618,52025,0931,724
  160,000-179,9999115,09132,1461,598
  180,000-199,999519,55718,625773
  200,000-399,999490128,099261,57415,568
  400,000-599,99914868,751131,3826,277
  600,000-799,9998255,01188,8894,519
  800,000-999,9994337,54463,1343,234
1,000,000-1,199,9994042,41167,8443,523
1,200,000-1,399,9992227,46143,0051,319
1,400,000-1,599,9992537,15161,5353,090
1,600,000-1,799,9992134,50861,3251,851
1,800,000-1,999,9991120,51445,3982,464
2,000,000-3,999,99968183,209346,94713,767
4,000,000 and over45355,855580,73726,686
Totals—1965-6651,6981,569,1213,202,061151,378
1964-6547,8781,425,6552,860,978187,383
1963-6444,7321,260,9342,589,476139,682

In 1965-66 there were 995 companies with paid-up capital of $200,000 and over. Corresponding figures for 1964-65 and 1963-64 were respectively 910 and 814. These companies had 63.1 percent of the total paid-up capital and 54.7 percent of the total share-holders' funds.

The number of companies increased by 8.0 percent in 1965-66 and paid-up capital rose by 10.1 percent. The same percentages for 1964-65 were respectively 7.0 percent and 13.0 percent.

An analysis by the type of company—i.e., private, public, overseas, etc.—is given in the three following tables, which present some of the principal data for the year 1965-66.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeOrdinary and Social Security Income TaxNet Business LossShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
Paid-up CapitalTotal
New Zealand Private Companies
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture and livestock production4,02210,8773,8362,21862,354132,0004,072
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2166902751974,4559,877291
Mining and quarrying2791,6406942444,88742,495443
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco65616,0837,7101,76941,74989,5615,435
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear91911,4775,30362721,24648,9173,629
    Metals and metal products3,26032,52814,6291,63262,220140,7378,306
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)2,91041,38019,1691,98178,420178,99511,976
Construction4,02518,2757,3381,95034,27182,6785,036
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1840153371767
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail15,33099,92144,3134,952242,634515,07727,541
    Other11,23121,5747,5681,511205,694370,50115,159
Transport, storage, and communication1,9619,1323,6911,33432,84663,1352,842
Services (community, business, and recreation)3,13710,1334,1131,01828,74357,6813,329
Unknown or not stated1------
Totals—1965-6647,965273,750118,65319,439819,5571,731,83288,066
1964-6544,490262,210114,88619,002758,4761,558,208128,590
1963-6441,686234,654101,44617,950658,6181,398,63886,126
New Zealand Public Companies
Agriculture and livestock production12713098951,28945
Forestry, hunting, and fishing348684222,0094,8917,959323
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco25828,61014,4251,406116,862245,31112,886
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear
    Metals and metal products607,1193,5252323,46841,8822,320
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)19739,35819,632141172,961266,76115,866
Construction147543683703,8536,382271
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services10317153233,0905,965154
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail29438,91519,452268160,475295,83713,402
    Other34729,62313,255108157,147293,9669,670
Transport, storage, and communication1162,8231,37062525,05140,8661,255
Services (community, business, and recreation)532,1691,0643556,36623,791647
Unknown or not stated-------
Totals—1965-661,395150,62773,6975,337675,0591,230,00956,839
1964-651,372139,63267,5162,594592,6441,070,74252,912
1963-641,383127,73061,7503,434535,416975,83848,330
Remainder of Companies (Overseas, Industrial, and Provident Societies, etc.)
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture and livestock production9170903752,5101,90316
Forestry, hunting, and fishing
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles151,61087128,39516,38220
    Metals and metal products12821434112,4693,47134
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous513,6821,9232394,56611,622366
Construction72691441784240992
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services-------
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail16516,8578,63418018,58076,6375,068
    Other1,08435,06610,60763937,329102,550771
Transport, storage, and communication155112511533792100
Services (community, business, and recreation)9801,5165002648026,4586
Unknown or not stated-------
Totals—1965-662,33860,50323,4531,88974,505240,2236,473
1964-652,01656,43623,2401,92674,536232,0285,882
1963-641,66349,31421,1301,05066,900214,9975,226

Government Departments which are liable for income tax have been classified as New Zealand public companies. In a percentage of cases, precise information concerning the type of company was not available and there consequently may be some instances of incorrect classifications.

The numbers of public companies have shown little change in recent years. The most noticeable change is a drop in the numbers of companies in the food, beverages and tobacco group, which is due to the merging of co-operative dairy companies to form larger companies. The increase in the numbers in the table dealing with the remainder of companies is mainly due to those companies now assessable for non-resident withholding tax. The greatest part of the large annual increase in the number of companies is concentrated in the New Zealand private companies. This does not mean that overseas companies are no longer venturing into the New Zealand field. Most of the overseas companies now doing this are establishing a subsidiary company, usually registered as a New Zealand private company, instead of setting up a New Zealand branch of the overseas company. On average, private companies are much smaller than are public companies, but in the aggregate they employ a larger amount of paid-up capital. Their shareholders' funds are also a rather higher percentage of the paid-up capital (211.3 percent against 182.2 percent for public companies). However, as shareholders' funds include advances from shareholders ($336,812,000), the bulk of which relate to private companies, it is evident that the relation of retained income to paid-up capital is nearly identical for both types of companies. The earning power per unit of shareholders' funds employed is considerably higher in the case of private companies, since their assessable incomes are 15.8 percent of shareholders' funds against the 12.2 percent for public companies.

While on the subject of dividends paid, it should be pointed out that the disposable profits of the New Zealand branches of overseas companies are remitted to their overseas head offices and that these disposable profits are not included as dividends paid in New Zealand. Where the overseas company operates through a New Zealand subsidiary company, the New Zealand company is classified as either public or private and any dividends paid will be included in the statistics.

BALANCE DATE OF COMPANIES—A classification of companies by the month in which the balance date fell was made for the income year 1964-65. As the results could be of some general interest, the table below shows for each industry group the number of companies by month of balance date. More complete descriptions of the industry groups will be found in earlier tables.

Industry GroupJanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember
Agriculture21192,101382221,3766828211041724
Forestry721812511233725
Mining64232331055414116
Manufacturing—
    Food25134472085107252129491045
    Textiles4322636122359421112372154
    Wood55592,345404817542405910630159
    Metals56582,7422941115412128913179
Construction51403,62392147211622883573
Electricity--181-21-2--4
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail41371311,724209294721391249197405157316
    Other1841889,932109153806195134190301116354
Transport37281,6171625128313138593250
Services63843,0176093228105739412047186
Unknown--1---------
Totals9611,23038,6165481,0133,7859696326991,3814991,365

CENSUS 1966: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the population census taken on 22 March 1966.

The table divides into income groups the persons actively engaged, and also the total population, including those not actively engaged in employment.

The questionnaire on the schedule asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1966 from all sources without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social security benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively EngagedTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
$$      
Nil4,8544,4249,278532,777913,1101,445,887
      1-1996,50610,18216,68824,55554,97079,525
    200-59914,15829,59143,74930,19578,628108,823
    600-99934,07965,61399,69244,30986,134130,443
1,000-1,39946,14777,015123,16252,83787,542140,379
1,400-1,79998,25547,985146,240103,59054,152157,742
1,800-2,199154,56822,880177,448158,75726,978185,735
2,200-2,599141,2389,351150,589143,92411,788155,712
2,600-2,99982,0504,17586,22583,6675,42489,091
3,000-3,99978,0763,14681,22280,1364,67184,807
4,000-4,99931,6611,07932,74032,7351,91634,651
5,000-5,99914,60144215,04315,08382615,909
6,000-6,99910,62027910,89910,96556811,533
7,000-7,9995,5351205,6555,7232555,978
8,000 and over15,53429915,83316,02568216,707
Not specified7,7133,86311,5768,4655,53213,997
Totals745,595280,4441,026,0391,343,7431,333,1762,676,919

There would also be, in the smaller income group, considerable numbers of people who began work towards the end of the year 1965-66.

The largest income group for males actively engaged was the $1,800 to $2,199 group, with 154,568, or 20.9 percent of those males actively engaged. This was followed closely by the $2,200 to $2,599 group with 141,238, or 19.1 percent. The actively engaged males with incomes of $8,000 and over numbered 15,534, or 2.1 percent.

The largest income group for actively engaged females was the $1,000 to $1,399 group with 77,015 persons constituting 27.8 percent of all actively engaged females. There were only 299, or 0.1 percent, of actively engaged females with incomes of $8,000 and over.

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made for the second time from the information collected at the census of population in 1966. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $200 or more a year, excluding social security benefits, universal superannuation, and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of OccupantsNumber of Households with—Total Dwellings
No Income Earners1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or more Income Earners
132,61056,774----89,384
226,22479,03772,269---177,530
35,24053,27342,64020,073--121,226
43,03966,25334,56917,5217,577-128,959
51,90750,04524,12211,2225,2101,78194,287
696528,47413,6936,5683,1251,56454,389
756212,6166,4883,4931,73693125,826
83155,6372,9311,76894058912,180
91732,7071,4849015093366,110
10981,2717244412712733,078
11635813612571471351,544
123425220212293102805
131110992714650379
1474753392737210
15 and over42647293061197
Totals71,252357,102199,67562,50519,7115,859716,104

Chapter 29. Section 29 BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and five commercial or trading banks. There are also 13 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has had a private savings bank since 1 October 1964. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. An expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) has been a feature in recent years in New Zealand as in many other countries. This is discussed in detail in an article on Banks and Near-Banks in the September 1965 issue of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bulletin and articles in issues of the Bulletin give the results of statistical surveys of finance companies carried out by the Reserve Bank in recent years. Report No. 10 of the Monetary and Economic Council, The New Zealand Financial System, published in March 1966, presents a comprehensive description of the financial and credit system; it covers mainly the period 1955 to 1966.

Reserve Bank—The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 provides the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provides the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action within, and to some extent outside, the conventional banking system as may be appropriate to the times.

Section 8 is the most important section in the Act. It restates the primary functions of the Bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. “The primary functions of the Bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and overseas exchange; and

    3. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the Bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. “For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the Bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production, trade, and employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. “The Bank may, on behalf of the Government, regulate and control—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, credit, and currency;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.”

Whilst the Bank must give effect to Government monetary policy or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the Bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the Bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the Bank, and the Bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The Bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the Bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the Bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the Bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The Bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. In December 1968 an amendment to the Act gave the Minister of Finance the right, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund.

In recognition of the fact that the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, the description of its duty “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves” the Bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects, and of the level of overseas exchange reserves it regards as adequate. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, particularly in the event of the eventual abolition of exchange control, the Bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive permissive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in this Part. There are adequate powers for control of take-overs in New Zealand by overseas interests, and for control over overseas companies commencing business in New Zealand and control of capital issues.

Since the passing of the 1964 Act, regulations have been promulgated for the control of (a) overseas remuneration received by New Zealand residents for services rendered to non-residents (subsequently included in the Exchange Control Regulation 1965); (b) control of company takeovers by overseas residents; (c) capital issues by overseas companies in New Zealand or issues overseas by New Zealand companies; (d) capital issues by finance companies.

Regulations of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets, separating demand and time deposits by customers from other demand and time liabilities. This facilitates the operation of the reserve ratio procedure. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining of such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

There is complete flexibility, subject to the approval of the Minister, in the application of reserve ratios or assets ratios. The trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of a specified kind including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets. Under earlier legislation, the minimum requirements could not be reduced below 7 percent of demand plus 3 percent of time liabilities; there is now no minimum. In actual operation, however, the required balances are, on average, much higher than the previous minimum, but seasonal swings make it desirable to have complete flexibility.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

To enable the Reserve Bank to obtain information on the activities of the “fringe-banking” institutions and exercise some degree of control over their activities, the Bank is authorised to request any person or class of persons who, as a substantial part of their New Zealand business, accept deposits or carry on any banking business, or grant credit or make loans for the financing of industry, trade, or commerce, to supply information concerning such business. With the prior authority of the Minister of Finance, the Bank may, by notice in the Gazette, require such information to be supplied. The Bank may also make recommendations to them in respect of the policy to be followed in respect of such business. Statistics collected were presented in an article in the June 1966 issue of the Bank's Bulletin, and now appear regularly in the Bulletin.

The net profits of the Bank are normally paid to the Consolidated Revenue Account, after certain provisions have been met. However, although the net profit for the year ended 31 March 1968 was $3,860,644, none of this amount was paid to the Consolidated Revenue Account as it was required to partially offset a $4.5 million increase in the New Zealand currency value of the Bank's net non-sterling liabilities as a result of the November 1967 devaluation of the New Zealand dollar.

Prior to the Reserve Bank Amendment 1968, the Government indemnified the bank only in respect of changes in the basic exchange rate for sterling and, because in November 1967 the Bank's non-sterling liabilities exceeded its non-sterling assets, the increase in the New Zealand currency value of the net non-sterling liabilities due to the sterling devaluation against these other currencies had to be met by the Bank. In the 1968 Amendment to the Act the Government indemnified the Bank against changes in the exchange rates for the currencies of all members of the International Monetary Fund and of certain other non-member countries specified by the Minister of Finance.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Initially the Reserve Bank, as established by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933, was a privately owned institution with a share capital widely held throughout New Zealand. Of the seven full directors other than the Governor and Deputy Governor, three only were appointed by the Governor-General. The Secretary to the Treasury, although a member of the Board, did not have the right to vote. The Bank was therefore to a large extent independent of the Government, but the original Act required it, as its primary duty, to exercise control over monetary circulation and credit to the end that the economic welfare of the Dominion might be promoted and maintained.

Considerable care was taken to see that the Bank was free from political interference. The first Governor of the Bank made it clear, however, that the Board of the Bank accepted the view that the ultimate responsibility for the monetary policy of New Zealand must rest with the Government of the day. The Board, nevertheless, held it was the duty of the Bank to tender to the Government impartial advice on monetary and financial matters, and to exercise its own judgment in carrying out those functions entrusted to it.

The business of the Bank was strictly defined, however, and the 1933 Act laid down limitations designed to ensure that the Bank did not become an easy source of credit for the community, or a source of inflationary finance for the Government. The Bank was given power to determine the exchange rates at which it bought and sold sterling, was required to be prepared at all times to sell sterling at the rates so fixed, and was also required to hold overseas exchange reserves equivalent to at least 25 percent of its notes and other demand liabilities. In addition, the trading banks were deprived of the right to issue notes and were required to hold minimum balances with the Reserve Bank.

Through this 1933 legislation, Parliament substantially increased its control over the monetary affairs of the country, and set up a national institution, with the sole right of note issue, to manage the currency. The legislation was the culmination of proposals, ranging back to 1886 that a central bank, or a State trading bank, should be set up in New Zealand.

In 1936 the Bank became a State-owned institution, the whole of the Board being appointed by the Government, and the Secretary to the Treasury was given the right to vote at Board meetings. Its general function was changed to that of giving effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to it by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and the promotion of economic and social welfare, the Bank was still required to regulate and control currency and credit, but was also empowered to control the transfer of money to and from New Zealand, and the disposal of export proceeds. Power was taken to suspend the Bank's duty to sell sterling on demand and to make regulations, when needed, to implement these limited exchange control powers.

In 1936 also, some of the restraints on Reserve Bank lending were relaxed, but the ability of the Reserve Bank to influence monetary conditions was greatly enhanced by empowering the Governor of the Bank, with the authority of the Minister of Finance, to vary the minimum balances that the trading banks were required to hold at the Reserve Bank. In the same year, the Reserve Bank became Registrar of Government Stock.

In 1939 the Government's authority was reinforced by adding a requirement for the Bank to have regard to any representations made by the Minister in respect of any functions or business of the Bank, and to give effect to any decision of the Government in relation thereto conveyed to the Governor in writing. The Minister of Finance was given power to suspend indefinitely the duty of the Bank to hold overseas reserves equal to not less than 25 percent of its demand liabilities, which could previously be suspended for short periods only.

In 1950 the 1939 amendment relating to representations by the Minister and decisions of the Government in respect of the functions and business of the Bank was repealed. A new requirement—to give effect to any resolution of Parliament in respect of the Bank's functions or business—was substituted, this change being designed to restore to the Bank a degree of independence, while still requiring it ultimately to carry out Government policy. The duty of the Bank to hold overseas reserves was changed to a duty to hold reserves which the Board considered would provide a reasonable margin for contingencies. A further change in 1950 was to add to the criteria for monetary action the safeguarding of a stable internal price level and the promotion of the highest degree of production, trade, and employment that could be achieved by monetary action.

Towards the end of 1960, an amending Act removed the reference to a resolution of Parliament, reinserted the 1939 requirement regarding representations by the Minister and decisions of the Government, and recast, without significant change, the criteria for monetary policy. It declared the sovereign right of the Crown to control currency and credit, and introduced wide general powers for the Bank, on behalf of the Government, to regulate and control “money, banking, credit, and currency” and interest rates, together with specific power to give directions to the trading banks. The existing right of the Bank to determine overseas exchange rates was made subject to a prior right for the Minister of Finance, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the basic rate of exchange with sterling.

Discount Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the Bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum balances which they are required to deposit with the Bank, and the rate at which the Bank lends to short-term money market dealers.

So far the Reserve Bank's discount rate has applied mainly to transactions with trading banks and the short-term money market dealers. The discount rate therefore is mainly used as a supplement to the reserve ratio system as an aid to regulating bank credit. When a trading bank is short of cash—that is, when its balance at the Reserve Bank is approaching or below statutory minimum—it may borrow from another bank either in New Zealand or London, or it may sell sterling to the Reserve Bank. The most likely and normal procedure, however, is to borrow from the Reserve Bank. For this money it pays a rate of interest related to the bank's discount rate. If the trading banks have a safe margin of free cash there would be no need for them to borrow from the Reserve Bank and the discount rate would then be a formality (though it has some psychological impact); but when this margin is small the discount rate acquires a much greater significance.

The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State and to marketing organisations, these being made at 1 percent from 22 February 1946. Advances to the State may be in the form of Treasury bills, overdrafts, or 1 percent Government stock. During the financial year 1959-60 the Bank's holdings of Treasury bills were exchanged for 1 percent stock and short-term borrowing is now by overdraft or Treasury bills and longer-term borrowing by 1 percent stock.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest five years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK

YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther Liabilities*Total Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
*Includes General Reserve Fund of $3,000,000 throughout the period.
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1958152.524.21.4115.02.223.0318.2
1959154.123.21.0124.62.424.2329.5
1960163.022.21.6175.92.621.4386.7
1961168.930.44.1132.53.420.9360.2
1962167.833.25.2148.64.020.6380.0
1963169.636.23.0141.84.419.9374.9
1964166.636.82.6138.84.620.6370.0
1965166.035.62.698.212.221.6336.2
1966164.334.03.866.556.430.1355.1
1967163.834.73.039.1106.746.2393.5
1968162.151.15.035.4102.648.3404.5
At End of June
1964159.338.22.0166.04.517.2387.2
1965160.138.31.5109.85.518.0333.1
1966158.437.93.060.058.517.8335.6
1967147.239.13.228.8117.648.6384.5
1968155.270.64.715.683.750.4380.2

ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK

YearOverseas AssetsInvestments in New ZealandAdvances in New ZealandAll Other Assets in New Zealand
GoldShort-termInvestmentsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
$ (million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19630.480.741.6140.435.669.83.62.5
19640.477.046.0125.051.462.24.23.8
19650.457.647.679.254.078.413.25.2
19660.252.631.271.676.3103.014.46.0
19670.471.116.170.784.0113.825.911.5
19680.7108.624.261.545.4139.17.617.5
At End of June
19640.5105.648.7121.218.972.016.93.4
19650.580.549.167.220.091.914.49.5
19660.154.526.476.541.1114.613.98.5
19670.683.54.078.370.3123.812.211.8
19681.2121.628.057.20.2148.96.716.5

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders and their shares are traded on the stock exchanges. New Zealand has a branch banking system with more than 1,000 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the law relating to cheques on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on a “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque and for this reason are not included in statistics of money supply. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The number of current accounts (creditor and debtor) on the banks' books is approximately 700,000. The fundamental principle of bank lending is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements, and to avoid tying up available resources in fixed or long-term finance. The major form of bank lending to customers is by way of overdraft.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, including ordinary accounts, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are five trading banks in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand, although the National Bank is domiciled in the United Kingdom. The other three banks—the Australia and New Zealand Bank, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia—which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, etc., than the two New Zealand banks, but the New Zealand banks' advances are about 55 percent of total advances. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1968 it had 191 branches and 228 agencies in New Zealand, and overseas branches in London, Australia, and Fiji. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. A finance company promoted by the bank commenced operations on 1 April 1966.

Gross profits of the Bank of New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1968 totalled $19.4 million giving a net profit of $1.85 million. Comparable figures for the previous year were $17.7 million and $1.98 million. The total assets amounted to $438.5 million. Among the main items were loans and advances to customers ($234.2 million); securities of, or guaranteed by, the New Zealand Government ($39.9 million); remittances in transit between branches ($50.6 million); and cash in hand and deposits with bankers, $32.2 million. Bank properties and equipment were valued at $17.4 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits, at $344.9 million. The paid-up capital remained unaltered at $12.7 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest five calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*

YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime
Wool RetentionOther
*Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.
$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
1964618.110.4101.213.918.2761.8
1965623.48.3105.628.212.3777.8
1966615.33.9121.331.88.2780.5
1967599.60.7132.339.110.3782.0
1968593.9-151.727.411.6784.6
At end of June
1964624.212.9100.120.519.0776.9
1965644.78.495.823.312.8785.2
1966618.94.3116.521.58.2769.4
1967591.20.7127.720.613.5753.7
1968590.9-144.825.916.3777.9

SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS

YearCoin and BullionReserve Bank NotesBalances Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsSecurities HeldAdvances and Discounts*Land, Buildings, etc.Total Selected Assets
*Excludes inter-bank borrowing, but includes term loans and export finance.
$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19582.828.0121.144.847.1343.814.5602.1
19592.928.5129.651.247.0332.815.9607.8
19602.931.6178.053.946.8352.017.3682.5
19613.033.1134.447.146.6428.518.7711.5
19623.234.6154.744.946.4393.520.3697.5
19633.236.4147.453.946.2396.221.5704.9
19643.436.6148.162.946.2430.923.8751.9
19653.438.0103.747.653.3484.026.7756.7
19663.239.472.041.864.7503.030.2754.3
19674.845.346.539.772.3513.533.2755.3
19684.140.035.862.184.2515.433.3774.9
At End of June
19643.332.3166.067.246.1437.323.5775.7
19653.336.4109.844.247.0493.626.1760.4
19663.037.960.050.962.3512.728.8755.6
19672.836.728.837.972.5526.632.4737.7
19683.839.115.676.384.7521.132.7773.3

Deposits and Advances—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the last 11 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing InterestBearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

*Including Government deposits.

†Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department.

‡Includes certain current accounts, operated by non-profit organisations, for which interest is payable on monthly minimum balances; these accounts were subsequently included in “deposits bearing interest” column.

 $(m)$$(m)percent
1958464.884.3558.1244.20350.862.9
1959449.8106.9566.7242.80340.260.0
1960505.9129.8647.8272.50355.554.9
1961501.2138.8652.0268.60434.966.7
1962493.1143.1646.7260.00400.960.3
1963518.3147.6676.5266.00403.859.7
1964567.3146.8724.8279.00439.960.7
1965565.3152.6729.9276.00493.367.6
1966549.1170.4731.8272.30513.470.2
1967539.6181.9721.5264.30527.573.1
1968536.6203.3739.9268.40522.070.6

Since 1955 credit restraint policies have tended to limit advances, although in 1958 lower export prices, an increased level of stocks (through higher imports), and an increased use of credit in New Zealand to finance meat exports combined to expand average advances. In 1959 the demand for advances fell as a result of slack economic conditions and this, in conjunction with higher farm incomes and the reversal of the above-mentioned trend in meat export financing, caused the average of advances to fall. In 1960 advances rose again, the main factor being inflationary economic conditions with a general expansion of expenditures, coupled with a high rate of importing and some increase in meat export finance. During 1961 efforts were made to check the sudden rise in bank advances, without however forcing the liquidation of stocks. The reserve ratios were adjusted, forcing the banks to borrow from the Reserve Bank continuously. The tighter credit policy was continued during 1962 and 1963. In March 1964 there was a marked upsurge in bank advances associated with a higher than usual tax flow and higher seasonal demands by export industries. The increase in activity was financed from more intensive use of the community's liquid resources. A moderated higher level continued during 1964. In March 1965 advances again rose markedly for the same reasons as in 1964 and thereafter they fell only very slowly. The reserve ratios were raised to force the banks to borrow heavily from the Reserve Bank for the rest of the year until advances moved down towards the targets established. In 1966 the increase in advances was associated mainly with farm development and financing exports. This increase in advances continued in the first half of 1967, but the adoption of tighter credit and fiscal policies in February and May 1967 led to a decline in advances which became particularly noticeable towards the end of the year when trading bank lending actually fell to levels below those of 1966.

The low level of advances continued to June 1968 when, following the upturn in the economy, advances overtook 1966 and later 1967 levels. In October 1968, following further increases, the reserve ratios were raised thus forcing the banks to borrow from the Reserve Bank. This policy was still operating at the end of 1968.

Interest rates on trading banks advances are given in the following table—

Rate ChargedPercentage of Total Advances at Each Rate
At 31 March 1966At 31 March 1967At 31 March 1968
Less than 51/2 percent41.79.54.6
51/2 percent and less than 6 percent16.337.640.3
6 percent and less than 61/2 percent16.718.916.0
61/2 percent and less than 7 percent15.618.921.4
7 percent and over9.715.117.7

The weighted average rate of interest for the six months ended 31 March rose from 5.94 percent in 1967 to 6.06 percent in 1968.

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the foregoing table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

Figure 29.1. TRADING BANKS - DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES

TRADING BANKS - DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES

An analysis of demand deposits in New Zealand trading banks as at 13 November 1968 gave the following percentages, for the different sectors: farming, forestry, hunting and fishing, 12.7 percent; manufacturing, 8.0 percent; construction, 4.2 percent; electricity, transport, local authorities, etc., 3.9 percent; commerce, trade finance, 15.4 percent; services, 25.5 percent; personal, 30.4 percent.

An analysis of advances of the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group Receiving Advances10 March 19659 March 19668 March 196713 March 196812 March 1969
*Amended figures.
BUSINESS AND FARMING ADVANCES$(million)
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—
    (a) Mainly dairy farming23.222.823.123.4*26.2
    (b) Mainly sheep farming26.330.335.633.9*33.3
    (c) Other farming9.19.010.212.6*15.3
    (d) Farm services2.12.12.22.4*2.4
    (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing1.41.41.82.6*2.3
            Subtotals62.265.672.974.9*79.4
2. Mining and quarrying1.01.01.01.20.9
3. Manufacturing—
    (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.2.84.07.98.310.2
    (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.72.164.465.987.288.5
    (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco14.311.411.211.913.3
    (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing21.522.020.016.718.1
    (e) Pulp and paper and paper products4.42.52.64.15.1
    (f) Metal products, machinery and engineering18.121.219.421.027.9
    (g) Transport equipment8.811.011.29.58.0
    (h) Other manufacturing26.827.229.029.935.3
            Subtotals169.0163.6167.3188.5206.3
4. Construction25.221.621.419.2x23.3
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1.62.02.71.11.3
6. Transport, storage and communication9.29.010.79.611.7
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—
    (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers25.127.625.526.228.7
    (b) Wholesalers, other13.012.813.812.514.1
    (c) Retailers39.539.937.635.138.8
    (d) Woolbuyers20.824.420.623.836.1
    (e) Stock and station agents14.325.724.712.814.2
    (f) Finance companies (mainly hire purchase)3.93.53.22.62.8
    (g) Other financial institutions8.010.810.513.59.8
            Subtotals124.6144.7135.8126.4144.4
8. Local authorities n.e.i.1.92.12.21.62.3
9. Services21.522.122.022.326.8
PERSONAL ADVANCES     
10. (a) For housing purposes22.320.521.119.119.4
    (b) Other personal advances33.330.731.329.3x36.3
            Subtotals55.551.252.348.4x55.8
            Total advances471.7482.8488.5493.2552.2

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last three years.

Figure 29.2. TRADING BANKS - CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES

TRADING BANKS - CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES

Advance Control PolicyQualitative—An instrument of credit control used by the Reserve Bank since 1942 was a selective control of bank advances which sought to restrict the availability of credit to certain kinds of borrowers for certain purposes. On the whole the application of the rules prescribed by the Reserve Bank was left to the trading banks themselves, with only marginal cases referred to the Reserve Bank for decision. The main emphasis throughout was on avoidance of the use of bank credit for long-term capital purposes, hire-purchase finance, speculation, and the financing of excessive imports. As from 1 January 1963, the operation and administration of qualitative control was handed back to the trading banks without, however, any relaxation.

Quantitative—The advance control policy outlined above was supplemented in 1952 by the quantitative control of advances and reliance was placed mainly on the quantitative method of control through the reserve ratio procedure and discount rate policy. The minimum balances the trading banks were required to maintain at the Reserve Bank were adjusted from time to time through the reserve ratio procedure and the discount rate so as to reduce the margin of free cash (balances in excess of the minimum required) held by the trading banks from time to time through the reserve ratio procedure and the discount rate. Since 1957 a flexible policy of control has been followed. The aim generally has been to allow for a small growth in advances. Quarterly targets for bank advances were used generally from 1962 on, but from 1966 targets were established on a two-monthly basis. If these targets are met, banks are allowed small margins of free cash, the reserve ratios being changed as often as necessary to achieve this. If the targets are exceeded the ratios are raised sufficiently to ensure that the banks are required to borrow from the Reserve Bank. Generally, some small growth has been permitted in the targets for advances, particularly in the export field. Targets are now set for farming and export advances and for “other advances” on a differential basis. From 1966 targets were also set for total credit limits and, on 4 May 1967, the Minister of Finance announced that total credit limits were to be cut by 10 percent by July 1967, although some flexibility would be permitted to ensure that farming and other essential industries continued to receive adequate finance, especially for exports.

Debits—The following table shows weekly averages of bank debits to customers' accounts.

YearDebits Other Than GovernmentGovernment Debits
 $(million)
1958207.626.6
1959210.229.0
1960241.632.0
1961257.433.6
1962257.431.6
1963301.833.4
1964355.639.6
1965385.642.8
1966406.942.7
1967429.237.1
1968459.525.7

In the financial year 1967-68, the number of transactions debited to trading banks customers' accounts totalled 118 million, compared with 121 million in 1965-66 and 117 million in 1966-67. There are now over 800,000 cheque accounts in trading banks.

Unexercised Overdraft Authorities—The following are the averages for calendar years and the amounts at the end of June of aggregate unexercised overdraft authorities of the trading banks.

YearAverage for Calendar YearAt End of June
 $(million)
1958211.4205.6
1959234.6233.4
1960262.6262.0
1961246.6248.6
1962263.8263.0
1963295.8281.6
1964338.6315.8
1965339.8325.6
1966326.7317.4
1967305.9272.3
1968293.3284.3

MONETARY POLICY—Up to 1962 the financial system functioned under the restraint of a capital issues control, an interest on deposits order, and tax laws unfavourable to the raising of capital by convertible note issues. Capital issues control curbed the supply and the issue price of financial assets available to the community, while the interest on deposits orders prescribed maximum rates of interest that might be paid on various types of deposits. Thus, over the years prior to 1962 the community's preferences for financial assets could be expressed only in a tightly controlled market and these preferences were distorted. The removal in 1962 of the capital issues control and the interest on deposits order, and a change in the tax laws affecting issues of convertible notes were quickly followed by an expansion in the supply of liquid assets and the demand for them. Interest rates on deposits outside the remaining controlled area rose sharply and keen competition developed among the various financial institutions. Finance companies, which were particularly affected by the operation of capital issues control, offered deposit facilities at attractive rates of interest and with limited transferable rights attached to them. Trading companies developed forms of market instruments relatively new to New Zealand, such as short-dated debenture and mortgage stocks. In 1964 these expanding market influences were greatly strengthened by the commencement of the private savings banks and the extension of the trustee savings banks to the whole of New Zealand. This was a new powerful factor in the monetary scene. The supply of liquid assets again rose sharply. No doubt much of this movement after 1962 was the expression of the public's preferences which had been artificially curbed for many years, in association with the growth of new institutions and financial practices.

The main emphasis on credit restraint is directed to the limitation of bank credit but in August 1965 the Minister of Finance announced special measures to curb the level of spending in the community by further reducing the flow of credit to the private sector. Agreement was reached with the larger trustee savings banks, the private savings banks and insurance companies, that they would increase the ratio of their purchases of Government securities to those of other assets. (In addition, certain groups of financial institutions which engage in financing hire purchase transactions or make credit available for extended periods, agreed to take up, in quarterly instalments, Government securities equivalent to 71/2 percent of their new lending.)

In September 1966 finance companies agreed to take up additional amounts of Government securities. At the same time the credit restraint was extended to include most credit financing except normal retail store monthly accounts. The insurance companies agreed to take up additional amounts of Government securities and to increase their rate of lending to the farming sector.

On 11 February 1967 the voluntary credit restraints applicable to finance companies were superseded by regulations controlling the capital issues of finance companies. Since this date any company wishing to raise money for the purpose of carrying on the business of a finance company must first obtain the consent of the Minister of Finance. Banks, building societies, and authorised dealers on the short-term market, and for borrowing not exceeding $2,000 in any period of 12 months, were exempt from the regulations. Initially policy was to grant no approvals to increase the volume of funds employed by finance companies. From 26 June 1969 the capital issues control on finance companies was abolished.

SMALL SAVINGS—While the main repositories for small savings in this country are the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks, there are a number of other financial institutions such as building and investment societies, stock and station agents, and finance companies, competing with them for deposits. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the five trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by eight new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the five trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in small savings accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee savings banks, also National Savings accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds and School Savings Bank accounts. From 1965 private savings banks are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.

†Excludes $612,000 transferred to Western Samoa.

‡Excludes $918,000 Cook Islands Savings Bank balances from 1 April 1967.

$(million)
1959374.022.2386.69.7766.7
1960418.522.7394.546.7813.4
1961487.824.4450.262.0875.4
1962508.025.7500.533.3908.1
1963559.927.2530.656.5964.6
1964672.429.6616.285.81,050.4
1965836.932.1744.7124.21,174.6
1966993.535.7905.7123.51,298.1
19671,102.139.31,044.597.01,395.1
19681,136.843.61,095.285.21,479,4
19691,244.048.11,201.690.51,569.9

In the following table the 3.8 million accounts in the three types of savings banks are classified by amount groups It will be noted that over two-thirds of the accounts have balances of less than $200.

Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1968. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October.

SAVING BANK ACCOUNTS BY AMOUNT GROUPS

BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of totalNumber of AccountsPercentage of totalNumber of AccountsPercentage of total
 No. No. No. 
Under $2331,80814.2174,14117.561,66112.5
$2-$1991,400,80659.8509,30051.1230,91446.8
$200-$999375,82216.0195,28119.6109,21122.1
$1,000-$1,999124,0905.365,8166.644,8409.1
$2,000-$3,99971,9053.143,0754.338,9517.9
$4,000 and over38,6961.68,6580.98,1411.6
        All accounts2,343,127100.0996,271100.0493,718100.0

Figure 29.3. SMALL SAVINGS

SMALL SAVINGS

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. There are now 1,166 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 178 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices.

The following table covering the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank includes ordinary Savings Bank, Special Purpose, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, Investment accounts and National Savings Investment accounts, but does not include School Savings Bank accounts, which are referred to later.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

†$612,306 and 15,459 accounts transferred to the Western Samoa Administration.

‡Excludes Cook Islands balances of $918,232 omitted from ordinary accounts from 1 April 1967.

 (000)$(thousand)
19592,053294,17518,565307,4525,289637,874
19602,085326,26018,886311,04434,102671,977
19612,117374,60120,075350,08244,594716,571
19622,144383,35821,013383,67820,693736,651
19632,191409,12321,997397,18533,935770,586
19642,245471,59023,633442,95252,272822,858
19652,276505,48824,968500,60129,855852,713
19662,312506,57425,753520,64711,681864,393
19672,331524,29525,929540,8139,411873,804
19682,327486,75027,117511,1402,727875,613
19692,351486,17927,865506,4557,589883,202

The number of deposits made in the year ended 31 March 1968 was 9,574,340 and the number of withdrawals 6,781,398.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings Bank on 31 March 1968 included Government stock to the value of $532.1 million and State Advances Corporation stock to the value of $340.1 million.

Withdrawal Services—When application is made at the ledger office where the account is held, a depositor may make a withdrawal on demand to the full extent of his account balance. Demand withdrawals may also be made at any other of the 1,166 Savings Bank offices, but the amount which may be obtained is limited. If the depositor's specimen signature is on file at the office of application he may withdraw on demand up to $200 in any period of seven days. Alternatively, if a specimen signature is not on file he may withdraw on demand up to $40 in any period of seven days, provided he can establish his identity; for amounts above the limit the office of application can arrange for postal or telegraphic clearance with the office where the account is held. A depositor may have his specimen signature placed on file at any number of offices and because of this provision he may obtain funds without notice while travelling anywhere in New Zealand.

Ordinary Savings Bank Accounts—These form the bulk of Post Office Savings Bank accounts. An account may be opened individually, jointly with another person, or as a trustee or beneficiary in a trust account. Clubs, societies, sports bodies, and any other non-mercantile body may also have these accounts, and organisations of this type have been able to operate under a cheque system since 1 March 1959.

Special Purpose Accounts—Introduced 1 October 1962, these accounts are intended for any person who desires to accumulate separate funds towards specific objectives. A depositor may have five different Special Purpose accounts in addition to any other Post Office Savings Bank accounts. Each Special Purpose account is subject to an interest-bearing limit of $1,000. The rate of interest is 3 percent per year.

Thrift Club Accounts—These accounts are designed to meet the needs of salary and wage earners who wish to save something each pay day to provide for annual recurring charges. Thrift Club accounts may be opened by any group of persons. In most cases, employees have a nominated amount deducted from their salary or wages each pay day for crediting to a Thrift Club account in their own name. Where this system does not operate the persons may themselves appoint an agent to collect from members and make deposits. A passbook is issued to each depositor who may operate on the account in the same way as an ordinary account.

At 31 March 1968 there were 184,285 accounts open, the amount at credit being $24,168,141.

Home Lay-by Accounts—These accounts were introduced on 1 July 1957. Their main feature is a suspensory free deposit of $10 for every $200 saved with a maximum of $100. These accounts may be operated on in the same way as ordinary accounts and they earn the same rates of interest, in addition to the suspensory free deposit. The free deposit does not become payable until evidence is furnished that the funds are being used for the purchase or building of a home for the depositor's own occupancy. The first free deposits under this system became payable on 1 July 1959.

At 31 March 1968 there were 1,746 accounts open, the amount at credit being $1,252,047.

Investment Accounts—These accounts were introduced on 1 October 1957. They are a type of fixed deposit and accounts may be opened by any person or any organisation, including business concerns. The minimum deposit is $200 and deposits above $200 must be in multiples of $20. Any number of deposits may be made, but they must not exceed $20,000 in the aggregate in any year commencing on 1 October. The minimum term of investment is one year and deposits not withdrawn are automatically reinvested. Withdrawals are permitted at any time, but if any are required in the first year one week's notice in writing is required except in the case of business concerns.

Interest runs from the date of deposit at 41/2 percent a year on amounts that remain on deposit for the first and each subsequent 12-monthly period. If the deposit or any portion of it is withdrawn before the expiration of the first year or any subsequent 12-monthly period, special rates apply in respect of the amount withdrawn. These are:

On amounts withdrawn less than 12 months from the date of deposit: 21/2 percent a year is payable.

On amounts withdrawn before the expiration of the second or any subsequent 12-monthly period of deposit: 3 percent a year is payable.

On deposits made before 1 October 1964, interest on amounts withdrawn after two years from the date of deposit is computed at 4 percent a year.

On 31 March 1968, 56,890 Investment accounts were open with a total credit balance of $156,524,772.

Estates—The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of $1,000 from any type of account to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. Where there is more than one type of account the aggregate balances must not exceed $1,000, except in the case of a National Savings account, for which a separate maximum of $1,000 is permitted. This provision, together with another whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit of an ordinary Savings Bank, Special Purpose, Thrift Club, or a Home Lay-by account after the depositor's death, enables the next-of-kin to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without delay or cost.

School Savings Bank—The School Savings Bank scheme was introduced in 1934 with the object of encouraging thrift amongst young people. The lodgment of deposits is made to teachers at the school, the cash and deposits slips being handed in later at the Post Office.

A table showing the transactions in School Savings Bank accounts during the last 11 years is appended.

Year Ended 31 DecemberNumber of Schools Operating at End of YearTotal Number of Deposit Transactions During YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Number of Withdrawal Transactions During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
*Includes amounts transferred to Post Office Savings Bank.
  (000)$(000) $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19582,1022,25881838,625580238602,321
19592,1362,40786349,81484518672,407
19602,2022,62795849,106793165722,643
19612,2352,7091,00349,403861141772,861
19622,2552,7641,07251,629958114823,057
19632,2802,7931,05356,4581,01637863,179
19642,2943,0091,13959,7921,1318893,276
19652,3173,1291,19358,5211,18013913,380
19662,3423,4581,33258,5351,154179963,655
19672,3703,6481,37363,7491,2201531073,914
19682,3623,9611,41869,9161,3171001154,129

On 31 December 1968 there were 330,861 School Savings Bank accounts open.

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the five trading banks all formed private savings banks. These savings banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
*From October 1964 to end of March year.
$(thousand)
1965*74,99169,27015,93553,33412053,455
1966192,177161,53790,33671,2001,570126,226
1967313,927205,502152,38453,1183,968183,312
1968460,366244,919196,82748,0925,818237,222
1969577,956268,349228,50139,8488,351285,420

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1968 included $25,466,782 invested in mortgages and other loans, $203,720,441 in New Zealand Government Securities, out of the total asset figure of $245,176,472.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand Bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence, but four, namely Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks—Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866)—grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 13.

The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. Not less than 50 percent of investments must be held in the form of Government stock, and a proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 21/2 percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by or Investment accounts. The maximum rates of interest payable on deposits are fixed by Order in Council. Maximum rates payable on these and other deposits are given later in this Section.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.$(thousand)
1959436,80179,84379,1147303,646128,792
1960455,40092,23883,4538,7863,847141,425
1961477,647113,231100,14113,0904,276158,791
1962501,747124,715116,8317,8844,732171,407
1963536,981150,827133,38317,4445,159194,010
1964588,124200,769173,24427,5245,966227,500
1965665,835262,133228,20333,9307,003268,433
1966775,339325,352294,69730,6558,386307,475
1967884,223372,297351,27221,0259,447337,947
1968996,271405,109387,22617,88310,690366,520
19691,116,583489,515466,65712,85811,863401,242

NOTE—This statement includes national savings investment accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions, inclusive of National Savings investment accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1968.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.$(thousand)
Auckland480,136164,347158,1826,1654,877169,198
Waikato79,49133,33331,8221,51181226,824
Bay of Plenty32,83816,92015,6701,24932811,540
Taranaki53,85517,58517,6678272323,332
Hawke's Bay & Gisborne28,64214,21013,61459632610,753
Wanganui18,2198,9608,7871732026,480
Manawatu-Wairarapa22,4648,9988,8071922618,231
Wellington District24,30713,93412,3231,6111967,743
Westland7,0972,3211,805517933,394
Canterbury89,07246,29042,1434,14786129,611
South Canterbury10,4975,1744,5975771474,911
Otago89,76225,40824,58282697232,342
Southland59,89147,62847,22840089332,161
    Totals996,271405,109387,22617,88310,690366,520

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1968. The total assets include an amount of $4,323,000 securing National Savings deposits all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets* (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits
*Total assets include $11,077,000
 $(thousand)
Auckland43,356104,15918,4391,853179,6622,419182,081
Waikato5,71518,2421,47652927,452-27,452
Bay of Plenty1,7968,24659860111,722-11,722
Taranaki7,79314,50415650624,47344624,919
Hawke's Bay and Gisborne1,5527,95750148611,046-11,046
Wanganui7045,1692001736,645-6,645
Manawatu-Wairarapa9846,2332076638,427-8,427
Wellington District2,0545,8831633668,836-8,836
Westland1,1492,03142923,650-3,650
Canterbury6,67519,7241,1171,13130,468-30,468
South Canterbury3204,100225965,076-5,076
Otago9,63818,1721,5601,35133,2381,30434,542
Southland5,93116,6406,5392,18334,02215534,177
        Totals87,667231,06131,22110,030384,7164,323389,041

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. There are 26 companies.

Financial data as at 30 June are given of deposits, advances, etc., for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19641965196619671968
 $(thousand)
Deposits held13,51220,46022,55724,17023,829
Customers' credit balances on current account37,44437,11836,60230,05134,771
Advances to customers—
    (a) On current account (unsecured)44,97362,08363,57661,51556,586
    (b) Other advances (secured)35,04639,02643,58845,69347,152
Investments—
    (a) Government securities4,5205,4584,9325,5185,173
    (b) Fixed deposits8,854930105187359
    (c) Other investments7,3259,1609,67310,28011,328
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)4,2074,0024,0571,8234,090
Bank overdrafts outstanding6,79114,03211,68417,78011,590
Merchandise and commodity stocks30,40333,90035,14634,97834,288
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
    Under 3 percent10.25.04.53.20.5
    3 percent and under 5 percent47.654.447.439.429.4
    5 percent and over42.240.648.157.470.1

The total of unsecured advances by agents of $56.6 million at 30 June 1968 was $14.3 million below that of trading banks advances to farmers of $70.9 million at 10 July 1968.

DEPOSITS WITH COMPANIES, ETC.—A summary of deposits with societies, finance companies, firms, and businesses is now given. The figures refer to interest-bearing deposits held for an agreed term, and exclude moneys received on mortgage or debenture security, or in the course of a mercantile current account. The figures of deposits with stock and station agents, given previously, are not included in the following table.

For this survey the coverage is believed to include nearly all companies, etc. accepting deposit moneys as defined.

ItemAt 31 March
19641965196619671968
Deposits held—$(thousand)
    Call and under three months56,27566,00566,60372,56591,695
    Three months and under six months7,4476,0914,1325,6136,451
    Six months and under 12 months3,3124,2403,7447,0396,575
    12 months and under two years3,5446,6337,68311,31011,877
    Two years and over35,50944,79154,06462,89671,236
Totals106,088127,759136,226159,423187,834
Interest rates paid on deposits—Percentage of Deposits
    Under 3 percent0.50.80.70.20.1
    3 percent and under 5 percent64.955.347.744.147.6
    5 percent and over34.643.951.655.752.3

Fuller information on interest rates was given in the July 1968 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The following summary table showing interest-bearing deposits held as at 31 March in the three latest years relates only to those companies in the 1966 collection from whom statistics were obtained again, and are therefore fully comparable.

Period of DepositAmount as at 31 March
196619671968
 $(000)
Call and under three months66,60370,29486,407
3 months and under 6 months4,1325,4185,106
6 months and under 12 months3,7444,1615,859
12 months and under 2 years7,68310,12010,626
2 years and over54,06459,89168,227
Totals136,226149,883176,225

There are five approved dealers in the short-term money market and the aggregate deposits of these dealers as at 31 March 1968 was $49.0 million.

OVERDRAFT RATES—The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts, which had been 5.84 percent since June 1962, was raised to 6.0 percent on 31 August 1965.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES: Trading Banks—The following is a schedule of the rates paid by the associated banks in New Zealand for moneys lodged on fixed deposit.

Date Operative From3 Months and Under 6 Months6 Months and Under 12 Months12 Months and Under 24 Months24 Months and Upwards
 Percent
1 August 193131/233/4441/2
1 June 1932331/431/24
2 December 193221/223/4331/4
11 July 1933221/223/43
5 July 193411/2221/223/4
2 November 193411/413/421/421/2
18 September 19403/411/421/421/2
17 July 19413/411/413/42
16 February 195611/213/421/421/2
14 June 1956221/423/43
1 October 1957221/231/431/2

On 1 July 1965 the following rates were adopted: 30-180 days, 21/2 percent; 7-9 months, 23/4 percent; 10-23 months, 31/4 percent; 24 months and over, 31/2 percent. The following rates have been paid since 21 June 1966: 30-180 days 3 percent; six months and under 12 months, 31/2 percent; 12 months and under 24 months, 4 percent; 24 months and over 41/4 percent. As previously, variations in these rates and terms may be negotiated on deposits in excess of $20,000.

Post Office Savings Bank—The Post Office Savings Bank pays interest on all deposits. The present rates on ordinary, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, and School Savings Bank deposits are 3 percent per year on deposits of up to $20,000. For Special Purpose accounts the rate is 3 percent per year on balances up to $1,000 in each of the five accounts permitted.

The rate of interest on Investment accounts is 41/2 percent per year on accounts that remain intact, but if withdrawals are made before maturity, the interest rate is adjusted for the broken period in respect of the amount withdrawn.

The rate of interest on National Savings accounts is 31/2 percent per year but if withdrawals are made before maturity date of the deposits, interest on the amount withdrawn is credited at Savings Bank rates.

Following is a table of interest rates payable in respect of Post Office Savings Bank deposits.

Date Operative FromAmount of Deposit
$1-$600$601-$1,000$1,001-$2,000$2,001-$4,000$4,001-$10,000$10,001-$15,000$15,001-$20,000
 Percent
1 August 193133/433/431/431/4NilNilNil
1 April 19333333NilNilNil
1 August 193333323/4NilNilNil
1 August 19343321/221/4NilNilNil
1 August 19413322NilNilNil
1 June 194221/221/222NilNilNil
1 September 195221/221/22211/2NilNil
1 May 195633321/221/2NilNil
1 August 195733321/221/221/2Nil
1 August 195933321/221/221/221/2
1 August 19623333333

Trustee Savings Banks—From 1 May 1956 the allowable maximum rate on all deposits was increased to 3 percent on amounts up to $1,500, this limit being raised to $2,000 from 26 October 1956. A rate of 21/2 percent was payable between $2,002 and $4,000 but this was raised to 3 percent as from 1 August 1962 on any amount from $1 to $4,000. On deposits in investment accounts the rate is 21/2 percent for periods less than 12 months, 41/2 percent for each complete period of 12 months with 3 percent payable on deposits withdrawn during the year after the first year.

Private Savings Banks—The rate of interest payable on deposits in private savings banks is 3 percent a year up to $4,000. This applies to the savings banks operated by trading banks from 1 October 1964. On deposits in investment accounts the rate is 21/2 percent for periods less than 12 months, 41/2 percent for each complete period of 12 months with 3 percent payable on deposits withdrawn during the year after the first year.

Company, etc., Deposits—Since 5 July 1962 there has been no control on interest rates payable on deposits held by stock and station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30 A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26 c (State Indebtedness), interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance), and interest on the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office in Section 40.

COINAGE AND CURRENCY—Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10s. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10 cents. There are coins for 50 cents, 20 cents, 10 cents, 5 cents, 2 cents, and 1 cent, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs. The coins were depicted on pages 1126-1127 of the 1967 issue of the Yearbook.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1965 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965, Amendment No. 2, restricts the amount of New Zealand money taken out by travellers to $10 (which may be in notes of $2 or $1 or in coin up to $4). The export of any other notes or coin of any country requires specific consent.

Legal Tender—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, and 50 cents for an amount up to 5 dollars, and coins of 1 and 2 cents for an amount up to 20 cents.

Issue of Notes—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand: Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount. The rate of exchange for overseas transactions is fixed by the Bank, subject to a right of the Minister of Finance, after consultations with the Governor, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the articles of agreement of the International Monetary Fund.

The issue of decimal currency notes consists of the following denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, and $100. Notes are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Government postal notes (issued in 39 denominations of from 10c to $4) sometimes enjoy a certain length of life in the form of currency.

EXCHANGE RATES—The significance of the exchange rate in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon the country's position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of New Zealand has not reached a stage where the country is fully self-contained, and the external trade per head is greater than that of most countries of the world. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom, while the function of London as an international clearing house is also of importance in this connection. New Zealand's borrowings from the London financial market as noted elsewhere (see State Indebtedness) require considerable annual payments in London. New Zealand is a member of the International Monetary Fund, and as such is required to maintain buying and selling rates for exchange transactions in its currency within two percent of either side of its established par value. The par value may be changed, i.e., the exchange rate altered, with the approval of the International Monetary Fund; this must be given if the proposed change does not exceed 10 percent, or if a “fundamental disequilibrium” exists in the country's balance of payments.

New Zealand and Sterling Exchange—The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling gained added significance from December 1929. Prior to that date the New Zealand currency was at virtual parity with British currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931 a level of approximately $110 New Zealand = $100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January 1933, when as a result of Government intervention it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree. The relationship existing from 20 January 1933 until the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on 1 August 1934, was 125 (selling) and 124 10s. (buying) New Zealand = 100 London for telegraphic transfers.

From 1 August 1934 Reserve Bank quotations for 100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, 124, selling rate, 125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. While prepared to fulfil its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank did not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities were available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted as from 1 August 1934 a scale of rates representing a reduction of 10s. per 100 on the rates ruling from 20 January 1933 to 31 July 1934. The rates were slightly changed on 21 October 1938, and further changes were made in the selling rates as from 1 December 1943 and in the buying rate as from 6 November 1940. During the year 1945-46 the Reserve Bank agreed to certain alterations in the trading banks' on-demand and usance rates.

The position was materially altered as from 20 August 1948, following the announcement by the Government on the previous night of the appreciation of New Zealand currency to parity with sterling. The Reserve Bank quotations from 20 August 1948 for 100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, 100; selling rate, 101. Consequential adjustments to the scale of rates of trading banks in New Zealand were also made.

On 21 November 1967 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 19.45 percent in terms of the United States dollar following the United Kingdom devaluation of sterling by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967. The New Zealand dollar became equivalent to the Australian dollar and $NZ100 equivalent to 46 13s. 4d. sterling. In terms of the United States dollar NZ$1.00 = US$1.12.

The quotations current for New Zealand on London at the end of December 1968 are given in the following table. On-demand and usance buying rates change with changes in the Bank of England discount rate.

CategoryBuying (Basis $§g. 1)Selling (Basis $§g. 1)
Telegraphic transfers (cable)NZ$2.1367NZ$2.1492
Sterling notesNZ$2.0731NZ$2.1492
 Air MailSea MailAir and Sea Mail
Bills, cheques, and drafts payable on demandNZ$2.1256NZ$2.1100NZ$2.1492
Bills or drafts 3 days sight2.12312.1075No quotation
Bills or drafts 30 days sight2.11212.09652.1484
Bills or drafts 60 days sight2.09982.08422.1476
Bills or drafts 90 days sight2.08752.07192.1468
Bills or drafts 120 days sight2.07522.0596No quotation

The following table shows exchange rates for telegraphic transfers quoted by the New Zealand trading banks for various currencies as at 31 December 1968.

New Zealand onAt 31 December 1968
BuyingSelling
United States (dollars)1.11821.1060
Canada (dollars)1.20011.1868
France (francs)5.5655.45
Belgium (francs)56.3055.10
Switzerland (francs)4.844.73
Pakistan (rupees)5.4055.265

The rates applicable for telegraphic transfer to Australia from 21 November 1967 are A$1.0020 buying and A$0.9980 selling per N.Z.$1.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals, showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

The figures for net overseas assets in the following table include, in addition to sterling exchange, the Reserve Bank holdings of foreign exchange and overseas investments, less its short-term liabilities in other currencies.

As atOverseas Assets and Liabilities of Banks (On Account of New Zealand Business only)Treasury-held Overseas Securities
Trading Banks Overseas AssetsReserve Bank's Overseas AssetsGross Overseas AssetsOverseas Liabilities ofNet Overseas Assets of Banks
Short-term*InvestmentsTrading BanksReserve Bank

*Current accounts and short-term bills.

†After 31 March 1964 excludes overseas securities held by Earthquake and War Damage Fund, as the fund is now outside the Public Account, these securities were valued at $12.4 million at the time of their exclusion.

‡From April 1965 an equal amount of assets and liabilities not attributable to New Zealand business has been deleted from both gross assets and liabilities. The net figures are, however, still comparable with earlier figures.

§Includes stg 10 million under stand-by arrangement with the Midland Bank Limited, England.

‖Revaluation as a result of devaluation of N.Z. dollar on 21 November 1967 by 6.025 percent as related to the new sterling level of 18 November 1967.

$N.Z.(million)
End of June
195850.047.327.1124.418.7105.855.2
195959.8126.827.1213.812.10.3201.459.8
196061.6135.352.8249.711.90.4237.590.9
196156.228.762.5147.423.00.4124.180.3
196253.578.132.9164.517.50.2146.767.4
196361.0105.141.6207.616.10.2191.460.7
196467.2105.648.7221.519.00.2202.365.0
196544.280.549.1173.712.80.2160.867.9
196650.954.526.4131.88.2123.561.7
196737.983.54.0125.413.50.2111.757.1
196876.3121.628.0225.916.30.2209.376.5
End of December
195833.182.527.1142.717.614.8110.258.9
195961.6103.127.4192.116.9175.181.8
196044.039.062.5145.413.6131.981.4
196146.830.736.9114.415.90.598.243.2
196241.664.832.9139.416.00.2123.268.5
196357.732.747.5137.817.00.1120.862.0
196450.155.840.6146.618.30.4127.866.5
196543.823.046.6113.410.30.4102.654.8
196634.837.231.1103.112.00.590.6§60.5
196736.6112.07.5156.110.40.5145.175.0
196856.242.524.3123.010.70.3112.077.0

During 1966 export receipts increased by $54.9 million, while the deficit on invisible transactions increased by $24.7 million. A capital account surplus of $71.6 million financed most of the current account deficit, the balance being absorbed by a drop of $12 million in the net overseas assets. The capital inflow included an additional $5.8 million from the International Monetary Fund and $24.0 million from the Reserve Bank of Australia.

In 1967 (which included just over one month at post devaluation rates) export receipts fell by $90.5 million and import payments by $81.4 million while the deficit on invisible transactions increased by $11.6 million to give a current account deficit of $107.2 million. Capital transactions resulted in a surplus of $147.6 million and the net overseas assets rose by $54.5 million (including an adjustment due to devaluation). Capital receipts included London loans of $25.8 million, loans from the Bank for International Settlements of $36.0 million and International Monetary Fund drawings of $66.8 million ($21.0 million compensatory finance and $45.8 million under a stand-by arrangement).

In 1968 export receipts rose by $216 million and more than offset a rise in imports of $52.8 million. The increased trade surplus together with a smaller deficit on invisible items gave a current account surplus of $72.9 million. This surplus and a reduction in the net overseas assets financed a net capital outflow of $100.8 million which was mainly the result of increased official debt repayment and lower official borrowing. Official debt repaid during the year included a United Kingdom loan ($32.1 million), a loan from the Bank for International Settlements ($26.8 million) and International Monetary Fund borrowing totalling $88.6 million.

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves, the first portion showing the figures as at the end of December and the second portion those as at the end of June in each year quoted.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—Statistics of overseas exchange transactions include transactions both through the banking system and through the Government's overseas accounts. A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the two latest calendar years is now given.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS

Item19671968
U.K.Other CountriesTotalU.K.Other CountriesTotal
 $N.Z.(million)
Exports—Receipts
    Butter100.411.2111.6103.54.8108.3
    Cheese37.315.853.135.86.842.6
    Meat116.2107.4223.7143.0154.2297.2
    Wool32.4107.8140.245.8155.3201.1
    Other35.8165.3201.245.9250.6296.6
                Totals, export receipts322.2407.6729.8374.0571.7945.8
Cook Island exports--0.10.10.10.2
Transport6.39.615.915.69.124.7
Insurance2.31.03.39.72.011.7
Travel (excluding fares)3.112.215.33.116.719.9
International investment income—
    Interest and dividends6.22.38.412.03.015.0
    Other investment income0.40.50.91.11.52.7
New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand3.12.96.03.46.39.7
Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties3.43.16.43.23.77.0
    Expenses of business firms1.13.34.41.05.46.4
    Personal receipts, legacies and immigrants' transfers17.611.429.021.216.437.6
    Other current transactions1.42.43.82.03.25.1
                Totals, current366.9456.3823.2446.6639.11085.7
Capital transfers—
    Private21.623.044.621.222.543.7
    Government64.640.0104.679.456.5135.9
    I.M.F. drawing-66.866.8---
    Other official borrowing-36.036.0---
                Total, capital86.1165.8251.9100.679.0179.5
                Grand totals, receipts453.1622.11,075.1547.2718.11265.3
Current items—
    Imports—Payments
        Private277.3313.7591.0307.9348.7656.6
        Government35.129.564.528.423.351.7
                Totals, import payments312.3343.2655.5336.4371.9708.3
Cook Islands imports0.10.40.50.20.50.7
Transport39.89.149.054.711.866.6
Insurance—
    Premiums1.60.42.02.00.32.3
    Claims0.10.40.60.20.40.6
    Other transfers4.01.75.64.31.86.1
Travel (excluding fares)15.127.642.811.329.640.9
International investment income—
    Private15.121.937.013.722.235.9
    Government interest14.49.623.917.512.129.5
    Local authority interest------
Government expenditure overseas9.918.328.211.020.731.7
Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties, and rebates4.08.112.14.78.813.5
    Expenses of business firms13.010.123.116.214.230.3
    Film hire and entertainment0.32.12.30.21.71.9
    Religious and charitable1.63.65.21.33.24.5
    Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants' transfers9.418.427.89.120.629.8
    Transfers by temporary residents3.17.310.41.23.24.3
    Other current transactions1.82.64.40.75.36.0
                Totals, current445.5484.9930.4484.7528.21012.9
Capital transfers—
    Private14.713.127.820.017.737.7
    Official68.97.376.173.4167.8241.2
    Local authority-0.40.4-1.41.4
                Totals, capital83.620.7104.493.4186.9280.3
                Grand totals, payments529.1505.71,034.8578.1715.11293.2
                Surplus of receipts over payments-76.1+116.4+40.4-30.9+3.0-27.9

NOTE—Minus sign (-) denotes a deficit.

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years. Information for calendar years over a similar period is in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
196319641965196619671968
*Includes local authority debt repayment.
 $N.Z.(million)
 Receipts
Exports—
    Butter103.5113.1111.0106.9118.7106.5
    Cheese38.545.244.248.554.245.8
    Meat186.1198.4213.0217.4208.0261.1
    Wool228.9277.3217.3245.6182.5168.2
    Other114.7139.4158.8184.6195.8251.7
    Total exports671.7773.4744.2803.1759.2833.3
Other current receipts60.671.779.885.292.8119.1
    Total current receipts732.4845.1824.0888.3851.9952.4
Capital receipts—
    Official
        Reducing assets (Govt)11.613.73.150.957.655.3
        Increasing liabilities (Govt)19.130.516.057.179.281.0
        I.M.F. drawings---50.321.045.8
        Other official----60.0-
    Private16.824.728.521.528.454.6
    Total capital receipts47.669.047.6179.8246.3236.7
    Total receipts780.0914.1871.61,068.11,098.21,189.0
    Imports—Payments
    Government51.058.365.674.672.256.5
    Private494.6586.4595.8679.3637.7577.8
    Total imports545.7644.7661.5753.9709.9634.3
    Other current payments—
    Government35.139.940.147.453.961.5
    Private140.4156.6176.7195.4220.3219.2
    Total current payments721.2841.2878.2996.7984.1915.0
Capital payments—
    Official
        Increasing assets (Govt)5.330.57.346.452.072.3
        Reduced liabilities (Govt)1.518.43.737.437.67.4
I.M.F. Repurchases-----62.5
    Other Official Repayments-----26.8
    Private*10.015.126.725.529.528.2
Total capital payments16.964.037.7109.3119.1197.1
Total payments738.0905.2916.01,106.01,103.21,112.1
Balance on trade transactions+126.1+128.7+82.8+49.2+49.2+199.0
Balance on current account invisible transactions-114.9-124.8-137.0-157.5-181.4-161.7
Balance on current account+11.2+3.9-54.3-108.4-132.2+37.3
Balance on capital account+30.7+5.0+9.9+70.5+127.2+39.6
Overall balance41.9+8.9-44.4-37.9-4.9+76.9
Exchange valuation differences, timing differences and omissions, etc.+2.8+2.0+2.9+0.7-6.9+20.7
        Change in net overseas assets of the banking system+44.7+10.9-41.5-37.2-11.8+97.6

Overseas Travel Allowances—The Reserve Bank controls the allocation of funds to New Zealand residents for overseas travel, whether for business or non-business purposes.

Since 1958 there have been restrictions on the amount of travel funds made available for non-business purposes, and from November 1967 the limit has been $1,400 for travellers who have not received an allocation for pleasure travel during the previous three years.

Exchange Allocation Scheme—In order to assist in measures for strengthening the sterling area reserves and the balance of payments generally, the Government of New Zealand in March 1952 made certain decisions designed to ensure an improvement in New Zealand's overall balance of payments.

Except with the approval of the Reserve Bank, trading banks were advised not to sell to any importer during 1952 more than 80 percent of the 1950 amount of exchange sold to him. This amount was the importer's basic allocation, and where foreign exchange in excess of this basic allocation was required application was to be made to the Reserve Bank.

This was followed in August 1952 by a decision to retain the existing exchange allocation scheme, with modifications, in 1953. With the high level of demand for exchange still continuing and the need to maintain reserves to provide a reasonable margin for contingencies in view of the 1952 deficit in overseas receipts over payments, the Reserve Bank was not prepared to draw further on reserves. Accordingly, except with the approval of the Reserve Bank, trading banks were advised not to sell to any importer during the whole of 1953 more than 40 percent of the amount of exchange sold in 1950 to that importer for non-Government imports other than motor vehicles, and goods paid for under third-party certificates received from other licensed importers. This procedure provided, as formerly, for the basic allocations of exchange, and where importers required more than this quota they could make application to the Reserve Bank.

In July 1953 the Reserve Bank announced that, because of the high level of demand for overseas exchange to pay for imports, the exchange allocation scheme inaugurated in April 1952 would be continued in 1954. An important modification of the scheme was the announcement of a list of goods, payment for which would not require the authority of an exchange allocation. The trading banks were advised that, without the approval of the Reserve Bank and excepting payment for goods classed as “released items”, they were not to sell to any importer in 1954 more than 50 percent (increased in November 1953 to 75 percent) of the exchange sold in 1950 to that importer for non-Government imports other than motor vehicles, paid for under third-party certificates received, and goods which in 1954 would be classed as “released items”. This procedure provided, as formerly, for basic allocations of exchange, and where importers required more than this quota they could make application to the Reserve Bank.

The Prime Minister announced on 22 July 1954 that the exchange allocation system introduced in August 1952 was to be terminated as from 1 January 1955. Following this statement, the Reserve Bank made certain relaxations for the remainder of the 1954 year (e.g., additional allocations already granted could be used to pay for items mentioned in the application instead of only those items specifically detailed in the approval, and could be used at any time during the rest of 1954), while allocations made up to termination date would not be linked to tariff items.

The Prime Minister announced on 1 January 1958 that a policy of overall import licensing would be instituted immediately. The new measures were designed to meet the deterioration in overseas reserves, which fell to $91 million on 25 December 1957. Under the new policy overseas funds would be allocated to meet all basic needs for imported foodstuffs and as far as possible factories would get raw materials to the full amount required.

On 2 January 1958 the Minister of Customs gave details of the new policy and stated that, as from 1 January 1958, all imports, apart from a few necessary exceptions, would require licences. The former Import Licensing Schedule for 1958, released in August 1957, was withdrawn and a new schedule made available in its place.

Although the overseas exchange position improved during 1958 and 1959, the improvement was not sufficient to justify any major relaxations of exchange control policy. The Import Licensing Schedule for 1960 provided for a much higher value of imports than was permitted in 1958 and 1959, and the 1961 Schedule provided for another easing of the import licensing allocations. In 1961 the reserves of overseas exchange fell to a dangerously low level, and the Government adopted restrictive measures for imports and extended the 1961 licensing period to 30 June 1962. For the period 1 July 1962 to 30 June 1963 the Government provided licences at a level to allow an expenditure of $500 million for private import payments. Some overseas borrowing was necessary to sustain that level. Licences for a similar level of private import payments were provided for 1963-64 and 1964-65. There was some relaxation of import licence control in 1965-66; this was followed by a substantial rise in import payments. In 1966-67 the exemptions made in the previous licensing year were continued, but raw materials, plant and machinery, motor vehicles and consumer goods were subject to reduced licences.

In 1967-68 the same trend was repeated and licences for the above items were reduced by a further 20 percent.

Basic licences for 1968-69 were set at 115 percent of the value of 1967-68 licences. In addition a substantial number of items were freed from import licensing. The effect of the exemptions was that in 1968-69 about 50 percent of private imports were exempt from licensing.

Exchange Control—Although exchange-control approval is required for all overseas remittances it is not practicable to curtail payments, other than for imports, to any significant extent by a more restrictive exchange-control policy, as they are predominantly legitimate commercial transactions of a contractual nature. Variations of policy have to be virtually confined to personal remittances and to travel expenditure. Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1965, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and gazetted on 16 September 1965. The degree of control existing under preceding regulations was not greatly changed. The exemption in respect of dealings in sterling area currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents was continued by the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965 issued at the same time as the latest regulations.

Certain new measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966.

  1. Sterling Area Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities or currencies for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities may now be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident seeks cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law is to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market has since been re-opened (see (f) below).

    The position regarding non-sterling securities and currencies remains unchanged—they may not be dealt with in any way without the consent of the Reserve Bank, except for the transfer of currency to New Zealand through the banking system.

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: Although for many years the export of New Zealand notes had been prohibited, except for small amounts that travellers were allowed to take out, the import of New Zealand notes had not been controlled. A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes. The notes must be in denominations of $1 and $2 only.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere. The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. those of non-resident agencies;

    3. a group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: Since 1920 New Zealand residents have been permitted to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions had in recent years become excessive, particularly in the present strained overseas reserves situation; the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register:

    1. stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least six months;

    2. after stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for six months.

  5. Capital Issues Control: Since 26 January 1968 all borrowing in New Zealand by subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies requires the consent of the Minister of Finance. The regulations exempt bank advances from control in order to allow the day-to-day financial needs of the companies to meet without formality. However, requests for higher overdraft limits or term loans by these companies (other than limits for seasonal or short-term purposes) are subject to Reserve Bank approval.

  6. Limited Market in Overseas Sterling Area Securities: In September 1966 the Minister of Finance announced a scheme to re-open a limited market in overseas sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. Trading was confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an Approved Depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within one month. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch and the Bank of New South Wales (in respect of its own shares only). Up to 31 December 1968 some 32,093 transactions involving approximately 7,200,000 shares had taken place under these arrangements.

Administrative details on import and export control and exchange allocation are set out in Section 22A.

ROYAL COMMISSION ON MONETARY, BANKING, AND CREDIT SYSTEMS—The report of the Royal Commission, which was released in April 1956 (as parliamentary paper B.3, 1956) gives a general background on the monetary, banking, and credit systems of New Zealand. The Royal Commission examined and reported on these systems and made recommendations within its order of reference which had the stated objectives of fostering a greater degree of stability in prices, maintaining full employment, ensuring the healthy development of natural resources, and promoting generally the economic, financial and social welfare of the people.

Section 4 of the report outlines the history of monetary, banking, and credit systems from 1934 to 1955. As recommended by the Royal Commission, New Zealand has joined the International Monetary Fund, a Monetary and Economic Council has been established, and the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act has been amended to give the Government full and final responsibility for decisions on monetary policy. (A summary of the report was given as Appendix (d) of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. The organisations are specialised agencies of the United Nations, and their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A.12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the Fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. By paying in some gold and the balance of its fund quota in its own currency a member is able to draw against its gold for a nominal cost. New Zealand's fund quota was increased in March 1966, with the result that drawing rights have risen to a maximum of $175.2 million. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory finance arrangements.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) is designed to promote the international flow of capital for productive purposes and to assist in financing the development of the resources of its member countries.

New Zealand paid $24.4 million in gold and $1.0 million in New Zealand currency to join the three agencies, and in addition $77.2 million of non-negotiable non-interest bearing bonds were lodged with the Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

The World Bank made a loan of $5.6 million to New Zealand in November 1963. The loan is for a term of 25 years and bears interest at 51/2 percent, including the 1 percent commission which is allocated to the Bank's special reserve. It has assisted in financing improvements at the ports of Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei, and applied to the overseas-currency content of capital works. A loan of $23.4 million was received for the Cook Strait electricity cable project. These loan agreements are set out in parliamentary papers A. 21 and A. 23, 1964.

In December 1965 the World Bank agreed to lend $30.2 million for railways modernisation and $14.7 million for power development. The railways loan is being used to buy additional diesel locomotives and rolling stock, while part was used to pay for the second rail-road ferry Aranui. The electricity development loan is being used to meet the overseas costs in the building of the thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. The term of the loans is 15 years with interest at 61/4 percent.

In November 1965 the International Monetary Fund agreed to a drawing by New Zealand of $44.6 million to help finance a current account balance of payments deficit and support the Government's import liberalisation policy. The loan was used to augment external reserves. No interest is payable on $22.5 million drawn against New Zealand gold held by the Fund, but the balance of the money bears a charge ranging from 2 percent at three months to 31/2 percent on the balance outstanding after two and a half years. There was a single service charge of 1/2 percent on the whole transaction. Repayment is normally expected by the Fund within three to five years.

In March 1966 New Zealand drew a further $5.8 million from the International Monetary Fund to meet the gold payment due on its increased subscription to the Fund following general agreement by members to increase all quotas in the Fund by 25 percent. On 10 May 1967, $21.0 million was drawn under the compensatory finance provisions and further drawings under a standby arrangement totalling $45.8 million were made in October and December 1967. All drawings, except $28.2 million drawn against New Zealand gold held by the fund, attract interest on a graduated scale. At the end of March 1969 New Zealand had drawn $142.2 million from the fund and repaid $88.6 million (including the compensatory finance loan) leaving $53.5 million to be repaid. These amounts are based on the new exchange rate established on 21 November 1967.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ECAFE region. New Zealand's contribution will be $U.S. 22.56 million, or just over $N.Z. 16 million. Half the capital stock is being paid up. Half of the $N.Z.8 million which will thus be payable will be paid in convertible currency and half in New Zealand currency. The cost in overseas funds will therefore be about $800,000 a year over five years from 1966. The local currency portion is restricted to payments for goods and services produced in New Zealand.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—In 1961, in line with a recommendation of the Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, there was established a Monetary and Economic Council whose principal functions are to report from time to time on the extent to which stability in the prices of goods and services, economic growth, full employment, and higher standards of living are being achieved, and to make recommendations as to measures that should be taken to promote such developments. Among other matters, the Council is required to consider the provision of finance for the expansion of primary and secondary industries and of services, and the ensuring of a balanced relationship between the creation and issue of money and the production and provision of goods and services. A series of reports have been made to the Government and have been published.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION—This Corporation was established under the Development Finance Corporation Act 1964 with the general function of providing finance for the establishment of new industries or for the development or extension of existing industries. The objective is to supplement, not compete with existing financial services. Because there are generally adequate facilities for short term finance, the Corporation's lending is mainly for medium to long term.

Loans are made available to borrowers engaged in production or related fields, including manufacturing, processing assembly, construction, transport, and the servicing of basic industry. Also eligible are the extractive industries, such as fishing, forestry and mining. Because there are other wide facilities for farm finance, loans in this field are restricted to related servicing and processing, and specialised forms of cropping. Other lending criteria include the value of the industry to the economy generally, e.g., increased productivity, increase in exports or the saving of imports. Encouragement is also given to the establishment or expansion of industry in regions requiring development.

The Act provides for a share capital of $4 million for the Corporation. Of the $2 million issued, 30 percent has been taken up by the Reserve Bank and remainder by the trading banks and insurance offices. Up to 30 June 1968, loans to industry totalling $3,432,000 had been approved.

Chapter 30. Section 30 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10A, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property reregistered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED—A table is given showing the net numbers and amounts represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last 21 years. The average rate of interest on new mortgages is also given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgages RegisteredAverage Rate of Interest on New Mortgages RegisteredMortgages Discharged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
*Includes a small number of duplicate registrations.
  $(m)Percent $(m)
194829,89364.13.9029,00250.8
194929,57870.63.9826,64246.8
195030,35272.03.9926,09346.2
195143,87591.64.0935,50364.5
195249,840135.94.1537,92674.5
195350,633147.44.2934,16062.8
195452,807140.84.4936,72872.0
195557,992169.24.6937,93182.3
195655,544192.54.7634,07870.7
195751,230182.45.0932,66375.4
195855,437199.15.2437,44192.2
195956,195217.15.1536,92088.8
196057,834239.05.0139,931102.3
196164,605300.85.0146,469136.6
196262,501331.55.2744,494133.8
196359,263295.15.5143,979135.6
196463,992339.85.7049,661168.8
1965*71,531420.05.7856,262206.8
196676,960487.76.0759,473230.0
196775,303493.46.3155,958239.3
196873,335467.86.6453,200236.1

The figures given in the preceding table have been adjusted to exclude duplicate registrations, i.e., cases in which a mortgage has been registered in more than one district. It should also be noted that the figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand, no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, etc. In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered, and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged, despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered, under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district is given in the next table.

District1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
$ (thousand)
North Auckland97,454120,286143,125140,915139,133
South Auckland49,48063,58671,23673,15378,939
Gisborne4,4424,0445,5947,1415,942
Hawke's Bay15,46419,70621,93222,77018,467
Taranaki10,85213,16616,40822,40916,375
Wellington65,18076,80496,69092,77593,456
Marlborough3,4504,8464,7915,5904,788
Nelson7,7687,7928,5789,2698,765
Westland3,1263,2441,5131,4761,398
Canterbury40,10653,80262,55962,29054,313
Otago22,54630,72427,87031,46228,107
Southland20,41022,00227,70224,1718,091
        Gross totals340,276420,002487,996493,438467,773
        Duplications518 267  
        Net totals339,758420,002487,729493,438467,773

Classification by Amount—The following table shows urban and rural mortgages by amount groups for 1967-68. The different distribution patterns for urban and rural mortgages are due to the different types of property on which the bulk of urban and rural mortgages are raised. Among urban mortgages, $162 million out of the aggregate total of $315 million was made up of mortgages from $2,000 to $7,999 with $66 million (21 percent of the urban total) representing mortgages of $4,000 to $5,999. The bulk of urban mortgages are relatively low advances on house property. Among rural mortgages, on the other hand, $101 million out of the aggregate total of $152 million represented mortgages of $15,000 and above, mainly representing farms and farm property. Individual mortgages for very large amounts are more usually urban representing commercial or industrial properties in high-priced city areas An indication of this is given by the difference between the average amounts involved in urban and rural mortgages of $15,000 and above. For urban mortgages, the average amount for mortgages in this amount group was $42,026; for rural mortgages, it was $29,250.

Amount GroupUrbanRuralAll Properties
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmountPercentage of Amount
$ $(000) $(000) $(000) 
Under 1,0006,0353,5863111836,3463,7690.80
1,000-1,9997,80510,2266158218,42011,0472.36
2,000-3,99911,17229,8261,6804,52912,85234,3567.34
4,000-5,99913,60566,3691,6887,76715,29374,13615.85
6,000-7,99910,10165,7951,3118,52511,41274,32015.89
8,000-9,9993,53529,9151,0338,7564,56838,6718.27
10,000-14,9992,98033,8761,75720,4564,73754,33211.62
15,000 and over1,80275,7303,467101,4115,269177,14137.87
Unspecified3,120...1,318...4,438......
Totals60,155315,32413,180152,44973,335467,773100.00

Excluding mortgages for which no amounts were shown, the average amount for each mortgage registered in 1967-68 was $6,789 as compared with $6,997 in 1966-67.

Mortgages on Urban and Rural Securities—Mortgages are regarded as urban if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs or on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. New mortgages classed as urban in 1967-68 were secured on areas averaging less than half an acre in extent, as compared with an average of some 356 acres in the case of rural securities. Urban securities accounted for 82 percent of the number and 67 percent of the aggregate value of new mortgages in 1967-68 as compared with 18 percent and 33 percent respectively in the case of rural properties.

The following table shows urban and rural mortgages by land registration district. Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration DistrictUrbanRural
NumberAreaAmountNumberAreaAmount
  acres$(000) acres(000)$(000)
North Auckland20,5226,950113,8092,74751425,324
South Auckland6,7422,11339,5783,03490239,361
Gisborne5371912,8913312363,051
Hawke's Bay2,1995579,2177333469,250
Taranaki1,1253074,87480725511,500
Wellington12,8262,78272,6271,61761220,829
Marlborough6752902,9942131641,794
Nelson1,3653725,6704271343,095
Westland262627568739642
Canterbury8,1041,81735,4821,58661218,831
Otago4,1581,09319,1377865058,971
Southland1,6404828,2908123809,801
Totals60,15517,016315,32413,1804,698152,449

Since the Second World War the trend in mortgage registrations has passed through several distinct stages. Prior to the lifting of controls on land sales there was a steady increase in the number of mortgage agreements due in large measure to the resettlement of ex-servicemen. Restrictions were removed from the sale of all lands other than farm lands in February 1950, and farm lands were released in November 1950. Following these changes there was a marked increase in activity during the next two years, and since 1953-54 the level of mortgage business has remained high, and though there has been considerable fluctuation from year to year the general trend up to 1967 has been upward.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegistrationsAreaAmount Secured
UrbanRuralTotalUrbanRuralTotalUrbanRuralTotal
    acresacres (000)acres (000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
195844,81310,65555,46811,2513,1943,206124.677.1201.7
195946,5509,66856,21811,8762,7402,751146.272.2218.4
196047,24210,62557,86711,5262,9762,987158.983.2242.0
196152,54912,08864,63712,8943,6853,698198.2110.0308.1
196251,10911,44262,55112,4543,3213,334211.6125.3337.0
196348,78410,52859,31212,6073,2133,226205.1103.9309.0
196452,61311,40864,02127,7063,6833,711222.9117.4340.3
196558,23213,29971,53146,5174,2964,343257.2162.8420.0
196662,80914,16976,97826,2784,5194,545308.0180.0488.0
196761,01714,28675,30328,1425,4265,454307.8185.6493.4
196860,15513,18073,33517,0164,6984,715315.3152.4467.8

NOTE-These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but have not been adjusted to exclude duplications.

The annual movement in numbers and values of new urban and rural mortgages in recent years is shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchMovement in Urban MortgagesMovement in Rural Mortgages
RegistrationsAmount SecuredRegistrationsAmount Secured
 Percent
1963-4.5-3.1-8.0-17.1
1964+7.8+8.6+8.3+12.9
1965+10.7+15.4+16.6+38.7
1966+7.9+19.8+6.5+10.6
1967-2.9+0.7+3.1
1968-1.4+2.4-7.7-17.9

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for urban properties for 1967-68 was 6.77 percent, as compared with 6.39 percent for rural properties. The comparable rates for 1966-67 were 6.47 and 6.06 percent respectively.

In 1967-68 the number and amount of 3 percent mortgages continued to decline, and both were just over 10 percent of the comparable totals in 1960-61, the peak year for 3 percent home-building loans under family benefit capitalisation. In 1967-68 there were 1,218 mortgages at 3 percent compared with 8,234 at 51/2 percent, 8,570 at 61/2 percent, and 13,015 at 7 percent.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 3 PercentOver 3 Percent to 4 PercentOver 4 Percent to 41/2 PercentOver 41/2 Percent to 43/4 PercentOver 43/4 Percent to 5 PercentOver 5 Percent to 51/2 PercentOver 51/2 Percent to 6 PercentExceeding 6 Percent
Amount $ (million)
195812.53.65.623.833.967.922.011.7
195928.23.04.221.027.469.423.017.7
196042.34.73.812.828.777.227.814.5
196157.14.63.114.036.091.942.518.5
196251.04.82.914.042.364.278.140.0
196339.42.82.21.254.531.972.564.4
196434.22.92.10.457.526.571.895.9
196533.13.41.90.381.127.392.4121.3
196627.34.62.30.184.628.381.7203.2
196713.93.91.80.397.026.246.1239.2
19689.23.41.00.140.357.031.1264.9
Percentage of Total
19586.92.03.113.218.737.512.26.5
195914.61.5.210.814.135.811.99.1
196020.02.21.86.013.636.513.16.8
196121.31.71.25.213.534.315.96.9
196217.21.61.04.714.221.626.313.4
196314.71.00.80.420.311.827.024.0
196411.71.00.70.219.79.124.732.9
19659.20.90.50.122.57.625.633.6
19666.31.10.519.66.618.947.0
19673.20.90.20.122.76.110.856.0
19682.30.80.39.914.07.665.1

A similar analysis by interest rate groups is shown (together with the annual average interest rate) in the following diagram.

Figure 30.1. NEW MORTGAGES

NEW MORTGAGES

Mortgages by Class—In this section, mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1966 Census, out of a total of 716,104 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 213,807 were being bought on table mortgage or with time payment compared with 80,885 being bought on flat mortgages (197,085 dwellings were owned without mortgages, 177,429 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified).

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages on urban and rural property by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of MortgageTotal Urban and Rural
UrbanRural
First FlatFirst Table Total (Including other)First FlatFirst TableTotal (Including Other)
Amount advanced $(m)
196348.2138.5205.136.646.6103.9309.0
196459.3141.4222.936.457.2117.4340.3
196578.8153.5257.249.982.8162.8420.0
196688.7184.0308.061.480.7180.0488.0
196793.9174.3307.861.475.9185.6493.4
196898.1172.5315.351.855.7152.4467.8
Average interest rate (percent)
19636.354.915.425.955.465.675.51
19646.515.195.696.005.555.715.70
19656.585.225.826.155.515.735.78
19666.695.686.186.245.645.906.07
19677.065.886.476.465.786.066.31
19687.336.196.776.646.176.396.64

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation has made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. This has had a depressing effect on mortgage interest rates. The effect was greatest in 1960-61 but has since dropped steadily away with the decline in advances at the special rate.

If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 5.92 percent in 1962-63, 6.05 percent in 1963-64, 6.06 percent in 1964-65, 6.27 percent in 1965-66, 6.41 percent in 1966-67, and 6.71 percent in 1967-68.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered in the year ended 31 March 1968. For mortgages on town and suburban properties, 20.8 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the State Advances Corporation) compared with 21.5 percent in 1966-67. Of the total of $65.7 million advanced by Government agencies on urban properties in 1967-68, $4.6 million was in the form of 3 percent loans, $18.3 million in the form of 5 percent loans, and $27.5 million in 51/2 percent loans. In 1966-67 the comparable figures were $66.2 million advanced by Government agencies on urban properties, of which $7.7 million was at 3 percent, and $44.7 million at 5 percent.

In 1967-68 over 17 percent (by number) of urban mortgages were from Government sources, compared with over 18 percent during the previous year.

Among sources of finance other than Government agencies the most frequently occurring interest rates during 1967-68 were in the range of 51/2 percent to 8 percent. Of the total of $249.6 million advanced on urban properties by other than Government agencies, $57.1 million was at 7 percent, $36.2 million at 61/2 percent, $13.7 million at 6 percent, $24.4 million at 8 percent, and $10.5 million at 51/2 percent. For advances totalling $44.5 million the interest rates were not specified.

Advances on rural property from Government sources was 23.4 percent in 1967-68 compared with 28 percent in the previous year. This amounted to $35.7 million (of which $15.6 million was at 51/2 percent interest rate) out of a total of $152.4 million.

Of the total of $116.8 million advanced on rural properties during 1967-68 by other than Government agencies, $17.4 million was at 61/2 percent, $24.0 million at 7 percent, $10.3 million at 6 percent, $8.7 million at 5 percent, and $2.4 million at 51/2 percent. Loans at unspecified interest rates totalled $14.8 million.

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office are included among Government agencies, not with insurance companies.

Source of FinanceUrbanRuralTotal
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
Government10,32065,7503,03535,67813,355101,427
Local authorities783751311091485
Trading banks2,9571,5849185623,8752,146
Trustee savings banks2,21011,6632542,2632,46413,926
Building societies7,51441,9736474,4458,16146,418
Insurance companies3,08439,73376619,3313,85059,064
Private individuals25,327100,5866,02670,85531,353171,442
All other8,66553,6611,52119,20510,18672,865
Totals60,155315,32413,180152,44973,335467,773

Supplementary details on sources of mortgage finance with numbers and amounts of mortgages at various rates of interest are given in a supplement to the July 1968 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED—The value of mortgages registered normally exceeds the value of mortgages released, although discharges exceeded registrations for a period of five years commencing with the year 1933-34, and again from 1941-42 to 1945-46. Registrations exceeded discharges by $213.2 million in 1964-65, by $257.9 million in 1965-66, $254.1 million in 1966-67, and by $231.6 million in 1967-68.

Details of urban and rural discharges for the latest two years are given in the following table.

District1966-671967-681967-68 Total Amount
UrbanRuralUrbanRural
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(000) $(000) $(000) $(000)$(000)
North Auckland14,32054,2552,44214,57414,22564,0242,08611,70575,728
South Auckland4,54818,1372,09419,3624,49517,2571,89714,70631,962
Gisborne5091,5672611,8194271,2722111,3262,599
Hawke's Bay1,6985,4945144,9621,5965,1934804,1919,385
Taranaki1,0273,4966364,8009373,5755775,5179,092
Wellington9,61435,8961,35710,4309,52235,3431,0949,50644,849
Marlborough4611,3872061,1874561,1991579752,174
Nelson1,1153,2924261,7551,0442,7832951,2964,079
Westland3257016330831166467303968
Canterbury6,21618,6851,29810,6786,21220,4071,1438,03428,441
Otago3,98711,0096215,0063,61514,8105063,90118,711
Southland1,5695,1766515,3411,3794,5814683,5628,143
            Totals45,389159,09510,56980,22044,219171,1088,98165,023236,132

30 B—STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION

GENERAL—Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans to workers for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934-35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. The business of the State Advances Department and certain operations of the Lands and Survey Department and Public Trust Office were absorbed by the new corporation.

In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned shares of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. The State Advances Corporation Act 1965 transferred the management of the Corporation from a Board of Management to a body corporate consisting of the managing director, deputy managing director (both full-time executive officers), one or more other directors not exceeding four, all appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and an ex-officio director being an officer of Treasury. The body corporate may exercise all the powers and discharge all the functions of the Corporation in accordance with the statutory provisions of the Act. The $2,000,000 capital formerly an appropriation from the Consolidated Fund was redeemed by a loan from the National Development Loans Account. The principal business of the Corporation is the making of loans for approved purposes and it has power to deal in and manage property.

In the exercise of its functions and powers the Corporation is required to give effect to the policies of Government as communicated to it by the Minister of Finance.

Since 1937 when Government embarked upon the scheme for the erection of State rental houses, the Corporation has been responsible for the letting and subsequent administration of these properties. The operations of the Corporation can be classified under two main headings, these being, firstly, the lending of money on mortgage (and certain allied functions) in accordance with the State Advances Corporation Act 1965, and, secondly, the letting and administration of State rental houses in terms of the Housing Act 1955.

FARM LOANS—Loan finance is granted by the Corporation for the purchase and/or development of farm properties. Present policy is directed towards stimulating increased production and assisting suitable young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Corporation, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and stock and plant, the erection of necessary buildings, and for essential development work. Loans are generally limited to two-thirds of the Corporation's value of the land and improvements, although loans in excess of this margin may be approved where collateral security over stock and plant is available. It has been found that the aim of assisting suitable applicants to acquire properties with adequate stock and plant can be achieved with loans up to $25,000 in the case of dairy farms, and $40,000 for sheep farms, and these are the maximum loans normally available. However, loans in excess of these amounts will be considered in special circumstances. Repayment is on a table basis over terms of up to 35 years, with interest at 51/2 percent per annum; since 1 April 1968 provision has been made for review at five-yearly intervals. Loan assistance is not normally available to refinance existing mortgages. Where a farmer whose property is already mortgaged elsewhere requires finance for development and for increasing production the Corporation is able in appropriate cases to grant loans by way of second (or subsequent) mortgage with interest at 6 percent.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans by way of first security over stock and plant only can be granted by the Corporation to farmers, including share milkers and lessees of farms, for the purchase of stock and plant or for other farming purposes. These loans are limited to 60 percent of the value of the stock and plant with a maximum of $8,000 for one man. The loans are repayable over a short term, usually five years with interest at 51/2 percent. In the case of young farmers between the ages of 21 and 35 years, loans are available up to 75 percent of the value of stock and plant but when this extended margin applies the maximum loan limit is $5,000 for a one-man herd and $7,000 for a two-man herd.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Corporation to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. The interest rate charged by the Corporation to the associations is 41/2 percent and the associations relend to their members at 51/2 percent for the purchase of farm stock and plant or other farming purposes. The loans are secured over the stock and plant and are repayable by the farmer borrowers over a short term, usually five years. At 31 March 1968 there were five co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the year 1967-68 amounted to $1,319,233 and loans current at the end of the year amounted to $1,886,942

SPECIAL ASSISTANCE TO FARMERS: GUARANTEE SCHEME—During the 1967-68 season it became apparent that some special measures might well be required to safeguard the position of sheep farmers, whether Corporation mortgagors or not, affected by the fall in export prices. Government decided to institute a guarantee scheme to maintain and, if possible, increase production. Under this scheme the Corporation is prepared to consider guaranteeing any deficiency which may occur in a seasonal financier's account for a farmer providing that expenditure and income lie as far as is reasonably possible within a budget drawn up early in the season. Deeds of guarantee have been completed by most stock firms and banks. The scheme has since been extended to the dairy industry.

HOUSING LOANS—In view of the heavy calls on its funds and the need to overtake the housing shortage, the Corporation was in recent years concentrating its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. However, in 1964 the provision of loans to assist home seekers (with one or more children living at home) to purchase previously occupied houses was reinstated. The loans are made on the security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make a reasonable contribution himself. Loans for the erection of houses or the purchase of houses which have not previously been occupied are limited to a maximum of $6,500 where the applicant owns an unencumbered freehold section and $6,000 in leasehold or other cases.

Loans for the purchase of houses which have been previously occupied are in general limited to two-thirds of the assessed value of the property with a maximum of $5,000 rising to $5,300 depending on the number of children. An applicant whose income is within the limits outlined below can qualify for interest rebated to 3 percent.

In February 1958 a scheme was introduced whereby loans with the interest rebated to 3 percent were made available for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied to borrowers who had not owned a property within a period of five years prior to date of the loan application and where the income of the breadwinner did not exceed $2,000 per annum, increased by $100 for each dependent child (including overtime and bonuses) but without taking into account family benefit or war pensions. In May 1964 the scheme was extended to loans for the purchase of houses previously occupied. Breadwinners with an income of $2,280 became eligible from April 1968.

Loans now being granted at 3 percent interest provide for a five-yearly review of the interest rate and if the borrower does not qualify on income for rebate to 3 percent at the time of review the interest rate is increased to the normal interest rate for the balance of the term of the loan.

In the period from 12 February 1958 to 31 March 1968 there were approved under this scheme 57,790 loans of a total value of $302,477,320, the figures for the year ended 31 March 1968 being 1,422 loans involving $8,272,740.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—A further scheme of housing finance administered by the Corporation is that involving capitalisation of family benefits, which came into operation on 1 April 1959, the moneys for which are provided by the Social Security Department and paid out by the Corporation. Applications for advances under the Family Benefit (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Social Security Commission. For the year ended 31 March 1968, 5,289 advances, totalling $6,112,325 were authorised by the Corporation under this agency, compared with 5,558 advances totalling $6,587,968 in 1966-67.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for Housing—The Corporation has statutory authority to guarantee to an approved lending institution the repayment of that portion of a housing loan granted by the institution in excess of its normal limits (usually two-thirds of value). The guarantee operates up to 90 percent of value for a total loan not exceeding $8,000 for the erection of a house and up to 85 percent of value for a total loan not exceeding $7,200 for the purchase of an existing house. The borrower is required to pay to the credit of the Corporation's General Reserve Fund an amount equal to 2 percent of the portion of the loan guaranteed. Guarantees since the inception of the scheme total 3,835 involving $17,671,702 advanced by lending institutions, of which $2,656,693 was guaranteed.

REHABILITATION—The Corporation is the principal agent for the Rehabilitation Board regarding loans granted on rehabilitation terms to eligible ex-servicemen for the purchase and improvement of farms and the purchase or erection of dwellings. Loan moneys for these purposes are made available from the Corporation's own funds. The securities taken by the Corporation are similar to mortgages taken for the purpose of securing loans made under the Corporation's ordinary lending activities except that the Reserve Fund contribution on loans within the respective rehabilitation loan limits is paid to the Corporation by the Consolidated Revenue Account which also meets the difference between the Corporation's normal interest rate and the reduced interest rate charged to ex-servicemen. All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K Force ceased on 31 March 1965. The classes of loans granted are set out in Section 6B (War Pensions and Rehabilitation).

LOANS TO INDUSTRY—The Corporation is also authorised to make loans for the development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries where they are in the public interest. Apart from loans, guarantees may also be given to other lenders, in terms of Government schemes designed to promote the provision of tourist accommodation and the development of the fishing industry.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the Corporation for the latest two financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1966-19671967-1968
NumberValueNumberValue
Farm Loans— $(000) $(000)
    Purchase85516,8283025,829
    Development2,82724,6202,31815,004
    Stock and plant5332,8045322,890
            Totals, rural4,21544,2523,15223,723
Housing Loans—
    Erection7,23741,7006,80540,826
    Purchase2,45512,8761,6969,780
    Other purposes423441356363
            Totals, urban10,11555,0178,85750,969
Loans to industry125,7425632
                  Grand totals14,342105,01112,01475,324

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen in respect of farms and houses.

The aggregate loans approved from its own funds since the Corporation commenced business in 1935 to 31 March 1968 are as follows.

Type of LoanNumberAmount
*Since 1958 the whole of the General Reserve Fund has been invested in Government securities.
  $(million)
Farm45,926421.6
Housing229,351909.4
Loans to industry12633.2
Loans to local authorities (from General Reserve Fund)*1,13138.3
Totals276,5341,402.5

Conditions of Loans—The large majority of the loans granted by the Corporation are secured by table mortgages for terms varying from 10 to 30 years, but the Corporation also has power to make advances on flat mortgage on certain conditions.

When loans are granted in excess of normal lending margins, mortgagors may be required to offer some form of collateral security (e.g., mortgage of life policy).

All mortgagors who receive from the Corporation a loan secured by a mortgage of land are required to pay as a contribution to the Corporation's General Reserve Fund, an amount equal to 2 percent of the amount of the loan and this amount may be borrowed as an addition to the principal sum if so desired. This contribution may be waived, or reduced, in respect of a loan granted within five years of repaying an earlier loan from the Corporation. These amounts, together with the transfer from profits referred to later, form the General Reserve Fund.

Interest Rates—The Corporation is required from time to time to fix the rates of interest to be paid under mortgages to it, so as to make adequate provision to cover the costs of administration and for all other matters incidental to the proper functioning of the Corporation.

The general lending rate of the Corporation was maintained at 41/8 percent until the end of 1953. There has been a number of subsequent increases from varying dates for different types of loans. The rates of interest charged are:

Farm loans—
    On first mortgage51/2 percent
    On second or subsequent mortgage6 percent
    On stock and plant51/2 percent
Housing loans—
    To purchase existing houses5 percent
    To erect new houses51/2 percent
Loans to industry6 percent to 7 percent

Mortgages granted after 1 April 1968 provide for a review of the rate of interest at five-yearly intervals.

Annual Repayment Costs—The following summary shows the annual cost—i.e., interest and principal payments—per $100 borrowed on table mortgage at 3 percent, 5 percent, 51/2 percent, and 6 percent for the various periods.

TermAnnual Amount Payable Per $100 Borrowed
3 Percent5 Percent51/2 Percent6 Percent
 $$$$
10 years11.6412.8213.1413.44
15 years8.329.569.9010.20
20 years6.687.968.308.66
25 years5.727.067.407.78
30 years5.086.486.847.22

FINANCIAL—Balance-sheet figures show that at 31 March 1968 stock and debentures outstanding were $352,930,780 as compared with $357,943,780 at 31 March 1967. National Development loans capital was $372,523,230 compared with $329,523,230 at 31 March 1967.

The General Reserve Fund at 31 March 1968 amounted to $38,250,375 and in addition there were specific reserves amounting to $4,773,215 making total reserves of $43,023,590 as compared with $40,261,357 at 31 March 1967.

Funds available to the Corporation from National Development Loans Account have been subject to an interest rate of 41/2 percent from 1 April 1963, and a total of $43,000,000 was advanced during the year.

As from the same date the Corporation was reimbursed for interest concessions on civilian rebated housing loans (that is, for the difference between its normal lending rate and the rebated rate). This reimbursement is effected by deduction from interest payments due by the Corporation to the Public Account in respect of National Development Loans capital, and the interest concessions so reimbursed amounted to $3,976,255 for the year ended 31 March 1968.

Mortgages and accrued interest at 31 March 1968 totalled $725,312,646 an increase of $37,087,399 over the amount at 31 March 1967, while Government and local authority securities and accrued interest at $44,010,487 were greater by $2,614,819.

After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets, and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the Corporation, the surplus for each financial year after payment of income tax is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorises it to be credited in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the Corporation.

The details of profits in respect of operations during each of the latest three financial years are given in the following table.

Disposition and Appropriation of Profits1965-661966-671967-68
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Gross income31,58334,33038,404
    Less interest on Reserve Fund investments1,6881,8662,038
    Less interest on loan capital24,44626,50028,360
                        Gross Profit5,4495,9648,006
    Less management expenses1,9272,1932,254
                            Net Profit3,5223,7715,752
    Less reserve for taxes1,7661,8902,880
    Less transfer to General Reserve404040
    Less transfer to Premises Capital Reserve500500800
                        Surplus payable to Public Account1,2161,3412,032

The gross income of $38,403,570 in 1967-68 included $31,104,906 interest on mortgages and current accounts, $2,161,448 interest on Government and local authority securities, $1,160,962 recovery from the Rehabilitation Division on account of interest concessions to ex-servicemen on rehabilitation advances, and $3,976,255 for interest concessions on civilian rebated advances. Corresponding figures for 1966-67 were $34,330,399, $27,097,943, $1,952,138 and $1,250,637 respectively for the first four items.

HOUSING ACT 1955: In addition to its lending activities the State Advances Corporation has the important function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of State rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of State rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

State Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the Corporation during the year ended 31 March 1968 totalled 1,490. State houses under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1967 were 48,504. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sales and repurchases, there was a net total of 50,449 at 31 March 1968, an increase of 1,945 over the previous year. In addition to these houses the Corporation also administers a group of other houses acquired for rental purposes, the number being 1,024 at 31 March 1968.

Rental accounts in arrears at 28 February 1968 were 5.79 percent compared with 3.82 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $16,122,666. In addition the sum of $681,898 was recouped by deduction of interest payable on National Development loans capital to offset rental concessions granted to pensioners, etc., thus bringing the total receipts to $16,804,564 compared with $14,690,266 for 1966-67. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of State houses. For the year ended 31 March 1968 this amounted to $2,998,440 against $2,641,518 for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1968, being $2,765,859 compared with the previous year's figure of $2,634,921.

As in the preceding year, the interest rate payable on National Development Loans capital in 1967-68 was 3 percent. The year's revenue transactions in the Housing Account produced a total profit of $1,888,427 which, together with a surplus of $2,767,507 brought forward from 1966-67, resulted in a revenue surplus of $4,655,934 being carried forward at the close of 1967-68.

References to State housing construction are contained in Section 19 (Building Construction and Housing).

Sale of State Houses—Should they desire to own their own homes, State house tenants of single units are given the opportunity of buying the houses they occupy.

The current purchase terms available to tenants include:

  1. A minimum deposit usually of 5 percent of the gross purchase price but where, however, the financial position of the purchaser warrants, the Corporation may require a greater deposit.

  2. The balance of the purchase money, together with interest, payable over a period of years on an instalment-table basis.

  3. Interest at 5 percent reducible to 3 percent while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for a 3 percent housing loan.

  4. Agreements for sale completed after 1 April 1968 provide for a review of the rate of interest at five-yearly intervals.

From the inception of the sale of State rental houses up to 31 March 1968 the number sold to the tenants was 21,111 for a total sale price of $108,890,565. Of the houses sold, 1,299 have been repurchased by the Corporation for $6,263,225. The repurchases comprise properties which have been bought back in terms of the sale agreement—generally from purchasers who have transferred to other towns in the course of their employment.

Loans to Local Authorities for Housing—The Corporation has authority to advance moneys received under the Housing Act 1955 to local authorities for housing purposes, such loans for pensioner and community housing schemes and, in some cases, the development of land for housing. Under the Rural Housing Act 1939 the Corporation has authority also to grant finance to local authorities for farm housing. A summary of loans authorised under these provisions, during the latest two financial years, is given in the following table.

Type of Loan to Local Authorities1966-19671967-68
NumberValueNumberValue
  $(000) $(000)
Pensioner housing481,433381,372
Community housing3,15288
Land development820-
Rural housing363,078382,308
                Totals848,483763,768

Interest rates on loans granted to local authorities are: pensioner housing 31/2 percent; community housing 5 percent, and rural housing 43/4 percent.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES: Classification of Accounts and Balance Sheet Assets at 31 March 1968—As already indicated, the Corporation, in addition to its normal lending functions, administers a number of other State activities, and a general summary of the business under administration as at 31 March 1968 is as follows.

ItemNumber of AccountsAmount
State Advances Corporation—
    Investments and accrued interest— $(000)
        Rural—
            Mortgages17,544220,325
            Advances to Rural Intermediate Credit Associations131,901
            Seasonal current accounts (in debit)77401
            Seasonal current accounts (in credit)9
        Urban (mortgages)123,623489,436
        Loans to industries4815,712
        Government and local authority securities48144,010
        Fixed and current assets 6,836
Totals141,795778,621
Agencies—
    Advances under Rehabilitation Act 1941—
        Furniture, business, and miscellaneous17552
        Interest-free supplementary loans 1,608
        Health Department682,513
        Licensing Control Commission14385
        Gas companies11363
        Suspensory loans (rural and urban)8721,431
        Mines Department suspensory loans1110
        Miscellaneous rentals, etc.2,573..
Totals3,7246,362
Housing Account—
    Investments and accrued interest—
        Properties sold13,86754,442
        Loans to local authorities37613,206
    Rural Housing Act (loans to local authorities)2409,845
    Properties let—
        Dwellings50,449250,804
        Shops, halls, and communal garages173
    Current assets 740
    Timber workers' rentals66
Totals65,171329,037
Grand totals210,6901,114,020

Farm loans and residential loans to ex-servicemen under the Rehabilitation Act 1941 are included in the table with mortgage investments. Particulars of all rehabilitation loan authorisations will be found in Section 6B (War Pensions and Rehabilitation).

30 C—BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL.—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have over 380,000 members. There are 69 building societies with total assets of $233.6 million. They provide finance for home ownership to the extent of over $38 million a year. Building societies have assisted the national economy by developing the field of contractual saving. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries, and are exempt from taxation. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

There are two types of building society—permanent and terminating. The co-operative terminating societies account for 65.4 percent of total building society assets and have over 338,000 members. They have no fixed capital or proprietary interests but obtain their funds purely from subscriptions paid by members on their shares. Field staffs are employed to recruit new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member in due course to a loan of $400, with a contractual payment of 10 cents weekly per share. Ballots for interest-free loans are held at set intervals and members may also secure home loans by tendering competitively for them. Although a member drawing an interest-free ballot may use it to finance a home, the majority, enrolled in any case purely as savers, accept from the societies a set tax-free profit on their loan rights, with their savings remaining intact. This releases funds for ordinary interest-bearing mortgages invested at market rates. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest. Shareholders on withdrawal receive, after 10 years or later, a share of accrued profits in the same way as life assurance offices add bonuses to premium savings. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after 25 to 30 years, when all remaining members have either received a loan or the equivalent cash value.

Permanent societies, whilst encouraging systematic savings, rely substantially for their funds on the acceptance of deposits or single investments. Some permanent societies also have fixed share capital. Investments are made in what are virtually gilt-edged securities (principally mortgages on homes and Government stock) and dividends are paid. Some permanent societies also operate savings bank accounts with interest rates varying according to the period of fixed deposit.

Broadly, there are three different types of permanent building societies, namely, purely cooperative societies, proprietary societies which vary their interest or dividend distributions on partly co-operative principles, and proprietary societies which are entirely similar to finance companies.

Home finance for members of both types of societies is usually available up to two-thirds of valuation at an interest rate generally below the ruling market rate for mortgage finance. Mortgages are usually table mortgages for periods up to 20 years.

Returns of each society's operations were furnished annually to the Department of Statistics up to 1966-67. Under the latest legislation the collection of statistics is the responsibility of the Registrar of Building Societies who is changing the basis to a calendar year. Updated statistics for this issue of the Yearbook are consequently not available.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES AND SHARES—The number of societies functioning in 1966-67 was 69, of which 53 were permanent and 16 terminating. The number of societies has shown little variation in recent years.

Permanent Societies—The following table shows for each of the latest five years particulars of permanent societies, including data on number and value of investing and capital shares. Other fully-paid shares are shown separately, as these are included as deposits in the liabilities table.

Item1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
Number of societies5454535453
Investing Shares
Number of shares(000)9111,0741,1701,4581,556
Members holding 26,31427,01128,85032,02635,358
Aggregate value$(000)12,21112,29513,63615,67117,335
Other Classes of Shares (Fully Paid)
Number of shares(000)179257276297318
Aggregate value$(000)8,94412,93713,88214,96416,028
Capital Shares
Number of shares(000)1,5091,5481,6291,9752,817
Members holding 6,1226,1406,1756,0806,265
Aggregate value$(000)5,5605,6715,9906,2016,797

At March 1967 the average value of each investing share was $11.14, and the average value of such shares held by each member was $490. The comparative figures for capital shares were $2.41 and $1,085.

Terminating Societies—Total membership and value of shares continue to grow steadily. One person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society. The next table shows the progress of terminating societies during the latest five years.

YearSocietiesGroupsMembers Holding SharesInvesting Shares
NumberValue
    (000)$(000)
1962-6318554280,7332,73469,267
1963-6418566301,3523,04278,786
1964-6518598323,2813,37189,266
1965-6618613345,7983,741100,189
1966-6716616338,4284,160111,737

The average value per share in 1966-67 was 26.86, and the average value of shares held by each member was $330. The figures for 1962-63 were, respectively $25.34 and $247.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS—Following is a summary of receipts and payments for all societies during each of the latest five years.

Item1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
 Receipts $(thousand)
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares15,79917,94320,43022,24024,976
Advances repaid15,58218,59322,68525,85328,407
Deposits11,31115,84122,12925,52024,965
Interest3,1703,6134,3304,9395,020
Other receipts2,2863,1656,1036,0685,750
                    Total receipts48,14959,15575,67784,62089,118
 Payments $(thousand)
Withdrawals4,8035,4346,3227,9109,726
Advances26,00931,06737,37842,11141,738
Expenses of management1,3801,4751,6241,8701,931
Dividends paid361383421464510
Deposits repaid8,59510,45315,67919,14320,738
Interest paid1,3591,5521,8692,2112,424
Other payments4,6077,16210,59110,71312,185
                    Total payments47,11457,52673,88484,42289,252

The ratio of loan repayments to advances was 59.9 percent in 1962-63, 59.8 percent in 1963-64, 60.7 percent in 1964-65, 61.4 percent in 1965-66, and 68.1 percent in 1966-67.

LOANS—The number of borrowers and amount of loans outstanding at the end of each of the five years quoted were as follows. Advances on shares are excluded, as are the outstanding balances on premiums on loans where possible. In a few cases however, it has not been possible to separate this figure from the amount of loans and in such cases the outstanding balance owing on premiums on loans is included.

As at End of YearPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesTotals
Number of LoansAmountNumber of LoansAmountNumber of LoansAmount
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
1962-6316,51552,15934,98963,13551,504115,294
1963-6417,24256,94637,89771,16455,139128,109
1964-6517,89963,57939,42980,94557,328144,524
1965-6618,21470,34540,16191,63658,375161,981
1966-6718,36767,04742,486109,98060,853177,027

The average amount owing by each borrower at the end of each of the five years is given below.

Class1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-67
 $$$$$
Permanent societies3,1583,3023,5743,8623,650
Terminating societies1,8041,8782,0522,2812,589
All societies2,2382,3242,5202,7752,909

For terminating societies, if all outstanding balances owing on premiums on loans are added to the loan totals outstanding, the 1966-67 figure would be $112.6 million compared with $109.8 million in 1965-66, $96.8 million in 1964-65 and $85.2 million in 1963-64.

Particulars of loans granted during each of the latest five years follow.

During YearPermanent SocietiesTerminating Societies
By BallotBy Auction
Number of LoansAmountNumber of LoansAmountNumber of LoansAmountPremiums
  $(000) $(000) $(000)$(000)
1962-632,6809,0691,6125,9952,2218,5343,867
1963-643,33913,1201,8547,1322,3799,4704,484
1964-653,56714,9172,0968,3333,06712,4755,878
1965-663,49615,7112,0919,3393,27214,9967,052
1966-673,24813,6742,38511,2073,07814,0247,726

The totals for loans in the above table represent loans granted and differ slightly from the figures shown as advances in the table relating to receipts and payments, where the amounts refer to payments actually made in respect of loans. The average loan granted by permanent societies amounted to $4,210, and by terminating societies (ballot) $4,700 and (auction) $4,556. The average premium on auctioned loans, representing total interest payments over the period of the loan, was $2,510.

Premium rates on auctioned loans during the last five years have been 1962-63, $45.3 percent: 1963-64, $47.4 percent; 1964-65, $47.1 percent; 1965-66, $47.0 percent, and 1966-67, $55.1 percent.

The next table gives a classification of loans into those granted to finance the erection of new dwellings, and those granted to finance the purchase of dwellings already built. For the purposes of the statistics new dwellings are deemed to include those which have been built by the borrower during the 12 months preceding the granting of the loan. Particulars for 1966-67, with totals for earlier years, are given in the following table.

ItemTo Finance the Erection of New DwellingsTo Finance the Purchase of Dwellings Already BuiltFor Other and Unspecified PurposesTotals
No.AmountNo.AmountNo.AmountNo.Amount
  $(000) $(000) $(000) $(000)
Permanent societies3492,0561,9147,7929853,8263,24813,674
Terminating societies—
    By ballot3591,7621,5667,5904601,8552,38511,207
    By auction4152,1592,0049,2336592,6323,07814,024
Totals all societies—
                1966-671,1235,9775,48424,6152,1048,3138,71138,905
                1965-661,2416,2665,68924,9931,9298,7878,85940,047
                1964-651,1035,4375,39221,8932,2358,3948,73035,724
                1963-649504,1124,58117,7232,0417,8867,57229,721
                1962-639584,0793,95414,9281,6014,5906,51323,597

Loan authorisations in 1966-67 showed a decrease of $1.1 million on 1965-66, which was shared by both permanent and terminating societies.

The considerable number of loans shown for other and unspecified purposes is partly due to the fact that some societies are unable to give the necessary classification, so that it may be taken that the foregoing table understates the number of loans actually granted for the erection or purchase of dwellings.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The liabilities and assets of building societies for each of the latest five years are given in the next table.

LIABILITIES

YearTo Shareholders (Including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits)DepositsAppropriations Not Taken Up, or in TrustTo Bankers and Other CreditorsTotal Liabilities
 $(thousand)
1962-63104,75432,4544,4632,592144,263
1963-64117,56038,6764,8062,906163,949
1964-65133,69045,9804,8913,568188,129
1965-66151,13252,2615,1313,275211,799
1966-67171,58456,4882,6252,907233,604

ASSETS

YearAdvances on Mortgage*Advances on SharesOther Investments and AssetsCash in Hand and at BankTotal Assets
*Includes balance owing on premiums on loans.
 $(thousand)
1962-63127,5092,53913,580635144,263
1963-64142,0813,00818,255605163,949
1964-65160,4133,26823,740708188,129
1965-66180,1613,79227,069777211,799
1966-67198,5414,38029,995688233,604

The ratio of advances on mortgage to total assets for 1966-67 was 85.0 percent, a small decrease on the figure for 1965-66, which was 85.1 percent.

30 D—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the small trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from two to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least seven members. A private company of not less than seven members may, under certain conditions, be reregistered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED—The following table shows for the last 11 years the number and aggregate nominal capital of new private companies registered.

In comparing one year with another it should not be overlooked that reregistrations, on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included. Such reregistrations of large companies may have a considerable effect on the year's total, so far as capital in concerned.

The nominal capital shown for overseas companies is the total nominal capital of these companies and, of course, bears no relationship to their capital resources employed in New Zealand. It is shown merely as some indication of the relative size of overseas companies commencing business in this country.

YearPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital

*Of this number one company was limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

†Of this number one company was created under special overseas Government charter and no capital information is available.

‡ Of this number two companies were limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

  $(000) $(000) $(000)
19573,46228,222252,88826*129,854
19582,995*24,517128562733,316
19592,685*28,00924*8192865,380
19603,69129,8574619,7593024,376
19613,53130,2042524,1661117,339
19623,30122,9202510,58825*11,581
19634,107*30,358266,3153237,460
19645,009*43,8322614,3071931,814
19655,50436,7793725,3792223,602
19665,55637,57016*6,88737142,882
19674,77132,0762713,1453157,497

The table following gives a classification of new companies registered in 1967 according to the amount of nominal capital.

Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital
$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under 2,0001,5761,0332143
    2,000- 3,9991,2572,831--12
    4,000- 5,9997543,24529--
    6,000- 7,9993262,039----
    8,000- 9,9991861,516--324
  10,000- 11,9992292,300110110
  12,000- 13,99976922----
  14,000- 15,99934493----
  16,000- 17,99938612--116
  18,000- 19,99916289----
  20,000- 29,9991503,156--245
  30,000- 39,999541,724134--
  40,000- 99,999583,08142106387
100,000-199,999899511252220
200,000 and over97,8401212,7551156,790
Limited by guarantee, etc.--4---
      Totals4,77132,0762713,1453157,497

The number of private company registrations in 1967 was 4,771. This represented a decrease of 785 or (14.1 percent) below the 5,556 registered in 1966. The nominal capital of companies registered showed a decrease of $5.5 million or 14.6 percent.

The extent of changes in the number and nominal capital of new registrations of private companies between 1957 and 1967, expressed as percentages of the totals is shown in the following table.

Amount of Nominal CapitalNumberAmount of Capital
1957196719571967
$percent
Under 2,00016.733.01.53.2
  2,000- 9,99958.552.929.530.0
10,000-19,99915.08.222.614.4
20,000 and over9.85.946.452.4
      Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Compiled from published sources, the following summary gives the stated objects of all new companies registered during 1965-67. Because of possible inaccuracies in the source data, and the difficulty of precise classification by industrial group from the information available, the figures should be regarded as approximate only.

Industry Group196519661967
Agriculture and livestock production648727490
Forestry, hunting, and fishing403645
Mining and quarrying243919
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco413953
    Textile, footwear, and apparel493839
    Woodwork and furniture665251
    Machinery1369496
    Transport equipment163194188
    Other189203207
Construction624611454
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail1,7871,9171,655
    Banks and other financial institutions207170183
    Real estate677523441
    Other15811
Transport, storage, and communication200184189
Services—
    Community and business136143139
    Personal382436390
Other313042
Miscellaneous or not known148165137
                Totals5,5635,6094,829

Companies Carrying on Business—Detailed statistics of all companies carrying on business were last compiled for the 1947 year. Apart from numbers on the register, data for subsequent years deal only with new registrations, deletions, and changes in nominal capital.

For the calendar year 1967, 1,096 public and private companies which previously had a total nominal capital of $113.6 million increased their nominal capital by $72.1 million to $185.7 million. There were 17 cases with increases of $1 million or more and these accounted for $35.2 million of the total increase. Overseas companies registered in New Zealand but not included in the preceding figures increased their nominal capital by $26 million from $32 million to $58 million. In 32 cases local companies reduced their nominal capital by a total of $2.4 million from $6.9 million to $4.5 million. During 1967 there were 986 companies deleted from the Company Register, their total nominal capital being $6.7 million; in the previous year 905 companies with total nominal capital of $6.2 million were deleted.

Companies on Register—The number of public companies on the register at 31 December 1967 was 1,313 and the number of private companies 63,823. At 31 December 1968, public companies numbered 1,304 and private companies 67,976. These figures were supplied by the Registrar of Companies.

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Results of these analyses are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

The basis of coverage includes only companies of New Zealand domicile whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources. This definition excludes, among others, companies carrying on insurance, some stock and station agents, and shipping companies. The number of companies covered has been: 1964-65, 308; 1965-66, 300; 1966-67, 292; and 1967-68, 288. The surveys cover analysed accounts received during the 12 months ended 30 June, whereas previous surveys covered accounts of companies balancing during a March year. Interpretation over periods longer than four years should therefore be based on the direction and relative size of changes in aggregate rather than on their absolute size.

Changes in sources of funds over the latest four years are shown in the following table.

Source of Funds1964-651965-661966-671967-68
 percent
Retained profits and depreciation47.746.348.157.5
Other long-term sources29.024.931.934.1
All long-term sources76.771.280.091.6
Short-term sources23.328.820.08.4
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

The next table sets out proportionately the use of funds.

Use of Funds1964-651965-661966-671967-68
 percent
Property and plant51.756.756.170.2
Long-term investment7.54.34.53.8
 59.261.060.674.0
Stocks20.116.618.217.4
Debtors19.119.518.96.4
Other short-term1.62.92.32.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Appropriation of income of 288 New Zealand public companies in the latest two years is shown in the following table.

Item1966-671967-68
Income for year—$(000)
    Trading202,539203,298
    Investment income4,3065,213
    Other non-trading income1,0631,134
                Total income207,908209,645
Deductions—
    Depreciation51,06155,673
    Interest on fixed liabilities13,66216,809
    Directors' fees1,4181,498
    Tax on current year's income66,57264,587
    Minority interests1,2091,196
                Total deductions133,922139,763
Net profit after tax73,98669,882
Previous year's adjustments—
    Tax494229
    Other1,2773,042
Available for appropriation75,75773,153
Appropriations—
    Goodwill, etc., written off9262,808
    Ordinary dividends36,09137,749
    Preference dividends2,0482,100
    Retained in reserves36,69230,496
                Total appropriations75,75773,153

Chapter 31. Section 31 INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ASSURANCE—Life assurance has expanded beyond the basic original concept of enabling a breadwinner to secure substantial death cover by means of small periodic payments and so provide resources for his dependants on the occurrence of his death. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance which provides a sum payable at the expiry of a specified period or the death of the life assured if that should occur first. Under this category life insurance companies sell policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries. A specialised form of savings and insurance service given by the life offices which has grown tremendously in recent years is that involving the underwriting of the benefits of private superannuation schemes. The life offices also offer a superannuation scheme, approved for special tax concessions, which is available to any self-employed person and indeed to any person not already a member of an approved scheme.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of reserve funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Life-assurance and annuity funds in 1968 had reached $1,010 million and total assets $1,064 million, of which 40.5 percent was invested in mortgages on property, 20.7 percent in Government securities, and 7.5 percent in local authority securities. Premium income for the year 1967-68 totalled $114.1 million.

In the year 1967-68 there were 167,768 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $769 million, or approximately $280 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2,028,336 for a total life assurance of $5,094.9 million. (These figures exclude annuities. Annuity policies issued during 1967-68 numbered 181 assuring $2.1 million. The total annuities in force at the end of the year was 1,919, assuring an annual amount of $12.8 million.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life insurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Canada, the United States, and Sweden, as shown in the following table. This survey covered 33 countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1968.)

RATIO OF LIFE ASSURANCE IN FORCE TO NATIONAL INCOME

Country19611966
 percent
Canada180190
United States146159
Sweden68144
New Zealand110135
Netherland116119
Australia7993
United Kingdom7294

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.)

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910; and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 22 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, three are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., and the Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., whilst two, the Provident Life Assurance Co. and the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd., are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between June and May of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand. Further information is available in the Report on Insurance Statistics.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

Figure 31.1. LIFE ASSURANCE - NEW BUSINESS

LIFE ASSURANCE - NEW BUSINESS

A summary of annual life assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of Policies IssuedValue of Policies DiscontinuedValue of Policies Existing at End of YearAnnual Premiums on Existing PoliciesNumber of Policies in Force
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)(000)
1957-58233.374.31,623.448.61,528
1958-59264.584.01,803.952.11,561
1959-60319.897.92,025.755.41,598
1960-61368.0115.22,278.459.71,695
1961-62396.6127.42,547.864.41,723
1962-63435.2140.22,842.869.41,751
1963-64508.6156.03,195.575.51,793
1964-65595.6183.33,609.182.81,846
1965-66674.0213.34,069.891.11,911
1966-67744.0227.04,586.7100.91,973
1967-68768.9260.65,094.9113.62,028

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 11 years the face value of new business written and the amount of cover in force have more than trebled.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business—A table showing the progress of business over a period of 11 years is given below, Annuities are excluded from these figures.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
*A change by one company in 1960-61 in the method of recording numbers of group and superannuation policies resulted in the numbers of policies issued and discontinued for the year 1960-61 being inflated in comparison with previous years. Policies existing at the end of 1960-61 were similarly increased. The amounts of sum assured and annual premiums were however, not affected.
  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
1957-5886,950225.45.937,25567.12.21,023,8101,537.644.5
1958-5989,822257.36.041,18077.02.51,072,4521,717.948.0
1959-6096,582313.16.245,82191.22.81,123,2131,939.951.4
1960-61*117,468361.17.355,956108.23.01,238,7972,192.855.7
1961-62114,874387.57.965,011119.83.21,288,6882,460.760.4
1962-63119,238424.58.468,757132.03.31,339,1712,753.265.4
1963-64131,279497.49.871,403148.03.71,399,0473,102.671.5
1964-65140,865583.511.472,074175.34.21,468,0513,512.178.7
1965-66149,768660.913.169,720204.64.81,548,0993,968.486.9
1966-67152,584730.014.673,718217.54.91,626,9654,480.996.6
1967-68151,835754.315.689,575251.22.91,689,2244,984.0109.3

In addition to the figure of $15,551,382 representing annual premiums payable for policies issued during 1967-68, an amount of $3,743,989 was paid during that year in the form of single premiums.

The average annual premium for each $100 of new business effected during 1967-68 was $2.06, as compared with $2.00 in 1966-67. There has been evident for some years past a growing preference for whole-life policies or longer term endowment assurance. Group assurance as a substitute for, or supplementation of, private or national superannuation schemes, has also assumed relative popularity, but owing to lack of data it is unfortunately not possible to give an analysis of policies by types.

Annuity policies issued during 1967-68 (excluded from these tables) numbered 181, as against 189 in 1966-67. The corresponding annual amounts were $2,145,071 and $2,549,861. There were 1,919 annuities in force at the end of the year assuring an annual amount of $12,849,204.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage AmountIncrease
*Decrease influenced by change in method of recording by one company.
 $$
1956-572,428134
1957-582,594166
1958-592,864270
1959-603,242378
1960-613,074-168*
1961-623,374300
1962-633,560186
1963-643,788228
1964-654,142354
1965-664,412270
1966-674,784372
1967-684,968184

The growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table is due to several factors, including the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover, for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover.

The average face value of discontinued policies during 1967-68 was $2,805, while the average face value of policies in force at the end of the year was $2,950.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued—The causes of discontinuances during each of the latest five years are contained in the next table.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1963-646,53716,56624,05814,7199,52371,403
1964-656,53817,26027,16814,4306,68472,080
1965-666,97818,14325,37015,0464,18369,720
1966-677,53018,74727,00515,3565,08073,718
1967-687,17719,65129,46918,20715,07189,575
Sum Assured $(m)
1963-649.610.762.238.327.3148.0
1964-6510.411.772.346.834.1175.3
1965-6612.612.684.551.743.1204.6
1966-6713.113.992.557.041.0217.5
1967-6813.215.5100.072.350.1251.2

Reducing the sums assured in the previous table to a percentage basis, the results are as follows.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
 percent
1963-646.47.242.025.918.4100.0
1964-655.96.741.226.719.5100.0
1965-666.26.141.325.321.1100.0
1966-676.06.442.526.218.9100.0
1967-685.26.239.828.820.0100.0

Revenue and Expenditure—A statement of revenue and expenditure under the various heads illustrates the course of ordinary life-assurance business in New Zealand during the past five years. Transfers between head offices and branches are included. The ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue are also given.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
Revenue$(000)
New and renewal premiums73,86982,13491,739101,023109,909
Consideration for annuities6906881,1861,5081,722
Interest, rents, etc.34,59639,05444,13849,22455,001
Transfers7214442921,191584
Other revenue2393341,170418443
                Totals, revenue110,115122,654138,525153,363167,659
    Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity25,53727,82731,18534,43636,202
Annuities44949055959169
Surrenders7,9459,54811,49111,83712,551
Cash bonuses133147181172230
Commissions5,8736,7407,7388,6099,000
Other management6,8527,7868,7159,73911,696
Rates and taxes3,2243,4453,8544,2345,241
Transfers2611092,374607761
Other expenditure3933944988141,440
                Totals, expenditure50,66756,48666,59571,03877,817
    Ratiospercent
Management expenses to premium income17.217.717.918.218.8
Management expenses to total revenue11.611.811.912.012.3

Of the excess of revenue as shown in the above statements a large proportion is transferred annually to reserves to meet future payments under policies.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business—In principle there is no difference between ordinary and industrial assurance. With the latter class of insurance the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than three months and are usually collected personally by agents. Collection of premiums from family homes at four-weekly intervals has led to the informal description of this branch as home service insurance. During the last decade particularly, the popularity of this type of life assurance has declined, the number of policies issued in 1967-68 being only 60.1 percent of the 1957-58 total. Of the 22 life offices, only five engage in industrial business.

A summary of the course of industrial-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
  $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
1957-5826,5067.936842,7347.1376504,28585.84,089
1958-5923,6767.233839,3296.9361488,63286.04,065
1959-6021,8486.631535,3126.8360475,16885.84,019
1960-6120,3126.931738,8227.1370456,65885.73,966
1961-6220,5779.137643,2507.6391433,98587.23,952
1962-4319,28410.641541,0268.2408412,24389.63,959
1963-6418,14411.342336,8278.0380393,56092.94,001
1964-6517,24212.144432,6758.0374378,12797.04,072
1965-6616,19013.146331,7748.7388362,543101.44,147
1966-6717,05314.050333,4309.6420346,166105.84,230
1967-6815,93314.550722,9879.4400339,112111.04,336

The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1967-68 amounted to $913 with an average annual premium of $31.79. Corresponding averages for 1957-58 were $297 and $13.88.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued—A summary of the number of industrial policies and the corresponding assurances discontinued according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-year table.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1963-641,74123,4006,6414,93610936,827
1964-651,61619,4516,4434,80735832,675
1965-661,52918,3905,9005,19975631,774
1966-671,62519,7615,9805,12194333,430
1967-681,57510,5516,4493,69371922,987
Sum Assured $(000)
1963-642632,7232,0032,96987,966
1964-652332,4862,0093,188667,982
1965-662552,4052,0013,8981388,697
1966-672812,6802,2984,1351669,560
1967-683041,4993,0974,3661439,408

The amount written off in each year is proportionately greater in the industrial than in the ordinary branch. Of the assurance in force at the end of the previous year, 5.6 percent of the ordinary became void in 1967-68, as compared with 8.9 of the industrial.

In the following table the sums assured for the various classes of discontinuances are expressed as percentages of the total discontinuances.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
percent
1963-643.334.225.137.30.1100.0
1964-652.931.225.239.90.8100.0
1965-662.927.723.044.81.6100.0
1966-672.928.024.143.31.7100.0
1967-683.215.932.946.41.6100.0

Discontinuances by death are relatively lower in industrial than in ordinary business, and the proportion of policies reaching maturity is higher. The explanation probably lies in the comparatively short terms for which industrial policies are issued, and the fact that premiums are usually collected personally by agents.

Revenue and Expenditure—The several items of revenue and expenditure in industrial business are shown in the following five-yearly table, together with the ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue. Transfers between head offices and branches are again included.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
*Includes a large transfer from an overseas branch to one life company.
    Revenue$(000)
Premiums3,9203,9944,0534,1344,239
Interest, rents, etc.1,9672,1332,2182,2402,397
Transfers971*3941--
Other revenue3515592939
                Totals, revenue6,8936,1816,3716,4046,675
    Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity3,5183,3283,3653,7712,197
Surrenders471503523495598
Commissions477516527543558
Other management811831863870918
Rates and taxes181181191188187
Transfers-––––--
Other expenditure99611029790
                Totals, expenditure5,5585,4215,5715,9644,548
    Ratiopercent
Management expenses to premium income32.933.734.334.234.8
Management expenses to total revenue18.721.821.822.122.1

The fall in the ratio of management expenses to total revenue in 1963-64 was due to the increase in transfers in the latter. The ratio excluding transfers was 21.8 percent.

The higher ratio of management expenses to premium income in the industrial branch is largely accounted for by the cost of renewal commissions on collection of premiums and the greater amount of office work involved in relation to the amount assured. In the ordinary branch, commission (new and renewal) in 1967-68 was equivalent to 8.2 percent of the premium income and in the industrial branch to 13.2 percent. Excluding commission, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 21.7 percent in the industrial branch, as against 10.6 percent in the ordinary.

LIFE-ASSURANCE DEATH RATES—The following table shows for the period 1957-58 to 1967-68 the death rate per thousand policies exposed to risk in each year. In computing these rates all policies which were in force for any portion of the year have been taken into account. The much lower death rate among policyholders, compared with that for the general population (8.43 at 31 December 1967), points to a lower average in the insured group, a normal consequence of rapid growth in the life-assurance field.

YearDeath Rate per 1,000 Policies
Ordinary Life AssuranceIndustrial Life AssuranceOrdinary and Industrial Combined
1957-584.313.874.16
1958-594.573.584.25
1959-604.363.604.13
1960-614.403.264.08
1961-624.363.554.15
1962-634.433.534.21
1963-644.444.054.35
1964-654.253.934.18
1965-664.313.884.23
1966-674.434.284.40
1967-684.034.354.09

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the three latest years. Both classes of assurance are represented in the figures, which, as in the previous tables, relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Aggregate liabilities are first shown.

Liabilities1965-661966-671967-68
  $(m) 
Paid-up share capital1,6261,6292,264
Life-assurance and annuity funds837,512917,9851,009,919
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds13,40716,69520,414
Claims admitted but not paid5,3865,8256,051
Other liabilities15,48618,54425,616
Totals873,418960,6781,064,264

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the three latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Totals
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
  $(m)  percent 
Mortgages on property364.6396.5430.641.841.340.5
Loans on policies27.132.140.43.13.33.8
New Zealand Government securities174.6194.3219.220.020.220.7
Securities of other Governments0.50.60.60.10.10.1
Local authority securities85.081.079.49.78.47.5
Land, buildings and houses69.280.391.17.98.38.6
Company shares & debentures127.6148.2169.014.615.415.9
Outstanding premiums9.210.512.81.01.11.2
Interest accrued, etc.8.39.210.51.01.01.0
Cash2.13.43.70.20.40.3
Other assets5.24.67.00.60.50.6
Totals873.4960.71,064.3100.0100.0100.0

Investments in mortgages, which rose steadily to 46.9 percent of total assets in 1961-62, have since declined to 40.5 percent in 1967-68, as against 44.6 percent in 1957-58, increased investment has been made in Government securities in recent years, but investments in local authority securities continue to decline. Company shares and debentures are gaining in popularity and now comprise 15.9 percent of the total.

For 1967-68 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of both departments was $6.19 percent, compared with $6.09 percent during 1966-67. This rate was calculated by taking the arithmetic means of funds at the beginning and end of the year less half the amount of interest, etc., earned.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies. This, of course, is a natural consequence of the huge increase in the amount of business. In composite insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

Figure 31.2. LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES - TOTAL ASSETS

LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES - TOTAL ASSETS

The diagram also shows the trend in the class of security in which the funds have been invested. Over the last 20 years there has been a large expansion in investment on property mortgages, which include loans for home ownership as well as commercial premises, although the percentage of these funds to total assets has declined in recent years.

31B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL—There are three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These are: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) Employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) Motor vehicle insurance, providing both comprehensive coverage and compulsory third-party risks cover. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1967-68 is 77, a decrease of 5 since 1966-67 due to amalgamations, and the head offices of the companies concerned being domiciled as follows: Great Britain, 29; Australia, 16; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 2; and New Zealand, 27.

Of the New Zealand offices only 13, including the State Insurance Office, may be stated to be competitive in the ordinary sense of the term, the remainder having been formed by trade associations, etc., on a more or less co-operative basis. In the main an office of this latter type conducts one class of accident insurance business only, according to the nature of the association with which it is connected.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
*Excluding reserve provisions.
$(thousand)
1957-586727,37796028,33718,3912,2873,1182,65226,449
1958-597129,6421,09930,74119,9082,4563,2943,03628,694
1959-607632,1581,20433,36221,1652,6813,5073,17230,526
1960-617836,0121,51337,52622,8642,8703,9213,63733,292
1961-627939,1121,79740,90924,5253,0954,3744,15436,148
1962-638042,2092,04644,25526,8323,2494,8314,64839,559
1963-648146,7702,26449,03430,2233,4965,1784,81743,714
1964-658051,4782,72054,19833,8703,8915,5835,31148,656
1965-668059,9642,99962,96339,4944,1796,0505,91455,637
1966-678266,0433,30169,34443,7604,1186,7217,04761,646
1967-687769,1923,80772,99947,7164,3057,3927,83167,244

Premium receipts in 1967-68 were 4.8 percent above the 1966-67 figure, while claims rose by 9.0 percent.

Motor vehicle comprehensive insurance, which forms the largest class of accident insurance, accounted for $1,344,000 of the total increase in premium revenue during 1967-68. Claims showed an increase of $709,000 during 1967-68 compared with an increase of $1,611,000 during the previous year.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of five years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
percent
1963-6464.67.511.110.328.893.589.2
1964-6565.87.610.810.328.794.589.8
1965-6665.97.010.19.926.992.888.4
1966-6766.36.210.210.727.193.388.9
1967-6869.06.210.711.328.297.292.1

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $14,601,000 in 1965-66, $15,694,000 in 1966-67 and $17,076,000 in 1967-68. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the three years were respectively 24.4, 23.8, and 24.7 percent.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS—In the next table particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. Reinsurances effected outside New Zealand are not taken into account in the figures presented below.

YearEmployers' LiabilityPersonal Accident and SicknessMotor Vehicle ComprehensiveMotor Vehicle Third-party RisksOther FormsTotal
$(thousand)
Premiums Received
1963-6411,3084,22121,3824,5866,64248,138
1964-6512,3684,69723,4474,9657,19252,668
1965-6613,8035,26626,0648,6168,25462,003
1966-6714,8135,86828,5289,0089,87068,087
1967-6815,3506,67029,8728,6949,71570,302
Claims Paid
1963-647,2011,75515,4533,2102,61630,236
1964-657,5322,00217,9723,0402,80633,353
1965-668,8551,99520,2853,5943,46738,196
1966-679,4482,26721,8964,3144,48142,406
1967-6810,4642,54522,6055,8234,68246,119

Premiums and claims for motor vehicle third-party risks insurance relate to the years ended 30 June.

Claims under motor-vehicle comprehensive policies fell from 76.8 percent of the premiums in 1966-67 to 75.7 percent in 1967-68, while claims under third party risks policies rose from 47.9 percent in 1966-67 to 67.0 percent of premiums in 1967-68. From 1 July 1965 insurance for motor-vehicle third party risks was extended to cover non-paying passengers and premiums were increased, however, from 1 July 1967 premiums on some classes of vehicles were reduced and these changes are reflected in the fall and rise in the rates of claims to premiums.

Reducing the figures of each class for the years 1965-66 to 1967-68 to a percentage basis, the following results are obtained.

Class of InsuranceClaims to PremiumsPremiums to Total PremiumsClaims to Total Claims
1965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-681965-661966-671967-68
percent
Employers' liability64.263.868.222.321.821.823.222.322.7
Personal accident and sickness37.938.638.28.58.69.55.25.35.5
Motor vehicle comprehensive77.876.875.742.041.942.553.151.649.0
Motor vehicle third-party risks41.747.967.013.913.212.49.410.212.6
Other42.045.448.213.314.513.89.110.610.2
                All classes61.662.365.6100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

MOTOR VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS)—The Transport Act 1962 requires owners of motor vehicles to insure against their liability, through their negligence, to pay damages on account of the death or of bodily injury to another person. The actual process of insuring the vehicle is an integral part of the annual vehicle licensing transaction. The owner nominates an insurance company on the licence application and, upon payment of the combined licence fee and third-party insurance premium, the contract of insurance automatically takes effect.

Premium receipts and claims actually paid have been shown in the earlier tables, but the claims figures given later also show amounts on account of the estimated liability for claims still outstanding at 30 June 1968 which are necessarily subject to revision.

The following table gives the premium rates for the various classes of motor vehicles over the last four years. The rates for omnibuses, service cars, and contract motor vehicles are subject to increases according to seating capacity.

Class of Motor Vehicle1965-661966-671967-681968-69
*Includes motorcars manufactured before 1 January 1919.
 $$$$
Motor cycles7.107.106.00*5.50*
Power cycles1.201.201.000.80
E-plate vehicles1.101.101.101.10
Private cars and business cars (including station wagons)9.259.258.657.90
Trucks and vans9.409.408.808.05
Taxis, public32.0032.0032.0032.00
Buses, over 30 seats (maximum)48.0048.0048.0048.00
Service coaches, over 20 seats (maximum)48.0048.0048.0043.00
Contract motor vehicles (maximum)9.009.009.008.00
Trailers0.400.400.400.40
Rental cars44.0044.0040.0035.00
Fire brigade vehicles, ambulances, and miscellaneous12.0012.0012.0012.00

A sum of 25 cents for every contract of insurance is deducted for administration expenses, and the balance paid to the insurance company concerned.

Two important changes brought about by the Transport Amendment Act 1963 and effective from 1 July 1965 were that third-party risks insurance was extended to cover claims by passengers carried gratuitously in the insured vehicle (previously only fare-paying passengers in vehicles plying for hire were covered), and that the limit of $150,000 for any one accident was removed in respect of all claims by passengers in a vehicle used in the passenger-carrying business, i.e., bus, service coach, taxi.

Claims by passengers are subject to a limit of $15,000 for any one fare-paying passenger in a vehicle plying for hire, and $10,000 for passengers carried gratuitously.

A further change made by the Transport Amendment Act 1963 was the provision to enable claims for personal injury against unidentified or uninsured motorists to be made against a nominal defendant (the General Manager, State Insurance Office); these claims are dealt with on similar lines to insured claims.

Statistics of third-party risks insurance during the latest five years, with a summary covering the latest 10 years, are given in the following table. It should be noted that the liability for outstanding claims is usually over-estimated, and that the total claims for any particular year when finally settled may be expected to be somewhat smaller than the amounts now given. For instance, taking a period of five years 1954-55 to 1958-59 inclusive, for which all claims had been settled by 30 June 1968, the ratio of claims to premiums is 79.4 percent, as compared with the ratio of 92.0 percent computed in 1959. The actual claims payments made during the five-year period itself totalled $9,441,354, of which a proportion was on account of accidents occurring prior to 1954-55. It follows that the ratios given below are also likely to be reduced in course of time, particularly those for the most recent years.

ItemRegistration Year Ended 30 JuneTotal for Ten Years to 30 June 1968
19641965196619671968
*All claims up to 1958-59 have been settled.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Premiums received4,5864,9658,6169,0088,69454,587
Claims actually paid to 30 June 19683,6403,9023,6241,19922429,288
Estimated liability for claims still outstanding at 30 June 19684721,5794,7967,6067,34622,283
Ratio percent of claims paid and outstanding to premiums89.7110.497.797.787.194.5

A summary showing the experience over the last three registration years for each of the principal classes of motor vehicle is given in the table following.

Class of Motor VehicleNet Premiums ReceivedClaims PaidEstimated Claims Outstanding
Arising during YearArising during Previous YearsArising during YearArising during Previous Years
$
1965-66
Motor cycles199,65871249,81663,008189,310
Private and business cars6,571,428107,8602,506,5684,497,2185,085,692
Goods-service vehicles1,342,39836,198602,304924,7941,793,632
Public taxicabs90,0221,834126,19850,074117,918
Public omnibuses108,6083,60664,942106,332290,826
Other classes303,4363,90289,722275,764273,766
Totals8,615,550154,1123,439,5505,917,1907,751,144
1966-67
Motor cycles195,5781,87875,258142,048183,592
Private and business cars6,904,746111,3322,996,0445,474,0768,447,626
Goods-service vehicles1,400,21616,316807,4081,063,4482,089,798
Public taxicabs91,8701,97258,68689,512345,524
Public omnibuses123,7325,18849,336198,508340,850
Other classes292,1684,870186,082128,720511,692
Totals9,008,310141,5564,172,8147,096,31211,919,082
1967-68
Motor cycles159,9111,47477,08783,117374,501
Private and business cars6,707,160173,9004,147,0256,013,03810,785,307
Goods-service vehicles1,318,54239,543942,819942,0642,597,294
Public taxicabs98,2361,23159,68944,281279,720
Public omnibuses125,8184,665158,482119,233473,500
Other classes284,7583,431213,560144,218426,810
Totals8,694,425224,2445,598,6627,345,94114,937,132

The increase in premiums for some classes of vehicles in 1965-66 compared with previous years was due to the extension of the insurance to cover non-paying passengers.

31C—FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL—Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage but also against a wide range of other dangers including water, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1967 there were 63 fire insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these, the head offices of 20 were in New Zealand, while 29 were in Great Britain, 10 in Australia, 2 in the United States of America, and 2 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The increase in extent and value of property over the years is reflected in the statistics of policies issued and business underwritten.

The statistics in the following summary of business relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account.

Item1965-661966-671967-68
Amounts Underwritten   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31 December$m 10,399.9$m11,076.1$m12,115.2
Number of policies representing the foregoing1,739,0311,776,8561,853.439
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year$m11,667.5$m12,315.6$m13,498.8
Number of policies representing the foregoing1,909,1402,007,5731,991.206
Premiums   
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year$m27.8$m30.5$m33.2
Average gross premiums per $100 of business underwritten$0.24$0.25$0.25
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices$m24.0$m26.0$m28.4
Losses   
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned44,28746,86547,625
Gross losses$m8.4$m8.5$m11.9
Percentage of gross loss to amount under written (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.10.10.1
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums less refunds to insured (as shown above)34.932.641.8
Average loss$190$181$249

The next table shows the position of premium income and claims during the latest 11 years. While the bulk of the claims represent fire losses the figures also include the numerous, frequently minor, claims made under comprehensive policies for damage from other causes. The percentage of claims to premium income increased to 41.8 percent in 1967-68 as against 32.6 percent in 1966-67.

YearPremium IncomeClaimsPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
*Excludes figures for one company in liquidation.
 $(000)$(000)percent
1957-5813,2296,93752.4
1958-5914,2946,31944.1
1959-6015,3145,35335.0
1960-61*16,1715,31732.9
1961-6217,5265,79033.0
1962-6318,9957,53139.6
1963-6420,2697,01034.6
1964-6522,5747,30532.4
1965-6624,0338,38734.9
1966-6725,9958,46632.6
1967-6828,38711,87741.8

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 (which follows the provisions of the United Kingdom statute on the subject) life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 63 fire offices, 18 also engage in life assurance business, but only eight of these conduct such business in New Zealand. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, approximately $9,172 million.

Item1965-66 (Total)1966-67 (Total)1967-68
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
 $(million)
Paid-up capital426.9429.5467.932.9500.8
Reserves3,036.43,074.83,806.566.13,872.6
Other liabilities2,998.93,571.34,703.095.74,798.7
Totals6,462.37,075.68,977.3194.79,172.1
Life funds7,118.67,671.48,674.00.78,674.7
Total liabilities13,580.914,747.017,651.4195.517,846.8
Total assets13,580.914,747.017,651.4195.517,846.8

Liabilities and assets of Australian companies have been converted into New Zealand currency.

The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last five years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments—accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
 $(million)
House and landed property13.7016.2917.6719.6621.40
New Zealand Government securities32.5333.0434.2034.8632.53
New Zealand local authority securities8.8110.0410.8411.9520.62
Company stocks and shares16.0220.3924.3427.5235.28
Mortgages, etc.16.3118.1221.7324.7728.29
Outstanding premiums9.2910.1511.9712.9714.39
Cash and other assets in New Zealand21.8324.2027.6733.1033.85
Total New Zealand assets118.49132.24148.42164.84186.36

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It is insurance practice at the closing date of the accounts of a fire insurance company to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year, to allow for policies whose currency extends into the following accounting year. Thus, if the amount transferred to reserve at the end of the current year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year, the net effect is equivalent to an increase in this year's expenditure and the difference is therefore shown as expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred this year is less than last year, then the difference will be shown as revenue.

The entry of net effect of reserve provision in the gross figures, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

Item1966-671967-68
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$ (thousand)
Net effect of reserve provisions975614187
Amount of fire premiums received during year31,94019,62033,59320,813
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, etc.1,4951,4951,7211,721
Rents442442454454
Other revenue771515
Totals33,98021,61935,92423,090
Expenditure    
Net effect of reserve provisions1,0956691,123658
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage10,5546,42613,4157,843
Fire authority levies1,7541,3801,7331,300
New Zealand Government taxes2,6052,2112,6732,425
Rents346322387358
Depreciation225216231211
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others3,5591,5744,0621,968
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses3,6293,4544,0163,822
Other expenses of management1,9021,8002,0531,963
Totals25,67118,05229,69320,548

The principal items of net revenue and expenditure for 1967-68 of the overseas and local companies operating in New Zealand are contained in the next table.

Class of OfficeNet RevenueNet Expenditure
PremiumsTotal* (including other)ClaimsSalaries and CommissionsTotal* (including other)
*Excluding net effect of reserve provisions.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Overseas companies10,22211,0134,1992,6039,770
Local companies10,59111,9903,6443,18710,120
    Totals20,81323,0037,8435,79019,890

Excluding the net effect of reserve provisions, the excess of net revenue over net expenditure (after tax) for 1967-68 of $3.11 million compares with surpluses of $4.18 million and $3.92 million for 1966-67 and 1965-66 respectively.

The following table shows the percentage ratio of working expenses to premium income for the years 1963-64 to 1967-68. Under the Fire Services Act 1949 fire insurance companies are required to make a return of premium income to the Fire Service Council which makes a levy, normally just under 10 percent of the returnable figure, for the administration of fire services. This levy meets almost half the cost of the services. It is sometimes contended that contributions to the fire-prevention authority are not a working expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and this table shows the ratio both inclusive and exclusive of such levies.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
 percent
Net working expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income44.743.243.944.646.2
Net working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to net premium income37.235.836.737.540.0
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (excluding reinsurances from other offices)36.535.836.235.737.2
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)30.429.930.530.332.0

FIRES AND LOSSES—Over the 10-year period 1958 to 1967 annual fire losses in New Zealand have been estimated to average over $6.5 million. This is allowing 15 percent above the known figures of insured losses as the estimated cost of fire damage not covered by insurance. The Government, for example, usually bears its own risk.

A summary of fire losses over the latest 11 calendar years follows. The figures are subject to considerable annual fluctuations as a result of the severe losses that can be caused by individual major fires. During 1967 there were 24 payments of $40,000 or more, the aggregate amount of loss being $1,555,452, as compared with 10 payments involving a loss of $539,216 in 1966.

YearNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsGross LossAverage Fire-loss Payments
  $(000)$
195725,7906,051234
195827,4285,416198
195928,4595,222184
196029,4844,154140
196132,0304,726148
196232,2275,834182
196336,7855,675154
196437,5466,192164
196538,6905,863152
196640,6476,158151
196742,5608,307195

The average insurance claim paid material fire damage per head of total population was $2.21 in 1963, $2.37 in 1964, $2.20 in 1965, $2.27 in 1966, and $3.02 in 1967.

The classification by fire districts for 1967 which follows is based on the schedules to the Fire Services Act 1949, which set out in full the districts (and their status) originally constituted under the Act. Additions, deletions, and alterations in status are periodically gazetted. The administrative authority appointed by the Act is the Fire Service Council, responsible to the Minister of Internal Affairs.

At 31 December 1967 there were 17 united urban, 101 urban and 135 secondary urban fire districts constituted.

Type of Fire DistrictNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsGross Amount of Loss Paid on Risks AffectedProportion of Loss to Total Loss
 1967$(000)percent
United urban fire districts21,0524,31151.9
Urban fire districts16,1312,69132.4
Secondary urban fire districts2,4605646.8
Remainder of New Zealand (including floating risks)2,9177418.9
Totals42,5608,307100.0

The relationship between the number of payments and loss incurred is fairly closely sustained for the main types of district; 93.1 percent of payments related to fires which occurred in urban (including united urban) fire districts, the loss amounting to 91.1 percent of the total.

Causes of Fires—Particulars regarding causes of fires are contained in the following table. A more detailed table of causes of fires is given in the annual Report on Insurance Statistics.

Cause of Fire196519661967
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
Electricity12,8851,18413,6851,13113,8331,198
Gas4023236718142989
Chimneys and flues6771806196462381
Fireplaces and stoves11,38544111,17354410,925679
Smoking and matches7,7744228,6114999,510582
Inflammable spirits and materials940248888305812210
Outside causes1,1362061,1261711,221304
Arson and incendiarism14773184163212460
Other specified causes9412071,2293031,594353
Unknown causes2,4032,8702,7652,7973,4014,349
Totals38,6905,86340,6476,15842,5608,307

The actual cause of many fires is not easily ascertainable, especially in cases of total, or near-total loss, where evidence as to origin is obliterated. This accounts for the high proportion of loss due to unknown causes and for the fact that the average loss payment is much greater in these instances. During 1967 the average payment for specified causes was $101, while the average for the unspecified group amounted to $1,279. As most major fires result from unknown causes this accounts for the large difference between the averages.

The Fire Services Amendment Act 1952 provides that the Minister of Internal Affairs may appoint any person to hold an inquiry into any fire and the steps taken to deal with it.

Extent of Loss—The next table gives particulars of fire losses during the latest three years, classified according to the amount of loss. The vast majority of fires cause only minor damage. During 1967 payments of less than $20 accounted for 60.4 percent of the total number, but only 2.8 percent of the total loss sustained. On the other hand, payments of $20,000 or over, numbering only 57, represented 29.4 percent of the insured loss.

Loss Category196519661967
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under 2024,70921325,40022225,685230
20–497,9042338,5342539,103272
50–1993,7653364,1863774,834438
200–1,9991,7261,1171,8701,1812,1641,333
2,000–3,9993228633419423841,053
4,000–9,9991951,1202251,2532601,513
10,000–39,99955874811,3901061,913
40,000 and over141,10710539241,555
Totals38,6905,86340,6476,15842,5608,307

Class Groups—Losses classified in broad groups according to the nature of the risk are presented in the next table. Fires in private dwellings accounted for 87.8 of the total number of payments during 1967, but the proportion of loss sustained was only 31.9 percent.

It should be noted that the “contents”, where insured, are included in the various class groups. Consequently the total for the houses and flats group is swollen by the numerous small claims on account of damage to personal effects, etc., the actual building not being affected by the fire in many instances. The miscellaneous risks group also includes those cases where a fire has affected two or more buildings, which individually are classifiable into more than one of the other groups shown in the table, or, in some instances, single buildings housing occupiers of different groupings.

Class Group196519661967
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
Private houses and flats, boarding houses, etc.34,3312,25736,0312,45137,3522,651
Hotels and restaurants624415711404762408
Offices and public buildings424218454168531224
Theatres and entertainment places13410510360135101
Bulk stores and warehouses220280212408245404
Shops688450702694800762
Factories and industrial risks1,2301,7811,2551,5841,4903,333
Farm risks (other than dwellings)462240518261497296
Miscellaneous (including unclassified)2408526710229174
Floating and travelling risks337323942845753
Totals38,6905,86340,6476,15842,5608,307

FIRE BRIGADES—At 31 March 1968 there were 255 fire brigades under the administrative authority of the Fire Service Council.

MUTUAL INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS—Mutual associations are governed by the Mutual Insurance Act 1955, which allows 200 or more owners or occupiers of isolated or farm properties to subscribe to a declaration, and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss to an amount in the aggregate of not less than $400,000. The Act permits these associations to conduct accident business in addition to fire insurance. Such associations effect insurance on the premium note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability. Mutual insurance associations carrying on employer's liability insurance business are now required to deposit approved securities to a specified value with the Public Trustee.

The Mutual Insurance Regulations, gazetted in 1956, permit these associations to carry on additional types of insurance (other than life assurance).

Summarised figures for the two associations formed under the Act appear below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Premium IncomeTotal Net IncomeNet ClaimsReserves and FundsAssets*
FireAccidentFireAccident
*Including premium notes.
 $(000)
1964186253487511093991,383
1965202270518491054181,419
1966234284562591364661,474
1967260317624891415071,566
1968277335656771545451,626

31D—STATE INSURANCE ACTIVITIES

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. In earlier years there had been numerous disastrous failures of life offices in Great Britain and the United States, and it was, in part, to prevent the possibility of such disasters occurring in New Zealand that a Government Department was established to handle life insurance. The new Department possessed the unique advantage among life insurance institutions of being based on State security. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government. The success of the Government Life Insurance Office was immediate and continuing. From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,500, issued during 1869-70, its first year of operations, the business of the Office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1967, policies in force numbered 382,577 and the total sum assured reached almost $860 million. Among life insurance companies, the Government Life Insurance Office handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest five years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement ExpensesTotal ExpenditureRatio of Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
 $(thousand)percentpercent
196313,48219,8751,8758,2329.4413.91
196414,64321,8802,0719,2709.4614.14
196516,60324,7582,23910,8769.0413.48
196617,35826,5242,36211,1688.9113.61
196718,30428,5212,51512,1488.8213.74

During the year 1967 payments were made under the following heads: matured policies (including bonus additions), $3,740,173; claims by death (including bonuses), $2,169,268; annuities, $325,216; surrendered policies and bonuses cashed, $2,501,085; commission, $1,350,024; other management expenses, $1,165,259; taxes, $645,772; and other expenditure, including transfers to reserves, $250,872.

Figures showing the progress of the Office are contained in the next table. Annuities are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
*Excludes single premiums.
  $(000)$(000) $(000)$(000) $(000)$(000)
196327,24280,6031,71912,94925,596617332,457603,87812,824
196427,70188,6821,75814,19429,141668345,964663,42013,914
196527,87296,2121,93214,50432,031787359,332727,60015,059
196627,199100,6812,02414,73934,102846371,792794,17916,237
196726,062101,6551,95015,27736,201833382,577859,63317,354

The average sum assured per policy was $2,656 in 1962, $2,960 in 1963, $3,202 in 1964, $3,453 in 1965, $3,702 in 1966, and $3,900 in 1967. In addition to the total sum assured at the end of the year, accrued reversionary bonuses amounted to $63,848,542. Values of immediate and deferred annuities in force at the end of the latest five years were as follows: $5,664,000, $6,742,000, $7,394,000, $8,257,000, $8,994,000. New business in annuities in 1967 totalled $1,197,000 and discontinuances $460,000.

The Office's total assets at 31 December and their class of investment are shown in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
196519661967196519661967
*Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
 $(thousand)percentpercentpercent
Mortgages on freehold property63,75068,60375,73040.8640.0539.94
Loans on policies7,3738,56810,2684.725.005.42
Government securities30,71735,30338,74419.6820.6120.43
Local authority securities22,80222,12822,23314.6112.9211.73
Landed and house property8,4179,24410,2365.395.405.40
Company stocks, shares and debentures18,32022,72226,03711.7513.2613.73
Miscellaneous assets*4,6664,7366,35322.763.35
Totals156,045171,304189,601100.00100.00100.00

At 31 December 1967 assurances, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of $3,210,633, amounted to $182,182,150.

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—In 1901 the Government Life Insurance Office opened an Accident Insurance Branch. This was intended principally to conduct insurance under the Workers' Compensation Act, but general accident business was undertaken and, through the years, became increasingly important.

At the beginning of 1925 accident business was transferred from the Government Life Insurance Office to the State Fire Office, which had commenced business in 1905. Since 1947 the State Fire Office has also undertaken marine insurance.

The State Insurance Act 1963 was, in the main, a rewriting of the legislation relating to State insurance in respect of fire, accident, marine risks, and all other forms of insurance other than life insurance. The functions formerly exercised by the State Fire Office and the Accident Insurance Branch of that Office were combined under the State Insurance Office, which was empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life insurance.

The steadily growing income is an indicator of the increasing extent to which the public is using the services now available from the State Insurance Office. The following combined figures at 10-yearly intervals and the latest five years illustrate the growth:

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
192335713793
1933502195141
19431,123438185
19533,1181,652916
19638,6325,2171,801
19649,6425,6811,960
196511,3087,3202,176
196613,0938,9172,415
196714,6539,8732,743

The main classes of accident insurance transacted are motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass.

Fire insurance is perhaps more accurately described as property insurance, since the houseowners' and householders' policies which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents provide coverage not only against fire but also against a wide range of other possible causes of damage. Commercial property owners, too, are increasingly extending their fire policies to cover other dangers.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1967 amounted to $32,538,731, which included $20,358,965 in the form of investments ($9,014,761 in Government securities), and $4,052,425 in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $14,103,555, unexpired risks to $7,033,279, and unadjusted claims to $7,769,487.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2 1/2 percent).

The Act provides for both compulsory and voluntary insurance against earthquake and war damage. Under the compulsory provisions of the original Act all property insured to any amount under any contract of fire insurance with an insurance company is deemed to be insured to the same amount against earthquake damage and war damage. An amending Act passed in 1951, however, provides that where the contract of fire insurance provides for the settlement of the claim upon the basis of the replacement value, the compulsory earthquake and war damage insurance will be for the amount of the indemnity or present value only. If the present value is certified by a registered architect or a registered valuer, the earthquake and war damage premium will be charged on the amount so certified. Under the voluntary provisions of the Act any person having an insurable interest in any property may make application to the Commission for earthquake or war damage insurance, and a contract may be made for the insurance of any property that is not insured under the compulsory section of the Act, or for the insurance to an additional amount of any property that is so insured.

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. It also includes damage occurring as the direct result of measures taken under proper authority to avoid the spreading of, or otherwise to mitigate the consequence of, any such damage. In addition to damage occurring as a direct result of action by the enemy, “war damage” included damage occurring as the direct result of measures taken in combating the enemy or precautionary or preparatory measures taken under proper authority with a view to preventing or hindering any enemy or anticipated enemy action. It also includes accidental damage occurring as the direct result of any explosion or fire which involves any explosives or munitions, etc., required for war purposes.

During the financial year 1949-50 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

On 1 November 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the Commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically.

The amount of the franchise (proportion of loss to be borne by the insured) was fixed for all cases as 1 percent of the loss, but not less than $10 and limited to $100 where the loss exceeds $10,000. The franchise may be fixed at a higher rate where the property is more than normally susceptible to damage.

Since 1 June 1967 the Commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis. From the same date there was introduced the right of arbitration as to whether or not any disaster was Extraordinary Disaster within the meaning of the Act.

The following is a comparative statement for the last six years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act, together with a statement showing the position from the inception of the Fund to 31 March 1968.

Item1962-631963-641964-651965-661966-671967-6819 Dec 1941 to 31 Mar 1968

*At end of each period.

†From commencement in November 1949.

 $(thousand)
Income—
    Premiums—
        Earthquake and war damage3,9464,2444,6054,8765,2745,68671,405
        Storm and flood4364695095385846296,490
        Interest2,4462,5722,8883,3823,7934,51433,064
Totals6,8287,2858,0028,7969,65110,829110,959
Outgo—
    Claims—
        Earthquake and war damage248105243193201,024
        Storm and flood2257131223603583394,267
    Salaries and expenses of management2628444045511,161
    Discount to insurance offices1081161261331441551,731
Totals6088672967767405658,183
Surplus6,2216,4187,7068,0208,91110,264102,776
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*59,95766,59073,90481,70390,334101,138101,138
Disaster Fund1,5001,2841,6761,8982,184‡2,5452,545

During the year ended 31 March 1968, 300 earthquake and 1,384 storm and flood claims were lodged, compared with 1,749 and 1,285 for the previous year.

In the year 1967-68 there was an increase in the Disaster Fund of $361,152, compared with an increase of $286,158 for 1966-67 and $221,888 for 1965-66.

Chapter 32. Section 32 EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

LABOUR FORCE—The size of the labour force as a percentage of population has been affected by various factors, notably by changes in the birthrate causing variations in the percentage of the population in working-age groups, by changes in the school-leaving age, and by the changing proportion of married women seeking work. In the decade prior to the last few years, the age structure of the population, due to the high birthrate after the war, was reflected in the reduced proportion of those available for work, and the increasing percentage receiving secondary education for longer periods had a similar effect. Thus, in 1936, when fewer young people stayed so long at secondary school or proceeded to a university, 15.2 percent of employed persons were in the 16–20 years age group, but from that year the percentage declined until 1956, when it was 14.0 percent. By 1966 it had risen to 17.3 percent, mainly because the children born immediately after the war were then entering the labour force.

On the other hand, the increasing numbers of married woman in the work force helped to offset labour shortages. The percentage of the male population in active employment was 57.0 percent in 1956, 55.3 percent in 1961, and 55.5 percent in 1966. Females actively engaged rose from 18.0 percent in 1956 to 18.7 percent in 1961 and to 21.0 percent in 1966. Married women working rose from 12.9 percent in 1956 to 16.0 percent in 1961, and to 20.0 percent in 1966. Increasing numbers of married women have entered the labour force after their family responsibilities have lightened.

The growth of the labour force is shown in the following table.

GROWTH OF LABOUR FORCE

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
* Decrease.
 (000)Percent(000)Percent(000)PercentPercent
1958641.71.9206.22.9847.92.237.3
1959651.31.5210.52.1861.81.637.0
1960660.61.4215.02.1875.61.636.9
1961670.51.5224.84.6895.32.237.1
1962680.91.6230.72.6911.61.836.8
1963693.71.9236.22.4929.92.036.8
1964709.82.3248.15.0957.93.037.1
1965728.92.7262.55.8991.43.537.7
1966745.62.3280.46.81,026.03.538.3
1967759.41.9293.14.51,052.52.638.6
1968756.2-0.4*287.2-2.0*1,043.4-0.9*37.9

The average annual increase percentage for males was 1.7 percent as compared with 3.4 percent for females and 2.1 percent for the total labour force over those eleven years.

The broad consequence of the distorted age pattern resulting from low birth rates from 1928 to 1935, coupled with a post-war expansion in the economy, was that over a major portion of the post-war period there were not sufficient young people available to meet the demand for labour force recruits. The “baby boom” which followed the Second World War meant, furthermore, a sudden rise in the economically dependent population at the younger ages. As a consequence the relatively depleted labour force had to provide for the needs of a relatively large dependent population in building maternity hospitals, schools, dwellings, providing teaching services, etc. The shortage of numbers in the labour force ages was offset to some extent by large scale immigration, both private and Government assisted. This migration inflow had a significant partial effect in overcoming the distortion in the working-age groups.

Though year-to-year fluctuations were considerable during the 10 years to 1967 the average migration gain to the population was about 10,000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. The low birthrates in the depression and war years were partly offset by post-war immigration and a better balance in the age structure of the population resulted.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in industry, and 11.0 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Group1936 Census1961 Census1966 Census
Number EmployedPercentage of Labour ForceNumber EmployedPercentage of Labour ForceNumber EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production175,11327.1136,09815.2140,93613.7
Secondary industry156,85824.2321,24135.8381,58937.2
Services314,91248.7438,02449.0503,51449.1

DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR FORCE—The table which follows shows the estimated distribution of the labour force by broad industrial groups in April of the latest 11 years. The figures include estimates for industries (e.g., farming) and persons (in “one-man” businesses) not covered by the half-yearly surveys.

YearIndustry GroupArmed ForcesUnemployedTotals, Labour Force
Primary IndustryManufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and CommunicationCommerceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals
(thousand)
Males
1958132.0160.411.476.674.496.820.060.8632.48.90.4641.7
1959130.7166.411.778.374.597.119.862.9641.48.81.1651.3
1960129.3170.511.879.574.899.020.165.1650.110.00.5660.6
1961127.3176.311.880.275.9102.920.266.6661.29.10.2670.5
1962127.0181.212.379.177.5104.020.668.3670.010.10.8680.9
1963126.8187.212.879.578.9105.921.271.1683.49.60.7693.7
1964126.6195.012.982.878.8108.021.973.1699.110.20.5709.8
1965126.6202.913.185.980.0111.122.775.4717.710.80.4728.9
1966126.4210.913.288.980.7113.623.577.3734.510.80.3745.6
1967126.6218.713.688.881.1115.324.280.2748.510.20.7759.4
1968126.3212.914.282.280.2115.025.681.7738.111.36.8756.2
Females
195810.749.70.91.510.349.224.958.4205.60.6-206.2
195910.651.10.91.510.349.524.661.4209.90.50.1210.5
196010.552.30.91.510.350.424.963.5214.30.60.1215.0
196110.355.70.91.611.053.925.465.4224.20.50.1224.8
196210.456.70.91.611.855.525.767.6230.20.5-230.7
196310.357.21.01.612.156.826.270.3235.50.50.2236.2
196411.361.41.01.712.359.226.873.7247.40.60.1248.1
196512.564.11.01.913.662.928.377.4261.70.60.2262.5
196615.167.51.12.114.666.429.583.4279.70.60.1280.4
196716.169.51.12.316.069.029.388.9292.20.60.3293.1
196816.463.01.12.215.367.229.190.5284.80.71.7287.2
Totals
1958142.7210.112.378.184.7146.044.9119.2838.09.50.4847.9
1959141.3217.512.679.884.8146.644.4124.3851.39.31.2861.8
1960139.8222.812.781.085.1149.445.0128.6864.410.60.6875.6
1961137.6232.012.781.886.9156.845.6132.0885.49.60.3895.3
1962137.4237.913.280.789.3159.546.3135.9900.210.60.8911.6
1963137.1244.413.881.191.0162.747.4141.4918.910.10.9929.9
1964137.9256.413.984.591.1167.248.7146.8946.510.80.6957.9
1965139.1267.014.187.893.6174.051.0152.8979.411.40.6991.4
1966141.5278.414.391.095.3180.053.0160.71,014.211.40.41,026.0
1967142.7288.214.791.197.1184.353.5169.11,040.710.81.01,052.5
1968142.7275.915.384.495.5182.254.7172.21,022.912.08.51,043.4

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—Labour force projections have been made for the period up to 2000.

In the projection in the following table it is assumed that average 1967 age-of-mother and marital status specific birthrates will continue and also the age and marital status (females only) specific labour force participation rates as at 31 December 1967 (obtained by scaling the 1966 Census participation rates to match the estimated labour force at 31 December 1967).

More detailed figures are available in the publication New Zealand Population and Labour Force Projections 1968–2000.

As at 31 DecemberProjected Labour Force* Assuming Average 1967 Age-of-Mother and Marital Status Specific Birthrates Continue, and Net Annual Migration of
5,000 OutflowZero5,000 Inflow
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*These projections have as base the estimated total population and labour force at 31 December 1967, and are based on 1966 Census specific age and marital status (females only) labour force participation rates, but adjusted to allow for actual labour force growth up to 31 December 1967
 (000)
1967 (Base)7502881,0387502881,0387502881,038
19687602921,0527622921,0547642941,058
19697712961,0677752971,0727782991,077
19707823011,0837873021,0897923041,096
1971This assumption not carried past 1970  8013071,1088083091,117
1972   8153111,1268233141,137
1973   8293161,1458393211,160
1974   8443231,1678563261,182
1975   8593281,1878733321,205
1976   8743331,2078903391,229
1977   8903391,2299083461,254
1978   9073451,2529263521,278
1979   9223501,2729443581,302
1980   9373541,2919613621,323
1981   9513551,3069773651,342
1982   9653581,3239933681,361
1983   9803611,3411,0103711,381
1984   9943641,3581,0263751,401
1985   1,0093681,3771,0433801,423
1986   1,0243721,3961,0603851,445
1987   1,0403781,4181,0783921,470
1988   1,0563841,4401,0973991,496
1989   1,0743921,4661,1174081,525
1990   1,0924001,4921,1374171,554
1991   1,1114091,5201,1584261,584
1992   1,1314181,5491,1814351,616
1993   1,1514271,5781,2044451,649
1994   1,1734361,6091,2284561,684
1995   1,1964471,6431,2534661,719
1996   1,2194561,6751,2784771,755
1997   1,2434661,7091,3054881,793
1998   1,2684771,7451,3324991,831
1999   1,2944881,7821,3615111,872
2,000   1,3204971,8171,3895211,910
As at 31 DecemberProjected Labour Force as Percentage of Projected Population, Assuming 1967 Birthrates Continue and Net Annual Migration of
5,000 OutflowZero5,000 Inflow
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
 Percent
1967 (Base)54.520.937.854.520.937.854.520.937.8
196854.621.037.854.721.037.854.721.137.9
196954.721.037.954.821.037.954.821.138.0
197054.821.138.054.821.138.054.821.138.0
1971This assumption not carried past 1970  55.021.138.155.021.138.1
1972   55.121.138.155.121.138.1
1973   55.121.138.155.221.238.2
1974   55.221.238.255.321.138.2
1975   55.321.238.255.421.138.3
1976   55.321.138.255.521.238.4
1977   55.421.138.355.521.238.4
1978   55.521.238.455.621.238.4
1979   55.421.138.355.621.238.4
1980   55.421.038.255.521.038.3
1981   55.220.738.055.420.838.1
1982   55.020.537.855.220.637.9
1983   54.920.337.655.120.437.8
1984   54.720.137.555.020.237.6
1985   54.620.037.354.820.137.5
1986   54.419.937.254.720.037.4
1987   54.419.837.154.620.037.3
1988   54.319.837.154.520.037.3
1989   54.319.937.154.520.037.3
1990   54.320.037.154.620.137.4
1991   54.320.137.254.620.237.4
1992   54.420.27.3354.720.337.5
1993   54.420.337.454.820.437.6
1994   54.620.437.554.920.537.8
1995   54.720.537.755.020.637.9
1996   54.920.637.855.120.738.0
1997   55.020.737.955.320.838.1
1998   55.220.838.055.420.938.2
1999   55.321.038.255.621.038.4
2,000   55.521.038.355.721.138.5

EMPLOYMENT SITUATION—In the post-war years up to 1967 the labour situation was characterised by overfull employment and a high number of vacancies in industry. In 1967, following deflationary measures, there was a sharp rise in the number of unemployed persons. By the middle of the year when seasonal workers found difficulty in obtaining off-season jobs the number of unemployed rose to over 6,000, or about 0.6 percent of the labour force. Unemployment became stabilised at about this level. (In most countries the unemployment rate exceeds to 1.0 percent of the labour force.) The employment situation continued to be relatively buoyant with the demand for labour approximately matching the supply. Vacancies moved from a general level of about 8,000 to a level between 2,000 and 4,000.

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT: National Employment Service—As from 1 April 1946 a National Employment Service was established under the Employment Act 1945 with the principal function of promoting and maintaining full employment in New Zealand. In fact, provision for Government Employment Bureaux had been made as early as 1891. From 1930 to 1936, the period of the operations of the Unemployment Board, the bureaux functioned rather as unemployment registration offices than as placement services. In 1936 the activities of the Unemployment Board were transferred to the Employment Division of the Department of Labour and the bureaux replaced by a State Placement Service, which operated a widely used system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this became merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department, and, with an augmented staff, carried out the wider and more complex functions of manpower direction and control. In this work the Industrial Manpower Division placed a much greater emphasis on the collection and use of employment and other economic data, on the research and planning aspects of employment, and on the co-ordination of industrial activities with manpower resources. The National Employment Service was built upon these foundations. After 12 months' activity as a separate department, the National Employment Service was, however, on 1 April 1947, amalgamated with the Department of Labour.

The functions and duties of the Department are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general the promotion and maintenance of full employment. In particular the Department may operate hostels for workers, provide a home-aid service, and arrange for the selection, transport, and accommodation of immigrants.

Accordingly the Department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level, operates 23 district employment offices, provides through a home-aid service domestic help for families in urgent circumstances, and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to complete in the ordinary labour market.

The 11 hostels operated by or for the Department at 31 March 1968—comprising an industrial workers' hostel, immigration hostels, Public Service hostels, miners' hostels, and Maori youth hostels—provided accommodation for 1,389 workers.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—Commencing in 1946 the Department of Labour has carried out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Each return covers six consecutive months, the inital survey (apart from a pilot survey taken for April 1946) relating to the period May to October 1946. Particulars of working proprietors, number of establishments, reported vacancies, and hours of work and earnings are available at half-yearly intervals only. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables, which are based on these surveys, have been extracted from the Labour and Employment Gazette. Separate tables are given for males and females, except for part-time employees where combined figures only are given. Working proprietors are in general distinguished from employees and the numbers of vacancies reported and of establishments covered are appended. All figures are shown by industrial groups.

Since the introduction of half-yearly employment surveys there have been several changes in the industrial classification of units to bring the New Zealand classification into line with the United Nations Standard Industrial Classification. The figures in the following tables are on the latest revised basis.

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsVacanciesPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
*The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.
          percentpercent
April—
    1958436,062164,498600,56010,6695,28015,94912,39717,43729,8341832
    1959447,003167,802614,8058,4904,02612,51612,85518,40131,2561832
    1960456,816171,605628,4219,9106,00415,91414,13920,29034,4291932
    1961468,113180,181648,29416,9808,92125,90115,88424,94640,8302134
    1962478,036185,630663,6669,3735,32314,69616,44326,19342,636234
    1963491,568190,830682,3988,6014,23312,83416,90827,90644,8141832
    1964507,174200,596707,77011,2644,08915,35318,48130,80049,2812032
    1965526,455211,599738,05414,2184,72018,93820,38634,66955,0552133
    1966542,943223,955766,89816,3666,03022,39623,81339,81463,6272336
    1967554,644233,899788,5439,9444,30714,25124,37244,45368,8252134
    1968547,000227,045774,0454,6182,3386,95623,44943,51266,9611628
October—
    1968540,964227,605768,56910,2905,29615,58624,21246,75770,9691626

Employment in industry on 15 April of the latest 11 years, and on 15 October 1968, is given in the following table. No industrial dissection of part-time employment is available prior to April 1957.

Date of SurveyPrimary Industry (Other Than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and Communication (Other Than Waterfront Work)CommerceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotal, All Industries Covered
*Not included in any other figures in this table.
Male Employees, Full Time
April—
    195810,754143,06111,41551,18854,84671,10411,66648,373402,407
    195910,617148,92311,72752,71854,75271,43611,47450,262411,909
    196010,637152,93911,78453,74355,18872,54311,72652,216420,776
    196110,414156,54511,75554,64355,30775,22411,69253,611431,191
    196210,516163,03212,24954,06756,91476,67312,03955,205440,695
    196310,458168,87312,76454,46658,35679,13012,36957,724454,140
    196410,540176,63212,90657,01458,37881,50112,58359,558469,112
    196510,704183,96413,09660,09159,50184,18512,91661,567486,024
    196610,834191,46413,18362,67960,16386,48313,23362,863500,902
    196710,784197,99913,51462,41760,56987,79613,70065,267512,046
    196810,999192,39014,09757,25260,23688,31814,67866,587504,557
October—
    196812,643184,73414,25257,11359,97087,76914,62067,114498,215
Male Working Proprietors
April—
    195844310,09386,4822,08410,6343,42049133,655
    195948310,26387,0492,26710,9723,51553735,094
    196048110,396117,3172,25211,4183,61754836,040
    196144410,49567,2942,31412,0433,70462236,922
    196245010,42797,2872,37212,4433,77657737,341
    196342310,226107,2682,38312,7773,82451737,428
    196440610,381177,3262,36513,0094,05450438,062
    196548810,646217,7472,85413,7764,34755240,431
    196651411,026288,1582,83014,2444,52771442,041
    196750211,115328,3562,69214,4124,64284742,598
    196852811,047328,0112,69214,4824,83381842,443
October—
    196854111,007347,9762,69614,7734,88883442,749
Female Employees, Full Time
April—
    195829545,3758191,2579,23339,39014,25846,599157,226
    195928846,3378341,3109,27939,18214,02048,709159,959
    196029247,2658391,2839,33239,85014,29650,195163,352
    196130250,2798421,3569,87442,57114,73551,448171,407
    196231651,2078631,41410,62343,67015,07253,361176,526
    196331051,7558771,44410,86044,64015,49955,913181,298
    196430455,6068841,53611,02546,37715,91158,680190,323
    196531658,0299301,77312,03049,02916,85261,455200,414
    196636961,0129911,93612,85250,96417,47466,339211,937
    196739762,5211,0422,09213,96252,85117,71870,911221,494
    196837356,9021,0702,00913,30751,45317,63871,705214,457
October—
    196841158,1121,0681,95513,30850,88117,23371,708214,676
Female Working Proprietors
April—
    195821,290--843,5932,1141897,272
    195921,369--993,9002,2642097,843
    196081,378--1074,2052,3452108,253
    1961121,437--1254,5172,4722118,774
    196271,4641-1474,7872,4782209,104
    196341,494121505,0652,6022149,532
    196431,5331-1445,5272,83922610,273
    196591,574112465,9493,18122411,185
    196691,667212616,3393,48425512,018
    1967151,7213-2646,4783,57834612,405
    1968151,7104-2836,6183,67728112,588
October—
    1968151,728422766,8803,74328112,929
Part-time Employees—Males and Females Combined*
April—
    1959815,484110-1,1617,1929,2008,02831,256
    1960875,999105-1,2458,0869,7849,12334,429
    1961548,136131-1,54310,09110,8919,98440,830
    1962477,880154-1,76610,42711,70110,66142,636
    1963678,026164-1,78811,24011,86511,66444,814
    1964659,130188-1,90112,31612,73212,91949,251
    1965829,993186-2,31513,58314,59714,29955,055
    19669011,422234-2,80015,55417,53815,99063,628
    196710212,375255-2,97816,91918,59617,60068,825
    19689610,56124612,82416,00218,67018,56166,961
October—
    19689211,613250-2,89716,68719,46919,96170,969

A dissection of the manufacturing industry column shown in the preceding table is now given over the same period.

Date of SurveySeasonal ManufacturingFood, Drink, and Tobacco (Other Than Seasonal)Textiles, Clothing, LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous ManufacturingTotal Manufacturing Industry
*Not included in any other figures in this table.
Male Employees, Full Time
April—
    195823,1449,11112,10024,54653,70120,459143,061
    195925,4339,21012,65925,79254,44221,387148,923
    196025,8019,26512,73926,30556,31322,516152,939
    196126,0799,60713,37327,40858,53523,543158,545
    196226,3929,90613,84827,36261,39524,129163,032
    196328,15210,08413,55826,73164,63725,711168,873
    196428,3809,93814,02728,15069,23926,898176,632
    196527,78110,13714,34029,66673,40328,637183,964
    196629,13010,48914,45030,40976,94330,043191,464
    196731,95810,84014,67130,38079,40630,744197,999
    196833,64510,79114,07628,27075,33030,278192,390
October—
    196823,31410,84514,42929,22576,22430,697184,734
Male Working Proprietors
April—
    1958991,0531,1782,0664,6531,04410,093
    1959951,0511,2002,0284,8631,02610,263
    1960951,0401,1972,0104,9391,11510,396
    1961901,0631,1732,0405,0361,09310,495
    1962949991,1991,9885,0761,07110,427
    19631029631,0521,9155,1571,03710,226
    19641139561,0121,9155,3561,02910,381
    19651169381,0701,8925,5301,10010,646
    19661168821,0561,9135,9051,15411,026
    19671178561,0481,9565,9571,18111,115
    19681278201,0061,8686,0391,18711,047
October—
    19681308321,0011,8446,0211,17911,007
Female Employees, Full Time
April—
    19582,1795,06424,0791,5315,4207,10245,375
    19592,1794,87924,4701,7085,5277,57446,337
    19602,2565,02824,0151,8675,9788,12147,265
    19612,2315,22925,5471,9276,8218,52450,279
    19622,5135,07525,9701,8817,2308,53851,207
    19632,5975,23225,0611,8607,9239,08251,755
    19642,8025,25126,7722,0129,1629,60755,606
    19652,8605,34427,2902,18710,02610,32258,029
    19663,2235,52928,2322,39510,57811,05561,012
    19673,4235,65728,3682,37411,07011,62962,521
    19683,5935,34324,9922,1819,73311,06056,902
October—
    19682,8585,70025,5692,37010,04811,56758,112
Female Working Proprietors
April—
    19589451540371441091,290
    19595461556571771071,369
    19605457531462151241,378
    19614471531482521311,437
    19628468545492691251,464
    19638469509603141341,494
    19649485485693381471,533
    19659469476803721681,574
    1966124474661064491871,667
    1967134224581194952141,721
    1968153984431305152091,710
October—
    1968174144361215272131,728
Part-time Employees Males and Females Combined*
April—
    19591609521,445441,3191,0625,484
    19601521,0261,5556101,4361,2205,999
    19612031,6022,2056881,9641,4748,136
    19622461,3462,2556121,9251,4967,880
    19631651,4761,96072,1481,6758,026
    19642131,6162,357362,4931,7179,130
    19652761,8232,3168622,7002,0169,993
    19662961,9912,5211,0233,4342,15711,422
    19673841,9572,8849873,7342,42912,375
    19683101,8352,1677913,2612,19710,561
October—
    19683541,9212,5619793,4422,35611,613

The following table shows the number of vacancies reported by employers in the half-yearly surveys.

Date of SurveyPrimary Industry (Other Than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing Industry*Power, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and Communication (other Than Waterfront Work)CommerceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals, All Industries Covered

*Excluding seasonal manufacturing.

†A reduction from and including May 1959, an increase from and including June 1961, and a reduction in and from November 1965 in vacancies for Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.

Males
April—
    19581093,7552751,7532,3901,0811841,12210,669
    1959532,9551539572,2218241491,1788,490
    19601003,3681871,9581,4101,3061971,3849,910
    19612366,4143713,2222,2492,1404021,94616,980
    19621233,3103291,1471,4871,0482801,6499,373
    19631353,1342251,4541,1041,0121911,3468,601
    19641303,9002901,8942,1591,2202181,45311,264
    19652095,2814532,5212,3851,4442741,65114,218
    19662446,1146102,5522,6301,8883122,01616,366
    19671393,0925679231,8721,3072921,7529,944
    1968451,4943003185106771511,1234,618
October—
    19681554,5923799686411,6402991,61610,290
Females
April—
    195852,37210-1818543711,4875,280
    195921,4045-1776952791,4644,026
    196052,33210-1969684142,0796,004
    1961163,75317-3441,6966732,4228,921
    1962101,6841212458213972,1535,323
    196331,50211-1327113031,5714,233
    196461,6346-2326363481,2274,089
    196531,8161512768094091,3914,720
    1966122,45811-2151,1904951,6496,030
    196751,63419-2828533771,1374,307
    1968367111-564162349472,338
October—
196872,33622-771,0645131,2775,296

Reported vacancies in manufacturing industry included in the previous table are now shown separately.

Date of SurveyFood, Drink, and Tobacco (Other Than Seasonal)Textiles, Clothing, and LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous ManufacturingTotals, Manufacturing Industry*

*Excluding seasonal manufacturing.

†A reduction from and including May 1959, an increase from and including June 1961, and a reduction in and from November 1965 in vacancies for Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.

Males
April—
    19581293308222,1023723,755
    1959851994501,9252962,955
    19601073007001,8224393,368
    19612606341,2643,5037536,414
    19621022434842,1713103,310
    1963751955531,9863253,134
    1964972257852,3624313,900
    19651852939293,2845905,281
    19661333701,0503,7917706,114
    1967942213901,9913963,092
    196852822329142141,494
October—
    19681283327992,8085254,592
Females
April—
    19581161,881621211922,372
    19591021,045201041331,404
    19601711,685362132272,332
    19613822,586733173953,753
    19621661,181321411641,684
    19631031,063251441671,502
    1964951,139451981571,634
    19651571,214492101861,816
    19662241,539503423032,458
    1967831,197181322041,634
    196864432286384671
October—
    19681131,756492211972,336

The number of establishments covered by the half-yearly surveys is now shown, the second part of the table giving an analysis of the manufacturing industry column contained in the first part.

Date of SurveyPrimary Industry (Other Than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and Communication (Other Than Waterfront Work)CommerceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals, All Industries Covered
April—
    195862112,6112516,0572,60515,6044,6263,82246,197
    195963412,6562576,6092,68815,9504,7363,88447,414
    196063412,7082676,5072,68416,3844,8414,00848,033
    196160312,7422666,6212,70917,1414,9944,03249,108
    196259912,7232696,6532,71817,5575,1324,02549,676
    196357512,7152696,6102,73818,0045,2594,10850,278
    196457012,9692816,6492,74118,6575,4934,22351,583
    196562413,3502827,0273,11219,4935,9624,39454,244
    196667313,7192967,4223,16220,2866,2924,61156,461
    196764513,9322987,5183,08020,6386,5364,73657,383
    196864013,8233017,1543,05920,7856,6934,75757,212
October—
    196865813,8713027,0863,04921,3366,7504,79357,845
Date of SurveySeasonal ManufacturingFood, Drink, and Tobacco (Other Than Seasonal)Textiles, Clothing, and LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous ManufacturingTotals, Manufacturing Industry
April—
    19585181,2541,8612,5884,9731,41712,611
    19595041,2491,8502,5555,0981,40012,656
    19604951,2221,8322,5285,1761,45512,708
    19614791,2281,8102,5305,2631,43212,742
    19624831,1871,8022,4815,3581,41212,723
    19634811,1691,6742,4365,5181,43712,715
    19644711,1521,6442,4685,7541,48012,969
    19654601,1341,6522,4756,0171,55813,296
    19664501,0951,6672,5066,3851,61613,719
    19674401,0731,6412,5166,6101,65213,932
    19684511,0281,5722,4646,6361,67213,823
October—
    19684491,0351,5792,4376,6831,68813,871

The table now following shows the half-yearly survey totals of full-time employment in industry, under a more detailed industrial classification, as at 15 April 1967 and 1968; employment by the Central Government, by local authorities, and by private employers being distinguished at the same time in the 1968 figures.

IndustryNumber of Persons* in Industry at 15 April 1967Number of Persons* in Industry at 15 April 1968
MalesFemales
MalesFemalesGovernmentLocal AuthoritiesPrivate*GovernmentLocal AuthoritiesPrivate*
*These figures are inclusive of working proprietors.
Primary industry (other than farming, fishing or hunting)—
    Forestry3,4582583,4489423229-9
    Logging2,65663152-2,5621-58
    Coal mining3,301522,562-63844-10
    Other mining21811--247--14
    Quarrying, n.e.i.1,65328-771,409-122
Seasonal manufacturing—
    Meat processing, etc.25,5121,346-29926,819-11,546
    Fruit and vegetable preserving1,7081,536--1,675--1,508
    Dairy factories4,855554--4,979--553
Food, drink, and tobacco (other than seasonal)—
    Grain milling837116--878--112
    Bread bakeries1,970387--1,925--323
    Biscuit making744623--728--587
    Cake and pastry making1,3901,429--1,493--1,431
    Sugar and confectionery1,2831,095--1,235--1,099
    Other food2,0191,175--1,863--1,055
    Beverages2,94862413-2,9832-581
    Tobacco manufacture505630--493--551
Textiles, clothing and leather—
    Woollen mills2,2751,826--1,932--1,276
    Knitted wear and hosiery2,2524,040--2,031--3,493
    Flax, rope, and twine36671--371--73
    Other textile production2,3851,067--2,383--987
    Footwear manufacture2,4152,934--2,338--2,591
    Footwear repair22834--180--27
    Clothing manufacture3,13216,875--3,075--15,150
    Fur dressing and manufacture8490--77--82
    Other textile goods7501,080--671--943
    Tanneries1,318171--1,513--173
    Leather goods514638--511--640
Building materials and furnishing—
    Sawmilling, plywoods, etc.11,238535691-9,64423-483
    Builders' woodwork5,036191-304,925--208
    Furniture cabinets4,688615--4,329--542
    Other wood manufacture904111--854--116
    Structural clay products1,18745--1,038--38
    Pottery and glass2,412657--2,284--569
    Lime, cement, etc,6,871339-246,319--332
Engineering and metal working—
    Engineering and machinery34,5954,419-132,899--4,148
    Electrical manufacture7,0012,978--6,332--2,261
    Ships, locomotives, etc.7,3191005,850-1,45756-38
    Vehicle and cycle manufacture5,928804--4,953--617
    Vehicle repair and aircraft30,5203,2645299628,829-313,097
Miscellaneous manufacturing—
    Chemicals and by-products5,7272,420-195,511--2,262
    Rubber manufacture3,632823--3,389--744
    Paper and paper products5,9771,719--5,964--1,612
    Printing, publishing, and allied11,5864,001642-10,796264-3,654
    Instruments, clocks, jewellery1,225568--1,237--564
    Other manufacturing, n.e.i.3,7782,312--3,907--2,169
Power, water, and sanitary services13,5461,0454,2048,97595021476496
Building and construction70,7732,09211,8263,16250,2756141161,279
Transport and communication—
    Rail transport15,8851,22315,30412261,17324
    Road transport20,9071,5161,4351,83717,14666621,354
    Water transport (not waterfront)5,1966071573,3491,6957119500
    Air transport3,6019221,038812,6781286799
    Post Office17,6729,95818,170--9,370--
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade83,15447,6433517382,66117946,442
    Storage2162--287--13
    Finance9,6707,3301,187-8,743821-6,276
    Insurance5,1923,752774-4,896570-3,353
    Real estate1,304498--1,251--468
    Wool and grain stores (seasonal)2,672104--2,793--102
Domestic and personal services—
    Provision of lodging, food, etc.8,96012,1262119,847622012,232
    Portrait and photo studios693687--658--702
    Laundries, cleaning, etc.2,3863,277--2,468--3,089
    Barbers, beauty shops, etc.9433,497--943--3,467
    Recreation, sport, etc.5,0231,6691011,1633,97629701,607
    Undertaking33740-90243--37
Administration and professional—
    Hospitals8,49626,0282,3155,9082042,47420,8452,698
    Medical and allied services4992,81966-4591,816-1,120
    Education and instruction20,71523,4572,44117,6281,5191,70420,3162,344
    Arts sciences and religion2,9041,256867-1,968263-912
    Government, n.e.i.16,4926,94116,991--6,659--
    Local authorities, n.e.i.10,5431,591-10,488--1,642-
Miscellaneous services and agencies6,4659,165280-6,271188-9,005
Totals554,644233,89990,62254,322402,05626,79444,004156,247
547,000227,045

NOTE—The preceding table does not include armed forces personnel, numbering 10,800 in April 1967 and 12,000 in April 1968, or persons engaged in farming, fishing, hunting, waterfront work, seagoing work, domestic service in private households, and one-man business units, etc., estimated to total 252,200 in April 1967, and 248,900 in April 1968.

An effective correlation of the figures shown in the preceding tables with those of employment in factories found in Section 18 of this volume is precluded by the differing definitions of “manufacturing industry”; furthermore, the tabulations of half-yearly surveys differ from factory-production statistics in including managers and foremen, clerical workers, and distributing staff attached to manufacturing establishments in one figure with factory operatives.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND DISENGAGED PERSONS—In addition to the half-yearly surveys of the employment position as a whole, the Department of Labour maintains a month-to-month record of vacancies, placements, and disengaged persons seeking work. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the Department's operations as a labour exchange.

Notified Vacancies—Particulars of notified vacancies at the end of each month from December 1967 to December 1968 (together with monthly averages for calendar years) are shown by district groupings in the following table. This table does not necessarily cover the same establishments as the preceding tables derived from half-yearly surveys; on the one hand it does not exclude vacancies on farms, in seasonal manufacturing industry, and in domestic service; but on the other hand it includes only those vacancies which have been notified to a district office of the Department of Labour in its capacity as a placement service.

PeriodAucklandWellington and Lower HuttOther North IslandChrist-churchDunedinOther South IslandTotal
* A reduction from and including May 1959, an increase from and including June 1961, and a reduction from and including November 1965 in vacancies notified by Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.
Monthly Average for Calendar Years
    19581,3722,4591,3315516048187,135
    1959*9922,0688345403485185,300
    19601,2292,4601,0459653627036,764
    1961*1,5923,9971,2141,0674368909,196
    19621,0163,4158206263346326,843
    19639502,7837564432545455,731
    19641,2252,8581,0106252756206,613
    1965*1,5963,2371,2497543527487,936
    19661,7223,3811,1944603126847,753
    19679791,8266132461433204,127
    1968869840453199622572,680
Monthly Totals
1967—
    December8241,004498267752152,883
1968—
    January1,034917448181702642,914
    February815808429148662122,478
    March70768732991511462,011
    April705714268111561722,026
    May843639353117861782,216
    June768619393106371732,096
    July640617409123531962,038
    August725716353125501682,137
    September655827380130641902,246
    October8541,238651332744943,643
    November1,5231,178821497744774,570
    December1,1591,118604425654153,786

Placements—An industrial analysis of placements by the Department of Labour during the latest five years follows; not all these placements were, however, of disengaged persons.

YearPrimary IndustryManufacturing IndustryBuilding ConstructionPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesTransport and CommunicationCommerceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotal
Annual Totals
19634,7993,0981,9951165391,5669211,03714,071
19644,1343,5361,9631345901,6231,0311,14414,155
19653,8153,5121,5241064991,6079971,14613,206
19663,8163,3281,3061284401,40081890012,136
19676,3645,1773,1951281,2611,8891,3232,05721,394

A classification of these placements by district grouping is contained in the next table.

YearAucklandWellington and Lower HuttOther North IslandChrist-churchDunedinOther South IslandTotal
Annual Totals
19641,8612,3563,3591,5671,3823,63014,155
19651,8851,8592,7881,6141,5433,51713,206
19661,6911,4432,9861,3301,1513,53512,136
19674,0762,6035,8192,6561,4694,77121,394
19685,4233,4538,8593,7451,4155,46028,355

Summary—The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and disengaged persons as recorded by the Department of Labour for each month from December 1967 to December 1968, together with monthly averages for the calendar years 1958-68 inclusive.

DateVacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthDisengaged Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*A reduction from and including May 1959, an increase from and including June 1961, and a reduction from and including November 1965 in vacancies notified by Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
    19584,4072,7287,1358904061,29673452786
    19593,046*2,2545,3001,0253891,4141,096921,188
    19604,0762,6886,7647933291,12256964633
    19615,802*3,3949,19663429793133541376
    19624,2852,5586,8438603451,2059341061,040
    19633,7461,9855,7318033701,173726123849
    19644,8471,7666,6137883921,180511139650
    19656,0001,9367,9367223791,101385128513
    19665,5502,2037,7536743371,011332131463
    19672,6821,4454,1271,3764071,7833,2675853,852
    19681,8528282,6801,8215422,3635,2721,6096,881
Monthly Totals
1967—
    December1,9898942,8834882477355,5581,3286,886
1968—
    January1,9859292,9141,5851,0162,6016,2401,4227,662
    February1,6937852,4782,1009783,0785,0861,4436,529
    March1,3386732,0111,4976572,1545,0621,4946,556
    April1,3396872,0261,2375311,7686,7801,7508,530
    May1,5746422,2162,2685212,7896,3561,9088,264
    June1,4776192,0962,6614213,0826,2281,9028,130
    July1,3526862,0382,7125753,2876,7001,8608,560
    August1,4506872,1372,3353892,7245,7731,8817,654
    September1,4957512,2461,9073872,3144,7461,7266,472
    October2,5691,0743,6431,6804852,1653,7841,3675,151
    November3,2701,3004,5701,3043771,6813,2341,2744,508
    December2,6881,0983,7865401727123,2801,2714,551

Vocational Guidance—Since 1938 vocational guidance of pupils at secondary schools has been undertaken by the Department of Education which has Vocational Guidance Centres in Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Activities are described in Section 7A, Education.

Apprenticeships—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Court of Arbitration, which consists of a Judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of four representatives of employers, four representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy making committees. There are 34 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried on by local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 235. They consist of three representatives of employers, three representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

The apprentice learns by doing tasks under supervision. Provision is made in a number of apprenticeship orders for a specific list of operations and skills to be taught apprentices by their employers. Both employers and apprentices are thus helped to define the scope of training, and apprenticeship committees, when called on to do so, are enabled to judge whether or not training is adequate.

As no employer may engage an apprentice without the prior consent of the appropriate local committee, the facilities for training are known to the committee in each case. When an employer who has not previously had an apprentice applies for permission to engage one, arrangements may be made for an inspection of his workshop by two members of the local committee. On their report the full committee makes the appropriate decision. Every apprentice has a contract of apprenticeship, which is registered by the District Commissioner.

Local committees deal with complaints from apprentices and employers, with applications to transfer apprentices to other employers, and applications to discharge apprentices for misconduct. Their decisions, which are of a semi-judicial nature, are subject to review by way of appeal to the Court of Arbitration.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In the 40-hour week four hours are spent at day classes, with usually an equivalent amount of time at evening classes. In some industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of three or four weeks' duration. The classes are operated by technical and other secondary schools.

Although technical schools are semi-autonomous bodies, the general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That Department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A - Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing, no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the Board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being ex officio a member of the Board. The Commissioner is also ex officio a member of the New Zealand Council for Technical Education (see Section 7A).

The numbers of apprenticeship contracts registered during the year, completed during the year, and in force at the end of the year are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
196719681967196819671968
Aircraft79654460315311
Baking48644641171171
Boilermaking69814038188214
Bricklaying56343634234215
Carpentry1,4728871,2801,1315,5595,027
Clothing51813955231211
Coachbuilding4743622502621,7681,734
Dentistry610583333
Electrical5054233284702,0011,858
Engineering5885294194562,2072,195
Footwear repair and making788103329
Footwear manufacturing46592645173161
Furniture234177133160875821
Hairdressing432462846166361
Heating and ventilation15295185964
Horticulture31672334140156
Jewellery42352421166166
Lead burning-----1
Masonry22-189
Motor trades1,3651,0718701,2755,2074,730
Moulding8147114546
Painting234271171178794804
Photo-engraving41382929162164
Piano repairing and tuning142374
Plastering71794583271230
Plumbing2652391693111,1771,043
Printing3062942402211,1201,126
Radio639570112401367
Refrigeration engineering47312432143134
Retail meat industry408279129131782833
Saddlery, leather and canvas goods1597195947
Sheet-metal working58804361239235
Shipbuilding38152227153129
Timber industry322415187072
Others55552231172145
Totals6,7755,7574,5995,43225,12923,846

TRADE TRAINING FOR MAORI YOUTHS—Trade training is one approach that is being adopted to broaden employment opportunities for Maori youths. Although Maoris constitute close to 71/2 percent of the total population of New Zealand, Maori representation in the skilled trades is well below this figure. In industry only 4 percent of the present apprentices are Maoris. In relation to the number of Maoris in the 15-19 years age group, which is nearly equivalent to the apprenticeship age group, it should be about 9 percent.

Historically, there are many reasons which help to explain the present lack of skilled Maori tradesmen. Until comparatively recently, the Maori was almost entirely a rural dweller, handy neither to industry nor to trade-training establishments, and understandably not fully appreciative of the long-term benefits to be derived from trade training. Again, the somewhat lower standard of Maori education tended to prejudice the chances of Maori youths obtaining apprenticeships in any numbers, while lower incomes restricted the financial assistance which a rural Maori family could give to one of its members who wished to leave home to study a trade.

The trade-training schemes have been approved by the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent in the course is credited towards the normal apprenticeship, which is completed with employers in the usual way. The schemes are run in conjunction with the technical institutes at Auckland, Petone, and Christchurch. The training syllabus followed by the technical institutes is designed to cover the prescriptions of the New Zealand Trades Certification Board's examinations. Special tuition is also given in other important subjects to help the boys adapt themselves to living in a large urban community.

Entry into the schemes is generally restricted to boys from country areas where apprenticeships are not normally available. Boys taken into the schemes, and their parents, enter into a training agreement with the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, whereby the boys are required to live at approved hostels, regularly attend evening technical classes, and to sit the appropriate trade examinations. The trainees receive apprentices' normal wages and other allowances in accordance with the appropriate industry apprenticeship orders.

As from 1968, training is being provided in eight trades—carpentry (all four centres), motor mechanics (Auckland and Christchurch), plumbing and electrical wiring (Auckland), plastering (Petone), and painting, panelbeating, and bricklaying (Christchurch), with a total intake of 221 boys each year. The training courses last for one year, except that carpentry is a two-year course and includes one year on practical house building work for the Department. The courses are making a significant contribution both to industry and the Maori community's place in society. From the time of the pilot scheme in 1959 up to 31 March 1968, 1,051 Maori youths had been taken into the schemes, of whom 669 had already completed training and had been placed in apprenticeships.

The increase in the number of Maori apprentices in recent years is illustrated by the following table.

At 31 MarchRegistered Maori ApprenticesPercentage of Total Registered Apprentices
19625662.8
19636042.9
19647703.3
19658523.6
19669813.9
19671,0724.2
19681,0314.3

If to the figure of 1,031 Maori apprentices at 31 March 1968 there is added the figure of 221 trainees in the schemes, the Maori representation is increased from 4.3 percent to 5.3 percent of the total apprentices.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1966 census were 5,125 males and 3,982 females.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1,000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
12 April 189614,759100
31 March 19018,46748
12 April 19068,18939
2 April 19117,15230
15 October 19165,92026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 19455,82316
17 April 19517,90218
17 April 19565,55812
18 April 19614,6749
22 March 19665,1258

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly-unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15,000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1967 was 230.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right as all workers pay social security income tax. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Security Department and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

CITY PRE-EMPLOYMENT COURSES FOR MAORIS—Special pre-employment courses to help Maori boys and girls from country areas coming to cities for work are conducted early each year by the Department of Maori and Island Affairs in conjunction with the Wellington Polytechnic and the Auckland Technical Institute. The Education, Health, and Police Departments and local civic authorities also co-operate in the schemes. The courses, which last about four weeks, are specially designed to help with initial adjustment to city life and with the selection of suitable employment. At the end of the course the students take up suitable employment in the city. Accommodation is provided at hostels. The present annual intake of students into the course is: Wellington, 34 boys—25 girls; Auckland, 20 boys—20 girls.

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION, OCCUPATIONS, AND OCCUPATIONAL STATUS—Statistics on industrial distribution, occupations, and occupational status compiled from the population census taken on 22 March 1966 are given in the following tables. The tables illustrate the extent to which the population directly participated in the economic life of the country, according to industry and occupation, and show the nature of their activities, i.e., employer, wage or salary earner, etc.

Excluded from the tables are members of the Armed Services overseas at census dates, numbering 2,559 in 1961 and 1,936 in 1966.

The next table shows the numbers and percentages actively engaged or otherwise.

Category1961 Census1966 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
 Numbers
Actively engaged670,506224,857895,363745,595280,4441,026,039
Not actively engaged542,870976,7511,519,621598,1481,052,7321,650,880
Totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919
 Percentages
Actively engaged55.318.737.155.521.038.3
Not actively engaged44.781.362.944.579.061.7
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Owing mainly to the substantial increase in numbers of married women working, the percentage for females actively engaged has increased from 18.7 to 21.0.

Occupational Status—The following table shows the distribution of the population according to the character of participation or non-participation in industry.

Occupational Status1961 Census1966 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer62,2314,69166,92266,1707,25473,424
Own account61,8626,04567,90761,9757,85669,831
Wage or salary earner540,316210,566750,882610,732260,081870,813
Unemployed4,6742,2246,8985,1253,9829,107
Relative assisting, unpaid7661,1221,888312488800
Not specified6572098661,2817832,064
    Totals, actively engaged670,506224,857895,363745,595280,4441,026,039
        Not actively engaged542,870976,7511,519,621598,1481,052,7321,650,880
Grand totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919

The total number actively engaged increased by 130,676, or 14.6 percent, between 1961 and 1966. In the wage or salary earner group the increase was 119,931 or 17.4 percent.

Female wage or salary earners increased by 49,515 or 23.5 percent; a substantial increase in the number of married females working boosted the increase in this particular group.

Industrial Distribution 1966: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the population by the principal divisions of industry is now given.

Industry Division19611966Percentages for Totals
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19611966
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing118,9529,982128,934119,71214,868134,58014.413.1
Mining and quarrying7,0411237,1646,2501066,3560.80.6
Manufacturing170,27552,752223,027208,96564,121273,08624.926.6
Construction84,4821,78486,26692,9722,23095,2029.69.3
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services11,11583311,94812,35694513,3011.31.3
Commerce107,32055,717163,037114,20966,896181,10518.217.6
Transport, storage, and communication77,83411,44289,27682,62915,58198,21010.09.6
Services90,93691,193182,129104,467112,946217,41320.421.2
Activities not adequately described2,5511,0313,5824,0352,7516,7860.40.7
    Totals, actively engaged670,506224,857895,363745,595280,4441,026,039100.0100.0
    Not actively engaged542,870976,7511,519,621598,1481,052,7321,650,880......
              Grand totals1,213,3761,201,6082,414,9841,343,7431,333,1762,676,919......

Industrial participation by major industrial groups is now given for the 1966 census.

Industrial Division and Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing—
    Agriculture and livestock production110,65514,493125,148
    Forestry and logging5,8453216,166
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation1,326141,340
    Fishing1,886401,926
Mining and quarrying—
    Coal mining3,422553,477
    Metal mining983101
    Crude petroleum and natural gases86591
    Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits2,540402,580
    Non-metallic mining and quarrying, n.e.c.1043107
Manufacturing—
    Food industries, except beverage industries40,1518,04748,198
    Beverage industries2,9005693,469
    Tobacco5876251,212
    Textiles7,5236,55214,075
    Footwear, wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods8,07022,99231,062
    Wood and cork, except furniture14,78855215,340
    Furniture and fixtures5,5628266,388
    Paper and paper products6,6551,6548,309
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries12,0254,38916,414
    Leather and leather products, except footwear1,3147712,085
    Rubber products3,6988494,547
    Chemicals and chemical products7,1682,7449,912
    Products of petroleum and coal85963922
    Non-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coal10,0551,01811,073
    Basic metal industries2,6971542,851
    Metal products, except machinery and transport equipment11,5631,63113,194
    Machinery, except electrical machinery21,4832,04823,531
    Electrical machinery apparatus, appliances, and supplies8,9763,30812,284
    Transport equipment36,7502,25039,000
    Miscellaneous products6,1413,0799,220
Construction—
    Construction92,9722,23095,202
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services—
    Electricity, gas, and steam10,23091511,145
    Water and sanitary services2,126302,156
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade95,43755,323150,760
    Banks, and other financial institutions9,4226,78916,211
    Insurance6,9653,99810,963
    Real estate2,3857863,171
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport64,0005,57569,575
    Storage and warehousing1,568931,661
    Communication17,0619,91326,974
Services—
    Government services29,4749,48338,957
    Community and business services51,21572,838124,053
    Recreation services6,5052,3108,815
    Personal services17,27328,31545,588
Activities not adequately described4,0352,7516,786
Totals, actively engaged745,595280,4441,026,039

Occupations—The occupational classification in major groups is given for 1966 in the following table.

Occupational Division and Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Professional, technical, and related workers—
    Architects, engineers, surveyors5,898175,915
    Chemists, physicists, geologists, and other physical scientists1,192651,257
    Biologists, veterinarians, agronomists, and related scientists1,2511561,407
    Physicians, surgeons, dentists3,4552473,702
    Nurses and midwives1,18617,88919,075
    Professional medical workers, n.e.c., and medical technicians2,7731,7244,497
    Teachers15,42119,23734,658
    Clergy, and related members of religious orders3,0128243,836
    Jurists2,402312,433
    Artists, writers, and related workers3,6681,7875,455
    Draughtsmen, and science and engineering technicians, n.e.c.6,8472,6149,461
    Other professional, technical, and related workers10,8411,62112,462
Administrative, executive, and managerial workers—
    Administrative and executive official: Government1,529301,559
    Directors, managers, and working proprietors (not including proprietors on own account in wholesale and retail trade)51,3357,14358,478
Clerical workers—
    Bookkeepers and cashiers2,3364,5716,907
    Stenographers and typists5726,10626,163
    Other clerical workers57,05050,926107,976
Sales workers—
    Working proprietors, wholesale and retail trade4,9002,3377,237
    Insurance and real estate salesmen, salesmen of securities and services, and auctioneers5,2802025,482
    Commercial travellers and manufacturers agents14,61873415,352
    Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers26,46029,99056,450
Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers, and related workers—
    Farmers and farm managers70,9825,19576,177
    Farm workers, n.e.c.41,4978,49449,991
    Hunters and related workers1,16121,163
    Fishermen and related workers1,832181,850
    Loggers, and other forestry workers5,213235,236
Miners, quarrymen, and related workers—
    Miners and quarrymen2,92212,923
    Well drillers and related workers304-304
    Mineral treaters199-199
    Miners, quarrymen, and related workers, n.e.c.8081809
Workers in transport and communications occupations—
    Deck officers, engineer officers, and pilots (ship)1,701-1,701
    Deck and engineroom ratings, ship and barge crews, and boatmen3,14623,148
    Aircraft pilots, navigators, and flight engineers (not Air Force)9401941
    Drivers and firemen (railway engines)2,086-2,086
    Drivers, road transport34,37453234,906
    Guards and brakemen—railways624-624
    Inspectors, supervisors, traffic controllers and dispatchers—transport5,136835,219
    Telephone, telegraph, and related communications operators2,4595,4887,947
    Postmen and messengers2,0521,0243,076
    Workers in transport and communications occupations, n.e.c.1,294121,306
Craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, n.e.c.—
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, and related workers5,6045,33210,936
    Tailors, cutters, furriers, and related workers3,96219,79923,761
    Leather cutters, lasters and sewers (except gloves and garments), and related workers2,7202,8035,523
    Furnacemen, rollers, drawers, moulders, and related metal making and treating workers2,988593,047
    Precision-instrument makers, watchmakers, jewellers, and related workers1,8332682,101
    Toolmakers, machinists, plumbers, welders, platers, and related workers70,9411,80472,745
    Electricians, and related electrical and electronic workers25,6261,94427,570
    Carpenters, joiners, cabinetmakers, coopers, and related workers47,28429147,575
    Painters and paperhangers12,2387912,317
    Bricklayers, plasterers, and construction workers, n.e.c.12,674112,675
    Compositors, pressmen, engravers, bookbinders, and related workers7,4141,8809,294
    Potters, kilnmen, glass and clay formers, and related workers2,1493612,510
    Millers, bakers, brewmasters, and other food and beverage workers26,7353,66630,401
    Chemical and related process workers4,7304825,212
    Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers211425636
    Craftsmen and production process workers, n.e.c.10,1573,46013,617
    Packers, labellers, and related workers1,7744,4916,265
    Stationary engine, excavating, and lifting equipment operators, and related workers12,395112,396
    Waterside workers and related freight handlers28,70248929,191
    Labourers, n.e.c.26,93980227,741
Service, sport, and recreation workers—
    Fire fighters, policemen, guards, and related workers5,380895,469
    Housekeepers, cooks, maids, and related workers3,26616,71519,981
    Waiters, bartenders, and related workers3,9886,79610,784
    Building caretakers, cleaners, and related workers5,1403,0298,169
    Barbers, hairdressers, beauticians, and related workers1,5894,4816,070
    Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers1,1162,7033,819
    Athletes, sportsmen, and related workers9921251,117
    Photographers and related camera operators8362901,126
    Embalmers and undertakers33410344
    Service, sport, and recreation worker, n.e.c.2,2305,9488,178
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
    Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately bed2,9712,0305,001
Armed forces10,43666411,100
Totals, actively engaged745,595280,4441,026,039

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS—A table giving statistics for farm workers at the 1966 Census is given in Section 14A of this Yearbook.

OCCUPATIONS OF MARRIED WOMEN—In 1951 the 41,932 married women working constituted 25 percent of the female labour force; in 1956 there were 62,033 married women working and they made up 33 per cent of the female labour force; in 1961 the total of married women working had risen to 84,556 and this was 38 percent of the female labour force. In 1966 there were 116,314 married women working and this was 41 percent of the female labour force.

Occupation and age groups for 1966 are shown in the following table.

OccupationAge Group in YearsTotal
Under 2020-2930-3940-4950-5960-6970 and over
Teachers, nurses, etc.924,1802,6282,8561,4972351211,500
Directors, managers etc.84831,3832,0271,262254225,439
Clerks, typists, etc.7689,4905,5057,5674,1326833228,177
Shopkeepers and saleswomen, etc.2912,4293,6606,1804,0685962717,251
Farmers and farm workers791,7692,9132,4171,210274238,685
Telephone operators, postwomen, drivers, etc.7590173161719832-2,554
Clothing and other production process workers5794,0855,9069,0925,6679642926,322
Housekeepers, waitresses, and other service workers2502,3583,5235,1594,0127744416,120
Armed forces1341291--57
Other726555456101209
Total2,15025,75526,31635,97822,1033,822190116,314

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS—The census of population and dwellings 1966 included a question on the highest educational qualification obtained. An analysis by occupation divisions of the labour force is given in the following table. Additional information is given in the census report Industries and Occupations.

Occupational DivisionUniversitySecondaryProfessional and Trade
DegreesDiplomasOtherSchool Cert., U.E., H.L.C.*OtherTeacher's CertificateOther
U.E.-University Entrance; H.L.C.—Higher Leaving Certificate.
Professional, technical, and related workersM16,0011,2172,1009,4221,3565,9449,354
 F2,9595005512,8837978,3878,319
Administrative, executive, and managerial workersM1,3303605305,7312,2411773,143
 F3812536520192251
Clerical workersM1,06418756916,5794,0852692,526
 F415651515,6814,0565798,414
Sales workersM244344885,4401,9601611,714
 F271411,508909167668
Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers, and related workersM525989649,6952,5511901,632
 F522911,006458274405
Miners, quarrymen, and related workersM2-26443-47
Transport and communications workersM6020101,9871,256621,637
 F104-40924549225
Craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, n.e.c.M3942333312,6517,58322013,120
 F13161946800125471
Service, sport, and recreation workersM4223121,55076286430
 F494321,5501,019246985
All labour force (incl. armed forces and those not classifiable by occupation)M9,7873,3883,41964,67622,3437,16434,227
 F13,5096838134,5348,5329,92519,847

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT—The adoption of the maintenance of full employment as a desideratum in many countries has prompted research into various employment problems, including that of the fluctuation or periodicity of employment. Information on the annual cycle of employment in New Zealand is available for those industries which are covered by the half-yearly survey. The following table shows the month-to-month variations in male employment in seasonal industries. The seasonal changes in female employment are less marked, such fluctuations as are evident originating mainly in the fruit- and vegetable-preserving industry.

MonthMeat Processing, etc.Fruit and Vegetable PreservingDairy FactoriesWool and Grain StoresTotal, Seasonal Industries
    1967
April25,4111,6934,8542,66834,626
May24,4241,4194,5402,46432,847
June20,9341,3824,4162,02428,756
July17,2921,3464,5541,85525,047
August16,6931,3234,8952,09025,001
September15,9151,2705,1982,20624,589
October15,7521,3295,3592,56925,009
November24,1201,3545,5193,15334,146
December27,8441,8205,5683,29238,524
    1968
January28,4681,8865,4893,53439,377
February28,2661,7935,3593,35038,768
March27,4691,8165,1462,96437,395
April27,0071,6604,9782,79136,436

PUBLIC WORKS—Figures are available which include not only the number of workers in the direct employ of the Ministry of Works and the New Zealand Electricity Department, but also those employed by contractors for public works, and those employed by local authorities on works which are financed wholly or partly by the Ministry of Works, National Roads Board, and Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council. In the next table figures on this basis are given. Departmental and contractors' workmen on Housing Division work are included.

PeriodElectricity WorksRoadsIrrigationSoil Conservation and Rivers ControlBuildingsAerodromesRailwaysOther WorksTotal
New Zealand Electricity DepartmentMinistry of Works
Average for calendar year—
                19582,7083,9534,9171743634,0251661712,35418,831
                19592,8083,6445,0251733934,6761561012,48419,460
                19602,9093,1245,4171403804,627951542,67519,521
                19612,9483,0425,3301283654,1731841102,54918,829
                19623,1972,6585,0851113883,581230452,53117,826
                19633,4162,8675,4661224293,490264392,64118,734
                19643,3323,2105,7451264173,737309392,63719,552
                19653,1153,5575,7181203873,605251652,51219,330
                19663,0714,7116,2281073992,823148552,55820,100
                19673,3194,3655,826834972,304106422,84219,384
                19683,5703,8746,300895142,07970232,73819,257
Month—
    1967—December3,5183,8776,165694832,0607722,60218,853
    1968—March3,6394,0716,291695402,35512672,53419,632
                June3,5893,9246,2071205042,12045242,95619,489
                September3,5163,7816,264985321,91552382,95219,148
                December3,5513,5596,715714751,79239452,41718,664

The figures shown in this table and also those in the table following on local authority employment are included in the national employment tables already presented.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows the number of employees of local authorities as at 31 March for the latest five years. Employees of electric power boards and fire boards are included here, but not those of hospital boards. All direct employees are covered, including part-time temporary, or casual employees, and those whose wages are recoverable, but those employed by contractors are excluded.

As at 31 MarchAdministrative, Professional, and ClericalOtherTotal
19639,22025,24634,466
19649,49325,32434,817
19659,81825,69335,511
196610,42026,00636,426
196710,62725,94236,569
196811,04626,26837,314

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution. A detailed explanation of the contents of a table of working life and its method of derivation are given in the 1966 Tables of Working Life published as a Supplement to the July 1969 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Abridged tables are now presented of working life for males based on the year 1966 and of working life for females based on the year 1951.

ABRIDGED TABLES OF WORKING LIFE

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100,000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Year)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Year)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

*This is the difference between the total life expectancy and the working life expectancy.

† These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

‡ Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

Males 1966
150.0086,18142247.08.3
2089.185,7597,82172242.38.3
2597.292,8581,51567437.68.4
3098.893,69924681732.88.5
3599.193,129461,14828.18.5
4099.092,027-1,98823.48.6
4598.590,041-3,36318.98.7
5097.686,678-5,95314.58.8
5595.580,723-15,30510.48.9
6084.065,418-26,6387.18.7
6556.738,780-23,0705.27.4
7028.115,711-10,2954.45.4
7513.35,416-3,7873.93.5
806.51,629-1,6283.12.5
Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100,000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Year)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Year)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

*Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for reasons connected with marriage.

† The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to marriage.

‡ Difference between life expectancy and working-life expectancy.

Females 1951
15--81,8058,47316.242.7
2076.573,3321,12942,40712.441.8
2533.632,0541,13614,06416.732.7
3020.219,124,0315,03020.324.4
3519.218,1274,2283,06219.920.1
4020.719,2933,0141,80317.517.9
4522.320,5041,2972,65113.617.2
5021.319,1507754,6769.916.6
5517.615,2493515,4497.215.2
6012.310,151-6,4144.613.8
654.93,737-2,5923.811.0
701.71,145-1,0142.58.9
750.2131-1311.17.4

Chapter 33. Section 33 WAGES AND WAGE RATES

Table of Contents

GENERAL—About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and industrial agreements made under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 (a re-enactment of a measure which was originally enacted in 1894). The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act enables minimum wage rates to be determined, industry by industry, by agreement between organisations of employers and workers concerned, or, failing such agreement, by awards made by the Court of Arbitration after hearing the parties. In about 90 percent of cases the parties reach full agreement in the conciliation proceedings. For a period in recent years there was an increasing gap between award rates and ruling rates and this resulted in more wage bargaining outside the conciliation and arbitration system than ever before. Ruling rates have been recognised as subject to consequential adjustments in many cases when award minimum rates are amended. (There are also considerable numbers of employees in supervisory and executive positions whose wage rates or salaries are determined by individual contracts of service. Groups whose wage rates or salaries are determined under other legislation are mentioned separately later.)

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—In addition to its original jurisdiction, the Court of Arbitration is vested with the power to make general wage orders from time to time which have the effect of simultaneously increasing or reducing the rates of remuneration prescribed in all awards and industrial agreements in operation. The Court also has the power to exclude any class or section of workers from the operation of a general order, and to make such special provision as it consider just and equitable for that class or section.

General orders may be made by the Court of its own initiative or on the application of any industrial union or industrial association of employers or workers.

The authority to make general orders is not derived from the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, but from regulations made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Initially, the general wage order was a mechanism primarily to maintain real wages (i.e., wage purchasing power) in face of rapid changes in retail prices, but the Court possessed and exercised a discretion to modify any increase based on price changes so as to take account of general economic conditions and outlook at the time. The net effect of general wage orders has been to keep the minimum rates of wages specified in awards and industrial agreements roughly in line with changes in consumer prices.

In making a general order the Court is directed by the current regulations to take into account the following matters:

  1. Any rise or fall in retail prices as indicated by any index published by the Government Statistician.

  2. The economic conditions affecting finance, trade, and industry in New Zealand.

  3. Any increase or decrease in productivity and in the volume and value of production in primary and secondary industries of New Zealand.

  4. Relative movements in the incomes of different sections of the community.

  5. Any other considerations that the Court deems relevant.

In dealing with applications the Court is required to afford such opportunity to be heard as it thinks proper to representatives appointed by the parties bound by awards and industrial agreements. Provision is made to permit parties bound by orders of special authorities to appear when applications for general orders are before the Court, although the parties themselves cannot initiate applications. In practice the major burden of conducting the cases has been accepted by the New Zealand Federation of Labour and the New Zealand Employers' Federation.

All the main aspects of the economy of the country are examined in considerable detail, and expert evidence is usually called in support of the submissions or to assist the Court in its task. For example, such persons as the Governor of the Reserve Bank, the Secretary to the Treasury, and the Government Statistician have frequently given evidence. The Court itself has no research staff. For basic information it relies for the most part on the comprehensive statistics published by the Government Statistician, the reports of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, official economic and other surveys, and reports of Government departments, such as the Treasury, Department of Labour, Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Industries and Commerce. The advocates for the parties are invariably persons with long experience in the industrial arena. No professional lawyer has been engaged on the hearing of an applicant for a general order. The applications have varied in nature and magnitude from time to time.

The most recent general wage orders are now mentioned. A general order made on 4 July 1962 increased the minimum rates of remuneration determined by awards and industrial agreements (including agreements filed under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913), then in force by 2 1/2 percent. Five awards and four industrial agreements covering dairy and farm workers were excluded from the order. There was no limiting amount to which the order applied. Another general order was made on 19 August 1964, with effect from 10 September 1964; minimum rates of wages in awards and industrial agreements were increased by a further 6 percent without exclusions or limit. A general order was made on 10 November 1966, with effect from 1 December 1966; it increased the minimum rate of wages specified in awards and industrial agreements by 2 1/2 percent. A general order was made on 5 August 1968, with effect from 19 August 1968; it increased the minimum rate of wages by 5 percent with limits of application on weekly remuneration as follows: adult male workers on first $40 a week; adult female workers on first $30 a week; junior workers on first $25 a week. For an account of previous general orders and legislation, see the 1966 and earlier Yearbooks.

STANDARD WAGE PRONOUNCEMENTS—In making a standard wage pronouncement the Court of Arbitration states separately the minimum award rates it considers appropriate for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled adult male workers. Unevenness between awards is reduced by the application of standard rates as awards come up for renewal. Ability to make a standard wage pronouncement is inherent in the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration, but not the power to apply a standard wage pronouncement to awards and agreement during their currency. At various times in the 20 years up to 1952 the Court of Arbitration was vested with special powers to make individual amendments simultaneously and immediately to every award and industrial agreement, in order to enable the rates of wages prescribed therein to conform to any new pronouncement on standard wage rates; the last occasion on which the Court was granted such powers was in 1952, the powers being withdrawn in May 1953 following strong criticism by workers' organisations and not having since been re-enacted.

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of the age of 21 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

Since 17 October 1968 the minima have been males, $4.80 a day, $23.50 a week; females, $3.28 a day, $16.00 a week.

BASIC WAGE—There is now no “basic wage” in New Zealand; nor is there any formula for determining such a wage. In 1936 an amendment of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act required the Court to determine a basic wage for adult males and for adult females and directed that the basic wage for adult males should be sufficient to maintain a man, his wife, and three children in a fair and reasonable standard of comfort. The basic wage rates so determined by the Court, being below the prevailing minimum adult rates in awards and industrial agreements, were of little practical effect. The relevant provisions were dropped from the Act in 1954.

GROUPS COVERED BY PARTICULAR LEGISLATION—Certain groups of workers have their wages fixed by special authorities. Minimum rates for agricultural workers are prescribed by various orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962. Rates of remuneration for waterside work are fixed by the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, constituted under the Waterfront Industry Act 1953. Rates of pay for workers engaged on public-works construction have been determined by the State Services Commission since 1965 in the form of wage worker determinations.

Salaries and wages in the New Zealand Railways are, by the Government Railways Act 1949, prescribed by the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal. The legislative authority covering rates of remuneration for employees of the Post Office is contained in the Post Office Act 1959, while certain questions may be referred to the Post Office Staff Tribunal.

The State Services Act 1962 vests in the State Services Commission the power to make wage and salary determinations in relation to the remuneration of most public servants while the Education Act 1964 vests in the Director-General of Education the power to make “teacher determinations” in connection with the salary scales for teachers under the Act. In both cases there are rights of appeal to the Government Service Tribunal under the Government Service Tribunal Act 1965.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed in regulations under the New Zealand Army Act 1950, the Navy Act 1954, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950. Salary and wages rates for hospital board employees not under awards and agreements are covered by the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963. In 1965 a Police Staff Tribunal was established under the Police Act 1958 to make orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

PROTECTION OF WAGES—Workers' wages are safeguarded by the Wages Protection Act 1964. The entire amount of wages due to a worker must be paid in money unless he consents in writing to the employer making deductions for any lawful purposes or to the employer paying such wages by postal order, money order, cheque, or by lodgment to the worker's bank account.

Wages are further safeguarded by certain sections of the Insolvency Act which give priority of payments for wages or salaries of workers in preference to certain other debts. Similarly, under the Companies Act, wages are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up.

Various individual labour laws contain provisions with the special intent of protecting the payment of wages of the workers to whom such legislation applies.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962, Orders in Council may prescribe minimum rates of wages and other conditions of employment for the various categories of agricultural workers covered by the Act, including workers employed on agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and silvicultural work, flax milling, and also bush workers and sawmill workers. The administration of the Act is carried out by the Department of Labour. Orders made under the previous Act passed in 1936 still apply to workers on dairy farms, and farms and stations, and Orders made under the latest Act apply to workers employed in orchards, market gardens and in tobacco growing.

Minimum Rates of Pay—The minimum rates prescribed by Orders in Council for specified classes of agricultural workers are as follows.

Dairy Farms—The minimum rate is $20.55 a week, increased by $4.25 a week if the worker is not provided with board and lodging by the employer. The rate is taken to include allowance for work done at weekends and on holidays as part of the normal week's work. The minimum rate for casual workers is 53 cents an hour, with rations. The minimum rates for casual workers have not been amended since 1960 and are now subject to the Minimum Wage Order 1968 which fixes the minimum wage for adult males at $23.50.

Farms and Stations—In the case of workers on farms and stations for whom the hours of work are not definitely laid down, the minimum weekly rate for an adult male worker is $16.82, increased by $4.25 a week if the worker is not provided with board and lodging by the employer, or by $3.25 a week if provided with only lodging or a free house. These rates have not been amended since 1959 and are now subject to the Minimum Wage Order 1968 which fixes the minimum wage for adult males at $23.50 a week.

Orchardists—The minimum rate for permanent adult male workers is $32.03 a week and for permanent adult female workers $23.21 a week. The minimum rates for casual workers are 77.4 cents an hour for adult males and 56.7 cents an hour for adult females. Lesser minimum rates are prescribed for junior permanent and casual workers, according to specified ages. The minimum rate for managers is $37.07.

Market Gardens—The minimum rates for adult males are $28.93 a week and 67.917 cents an hour, and for adult females $20.00 a week and 45.417 cents an hour. Lesser minimum rate for juniors (male and female) are prescribed.

Tobacco Companies and Tobacco Growers—The minimum rate for adult male workers is 78 cents an hour, and for adult female workers 57 cents an hour. Lesser minimum rates are prescribed for junior workers (male and female) according to specified ages.

SHAREMILKING AGREEMENTS ACT—Another important measure dealing with farm workers is the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, which defines the respective responsibilities of employers and sharemilkers in farm management and control of stock, and prescribes the minimum percentages of returns to sharemilkers. The Act contains provisions for terms and conditions to be altered by Order in Council, the current order being the Sharemilking Agreements Order 1966.

INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION OF SALARY AND WAGE PAYMENTS—The data in the following table represent the results of an industrial classification of the salary and wage payments to employees during the latest three years ended 31 March. This information is extracted from returns required in connection with the “pay as you earn” income tax legislation. Therefore all employees are covered and the payments are those which are made during a year which is uniform for all employers.

Actual gross payments made during a year are not the exact equivalent of the earnings of the employees during that year. Accrued wages at the beginning of the year are taken into account but those accrued at the end of the year are not. The effect of this is normally insignificant.

The “enterprise” concept has been used in this classification. Under this concept where an individual or a company is concerned in two or more industries for which separate classifications are provided, the whole of the wage payments have been classified according to the predominant activity. In most statistical analyses the enterprise is subdivided into separate units where two or more industries are involved, and each unit is then appropriately classified. A minor exception to the general rule has been made in the case of the road passenger transport and the electricity supply services of local authorities. These activities have been included in the appropriate industries.

Industry GroupSalary and Wage Payments
1964-651965-661966-67
 $(million)
Agriculture and livestock production87.495.298.6
Forestry, hunting, and fishing6.06.67.0
Mining and quarrying12.613.013.1
Manufacturing, food, beverages, and tobacco119.6128.4139.9
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles65.973.074.8
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, etc., products (including miscellaneous manufacturing)174.4191.4211.7
Manufacturing, metals and metal products117.9132.7144.4
Construction162.5177.0183.5
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services (not construction)25.728.130.2
Commerce—wholesale and retail trade284.9310.0331.5
Commerce—other84.695.2100.6
Transport, storage, and communication208.3227.1246.7
Services, community, business, recreation, and personal385.0427.0470.7
Activities not adequately described1.20.90.9
Totals1,736.01,905.72,053.6

All industry groups showed increases in the amount of wages paid in 1964-65 compared with the previous year. Percentage rates of increase during the last three years were: 1963-64 to 1964-65, 11.0 percent; 1964-65 to 1965-66, 9.8 percent; 1965-66 to 1966-67, 7.8 percent.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—The Department of Labour carries out surveys at half-yearly intervals; returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged; Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, domestic service in private households and armed forces.

The following table shows the average weekly wage payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from this survey during the last 11 years. Comparison is made, for those years for which figures are available, with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult males as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per PersonNominal Weekly Wage for Adult Males — Weighted Average of Rates Prescribed by All Determining Authorities as at end of Preceding Month
Aggregate Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc., for One Week Divided by—Aggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided by Full-time and Half Part-time Employees
Full-time EmployeesFull-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Part-time Employees
 $$$$$
1958—April28.84627.38628.09725.645..
                    October29.05327.54028.27725.968..
1959—April29.51927.98928.73426.213..
                    October29.88328.25029.04426.694..
1960—April31.48729.73430.58627.700..
                    October31.86329.88830.84428.023..
1961—April33.20931.10132.12128.711..
                    October33.37731.09932.19729.154..
1962—April34.01731.81932.88129.854..
                    October34.52932.20833.32830.568..
1963—April35.40033.06834.19530.994..
                    October35.92633.37534.60431.428..
1964—April36.63034.08535.31231.720..
                    October38.61735.74537.12533.562..
1965—April39.83536.88138.30134.381..
                    October40.54037.25638.82934.804..
1966—April41.44638.05239.67635.34636.369
                    October42.64938.94740.71436.50337.337
1967—April43.97240.20042.00137.55138.435
                    October43.74139.97141.77138.46338.960
1968—April45.27541.41843.26039.50839.221
                    October46.60442.38544.39440.82441.156

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
1960—April0.7311.0870.75437.92.739.4
            October0.7401.1020.76337.92.639.2
1961—April0.7621.1760.79237.63.039.3
            October0.7741.1230.79837.62.838.9
1962—April0.7901.1770.81437.82.739.1
            October0.8081.1990.83137.82.438.8
1963—April0.8181.2420.84537.92.739.1
            October0.8311.2300.85637.82.739.0
1964—April0.8391.2520.86837.73.039.2
            October0.8801.3060.91737.82.839.0
1965—April0.9081.3370.93937.63.139.0
            October0.9271.3670.95637.73.139.0
1966—April0.9391.4180.97537.73.239.0
            October0.9671.4321.00037.83.138.9
1967—April0.9961.5181.03337.73.138.9
            October1.0191.5051.04637.72.338.2
1968—April1.0451.5431.07637.82.538.5
            October1.0811.5811.10937.82.438.2

The preceding table combines all industries. A dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table—relating to October 1968—is now provided.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Forestry, logging, mining, and quarrying—
    Forestry1.0431.6491.05537.90.838.6
    Logging1.2671.7381.31738.84.743.3
    Coal mining1.5261.6261.53333.52.435.9
    Other mining1.2581.6221.29137.93.841.0
    Quarrying (not lime, cement)1.0441.5201.12039.27.546.3
Group1.1931.6361.22437.22.739.8
Seasonal manufacturing—
    Meat processing, etc.1.2041.6821.25234.73.938.3
    Fruit and vegetable preserving0.9231.2980.95436.43.339.3
    Dairy factories1.0551.6851.16339.18.147.0
Group1.1431.6601.20435.84.840.3
Food, drink, and tobacco (other than seasonal)—
    Grain milling1.0621.4791.09138.72.941.1
    Bread bakeries1.0321.6161.12337.37.640.0
    Biscuit making0.9001.3720.95437.15.139.0
    Cake and pastry making0.8301.4520.86937.52.935.0
    Sugar and confectionery0.9071.2660.94537.94.640.8
    Other food0.9681.4411.01638.24.441.7
    Beverages1.0491.5891.10438.44.541.7
    Tobacco manufacture0.9271.5550.98537.53.841.2
Group0.9621.4841.01637.94.640.0
Textiles, clothing and leather—
    Woollen mills0.9841.2191.01435.85.439.4
    Knitted wear, hosiery0.9171.3280.93937.32.138.5
    Flax, rope, and twine1.1231.2611.13037.42.039.3
    Other textile production1.1221.4951.16637.05.041.3
    Footwear manufacture0.9131.2530.93237.42.239.0
    Footwear repair0.9101.4110.92338.91.136.1
    Clothing manufacture0.7791.1000.78736.60.936.0
    Fur dressing and manufacture0.8921.4880.90137.10.634.8
    Other textile goods0.8031.3040.82836.62.036.8
    Tanneries1.0901.4731.13438.25.042.7
    Leather goods0.8511.2230.86937.52.137.5
Group0.8831.3010.90636.92.237.8
Building materials and furnishings—
    Sawmilling, plywood etc.1.1041.5981.14637.73.540.9
    Builders' woodwork1.0321.4401.07038.64.042.0
    Furniture and cabinets0.9911.4771.02138.32.639.5
    Other wood manufacture0.9521.4610.98137.82.438.7
    Structural clay products1.1581.4321.19137.55.342.2
    Pottery and glass1.1481.5391.18238.03.641.1
    Lime, cement, etc.1.1351.5671.18438.85.143.2
Group1.0851.5381.12538.23.841.3
Engineering and metalworking—
    Engineering and machinery1.1221.6691.17638.14.241.7
    Electrical manufacture1.0601.5481.09038.12.539.8
    Ships, locomotives, etc.1.0541.7281.09137.92.239.9
    Vehicle and cycle manufacture1.1011.6331.13437.72.540.0
    Vehicle repair and aircraft1.0101.5411.03438.51.939.1
Group1.0701.6331.11138.23.040.4
Miscellaneous manufacturing—
    Chemicals and chemical products1.1241.6091.15738.12.840.3
    Rubber manufacture1.2401.6051.26538.32.940.6
    Paper and paper products1.2721.8161.33637.85.142.6
    Printing, publishing, and allied1.1031.7211.13938.62.539.3
    Instruments, clocks, jewellery0.9311.4810.95038.51.538.0
    Other manufacturing1.0141.4951.06237.44.240.3
Group1.1301.6721.17238.23.340.3
All manufacturing industries (including seasonal)1.0521.5791.09437.33.340.0
Power, water and sanitary services1.1611.7041.19938.62.941.1
Building and construction1.1101.5691.15438.84.142.9
Transport and communication—
    Rail transport1.0981.6461.13939.43.242.5
    Road transport1.0491.5641.11237.85.541.6
    Water transport (not waterfront work)1.2822.0191.36638.75.043.3
    Air transport1.4541.7901.47638.32.740.6
    Post Office1.0841.7441.11738.42.139.5
Group1.1181.6851.16438.53.541.1
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade1.0081.4561.01938.21.036.7
    Storage1.0841.4421.10338.52.140.1
    Finance1.2031.5871.20837.40.537.3
    Insurance1.2051.4851.20737.40.337.2
    Real estate1.2921.3031.29237.90.136.3
Group1.0461.4661.05538.00.936.8
Wool and grain stores (seasonal)1.0501.5041.08437.13.039.7
Combined groups1.0461.4681.05638.01.036.8
Domestic and personal services—
    Provision of lodging, food, etc.0.9101.4430.93535.82.330.9
    Portrait and photo studios0.9301.3530.93636.90.634.7
    Laundries, cleaning, etc.0.8101.2600.82535.01.826.7
    Barbers, beauty shops, etc.0.5710.8440.57338.80.437.4
    Recreation, sports, etc.1.1521.4841.16432.41.626.5
    Undertaking, etc.1.1021.6071.12438.71.938.1
Group0.9111.4100.93036.21.829.7
Administration and professional—
    Hospitals0.9761.4370.99538.71.837.1
    Medical and allied services1.0121.4611.01336.50.134.1
    Education and instruction1.2762.0481.27836.80.134.1
    Arts, science, and religion1.2151.7661.22137.70.435.7
    Government, n.e.i.1.2921.8271.30137.80.737.2
    Local authorities, n.e.i.1.1581.5261.17538.82.039.6
    Miscellaneous services and agencies1.0381.5501.04436.90.435.4
Group1.1581.5431.16537.60.836.0
    All industries (including seasonal)1.0811.5811.10937.82.438.2

NOMINAL WAGE RATES—The compilation of index numbers of nominal wage rates dates back to 1914. In the main the rates used in the past were taken from agreements and awards under the successive Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Acts, but in some fields of employment where no awards or agreements under those Acts applied, rates from other sources were used. Since the inception of the index the weights have been revised three times, in 1928, 1936, and 1954. They were brought up to date by reference to union memberships and to employment data from population, industrial production, and distribution censuses; the occupational representations within industrial groups were also revised. Nevertheless, the basic structure of up to 14 industrial groups, each covering mainly manual occupations peculiar to that industry group, was not changed.

This classification structure made it difficult to include in the index the industrially dispersed field of clerical employment which remained unrepresented in the index despite the bringing of many clerical workers under the operation of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as a result of union organisation in this field. The distributive trades were also poorly represented. Some groups of workers, such as waterfront workers, who were removed from the effective jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration, continued to be represented in the index. On the other hand the setting up of special tribunals to determine rates of wages and salaries in various fields, particularly in the fields of Government employment, had not been reflected in any widening of the scope of the index. When work was due to commence in 1966 on a revision of the index it was decided, therefore, that the requirements of the main users of such measures of wage and salary rates could be met only by the setting up of an entirely new index.

The new index is designed to represent the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration or any special industrial tribunal, or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. Within this wider index a major sub-index is provided of minimum rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration. The residue then provides a second major sub-index of mainly mandatory rates fixed within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals or determined by some other statutory authority. Within the “All Jurisdiction” index and both the “Court” and “Other Jurisdictions” major sub-indexes, further sub-indexes give analyses firstly by industry groups and secondly by occupation groups.

Complete details of the new revised index are contained in the Report on New Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index for Adult Males published as a special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics in August 1968.

Wage rates of Adult Workers—Index numbers of annual averages of nominal weekly wage rates of adult males are given in the following table in a “long-term linked series.”

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES), ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPS

Base: 31 December 1965 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
*Provisional.
1914179
1915187
1916194
1917205
1918215
1919233
1920263
1921285
1922276
1923266
1924268
1925274
1926279
1927284
1928293
1929294
1930294
1931272
1932249
1933240
1934242
1935248
1936274
1937299
1938312
1939317
1940326
1941338
1942352
1943364
1944367
1945399
1946413
1947430
1948458
1949484
1950517
1951588
1952618
1953659
1954709
1955734
1956748
1957783
1958791
1959806
1960846
1961860
1962881
1963905
1964933
1965989
19661,017
19671,070
1968*1,106

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal weekly wage rates of adult males for industry and occupation groups.

INDEX NUMBERS OF NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES—ADULT MALE EMPLOYEES—NEW SERIES

Base: For each group the average of rates for that group at 31 December 1965 (= 1000)*
Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at 31 Dec 1965As at 31 Dec 1966As at 31 Dec 1967As at
19661967196831 Mar 196830 Jun 196830 Sep 196831 Dec 1968
*Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate the relative movements in the average rates for the different groupings, not the relative levels of the average rates of wages and salaries in the different groupings.
Part 1—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration
Primary industries1,0081,0441,0761,0001,0341,0521,0531,0561,1121,119
Manufacturing1,0191,0701,1071,0001,0611,0811,0821,0891,1431,154
    Food, beverages and tobacco1,0071,0451,0781,0001,0391,0571,0581,0601,1061,126
    Meat processing and dairy factories1,0051,0391,0701,0001,0331,0511,0521,0521,0951,118
    Other food, beverages and tobacco1,0161,0761,1161,0001,0701,0831,0861,0971,1561,163
    Textiles and apparel1,0101,0671,1021,0001,0461,0791,0801,0801,1401,144
    Wood, pulp, paper and their products1,0131,0841,1151,0001,0731,0901,0901,0921,1521,159
    Printing and allied industries1,0591,1151,1581,0001,1071,1341,1351,1391,1971,198
    Metals, machinery and transport equipment1,0261,0741,1171,0001,0641,0871,0881,1021,1581,168
    Other manufacturing1,0231,0841,1211,0001,0791,0881,0961,1011,1631,168
Construction1,0131,0681,1121,0001,0511,0821,0871,0911,1461,164
Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services1,0141,0711,1261,0001,0471,0951,0951,1001,1651,184
Commerce1,0171,0841,1211,0001,0781,0901,0951,1061,1611,164
    Wholesale and retail trade1,0181,0771,1151,0001,0701,0811,0871,1001,1561,160
    Finance, insurance and real estate1,0151,1251,1571,0001,1241,1391,1391,1401,1881,188
Transport, storage and communication1,0181,0721,1131,0001,0631,0851,0951,0961,1501,155
Service industries1,0081,0581,1021,0001,0431,0741,0781,0821,1381,146
Occupation Groups          
Professional, technical, managerial1,0131,0761,1151,0001,0701,0821,0861,1031,1541,158
Clerical1,0101,0901,1191,0001,0841,0971,0981,0981,1561,160
Sales1,0201,0781,1181,0001,0741,0821,0841,1051,1601,165
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining1,0071,0591,0911,0001,0501,0661,0681,0691,1261,134
Transport1,0191,0711,1121,0001,0601,0801,0941,0971,1481,149
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers1,0181,0691,1091,0001,0571,0811,0841,0901,1451,159
Service occupations1,0091,0551,1061,0001,0431,0761,0821,0891,1441,146
    All (industry or occupation) groups combined1,0161,0711,1101,0001,0611,0821,0861,0921,1471,157
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Wage and Salary Determining Authorities Other Than the Court of Arbitration
Primary industries1,0071,0351,0541,0001,0241,0421,0421,0431,0611,085
    Agriculture and livestock1,0011,0201,0361,0001,0071,0291,0291,0291,0301,065
    Other primary1,0191,0681,0961,0001,0631,0731,0731,0751,1301,130
Manufacturing1,0261,0941,1161,0001,0881,1011,1011,1011,1411,141
Construction1,0251,0821,1081,0001,0711,0911,0911,0961,1321,132
Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services1,0231,0781,1041,0001,0681,0871,0871,0921,1281,128
Commerce1,0151,0641,0951,0001,0491,0741,0741,0861,1181,118
Transport, storage and communication1,0151,0651,0951,0001,0541,0791,0791,0831,1191,119
Service industries1,0211,0751,1081,0001,0551,0861,0861,1021,1291,129
Education and health services1,0121,0631,0951,0001,0401,0751,0751,0901,1151,115
Government, community, business, personal and recreational services1,0301,0861,1201,0001,0691,0961,0961,1131,1431,143
Occupation Groups          
Professional, technical, managerial1,0171,0701,1071,0001,0461,0821,0821,1031,1271,127
Clerical1,0151,0631,0901,0001,0501,0721,0721,0801,1141,114
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining1,0091,0381,0571,0001,0271,0451,0451,0461,0631,088
Transport1,0181,0671,0901,0001,0601,0741,0741,0781,1151,115
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers1,0171,0721,1011,0001,0631,0861,0861,0881,1261,126
Service occupations1,0641,1371,1621,0001,1231,1481,1481,1501,1851,185
    All (industry or occupation) groups combined1,0181,0681,0971,0001,0541,0791,0791,0871,1171,121
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
Primary industries1,0071,0371,0601,0001,0261,0451,0451,0461,0741,094
Manufacturing1,0191,0711,1071,0001,0621,0821,0831,0891,1431,154
Construction1,0161,0721,1111,0001,0561,0841,0881,0931,1421,156
Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services1,0171,0741,1171,0001,0551,0921,0921,0971,1511,162
Commerce1,0171,0831,1201,0001,0771,0891,0941,1051,1591,162
Transport, storage and communication1,0161,0681,1021,0001,0571,0811,0851,0871,1301,132
Service industries1,0181,0711,1061,0001,0521,0831,0841,0971,1311,134
Occupation Groups          
Professional, technical, managerial1,0161,0711,1081,0001,0521,0821,0831,1031,1331,134
Clerical1,0131,0781,1061,0001,0691,0861,0871,0901,1371,139
Sales1,0201,0781,1181,0001,0741,0821,0841,1051,1601,165
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining1,0091,0451,0681,0001,0341,0521,0531,0541,0841,103
Transport1,0191,0701,1041,0001,0601,0781,0871,0901,1361,137
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers1,0181,0691,1081,0001,0581,0821,0841,0891,1411,152
Service occupations1,0301,0861,1271,0001,0731,1031,1071,1121,1591,160
    All (industry or occupation) groups combined1,0171,0701,1061,0001,0581,0811,0831,0901,1371,144

Allowances for housing board and lodging, or rations are included in cases where these are normally provided in addition to the cash pay.

Wage Rates for All Workers—Indexes for adult females and juveniles for the Revised Nominal Weekly Wage-Rates Index have not yet been completed. Tables of the previous indexes up to 1967 will be found on pages 932, 934, and 935 of the 1968 Yearbook.

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male workers. The base of the index numbers is in each case 31 December 1965 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Adult MalesEffective Weekly Wage Rates Adult Males
*Provisional.
1955751734977
1956777748963
1957794783986
1958829791954
1959860806937
1960866846977
1961882866975
1962905881973
1963923905980
1964956933976
19659889891,001
19661,0161,0171,001
19671,0771,070994
19681,1241106*984*

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers' Price Index and converting the whole to the base: quarter ended 31 December 1965 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or, on the other, short-time deductions. Nor do the consumer prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, air and overseas travel, domestic help, etc., are omitted.

To the extent that female wages are not normally devoted to purchasing the full range of household requirements, the results of employing the all-group Consumers' Price Index to determine effective wages for females are subject to certain limitations.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY WAGES—A table showing minimum wages in various occupations is given in the annual statistical report Prices, Wages and Labour.

Chapter 34. Section 34 LABOUR LAWS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers' Act 1962, the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, and the Shearers' Act 1962. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962 and the Government Service Tribunal Act 1965, the Government Railways Act 1949, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 37 D—Occupational Safety.

In the following pages a survey is made first of the Court of Arbitration and then of the working and other conditions laid down by legislation.

COURT OF ARBITRATION—The Court of Arbitration, which dates from 1894 and whose jurisdiction is set out in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, consists of three members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Judge of the Court. No one may be appointed as the Judge unless he is a barrister or solicitor of not less than seven years' standing. One of the two other members is appointed on the recommendation of the industrial unions of employers and the other on the recommendation of the industrial unions of workers. Although the members other than the Judge are appointed for a term of three years only, in practice it has been found that they have usually served much longer terms on the Court.

The work of the Court may be divided into two sections—the making of laws through the promulgation of awards, apprenticeship orders, etc., and the interpretation and enforcement of industrial laws, including industrial agreements and certain statutes. The second function is similar to the functions of other Courts, but in making industrial law the Court of Arbitration has a unique role. In addition the Court has wide powers and responsibilities associated with the making of general wage orders (see Section 33 of the Yearbook).

Jurisdiction of Court—The following is a general account of the present jurisdiction, powers, and functions of the Court of Arbitration, some of which are legislative in character and others judicial.

  1. Under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954:

    1. The principal function of the Court is to settle any matters which are outstanding after the representatives of workers' unions and employers or employers' unions in any industry have failed under the procedure laid down in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to reach complete agreement in conciliation upon the minimum rates of wages and conditions of work which are to govern employment in the industry for a limited future period. This function of the Court is really legislative in character, for Parliament in effect has delegated authority to the Court to make law in a restricted field but its awards must not be inconsistent with any statute. For a large proportion (approximately one-half) of the labour force their minimum rates of wages and working conditions are determined by the series of awards issued by the Court of Arbitration, and industrial agreements made by representatives of employers and workers. The number of awards and agreements in force is quite large—738 at 31 March 1968— and each is subject to individual negotiation by the unions or associations concerned. The usual term of an award or agreement is about 18 months.

      Included in the respective awards and agreements are provisions covering minimum rates of remuneration, the hours of work, overtime, holidays, safety, health, and welfare. Initiated by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act 1936 a 40-hour week is now prescribed in almost all awards and industrial agreements.

      The Court does not settle strikes or lockouts. If there is a strike or lockout in an industry, access to the Court is not usually available to the parties unless and until work is resumed.

    2. The provisions of awards and industrial agreements are enforced through Magistrate's Courts and the Court of Arbitration. There are limited rights of appeal against the judgments of Magistrates to the Court of Arbitration, the determination of which is final. Inspectors of Awards, who are officers of the Department of Labour, may proceed directly in the Court of Arbitration for the recovery of penalties. In the Magistrate's Court actions for penalties may be brought at the suit of an Inspector of Awards or at the suit of any party to the award or industrial agreement.

    3. The Court has power to impose penalties for a number of offences against special provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act; for example, being a party to a strike or lockout when bound by an award or industrial agreement, combining to defeat an award, contempt of Court, obstruction of a conciliation council or the Court, failure to comply with a summons to give evidence, victimisation, and so forth.

    4. Actions to recover moneys, including holiday pay, due to workers under awards and industrial agreements may be brought by Inspectors of Awards in the Court of Arbitration or the Magistrates' Court.

    5. The Court of Arbitration upon application of Inspectors of Awards or upon applications of parties, joint or otherwise, may give its opinion upon any question connected with the construction of any award or industrial agreement or upon any particular determination or direction of the Court or upon the construction of any statute relating to matters within the jurisdiction of the Court. This function is frequently availed of and enables many legal disputes to be settled with a minimum of friction and at a minimum cost.

    6. The Court of Arbitration is vested with a jurisdiction to hear appeals from decisions of disputes committees set up to consider differences arising between parties to awards and industrial agreements as to any matter arising out of or connected with an award or agreement but not specifically dealt with therein.

    7. The Court has a special jurisdiction to conduct inquiries into allegations of irregularities in connection with election of the officers of any industrial union and to make and enforce orders relating to such matters.

  2. Under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 and regulations made thereunder:

    The Court of Arbitration has power to make general orders amending the rates of remuneration in all awards and industrial agreements either of its own motion or on the application of any industrial union or association of workers or employers. For this purpose, the expression “rates of remuneration” has a very wide connotation.

  3. Under the Shops and Offices Act 1955:

    The Court has power when making an award in any trade to fix the opening and closing hours of all shops in the particular trade in that locality and also to provide that such shops shall not be open for business on one working day in each week or on any award holiday.

  4. Under the Annual Holidays Act 1944:

    The Court has power to impose penalties for offences against the provisions of the Act.

  5. Under the Apprentices Act 1948:

    1. The Court has power to make apprenticeship orders, in respect of any industry or branch thereof to which the Act applies, prescribing the wages, hours, and other conditions of employment to be incorporated in contracts of apprenticeship, the period of apprenticeship in any industry and the minimum age at which a person may commence to serve as an apprentice in any industry, and pre-requisite education.

    2. The Court on the application of certain parties may give its opinion upon any question connected with the construction of any apprenticeship order or with any determination or direction of the Court under the Act.

    3. The Court may hear appeals from decisions of apprenticeship committees and district commissioners of apprenticeship, and its decisions are final and conclusive.

    4. The Court has jurisdiction to decide actions in respect of alleged breaches of any contract of apprenticeship order of the Court or requirement of the Apprentices Act.

  6. Under the Technicians' Training Act 1967:

    1. Where prior to the establishment of a Technician Training Council in any industry, the organisations of employers and workers are unable to agree on the terms of a principal determination fixing the conditions of employment of trainees in that industry, any such organisation may require the Secretary of Labour to refer the matter to the Court for decision, pursuant to the arbitration provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

    2. Where after the establishment in any industry of a Technician Training Council such Council cannot agree on the terms of any proposed amendment to a principal determination relating to the conditions of employment of trainees in that industry, the Chairman shall refer the matter in dispute to the Court for settlement.

    3. Where there is objection to the assessment by a Technician Training Council of levies on employers to finance the operation of a training scheme, there is a final appeal to the Court. The Court may then confirm, modify or quash the assessment, or may order an extension of time for payment. Monies validly assessed may be recovered as a debt in the Magistrate's Court or in the Court of Arbitration.

    4. The Court has jurisdiction to decide actions in respect of alleged breaches of principal determinations made under the Act.

  7. Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962:

Matters in dispute between certain classes of agricultural workers and their employers may be referred to the Court of Arbitration for the purpose of making a recommendation to the Minister of Labour as to how matters in dispute should be settled.

General—The Court of Arbitration early in its history expanded beyond the limited function originally conceived for it. It has been the major force in the formulation of industrial codes. In its evolution and in its task of establishing uniform wage rates, the Court has risen to a commanding position in the economic life of the country. Apart from occasional legislation to meet special economic conditions, or as in 1936 to introduce the 40-hour week, no attempt has been made by Parliament to express in statute the social and economic policy to be followed by the Court. There is no right of appeal from the decisions of the Court on any matters coming within its exclusive jurisdiction.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour five-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of two weeks' duration on ordinary pay for all workers who are not otherwise provided for in this respect. Where a worker has been employed for less than one year, on termination of employment he is entitled to payment equal to one twenty-fifth of his ordinary pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act 1965 provides that the Court of Arbitration must make provision in every award for workers to have at least 10 whole holidays on pay, in addition to annual holidays. The holidays so provided include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu).

The Public Holidays Act 1955 gives rules which are applicable to the provisions of any Act, award, or industrial agreement when Christmas Day and New Year's Day fall on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday. The effect of the Act is broadly to provide that provisions regarding the granting of a holiday or observance of certain hours of labour or payment of certain specified rates of wages are carried over from Saturday and Sunday to Monday (or Tuesday). In a similar way, where an anniversary day of any province falls on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, the provisions governing holiday, pay, etc., on anniversary day apply on the next succeeding Monday; if it falls on a Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, the provisions apply to the immediately preceding Monday as if it were the anniversary day. Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October.

ANZAC DAY ACT—Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to “any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged or in which one or more persons are employed . . . directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale . . .”

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 15 years of age may be employed in any factory. No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Overtime—No boy or girl under 16 years of age is permitted to work overtime. No woman may work more than three hours' overtime in one day (excluding time worked before noon on Saturday), or more than nine hours in any week, but there is no restriction on the yearly total overtime hours.

There are special provisions in regard to work for industries where raw materials which, in the opinion of the inspector are subject to rapid deterioration, are processed for sale as foodstuffs or where, in the opinion of the inspector, extended hours are necessary in order to meet a public demand.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to machinery, dangerous liquids, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Boys under 18 or females may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act provides that female assistants and boys under 18 cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m. However, it is not unlawful to employ female assistants over the age of 18 up to 11.30 p.m. or to midnight in connection with social functions (or if over 21 years, between midnight and 5.30 a.m.), if satisfactory provision for conveying these assistants to their homes be made. There is no limit under the Act to the time at which adult male hotel and restaurant employees may be required to commence or cease work.

Opening and Closing Hours of Shops—The Court of Arbitration has power when making an award in any trade to fix the opening and closing hours on weekdays of any shops substantially (i.e., at least 20 percent of turnover) carrying on the particular trade in that industrial district, and also to provide that such shops shall not be open for business on one working day in each week or on any award holiday.

Sunday Trading—Sunday trading is prohibited except (a) if provision is made in an award, the prior consent of the Minister being required to such inclusion, (b) for sale of exempted goods listed later, (c) if individual shops are granted exemption by the Shops and Offices Exemptions Tribunal or the Minister to permit them to open on Sunday. This is designed to enable shops in motor camps and other holiday resorts to cater for the needs of the travelling public.

Exempted Goods—The term “exempted goods” means (a) tobacco, cigarettes, cigarette papers, cigars, and matches; (b) confectionery and sweetmeats; (c) milk, cream, eggs, butter, and cheese; (d) motor spirits, petrol, and oil; (e) motor accessories urgently and necessarily required for the functioning of a motor vehicle; (f) fruit, vegetables, and flowers, if for sale by the grower on the premises where grown; (g) newspapers; (h) goods of a class exempted from the provisions of the Act relating to the closing of shops by Order in Council. The list of exempted goods is given in the Shops and Offices Exempted Goods Order.

Non-exempted goods must be properly locked away from the view of the public after normal closing hours.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Act also makes provision for the welfare, health, and safety of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—In the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 there is provision for the making of regulations prescribing minimum standards of accommodation and for Orders in Council prescribing minimum rates of pay.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers' Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than eight hours in any one day.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him, and where five or more shearers are employed and accommodated on the farm then accommodation is also to be provided. Minimum standards of both amenities and accommodation are set out by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is with the Marine Department.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of controlling officers of ships. Home-trade ships of 90 ft or more register length require two certificated mates unless running under 300 miles between terminal ports when only one mate is required; a ship less than 90 ft register length requires one certificated mate if running over 100 miles between terminal ports. A foreign-going ship is required to carry two certificated mates. Foreign-going certificated mates are entitled to ship as mates in the home-trade. Provision is made for issuing certificates of competency of mates of home-trade ships. Some certificates of masters, mates, and engineers granted in countries of the British Commonwealth are recognised as being valid in New Zealand.

Further sections dealing with the safety of the ship require the adjustment of compasses to be carried out under regulations, while the Minister may define restricted limits for ships. There are regulations as to the loading and stowage of ballast and the loading of grain cargo in bulk. It is an offence to ship wool, flax, tow, or skins in such a condition as to be liable to spontaneous combustion.

MINING LEGISLATION—The present law relating to mining and quarrying is contained for the most part in the Coal Mines Act 1925 and subsequent amendments, the Mining Act 1926 and the amendments, and the Quarries Act 1944 and its amendments. A noteworthy feature of such Acts is the appointment of inspectors with wide powers.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are usually determined by direct negotiation between the coal-mine owners and the workers and the workers' organisations.

Since 1948 an underground shift of seven hours has applied in the mining industry in lieu of the former eight-hour limit.

Restriction on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than eight hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 37D.

LEGISLATION GOVERNING WORKING CONDITIONS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT SERVICE—The principal measures which are concerned with the majority of persons employed either directly or indirectly by the State and which have reference to their working conditions are given in the succeeding paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working condition, and also the regulation of a variety of points connected control—e.g., leave, hours of work, salary and wage rates, payment of allowances, etc.

The Government Service Tribunal Act 1965 provides for the establishment of a tribunal with functions, in relation to the remuneration and conditions of service of employees, of making (a) principal and other orders, and (b) recommendations to the Prime Minister on any matters other than those contained in the principal orders.

The Government Railways Act 1949 furnishes the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. In 1944 there was established the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal functions of which are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in respect of leave of absence, railway concessions, etc. The Government Railways (Staff) Regulations 1953 are also of relevance in this connection.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to make recommendations to the Minister on such matters as may be referred to it by the Minister, the Director-General or the New Zealand Post Office Association (Incorporated).

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The three armed services are controlled at present by the Army Act 1950, the Navy Act 1954, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, pay, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the teaching profession.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 while the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963 bear directly on these matters.

Waterfront Industry—The legislation at present governing waterside work is contained in the Waterside Industry Act 1953, which defines waterside work as “the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels; and, in relation to any port where the harbour board acts as wharfinger, includes the work of receiving and delivering cargo customarily performed by waterside workers at that port”. The functions of government are shared between two types of bodies—one legislative and judicial, the other administrative only.

The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal which consists of a Chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The Tribunal is appointed for a term of three years and is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the Tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for waterside work, and here the Tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the setting up by the Minister of Labour of a National Conciliation Committee to be appointed for a term not exceeding two years and consisting of eight employer and eight worker representatives, with an independent Chairman, to conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the Tribunal which concerns two or more ports. Secondly, the Tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to waterside work, and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent Chairman. Thirdly, the Tribunal is a general Appeal Court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations), National Amenities Committees, and orders of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges.

The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of one Commissioner appointed for a term of five years by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The functions of the Commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with the engagement of, and payment of wages to, waterside workers, including administrative work in connection with guaranteed minimum payments, annual and statutory holiday payments and systems of payment by results for waterside workers. Secondly, the Commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers (subject to the direction of the National Amenities Committee) and for the equipping, operation, and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first-aid rooms. The National Amenities Committee, which is associated with the Commission in the function of provision of amenities, consists of six nominated representatives of employers, workers, and harbour boards and the Waterfront Industry Commissioner as Chairman, and is appointed by the Minister of Labour. This committee acts in an advisory capacity to the Commission authorising amenities costing not more than $10,000 each at any port, and approving schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $10,000 each at any port.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with two associations or federations of unions, one of North Island port unions and the Lyttelton port union but excluding the Onehunga port union, and one of the South Island port unions excluding Lyttelton. There is also a joint committee of the executive officers of the two associations. The port unions and the two associations are registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954—that is, through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

Chapter 35. Section 35 INDUSTRIAL UNIONS

Table of Contents

UNIONS OF WORKERS—Registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 (originally enacted in 1894) makes a trade union of workers into a body corporate for the purposes of the Act, places the union and its members under the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration, lays down certain matters which must be included in the rules of the union, and makes the rules legally binding on the members. It enables the union to sue or be sued, and to hold land and property, and gives it disciplinary power over its members, who may be sued for fees or fines in the Courts. The chief advantage arising from registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is that it enables the union to compel the employers to negotiate with it in a Conciliation Council and, if no agreement is reached, to secure a decision from the Court of Arbitration in the form of an award laying down minimum wages, hours, and working conditions applicable to all employees in the industry. On the other hand, by registration, a union loses the right to strike and renders its members liable to penalties for striking. In order to secure registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and, therefore, to be able to secure an award for its members, a union must fulfil certain conditions of membership. For registration an industrial union of workers must consist of not less than 15 members or enrol not less than 25 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the industrial district in which it is registered, but it may not consist of less than five members. Until 1936, when the Act was amended, a union could, however, cover only one of the eight industrial districts into which the country is divided. The registration of a large number of small unions, one for each industrial district, was thus made inevitable.

The legislation in 1936 removed the legal obstacles to the formation of national unions, and enabled any society of workers to register as a New Zealand union covering the whole country, provided it had branches in each of at least four industrial districts. Unions covering two or more districts could also be registered. Under the amended Act, when a New Zealand union is registered, the registrations of the local unions which united to form it are automatically cancelled unless the Minister has directed that any such union shall continue in existence, and no new union in that industry can be registered unless two-thirds of the workers in the district or locality concerned so desire. The 1936 legislation thus opened the way for the first time for the registration of national organisations.

Even before 1900, awards of the Court had contained clauses providing for preference of employment for union members. In 1916, however, the Court of Appeal issued a decision restricting preference clauses. In 1925 the position was clarified when specific power was given to the Court of Arbitration to determine, amongst other matters, “the claim of members of industrial unions of workers to be employed in preference to non-members”. Preference clauses continued to be included in most awards, giving a qualified preference to unionists where a unionist was ready and willing to do the particular work and equally qualified to do it.

In the years subsequent to 1936, when the changes in the law enabled national unions to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions or unions covering two or more districts became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of large unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of large unions, and very greatly to increase their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, and the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains; at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised.

In 1961 the provision in the Act for compulsory union membership was replaced by two alternatives. Membership of a union would continue to be a condition of employment if the representatives of the parties in conciliation agreed to such a clause being included in the industrial agreement or award, or if 50 percent or more of the workers who would be bound by an award desired to be members of the union and party to the award. Alternatively, a qualified preference clause on the lines of the pre-1936 clauses would be inserted in the agreement or award.

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

From earliest days local trades councils had been the mouthpieces of the trade union movement. The great increase in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the Federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The Executive consists of the officers and two members elected directly by the conference. The National Council, which meets about once a quarter, consists of members of the National Executive and one representative of each local trades council, and is the governing body of the Federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the Federation are the local trades councils, 19 in number, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the Federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—Under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, not less than three persons or a registered company may register as an industrial union of employers. By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

The employers are, however, much more highly organised in respect of negotiations with labour than the figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers' Federation, which is of long standing, is the chief co-ordinating authority for all activities of employers in connection with negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. It is composed of 11 district employers' associations together with a number of other affiliated employers' organisations of national scope. Through the New Zealand Employers' Federation there is close integration of the various employer organisations operating under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

POWERS OF A UNION—The powers of a union are limited to those authorised by statute, and the manner in which such powers may be exercised, where not specifically mentioned in the statute, must be set out in the rules. It cannot use its funds for any purpose foreign to the purposes for which it is established, nor can it commence any project nor use its funds in any manner not contemplated by the Act under which it is registered. Under the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960, a union may apply its funds in furtherance of political objects if a resolution is passed on a ballot of the members taken in accordance with its rules. A resolution shall be deemed to have been passed in a ballot of the members if a majority of the total valid votes recorded at the ballot is in favour. The Act provides that, where any levy to be applied in the furtherance of political objects becomes lawfully payable, a member shall be exempt from payment of the levy by giving notice of objection in writing.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act requires certain provisions to be included in the rules of industrial unions, especially that election of officials are to be made by secret ballot of financial members or by such other democratic method as may be approved by the Registrar of Industrial Unions. The Registrar may refuse any unreasonable or oppressive rule, subject to a right of appeal by the union to the Court of Arbitration. He may also, on application by at least 10 financial members, refer to the Court for inquiry a disputed election of union officials. Secret ballots are also required to validate subscriptions in excess of 20 cents weekly and levies on union members. Penalties are prescribed in the case of a strike or lockout, and these are heavier where an affirmative decision on the issue has not been made by a pre-strike or pre-lockout secret ballot of members concerned.

Provision is made under section 79 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership as at 31 December of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (see parliamentary paper H. 11) that the tables in this section have been compiled.

STATISTICS: Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the latest five years are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. In the few cases where current membership figures are not known the latest known figures are included. Some employers belong to two or more unions.

Industrial Group19631964196519661967
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Provision of—
    Food and drink624,146624,199623,782623,605623,484
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles93,34193,40183,37094,25892,865
    Building and construction504,085524,107534,267544,369554,265
    Power, heat, and light82468937894985118894
    Transport by water and air1512815124151321616416160
    Transport by land1051710512105111058310569
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service302,883313,008313,164313,677313,868
Working in or on—
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.94789489946293199382
    Metal1397213994121,003121,032121,004
    Stone, clay, glass and chemicals10839108311080810812101,359
    Paper, printing, etc.1641816415153901635716421
    Skins, leather, etc.626635529529528
    The land (farming pursuits)104,490104,54492,57292,68392,798
Miscellaneous75037496544354435444
    Totals25523,07225824,09225221,88225622,84225722,541

Unions of Workers—The following table shows membership only of industrial unions of workers as at the end of each year from 1900 to 1968. The outstanding feature is the large increase consequent upon the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed; on the other hand the effect of both world wars, of the economic depression of the 1930s, and of the waterfront strike of 1951 are clearly discernible.

YearNumber of Members
*1950 figure now includes the membership of five subsequently deregistered unions totalling 8,554 members.
190017,989
190123,768
190223,816
190327,640
190430,271
190529,869
190634,978
190745,614
190849,347
190954,519
191057,091
191155,629
191260,622
191371,544
191473,991
191567,661
191671,587
191772,873
191871,447
191982,553
192096,350
192197,719
192296,838
192394,438
192496,822
1925100,540
192699,567
1927101,071
1928103,980
1929102,646
1930101,526
193190,526
193279,283
193371,888
193474,391
193580,929
1936185,527
1937232,986
1938249,231
1939254,690
1940248,081
1941231,049
1942218,398
1943214,628
1944223,027
1945229,103
1946247,498
1947260,379
1948271,100
1949275,977
1950275,779*
1951272,957
1952283,496
1953290,149
1954299,254
1955304,520
1956308,031
1957317,137
1958324,438
1959327,495
1960332,362
1961324,747
1962332,801
1963334,128
1964346,857
1965353,105
1966362,760
1967366,884
1968364,872

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership. Unions for which no membership figures were available have been classified according to the latest known figures.

YearUnder 100100-199200-299300-499500-9991,000-1,9992,000-2,9993,000-4,9995,000-9,99910,000 and OverTotal
 Number of Unions
190114230195411---202
1911182532623148--1-307
19212397036282811321-418
193123958313029143-1-405
19411847038383227131052419
19511656944383928111173415
196114758393946251511114395
196414352373445251513115380
196514051303844251514105372
196613756204641291314125373
196714249314136301311145372
 Membership
19015,7774,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,900---23,768
19117,5217,6866,3608,8799,6859,414--6,084-55,629
192111,2229,7089,18211,06618,52714,5807,4336,5069,495-97,719
19319,9697,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,744-7,857-90,526
19417,9099,7689,20715,06022,84135,41731,01241,19128,98729,657231,049
19517,87510,22510,39414,67127,27439,65827,36443,21840,27852,000272,957
19616,3747,9229,37414,64332,61935,30034,72046,06172,39365,341324,747
19646,1547,2149,12813,27830,85434,47935,76151,03471,07487,881346,857
19655,9547,1347,51714,52631,21234,82036,29658,08669,70787,853353,105
19665,7937,5974,68017,33828,57039,41631,50756,30185,04486,514362,760
19675,6136,7197,58616,52625,76042,87832,01844,58095,07390,131366,884
 Percentage of Total Membership
190124.317.020.38.710.66.912.2---100.0
191113.513.811.416.017.416.9--11.0-100.0
192111.59.99.411.319.014.97.66.79.7-100.0
193111.18.88.412.422.820.57.4-8.6-100.0
19413.54.24.06.59.915.313.417.812.612.8100.0
19512.93.73.85.410.014.510.015.814.819.1100.0
19612.02.42.94.510.010.910.714.222.320.1100.0
19641.72.12.63.88.910.010.314.720.525.4100.0
19651.72.02.14.18.89.910.316.519.724.9100.0
19661.62.11.34.87.910.98.715.523.423.8100.0
19671.51.82.14.57.011.78.712.225.924.6100.0

There has been a more or less steady growth in the average size of workers' unions, the trend being to a certain extent obscured at times by the cancellation of registration by some large unions. An average membership of 118 in 1901 increased in 1921 to 234, in 1941 to 551, and 1961 to 822. The average membership of the 372 workers' unions registered in 1967 was 986.

The next table shows both numbers of workers' unions and their membership as at the end of each of the latest five years according to industrial groups. In the few cases where current membership figures are not known, the latest known figures are included.

Industrial Group19631964196519661967
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Provision of—
    Food and drink6639,2636639,3866341,2056345,3566247,092
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles1623,3641723,7381723,9961723,5911723,307
    Building and construction2930,2292832,4222532,5342434,3682334,676
    Power, heat, and light35633594357646324594
    Transport by water and air4813,7964813,8064914,1975015,1574914,740
    Transport by land2136,7932136,2492136,9912137,0982137,629
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service2329,0712329,3122329,4512431,1692431,064
Working in or on—
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.1714,1651714,4321715,3621715,3931714,758
    Metal2243,9572245,2162147,9722148,1862247,710
    Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals193,264193,888194,384194,550194,118
    Paper, printing, etc.26,42826,65036,89937,05737,010
    Skin, leather, etc81,30581,46471,42961,54061,653
    Mines and quarries131,231131,175121,143111,062111,026
    The land (farming pursuits)415,250415,808413,249411,673412,580
    Miscellaneous8875,4498982,7178883,7178985,9289088,927
Totals379334,128380346,857372353,105373362,760372366,884

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of two or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as an industrial association. At 31 December 1967 there were 17 industrial associations of employers and 38 of workers, the former having 204 affiliated unions and the latter 139. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case. In most cases the associations cover the entire country.

Industrial GroupEmployersWorkers
AssociationsAffiliated UnionsAssociationsAffiliated Unions
19661967196619671966196719661967
Provision of—
    Food, drink, etc.553739552020
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles----331312
    Building and construction334445221514
    Power, heat, and light----1122
    Transport by water and air111111533431
    Transport by land1144111212
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service222220331918
Working in or on—
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.11242278
    Metal----3399
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.113334810
    Paper, printing, etc.221111----
    Skin, leather, etc.11221122
    Mines and quarries----1133
    The land (farming pursuits)----1154
Miscellaneous----885459
Totals17171361393938203204

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table, showing the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage earners in the country, is of interest as manifesting the movement in and the extent of unionism during the period under review. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations and include professional, business, and other classes in which unionism prior to the passing of the amending Act of 1936 did not exist, and agricultural and pastoral occupations where it was practically non-existent. In addition, females are included in both sets of figures, although the proportion of women unionised prior to 1936 was negligible.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered UnionsPercentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions
*1950 figure now includes the membership of five subsequently deregistered unions, totalling 8,554 members.
1901 (March)224,3461,90017,9898
1906 (April)269,0391,90529,86911
1911 (April)304,2721,91057,09119
1916 (October)302,1611,91671,58724
1921 (April)370,6921,92096,35026
1926 (April)414,6731,925100,54024
1936 (March)496,5631,93580,92916
1945 (September)473,6841,945229,10348
1951 (April)577,6941,950275,779*48
1956 (April)653,3581,955304,52047
1961 (April)750,8821,960332,36244
1966 (March)870,8131,965353,10541

Chapter 36. Section 36 INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Table of Contents

GENERAL—A system of industrial conciliation and arbitration peculiar to New Zealand has evolved from the first legislation on industrial relations passed in 1894. The system is based on: (a) the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations; (b) the regulation of conditions of employment by industrial agreements made between industrial unions or industrial associations of workers on the one hand and industrial unions or industrial associations of employers or individual employers on the other hand; (c) the reference of disputes to a Council of Conciliation convened by a Conciliation Commissioner; (d) in the event of failure of the parties to reach agreement in the conciliation proceedings the dispute is referred to the Court of Arbitration and after hearing the parties the Court makes an award. Action for breach of an award or industrial agreement may be taken by any of the parties thereto or an inspector of awards in a Magistrate's Court, or by an inspector in the Court of Arbitration. The system owes much of its strength to the success of Judges of the Court of Arbitration in maintaining the dignity of the office with a minimum of formality and in demonstrating a wide and practical grasp of economic and technical problems and human relationships.

INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT—The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 is the statute governing most industrial disputes as most unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under that Act. The Registrar of Industrial Unions of the Department of Labour is responsible for registration of industrial unions, recording of rules, and other administrative functions. Inspectors of awards (who are the same persons as inspectors of factories) are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out.

The term “dispute” is used in its widest sense and is intended to refer to the whole field of wage fixation and conditions of employment, as well as to the settlement of strikes and lockouts. New Zealand's approach to this problem is different from that adopted in most other countries in that it has preferred to follow a system of conciliation and compulsory arbitration, rather than to adopt the more normal system of collective bargaining with the unrestricted right to “strike” or “lockout”. It is, however, incorrect to say that unions in New Zealand must submit to compulsory arbitration. It is entirely in their own hands to decide whether they wish to follow that method or to remain outside the scope of the Act, and to settle their disputes by mutual agreement or by collective bargaining under the procedure laid down in the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913.

The principle which has been written into the Act is that if unions elect to register under the Act they forfeit the right to strike and elect to have their differences settled by conciliation and arbitration. Most unions have seen fit to register under the Act and thereby have forfeited their right to strike.

Council of Conciliation—All industrial disputes must be referred to a Council of Conciliation before reference to the Court of Arbitration. The Conciliation Council consists of a conciliation commissioner, who is chairman, and not more than four assessors from each side. In the case of a dispute extending over two or more industrial districts, up to seven assessors from each side may be appointed. The proceedings are quite informal. It is the duty of the council to endeavour to bring about a settlement of the dispute between the parties. (The conciliation commissioner has no vote.)

An industrial union (or association of unions) of workers registered under the Act may cite a union or association of unions of employers, or an employer, or a number of employers, before a Council of Conciliation for the hearing of an industrial dispute before a Commissioner and assessors appointed from each side.

An industrial union (or association of unions) of employers registered under the Act, or an individual employer, or employers, may cite a union of workers in a similar manner. The workers may compel any of their employers to come under the Act, but the employers cannot compel their workers to come under it unless the latter have registered as an industrial union or association thereunder; registration is voluntary.

No industrial dispute may be referred for settlement to a Council of Conciliation by an industrial union (or association of unions) unless the proposed reference has been approved by resolution by the committee of management of the union or of each of the unions concerned, as the case may be.

If a settlement of a dispute is arrived at by the parties in the course of an inquiry before a Council of Conciliation, the terms of the settlement may be set down as an industrial agreement. Every such agreement must be executed by the assessors representing the parties and by the conciliation commissioner, and when so signed it is binding on all the parties to the dispute. Any party to the dispute, however, may apply to the Court of Arbitration for either total or partial exemption within one month after the agreement has been filed with the Court: the Court is empowered to grant such applications wholly, partly, or conditionally, or to refuse them. Where the employers who are parties to an agreement employ the majority of workers in the industry to which it relates, the Court on the application of any party may make the agreement binding on all employers in the industry, whether parties or not.

In most instances the parties to a complete settlement in conciliation prefer an award, and in such cases the assessors apply in writing to the Court to have the terms of settlement embodied in an award. This may be done by the Court without a hearing.

If settlement cannot be arrived at by the Conciliation Council, the dispute is referred to the Court. The Council may at the same time submit a recommendation for the settlement of the dispute, in which case all the parties are notified of the recommendation. If no party disagrees with the recommendation within one month, the recommendation operates as if it were an industrial agreement.

If no settlement is reached by the Conciliation Council and (a) no recommendation for settlement is made, or (b) a recommendation for settlement is made but any party to the dispute signifies his objection to it, then the dispute is referred to the Court for settlement by the making of an award.

A more common form of industrial agreement, however, is one reached by the parties without pursuing the formal Conciliation Council procedures described above. Such an agreement may be filed with the Clerk of Awards and thereupon becomes binding on the parties and every member of any union or association which is a party.

Making an Award—If a dispute comes before the Court of Arbitration, argument is heard upon the matters in debate, and the Court then makes its award, which becomes binding upon the employers specified in the award and also upon other employers who, when the award comes into force and at any time while it is in force, are engaged in the industry in the locality to which the award applies. In addition, it is binding upon all persons working for such employers who are covered by the particular award. In all cases where an industrial agreement or accepted recommendation or award is filed, it becomes binding on all parties. When an award or industrial agreement has been filed a strike or lockout becomes unlawful. Unless the parties otherwise agree, rates of wages specified in an award shall have effect from two months after the date first appointed for the hearing by the Conciliation Council, or where two or more districts are affected, four months after this date, or as from the date of the making of the award, whichever is the earlier, or as from such other date as the Court in its discretion thinks fit after taking into consideration all relevant matters.

Disputes Committees—Any award or industrial agreement may include provisions to the effect that any party to a dispute on a matter arising out of the award or agreement but not specifically dealt with therein may require the appointment of a local disputes committee, which will have power to decide the dispute or to refer it to a conciliation commissioner. The latter in his discretion can refer the dispute either to a national disputes committee, which may be appointed where any award relates to two or more industrial districts or parts thereof, or to the Court of Arbitration. Appeals against the decisions of the disputes committees may be made to the Court of Arbitration. There are many variations of this procedure in individual awards and industrial agreements.

Hospital Board Employees—Where a majority of the workers affected by any industrial dispute under the principal Act are hospital board employees, the Director-General of Health is to be a party to the dispute and is to recommend assessors for the employers in the conciliation proceedings. Other sections provide that an award is not to be made affecting hospital employees covered by regulations unless a majority votes in favour of an award, and for the concurrence of the Minister of Health with industrial agreements in similar circumstances.

Definition of a Strike—A strike means the act of any number of workers who are or have been in the employment of the same or of different employers:

  1. In discontinuing that employment, whether wholly or partially; or

  2. In breaking their contracts of service; or

  3. In refusing or failing after any such discontinuance to resume or return to their employment; or

  4. In refusing or failing to accept engagement for any work in which they are usually employed; or

  5. In reducing their normal output or their normal rate of work—the act being due to any combination, agreement, common understanding, or concerted action, whether expressed or implied, made or entered into by any workers;

  6. With intent to compel or induce any such employer to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made by the said or any other workers; or

  7. With intent to cause loss or inconvenience to any such employer in the conduct of his business; or

  8. With intent to incite, aid, abet, instigate, or procure any other strike; or

  9. With intent to assist workers in the employment of any other employer to compel or induce that employer to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands upon him by any workers.

An industrial dispute is a strike if it comes within the definition of a strike which is quoted above.

Definition of a Lockout—A lockout means the act of an employer:

  1. In closing his place of business, or suspending or discontinuing his business in any branch thereof; or

  2. In discontinuing the employment of any workers, whether wholly or partially; or

  3. In breaking his contracts of service; or

  4. In refusing or failing to engage workers for any work for which he usually employs workers—with intent;

  5. To compel or induce any workers to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made upon them by the said or any other employer; or

  6. To cause loss or inconvenience to the workers employed by him or to any of them; or

  7. To incite, aid, abet, instigate, or procure any other lockout; or

  8. To assist any other employer to compel or induce any workers to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made by him.

Strikes and Lockouts Illegal—A strike is an unlawful act if either:

  1. The union or the workers taking part in it are for the time being bound by an award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, or by a duly filed agreement under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, or by any principal order under the Waterfront Industry Act 1953; or

  2. In the case of a dispute relating to conditions of employment between a society of workers to which the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913 applies, but who are not bound by any duly filed agreement under the Act, they have failed to give notice of the dispute to the Minister of Labour as required by section 4 of that Act, or if the strike occurs before the expiration of seven days after the publication of the result of a secret ballot of the workers directly concerned, taken in pursuance of the Act.

Further, a strike which would not be unlawful for any of these reasons may be or become unlawful by the operation of regulations to that effect made under the Public Safety Conservation Act 1932, during a state of emergency declared by proclamation of the Governor-General in accordance with the provisions of that Act.

A lockout is an unlawful act:

  1. If the employer or employees party to it are bound for the time being by an award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, or by a duly filed agreement under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, or by a principal order under the Waterfront Industry Act 1953; or

  2. In the circumstances set out in sections 13 and 14 of the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913.

Under the terms of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 (section 191) no strike or lockout may take place until the question has been submitted to a secret ballot of those members of a union (whether a union of workers or employers) who would become parties to the strike or lockout, as the case may be. The secret ballot must be held in the manner laid down by the Act. If a strike or lockout takes place without a secret ballot being held, the Registrar of Industrial Unions may conduct a secret ballot on the question of whether the strike or lockout shall continue. The taking of a secret ballot does not make a strike or lockout lawful, or avoid the penalties imposed in connection with illegal strikes or lockouts.

Penalties—Maximum penalties and fines for being a party to or inciting, instigating, or aiding an unlawful strike or lockout are also provided for—namely, (a) for a worker, $100 or (in the case of certain essential industries), $150; (b) for a union official, $500 or $700; (c) for a union or association or employer, $1,000 or $1,500. The maximum penalty for impeding or interfering with a secret ballot on the question of a strike or lockout is imprisonment for 12 months or a fine of $200, or both.

If any industrial union of workers or employers instigates a strike or lockout without first taking a secret ballot, the penalties are increased. The penalty in such a case is a fine not exceeding $200 for every member of the union taking part in a strike, and for every official of the union a fine of $1,000 unless he proves that he had no means of knowing the imminence of the strike or that he took every step possible to ensure compliance with the provision and to prevent the strike. Corresponding maximum penalties in respect of a lockout are $2,000 for a member of the union and $1,000 for an official.

Section 196 of the Act provides special penalties in certain circumstances for strikes in specified essential industries.

Action to enforce the penalty provisions in relation to strikes and lockouts may be taken by an inspector of awards, or by any industrial association or industrial union which is party to the award or agreement. It may be noted that the penalty provisions of the Act are seldom invoked since it is considered that Court actions of this kind will rarely achieve the desired objectives of the Act in restoring working relationships and promoting industrial harmony.

Under Port Bureau Rules, waterside workers can be placed on penalty (suspension) for unauthorised stoppages of work.

The Minister of Labour is empowered, if he is satisfied that any discontinuance of employment brought about wholly or partly by any industrial union of employers or of workers has caused, or is likely to cause, serious loss or inconvenience, to cancel the registration of the union concerned or to cancel any award or industrial agreement so far as this relates to it, or to cancel the membership of any specified class of members of the union.

LABOUR DISPUTES INVESTIGATION ACT—All workers and societies of workers not bound by an award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act are bound by the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913.

Under this Act, if a dispute concerning wages or other conditions of employment arises between a society (or societies) of workers, whether registered or not, that is not bound by any award or industrial agreement and its employers, the society must, before it may strike, give to the Minister of Labour formal notice of the dispute, setting forth the names of the parties to the dispute and the claims made by the society. The Minister then refers the dispute to a conciliation commissioner to call a conference, or to a labour disputes committee for investigation and recommendation. Such a committee consists of from one to three members chosen from each side, with an independent chairman. In the event of no settlement being arrived at, a secret ballot is taken by the Registrar of Industrial Unions among the members of the society as to whether, in the case of no recommendation having been made, a strike should eventuate; or, in the case of a recommendation having been made, as to whether the recommendation should be adopted. Seven days' notice must be given to the employers should a strike be decided upon.

Similar provisions apply with reference to the filing of a dispute and to a lockout by the employers.

In the event of an agreement being arrived at, it may be filed with the Clerk of Awards. It is then enforceable in the same manner as an industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

By this Act the principle of settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation is extended to workers outside the scope of the Court of Arbitration, so that definite restrictions on the right to strike or to lockout exist over the whole field of industry in New Zealand. The powers under this Act, are not, of course, as far reaching as those under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, its main object being that workers or employers should take time for consideration of the points at issue and not precipitate themselves into industrial strife.

As most types of employment are covered by awards or industrial agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, only a few agreements are filed each year under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act. There were 23 such agreements in force at 31 March 1968.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS ACT 1949—This measure contains a section enabling a conciliation commissioner or a person nominated by the Minister to call a compulsory conference of parties or appoint a committee of inquiry where there is reason to believe that a matter not provided for in the award or industrial agreement governing the industry is causing or is likely to cause industrial unrest.

Further, if in any matters causing or likely to cause partial or total stoppage of work the normal means of reaching a settlement of the dispute have failed to do so, the Minister of Labour may either call a compulsory conference of the parties to the dispute in order to endeavour to effect a settlement, or appoint a committee of inquiry into the matters of the dispute or any particular aspect of it.

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. No distinction is drawn between the lawful and unlawful stoppages. A time series on industrial stoppages is included in the Statistical Summary near the end of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue. This class of stoppage has assumed considerable importance, the number of such cases in the five years 1963-67 being 84 (99 stopwork meetings) involving 19,656 workers, and the loss of 5,819 working days and of $48,536 in wages.

In the table shown later, recording methods of settlement, all such interruptions of labour, including periods of deliberate absence from work by way of protest against an alleged injustice, are classified under the heading “voluntary return to work”. In 1963, these cases comprised 7 out of 60 stoppages; in 1964, 21 out of 93; in 1965, 27 out of 105; in 1966, 59 out of 145; in 1967, 26 out of 89; in 1968, 26 out of 153.

The following table shows figures of incidence rates of stoppages for the last 18 years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1,000 of Wage and Salary Earners

*October estimates.

†There was a prolonged waterfront strike lasting from 9 February to 17 July 1951.

 (000)  
1951583.26.321,984.55
1952592.22.7547.49
1953609.43.6431.66
1954623.62.5932.83
1955639.63.1681.37
1956652.92.0836.56
1957670.22.3242.06
1958693.01.9827.11
1959699.42.6842.39
1960725.91.9749.16
1961752.72.2150.73
1962763.95.23121.95
1963788.01.8969.15
1964814.64.2782.05
1965846.71.8025.76
1966875.03.79113.25
1967872.03.27159.39
1968880.34.26147.98

Figure 36.1. INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Nature and Duration—The next table shows the nature of the stoppages and the number of workers involved during the last 11 years.

YearNature of StoppageNumber of Workers Involved
Direct StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*PenaltyTotalDirect StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*PenaltyTotal

*i.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a “go slow” or other policy of protest adopted.

†During 1964 four waterfront stoppages resulted in the imposition of four penalties, two of two days, one of three days, and one of five days under Port Bureau Rules and the loss of some 6,520 working days and $67,924 in wages. In 1966 four waterfront stoppages resulted in the imposition of four penalties, one of one day, two of two days, and one of three days under Port Bureau Rules. These resulted in the loss of some 684 working days and $7,330 in wages. These figures are included in the statistics.

‡Two lockouts involving 572 workers are included.

195849---4913,709---13,709
1959712--7316,1762,586--18,762
1960564--6013,923382--14,305
196166-5-7113,112-3,514-16,626
19629042-9634,2482,6063,067-39,921
19635811-6011,8273,05034-14,911
196489--49330,196--4,58334,779
19659724-10513,312726657-15,267
196613731414531,906725949233,132
19677973-8924,1024,034354-28,490
196814832-15336,168831459-37,458

The table following illustrates the duration of stoppages during 1968.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     $
1 day and less41427,1005,44647,850
Over 1 day but not over 2 days25276,5469,11898,590
Over 2 days but not over 3 days16226,87916,071112,630
Over 3 days but less than 1 week31415,06310,893101,720
1 week but less than 2 weeks26497,05237,547319,670
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks10214,73448,874396,360
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks47842,31819,970
8 weeks and over-----
Totals15320937,458130,2671,096,790

Geographical Distribution—The following table shows the number of stoppages in each industrial district for the years 1964 to 1968 and also the number of workers involved. In 1968 the Northern District had the largest number of stoppages and also the largest number of workers involved, these workers being mainly employed in the meat freezing and boiler-making, pulp and paper manufacturing, and the building and construction industries.

YearNorthernTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtago and SouthlandTotal
Number of Stoppages
196427319--5142593
196537420--51524105
196659321--52532145
19675219--5111189
1968104211--41121153
Number of Workers Involved
19645,42436417,190--1,6133,5186,67034,779
19654,9943572,198--1,0491,7344,93515,267
196614,9616575,687--8235,4855,51933,132
196716,1411,0343,075--1,1303,9323,17828,490
196821,9543102,840--7803,5178,05737,458

A stoppage extending into more than one industrial district is allocated to that district which includes the greatest number of the workers involved. The actual (or occasionally estimated) numbers of workers in the several districts are, however, correctly distributed.

Industrial Distribution—In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industrial groups in which they took place, this grouping being similar to that used in the compilation of wage and industrial-union statistics.

Industrial Group19641965196619671968Totals 1964 to 1968
Number of Stoppages
Provision of—
    Food, drink, etc.3234283149174
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles4521-12
    Building and construction161624102894
    Power, heat, and light1-11-3
    Transport by water and air176263254
    Transport by land11934101377
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service4-2--6
Working in or on—
    Wood, etc.-2-1-3
    Metal485204178
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.971251144
    Paper, printing, etc.-371415
    Skin, leather, etc.------
Mines and quarries—
    Coal mines5545524
Miscellaneous---1-1
Totals9310514589153585
Number of Workers Involved
Provision of—
    Food, drink, etc.9,5826,98610,47513,55623,49364,092
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles2887729224-1,176
    Building and construction1,3591,1913,7281,3464,30611,930
    Power, heat, and light36-80060-896
    Transport by water and air15,1651,0035,5943633022,155
    Transport by land5,6313,0417,4937,1491,14324,457
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service249-21--270
Working in or on—
    Wood, etc.-29-180-209
    Metal1275693563,9903,4678,509
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.7291626626521,3333,538
    Paper, printing, etc.-4653,103142,8706,452
    Skin, leather, etc.------
    Mines and quarries—
        Coal mines1,6131,0498081,1308165,416
Miscellaneous---26-26
Totals34,77915,26733,13228,49037,458149,126

A more detailed analysis of stoppages occurring during 1968 is given below.

Industrial GroupNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
DirectlyIndirectlyTotal
Provision of—
    Food, drink, etc.495914,5838,91023,49385,317673,100
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles-------
    Building and construction28354,306-4,3068,26498,720
    Power, heat, and light-------
    Transport by water and air22237302342,950
    Transport by land13291,143-1,1436,68465,730
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service-------
Working in or on—
    Wood, etc.-------
    Metal41643,2662013,46710,34494,360
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals etc.11111,0822511,3335,12639,460
    Paper, printing, etc.442,870-2,87011,39582,950
    Skin, leather, etc.-------
    Mines and quarries—
        Coal mines55816-8162,90339,520
Miscellaneous-------
Totals15320928,0899,36937,458130,2671,096,790

Causes—In the next table the causes of stoppages are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Stoppages concerning the employment or dismissal of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment”. Stoppages on the subject of employment usually concern the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds.

“Other working conditions” are of diverse nature, and include such causes as the following: distribution of work in coal mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, and the method of handling cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all stoppages caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause19641965196619671968
Number of Stoppages
Wages243748260
Hours13-34
Employment1920292750
Other working conditions3933311624
Sympathy12762
Other causes910301213
Totals9310514589153
Number of Workers Involved
Wages7,8413,5166,2139,91312,203
Hours124320-487387
Employment6,8041,9406,6166,95914,038
Other working conditions14,6987,51311,1754,0959,051
Sympathy2505971,0923,911460
Other causes5,0621,3818,0363,1251,319
Totals34,77915,26733,13228,49037,458

Methods of Settlement—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages. Negotiations supposedly under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act are treated as “Intervention of third party”. “Voluntary return to work” includes such cases as “Protest” absence and stopwork meetings.

Method of Settlement19641965196619671968
Number of Stoppages
Private negotiations between parties4835523390
Intervention of third party2338322735
Substitution----1
Voluntary return to work2127592626
Other15232
Totals9310514589153
Number of Workers Involved
Private negotiations between parties7,9413,0809,0225,04020,494
Intervention of third party9,0946,0647,27515,9638,975
Substitution----11
Voluntary return to work17,5985,43416,5187,1837,746
Other146689317304232
Totals34,77915,26733,13228,49037,458

Further information for the year 1968 is given in the next table.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     $
Private negotiations between parties9010320,49474,918651,780
Intervention of third party34748,97545,112320,680
Substitution11111982,280
Voluntary return to work26287,7469,415118,140
Other232326243,910
Totals15320937,458130,2671,096,790

RESULTS—In compiling the table which follows no stoppage has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or where a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

Result19641965196619671968
 Number of Stoppages
In favour of workers1422191632
In favour of employers65131420
Compromise2730271131
Indeterminate4648864870
Totals9310514589153
 Number of Workers Involved
In favour of workers1,6212,3273,4721,9719,183
In favour of employers1,7595232,6953,3447,469
Compromise5,5023,5637,5036274,633
Indeterminate25,8978,85419,46222,54816,173
Totals34,77915,26733,13228,49037,458
 Number of Working Days Lost
In favour of workers4,7982,71828,8144,28240,811
In favour of employers2,1333/41,8103,5592,82832,727
Compromise15,7155,99239,13398311,378
Indeterminate44,1871/411,29427,589131,39745,351
Totals66,83421,81499,095139,490130,267

Of stoppages ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years 1964 to 1968 workers succeeded in 103 instances and employers in 58. In the previous five years (1959 to 1963) workers were successful in 55 instances and employers in 58.

CAUSES AND RESULTS—In the following table the causes and results of stoppages occurring during 1968 are shown in conjunction.

ResultCause
WagesHoursEmploymentOther Working ConditionsSympathyOtherTotal
 Number of Stoppages
In favour of workers7-186-132
In favour of employers141311-20
Compromise12196-331
Indeterminate27220111970
Totals6045024213153
 Number of Firms Affected
In favour of workers7-186-132
In favour of employers431332-52
Compromise17196-336
Indeterminate40226111989
Totals10745626313209
 Number of Workers Involved
In favour of workers2,441-5,2981,414-309,183
In favour of employers5,366251,019849210-7,469
Compromise3101606513,301-2114,633
Indeterminate4,0862027,0703,4872501,07816,173
Totals12,20338714,0389,0514601,31937,458
 Number of Days Lost
In favour of workers22,059-16,6951,979-7840,811
In favour of employers30,35013990849525-32,727
Compromise1,920702,5166,573-29911,378
Indeterminate19,61116618,5014,1832502,64045,351
Totals73,94024938,70213,5847753,017130,267
 Estimated Loss in Wages
 $$$$$$$
In favour of workers181,690-137,86028,440-770348,760
In favour of employers256,69010024,5009,5803,040-293,910
Compromise17,92055022,64040,270-1,72083,100
Indeterminate142,0601,290140,29041,1702,86043,350371,020
Totals598,3601,940325,290119,4605,90045,8401,096,790

Chapter 37. Section 37 WORKERS' COMPENSATION; INDUSTRIAL AND FARM ACCIDENTS; OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

37 A—WORKERS' COMPENSATION

GENERAL—Under the Workers' Compensation Act 1956 all workers are entitled to workers' compensation benefits. Since 1943 it has been compulsory for employers to insure against claims under the Act by their employees. The employer who, through his neglect, is not covered by an insurance company is deemed to be insured by the Workers' Compensation Board. Thus the automatic cover for all workers is secured, but action may be taken against an employer for failing to insure, and the Workers' Compensation Board can recover from the employer all the compensation paid by the Board to injured workers. A worker who is the wife or husband of his or her employer is not a worker for the purposes of the Act, but voluntary insurance cover by employers may bring such a person within the provisions of the Act. (A Royal Commission in a report made in December 1967 has recommended a new compensation scheme for personal injury to all members of the work force.)

The worker is entitled to compensation from his employer where he suffers personal injury by accident arising out of and in the course of the employment, and this is so whether or not the employment is for the purposes of any trade or business carried on by the employer and whether or not the employment is of a casual nature. Even if the worker is working under an illegal contract of service at the time of an accident arising out of and in the course of employment, he is entitled to compensation if the illegality consists in evasion of a statutory minimum age provision, or if the Judge, Magistrate, or other person dealing with the matter decides, having regard to all the circumstances, to treat the contract as valid. No compensation is payable in respect of any accident which is attributable to the serious and wilful misconduct of the worker injured, unless the injury results in death or serious or permanent disablement. No compensation is payable in respect of the death of a worker following on, or incapacity resulting from or aggravated by, unreasonable refusal to submit to medical or surgical treatment. Certain accidents are deemed to arise out of and in the course of employment, provided that in each case the accident is of a type that would entitle the worker to compensation had it happened at his work place, namely:

  1. Accidents to apprentices attending compulsory classes at technical schools.

  2. Accidents to workers acting in breach of any Act, regulations, or orders affecting their employment or acting without instructions from the employer (provided that the worker would have been entitled to compensation had there been no breach of Act, etc.).

  3. Accidents to workers travelling to or from work by transport provided by the employer primarily for conveyance of the workers, authorised by him, or arranged with the workers or their union, the employer meeting the whole or part of the cost.

  4. Accidents to workers during meal or rest times, happening on premises occupied by the employer, on premises to which the workers have by virtue of their employment the right of access, or on premises where the workers are entitled to be by authorisation of the employer.

  5. Accidents to workers travelling between their place of employment and premises to which they have by virtue of their employment the right of access.

  6. Accidents to waterside workers awaiting engagement in accordance with the prescribed conditions of employment.

Diseases are deemed to be personal injuries by accident if they are due to the nature of any employment in which the worker was employed during a prescribed period before the date of commencement of the incapacity. In the case of diseases due to exposure to radioactivity the prescribed period is 20 years, and two years in all other cases. If the worker contracts any disease in respect of which he would be entitled to a miner's benefit under the Social Security Act he is not entitled to receive any compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act while receiving such benefit Nor can a benefit be paid for any period during which the worker is receiving compensation, and no lump-sum compensation is to be paid for any incapacity caused by such diseases.

In assessing compensation, no account is taken of any money accruing to the claimant under any insurance policy, nor, in the case of a partial dependant of a deceased worker, of any gain to the estate or the dependant, nor of any money payable by or to a friendly society or other organisation.

The Act generally applies only to accidents happening in New Zealand, but also applies to accidents on New Zealand ships and aircraft and to accidents to seamen or airmen employed in New Zealand ships or aircraft.

RATES OF COMPENSATION—All the maximum rates of compensation, whether for weekly payments or the various allowances, such as dependants' allowances and medical expenses, are fixed by Order in Council. The Act also adopts the method of having the various maximum total payments of compensation for death or incapacity expressed in terms of the current maximum weekly payment, so that any variation in the latter automatically varies the maxima for total payments. Compensation rates at present are as follows:

  1. In case of death:

    1. Where the worker leaves total dependants, a sum equal to the aggregate of the prescribed maximum weekly payments for 274 weeks ($6,850.00); or

    2. Where the worker leaves partial dependants only, a sum reasonable and proportionate to the injury to these dependants, but not exceeding the sum specified in (a).

    Compensation received prior to death by the injured person in respect of the accident which causes his death is deducted from the above amounts, to arrive at the amounts payable to dependants, to the extent that such prior compensation exceeds the aggregate of the prescribed maximum weekly payments for 39 weeks. ($975.00).

  2. In the case of injury:

  1. During total incapacity, weekly payments equal to 80 percent of the worker's weekly earnings (maximum $25 per week, minimum $5.70).

  2. During partial incapacity, weekly payments equal to 80 percent of the difference between the worker's pre-accident weekly earnings and the weekly amount he is earning or able to earn in suitable employment or business after the accident.

Weekly payments apply during any period of total incapacity, but not for a longer period than six years. The worker's weekly earnings are deemed to be his ordinary weekly earnings (exclusive of overtime) at the time of the accident, increased or reduced during his incapacity according to increases or decreases in ordinary rates of pay, ruling rates of pay, or minimum rates of wages. As an alternative, the worker may elect to have his weekly payments based on his average weekly earnings (inclusive of overtime) over the last 12 months or some shorter period in the employment of the same employer, increased or decreased during incapacity according to increases or decreases in the minimum wage under the Minimum Wage Act 1945. Permanently incapacitated apprentices, trainees, or workers under 21 years of age have their weekly earnings computed on adult or journeymen's rates.

In the case of certain injuries involving permanent disability (e.g., dismemberment or loss of use) compensation is assessed in accordance with a schedule to the Act, representing a percentage (varying according to the nature of the dismemberment) of an amount equal to the aggregate of maximum weekly payments of compensation for six years ($7,800.00). In assessing the compensation payable for such injuries, any compensation received for any period of temporary incapacity is taken into account in a manner laid down in the Act.

In addition to the ordinary compensation, dependants' allowances are payable under the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. Where the death of the worker results from the injury, an allowance of $100 is payable in respect of each total dependant under 16 years of age, and a proportionate amount in respect of each partial dependant under 16. Where the worker's total incapacity results from the injury, an allowance of $3 per week is payable in respect of his wife or dependent woman in a position of parent to children under 16 years of age maintained by the worker or paid housekeeper and $1.50 for each dependant under 16 years, provided that the combined amount of weekly payments and dependants' allowances is not to exceed 90 percent of the worker's weekly earnings. A child over 16 and under 18 years of age is treated as being under 16 if still at school or undergoing training without pay.

Various other allowances and expenses are payable in addition to the ordinary compensation. An injured worker is entitled to an allowance of $4 per week for any period during which he requires constant personal attendance and is not being maintained free of charge in a hospital. In the case of death, reasonable expenses are payable for medical and surgical attendance and up to $150 for the funeral. In the case of incapacity, the amount of $2.50 is payable for a first medical or surgical attendance, and $1.50 for all subsequent attendances rising out of the same period of incapacity. Provision is made to meet additional charges for attendances exceeding 30 minutes and for milage charges, while separate rates apply to specialist services, X-ray diagnostic services, and physiotherapeutic treatment. There is no limit to the amount payable for inpatient treatment and no overall limit is imposed in the payment of medical expenses in the aggregate.

Where as a result of the injury to a worker an artificial limb or aid is necessary, the employer must pay the reasonable cost of the artificial limb or aid, and the reasonable cost of its normal repair or renewal. Where, as a result of accident arising out of and in the course of employment, the worker suffers damage to teeth, an artificial limb or aid, clothing, or spectacles he is wearing the employer must pay for the reasonable cost of repair or replacement, except that in the case of damage to clothing or spectacles no liability arises to an employer unless he has also become liable to pay compensation as a result of the accident. Where the worker needs to be removed to a doctor, hospital or his home after the accident, the employer must pay the costs of removal. Where a worker requires medical treatment in another town or at a place more than 5 miles from his residence, the employer must pay the expenses of transport and meals or lodging up to a maximum of $100.

Weekly payments of compensation may not be discontinued or diminished except in the following cases:

  1. Where the weekly payment is in respect of total incapacity and the worker has actually returned to work.

  2. By formal agreement with the worker.

  3. By leave of the Compensation Court upon payment of a lump sum in lieu of weekly payments.

  4. By leave of the Compensation Court or Magistrate's Court where a doctor certifies that the worker has wholly or partially recovered or that any incapacity is not due in whole or part to the accident. The Court will not grant such leave in the case of partial recovery unless the worker is working in some suitable employ or business, or some suitable employment has been provided by his employer

  5. By judgment or order of a Court of competent jurisdiction.

  6. After the expiration of the maximum period of six years.

  7. Where the weekly payment is in respect of total incapacity and the worker's doctor has certified he is fit to resume work and the worker has not done so.

If the employer wrongfully terminates or diminishes weekly compensation payments, he is liable to pay double compensation to the worker. The Compensation Court has power to declare, in any case to which case (g) applies, that the worker was not in fact fit to resume work and that the payments therefore were to be continued.

COMPENSATION COURT—Proceedings under the Act are taken in the Compensation Court and in some cases the Magistrate's Court. The Compensation Court consists of a Judge, and there is provision in the Act for the appointment of a Registrar for each industrial district under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. Procedure is determined by regulations—the Workers' Compensation Court Rules. No appeal lies to any other Court from any order made by the Compensation Court, nor may any such order be removed into another Court to be quashed or varied, except upon the ground of want or excess of jurisdiction. All proceedings for the recovery of compensation and the determination of any questions under the Act are, with certain exceptions, taken in the Compensation Court and not otherwise. Rights of indemnity conferred by the Act are enforceable in the Supreme Court of competent jurisdiction, and not (except with the consent of the parties) in the Compensation Court. Where the parties agree or the amount claimed does not exceed $100, proceedings for the recovery of compensation in respect of any injury which has not caused the death of a worker may be taken in the Magistrate's Court. Medical, funeral, and surgical expenses and other allowances of a similar nature may be recovered in the Magistrate's Court equally with the Compensation Court.

Proceedings under the Act for the recovery of compensation are not maintainable unless written notice of the accident has been given to the employer as soon as practicable after its happening. Action for recovery must also be commenced within 12 months after the date of the accident or death, or date of the last payment of compensation or signing of admission of liability. The Court has power to excuse failure to give notice or to commence action within the limited time if the employer has not been prejudiced, or the failure was due to mistake of fact or law, absence from New Zealand, or other reasonable cause.

INSURANCE—With certain exceptions it is compulsory for all employers to insure against their liability to pay compensation or damages in respect of injuries to workers. The Secretary of Labour has power to grant exemption where the employer has adequate financial resources, or is a Commonwealth shipping company indemnified by a United Kingdom mutual protecting club or is employing workers domiciled outside New Zealand and adequately protected by compensation rights and insurance enforceable in the country of their domicile or in the country where they were engaged. The National Airways Corporation, the Linen Flax Corporation, and education boards and other school authorities are not required to insure their workers. The Secretary of Labour may grant exemption to the trustees of the General Trust Fund established under the New Zealand Rules of Racing. The insurance provisions of the Act do not apply to the Crown as the employers of any workers or with respect to overseas workers temporarily employed in New Zealand by overseas employers for a period of six months or less.

Contracts are completed by the delivery of wages statements by employers to authorised insurers (insurance companies who have notified the Secretary of Labour that they have made the necessary deposit under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953). Maximum rates of premiums for the different categories of workers are fixed by the Employers' Liability Insurance Regulations. The employer is required to give prompt notification of details of accidents causing death or personal injury to workers, to his insurer, and to an Inspector of Factories.

WORKERS' COMPENSATION BOARD—The Workers' Compensation Board consists of the General Manager of the State Insurance Office and one other Government representative, two representatives of the Council of Fire and Accident Underwriters' Associations of New Zealand, one employers' representative, and one workers' representative. Its functions include recommending the maximum rates of premiums and rate of commission for insurance agents, administering the Workers' Compensation Account used in carrying out the Board's functions, undertaking and assisting accident prevention, research into causes, incidence, and prevention of accidents, and the care and assistance of injured workers. Penal rates up to 100 percent in excess of the prescribed maximum rates may be imposed by the Board in cases where the risks to workers are unusually great. To finance the activities of the Board, levies are collected from authorised insurers and exempted employers. The Board also acts as the insurer of employers who have neglected to insure their workers with an authorised insurer, so that workers are protected in all cases. The Board may collect from delinquent employers moneys it pays out as insurer.

37 B—INDUSTRIAL INJURIES

GENERAL—Statistics of industrial accidents have become increasingly important with the widening mechanisation of industry and the growing labour force. They are basic material for programmes of industrial safety. The national bill for compensation payments is in the region of $6 million annually. This is, however, only the direct cost, and the indirect costs probably put the total bill beyond $20 million. Productivity and the standard of living are affected by industrial accidents. Over the latest five years the calendar days lost through industrial accidents were well over 50 times the working days lost through industrial stoppages. Add to this the loss of some 80 lives each year and the permanent disabling of some nine hundred other workers, then the magnitude of the problem of occupational safety can be more clearly realised.

As the statistics are derived from claims made under the Workers' Compensation Act, they exclude accidents to working proprietors and similar persons not insurable under the Act. This limits the scope of the statistics in the farming industry especially. Coverage does, however, extend to organisations exempt from insurance under the Act.

Claims resulting from the more serious accidents are frequently not settled for some considerable time after the occurrence of the accident, and a period is therefore allowed so that the bulk of such claims may be included in the statistics for the year in which the accidents occurred. From 1953 the closing date has been standardised at mid-August of the following year. Even allowing this period of seven and a half months, it is inevitable that any year's statistics will include a small proportion of long-delayed claims from previous years, but these late claims should be compensatory from year to year.

PRINCIPAL STATISTICS—The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics for the latest five years. The concepts and calculation of frequency and severity rates and of calendar days lost are explained in a succeeding note, and changes in compensation rates are set out in a subsequent table.

Item19621963196419651966
Number of accidents resulting in—
    Fatality8374679085
    Permanent total disability34293
    Permanent partial disability1,0048741,011946930
    Temporary disability53,27554,38057,91855,37355,480
Totals54,36555,33258,99856,41856,498
Compensation paid (incl. damages)—
    Total $(m)6.076.256.726.987.17
        Average per accident $112113114124127
Calendar days lost—
    Temporary disability only (000)900.0898.5939.6878.8862.7
        Average days per accident1717161616
    Total on constant basis (000)3,068.32,831.12,981.03,075.62,942.9
        Average days per accident56515155 
    Total on actual basis (000)3,082.52.908.52.976.73,167.53,028.0
        Average days per accident5753505654
Frequency and severity rates—
    Frequency rate3.783.653.753.463.34
    Injury severity rate1,2871,1341,1451,1501,066
    Economic severity rate1,2991,1721,1471,1971,108

FREQUENCY AND SEVERITY RATES—Frequency rates are calculated according to the formula: Accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked.

For severity rates the formula is: Man-hours lost through accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked. In calculating the injury severity rate in the foregoing table a constant allowance of average working-life expectancy (9,263 calendar days) is made for all fatalities, with a percentage of this for each permanent disability according to the percentage of that disability as set out in the First Schedule to the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. To the calendar days lost through fatal and permanent disabling accidents are added the actual days lost through temporary disabilities, adjusted to allow for the different age distribution of workers suffering this kind of accident. From the total the man-hours lost are calculated.

The economic severity rate is calculated similarly, but takes into account the workers' actual ages. Further details will be found in Statistics of Industrial Injuries 1966, a report of the Department of Statistics.

The average severity of accidents is found by dividing the calendar days lost by the number of accidents. This rate, also called the time charge, is calculated without reference to age.

The numbers of accidents and the injury severity rates (hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked) for the industrial groups, together with the labour force and frequency rate (accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked) for the groups, are shown in the following diagrams.

Figure 37.1. INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS

CLASSIFICATION BY INDUSTRY—In the following table industrial accidents during the year 1966 are classified by industrial groups.

Industrial GroupTotal AccidentsCalendar Days LostTotal Compensation (Including Damages)
TotalAverageTotalAverage
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing—   $(000)$
    Agriculture and livestock production4,437584,556132747168
    Forestry and logging1,231116,24394147120
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation11618,60816018153
    Fishing1317,2785625189
Mining and quarrying—
    Coal mining1,52848,46332163107
    Metal mining11727––29
    Crude petroleum and natural gas9829––38
    Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits35949,185137106297
    Non-metallic mining and quarrying7659––34
Manufacturing—
    Food7,172217,7813067494
    Beverages3297,660232369
    Tobacco3451015255
    Textiles70737,71553108152
    Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods55811,775213155
Wood and cork (excluding furniture)2,362147,92663313132
    Furniture and fixtures39816,8754240101
    Paper and paper products84927,277328398
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries35516,9734848136
    Leather and leather products (except footwear)1307,2575624185
    Rubber products30813,5534445146
    Chemicals and chemical products66919,4382970104
    Products of petroleum and coal452,654598186
    Non-metallic mineral products1,30082,30863184142
    Basic metal industries13724,08517654392
    Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,58260,17038179113
    Machinery (except electrical machinery) and general engineering2,81888,4893125892
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies58817,3973074126
    Transport equipment2,32374,5053219584
    Miscellaneous industries44425,1365756127
Construction9,986597,051601,538154
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services—
    Electricity, gas, and steam98463,10264132134
    Water and sanitary services48721,5164460123
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade4,216186,30544501119
    Banks and other financial institutions271,584594157
    Insurance9473532199
Real estate74,2276045774
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport5,727272,50348813142
    Storage and warehousing1784,769271480
    Communication94219,022207580
Services—
    Government3646,161172466
    Community and business1,18645,56538140118
    Recreation34232,3829567196
    Personal1,10149,21845120109
Not adequately described55210––30
Total56,4983,027,966547,173127

In the next table the accidents in 1966 are classified by the resulting extent of disability.

Industrial GroupNumber of Accidents Resulting in —Total Number of Accidents
FatalityPermanent Total DisabilityPermanent Partial DisabilityTemporary Disability
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing—
    Agriculture and livestock production24-984,3154,437
    Forestry and logging5-141,2121,231
    Other1-8238247
Mining and quarrying—
    Coal mining2-71,5191,528
    Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits2-10347359
    Other---2727
Manufacturing—
    Food3-977,0727,172
    Beverages--2327329
    Textiles1-18688707
    Footwear, other apparel, and made-up textile goods--4554558
    Wood and cork2-772,2832,362
    Furniture and fixtures--12386398
    Paper and paper products--15834849
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries--12343355
    Rubber products--8300308
    Chemicals and chemical products1-10658669
    Non-metallic mineral products2-281,2701,300
    Metal products--321,5501,582
    Machinery, including general engineering2-382,7782,818
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies--13575588
    Transport equipment1-272,2952,323
    Other manufacturing1-24765790
Construction1621659,8039,986
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services—
    Electricity, gas, and steam4-10970984
    Water and sanitary services1-5481487
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade3-624,1514,216
    Other--34043
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport121685,6465,727
    Storage and warehousing--5173178
    Communication--4938942
Services—
    Government--3361364
    Community and business1-221,1631,186
    Recreation--11331342
    Personal1-181,0821,101
Not adequately described---55
Totals85393055,48056,498

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND RESULTING DISABILITY—The following table relates cause of accident and degree of resulting disability for the year 1966.

CauseFatalityPermanent Disability*Temporary DisabilityTotalPercentage of Total Accidents
*Including permanent total disability cases.
Machinery243667,8258,21514.5
Vehicle28472,1682,2434.0
Electricity, explosion, flames, hot substance3211,7011,7253.1
Poison, corrosive substance2-4784800.8
Fall of person81508,0178,17514.5
Stepping on or striking against fixed or stationary object-112,5032,5144.4
Moving object (not being handled by person injured)9462,1942,2494.0
Fall of earth532492570.5
Handling of object117317,47317,64731.2
Hand tools-858,4008,48515.0
Miscellaneous5314,4724,5088.0
Totals8593355,48056,498100.0

AGE OF WORKERS—The following table gives numbers and percentages according to age groups of the persons injured.

Age (Completed Years)19621963196419651966
Number of CasesPer cent of TotalNumber of CasesPercent of TotalNumber of CasesPercent of TotalNumber of CasesPercent of TotalNumber of CasesPercent of Total
Under 165341.04370.85230.94660.85100.9
16-208,41715.58,57315.59,67416.49,84617.59,94617.6
21-246,57312.16,87912.47,22712.26,85012.16,80012.0
25-3411,82821.711,59721.012,20020.711,34320.111,38020.2
35-449,71617.910,13618.310,42317.79,83817.49,61417.0
45-547,55213.97,40413.47,82413.27,47413.37,33613.0
55-643,7356.94,0357.34,2917.34,1107.34,3587.7
65 and over5981.16541.26441.16721.27261.3
Not stated5,4129.95,61710.16,19210.55,81910.35,82810.3
Totals54,365100.055,332100.058,998100.056,418100.056,498100.0

NATURE OF INJURY—A classification of accidents according to injury sustained gives the following results for the latest five years.

Injury19621963196419651966Total 1962-66
Bruises and contusions5,8336,1436,4996,2936,26231,030
Burns2,3562,3372,5612,5162,51812,288
Concussions3062573543213491,587
Lacerations, punctures, and open wounds15,66615,97517,38516,82216,41682,264
Ruptures4375065385155212,517
Amputations (traumatic)1239314612386571
Dislocations2182282172292301,122
Fractures4,1594,0244,3954,0944,38621,058
Sprains and strains16,97117,96319,36018,68518,72591,704
Occupational dermatitis6165485625195972,842
Other and ill defined7,6807,2586,9816,3016,40834,628
Totals54,36555,33258,99856,41856,498281,611
Cases where septic poisoning occurred—
    Number8,1737,1216,2985,7915,89633,279
    Percentage of all accidents15.012.910.710.310.411.8

Of the septic cases shown for 1966 in the preceding table, 33.8 percent occurred in the handling of objects (including pricks and scratches by bones and thorns in slaughtering and packing operations), and 19.8 percent in the use of hand tools.

PART OF BODY INJURED—In the following table industrial accidents are classified according to the different parts of the body injured.

Part of Body Injured19621963196419651966Total 1962-66
NumberPercent
Cranium region8417889318879544,4011.6
Eye and orbit2,9963,2153,6513,3043,39216,5585.9
Rest of face5745605506086562,9481.0
Neck, back, and chest9,6319,84710,30010,42010,13250,33017.9
Abdomen and contents1,1001,1701,2171,1521,1265,7652.1
Upper limb—
    Collarbone and shoulder1,4231,4311,6361,5491,5487,5872.7
    Arm2,2952,1822,5462,4632,38711,8734.2
    Hand and wrist18,52518,46719,28818,26117,95892,49932.8
Lower limb—
    Hip, thigh, and leg5,6535,6066,2725,9245,80729,26210.4
    Ankle and foot7,3347,4667,9497,5317,77838,05813.5
Other, multiple, ill defined, not applicable3,9934,6004,6584,3194,76022,3307.9
Total54,36555,33258,99856,41856,498281,611100.0

DURATION OF INCAPACITY—A summary of the duration of incapacity and the number of cases of fatality, permanent total disability, and permanent partial disability is given below.

Duration1963196419651966Total 1963-66
NumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercent
1 or 2 days4,1677.54,8428.24,7228.44,8078.518,5388.2
Over 2 days to 1 week18,19532.920,18634.219,60034.719,45034.477,43134.1
Over 1 week to 2 weeks15,30527.715,74326.715,42727.315,22927.061,70427.1
Over 2 weeks to 4 weeks9,60517.49,69916.48,85615.79,16916.237,32916.4
Over 4 weeks to 6 weeks3,1215.63,2945.63,0225.43,0735.412,5105.5
Over 6 weeks to 3 months3,0585.53,1865.42,8145.02,9185.211,9765.3
Over 3 months9291.79681.79321.68341.53,6631.6
Number of accidents resulting in—
    Temporary disability54,38098.357,91898.255,37398.155,48098.2223,15198.2
    Fatality740.1670.1900.2850.23160.1
    Permanent total disability4––2––9––3––18––
    Permanent partial disability8741.61,0111.79461.79301.63,7611.7
Totals55,332100.058,998100.056,418100.056,498100.0227,246100.0

ACCIDENTS PRODUCING DELAYED ACTION—As the following table shows, in about one-third of all accidents there is a time lag between the accident and the time the worker ceases work.

Complications of InjuryDelayed ActionNo Delayed ActionTotal 1966
1 Week or LessOver 1 Week and up to 2 WeeksOver 2 Weeks
Sepsis3,3535363031,5275,719
Surgical amputation---149149
Sepsis and surgical amputation1--67
Loss of function (excluding amputation)27523623678
Sepsis, both organs of a pair8014472170
Loss of function (excluding amputation) both organs of a pair---55
No complications, both organs of a pair13045486625
No complications, other12,9268511,07034,29849,145
Totals16,5171,4101,40537,16656,498

TIME OF OCCURRENCE—The following tabulation of industrial accidents makes annual comparison of time of occurrence for the latest five years.

This table indicates that accidents are most numerous during the middle and later part of the morning; there is another peak in mid-afternoon, but this does not reach the same high point.

Time of Occurrence to Nearest HourYear
19621963196419651966Totals 1962-66
  8 a.m.2,4322,4782,5882,5752,53812,611
  9 a.m.5,2365,3705,5695,4105,39526,980
10 a.m.6,6026,6906,8726,7306,54833,442
11 a.m.6,9266,9867,4667,1236,97435,475
12 noon3,6733,9194,1654,1564,17420,087
  1 p.m.2,3632,3382,5392,4972,49812,235
  2 p.m.5,4745,6875,9125,5545,60928,236
  3 p.m.5,6055,7496,0645,7795,82529,022
  4 p.m.5,0315,2505,5545,2885,27026,393
  5 p.m.2,5662,7052,9372,9212,86713,996
Other hours4,1504,1744,6114,4534,55421,942
Not stated3,3052,9883,6422,8432,98415,762
Not applicable1,0029981,0791,0891,2625,430
Totals54,36555,33258,99856,41856,498281,611

HOURS ON SHIFT—This table relates cause of accident to the number of hours worked on the day when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours Already WorkedCause
MachineryVehiclesElectricity, Flames, etc.Falls of PersonsStepping on or Striking Against ObjectsMoving ObjectsHandling ObjectsHand ToolsOtherTotal 1965
Under 1444186785571181171,0464562223,224
1 and under 28692821688292402282,0319453915,983
2 and under 38332611978643092382,2111,0384476,398
3 and under 41,0202571969133112862,2201,1224386,763
4 and under 57581991597522252311,4307883054,847
5 and under 67442171666412022021,3588172734,620
6 and under 79201921998912812541,8579173785,889
7 and under 88181501657662442011,5767313074,958
8 or over7402541898772312051,4006153824,893
Not stated1,0692452081,0853532872,3751,0569787,656
Not applicable------143-1,1241,267
      Totals8,2152,2431,7258,1752,5142,24917,6478,4855,24556,498

The foregoing table shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third and fourth hours worked in the day. Overtime accidents (eight hours or more already worked) represented 8.7 percent of all accidents in 1966.

DAY OF THE WEEK—The following table correlates for 1966 the causes of accidents with the days of the week on which they occurred. This table indicates a peak for accidents on Mondays, and a gradual decrease over the remainder of the week.

CauseSunMonTuesWedThurFriSatNot StatedTotal
Machinery1561,5541,5871,5821,5781,289445248,215
Vehicle6046438842838835515552,243
Electricity, explosion, flames, hot substance7126830730235429711881,725
Poison, corrosive substance8851028382453243480
Fall of person2261,7201,5021,4931,4321,266507298,175
Stepping on or striking against fixed or stationary object56479468507459374152192,514
Moving object (not being handled by person injured)4642142244344334811972,249
Fall of earth358505158343-257
Handling of object4013,5473,3023,2213,0932,7591,00931517,647
Hand tool1491,6571,6841,6611,5871,299397518,485
Miscellaneous1446516625855644433031,1564,508
Totals1,32010,90410,47410,35610,0388,5093,2401,65756,498
            Percentage of all accidents2.319.318.618.317.815.15.72.9100.0

37C—FARM ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—In the preceding section on industrial injuries the statistics include farm employees but not self-employed farmers. At the Census of Population and Dwellings in 1966 there were 76,000 farmers apart from nearly 50,000 general farm workers.

The high degree of mechanisation on the 70,000 farm holdings of 10 acres or more is responsible in large part for the high output per unit of labour engaged in primary production; but it has been responsible too for an increase in the hazards associated with rural work. Nearly 6,000 threshing machines, 19,000 wool presses, 30,000 internal combustion engines, 120,000 electric motors, 90,000 agricultural tractors, 33,000 milking plants, 32,000 shearing plants, as well as farm trucks, cultivating and harvesting implements, and other farm equipment and installations have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths, especially in recent years when there has been rapid growth in the use of heavy machinery both for normal farm activities and for bringing new land into production.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control and as pesticides and therapeutants has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry have been subjected. The Department of Agriculture undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on farm accidents and deaths sustained by farmers and their employees. The statistics relate to actual farm work, that is, they exclude domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, of dying in, public hospitals in 1966 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents).

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (in Years)Total Patients
0-1415-2425-4445-6465 and Over
Farm machinery931311146410412
Falls5737495410207
Animals363945277154
Accidental poisoning15411-21
Firearms312-3119
Fires or explosions9754328
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam11841226
Blow from falling or projected objects7193314477
Cutting or piercing instruments216746342170
Other and unspecified farm mishaps18610261416396
              Totals, 1966438426358243451,510
              Totals, 1965356361423247491,436

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Deaths in 1966 from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table. (Motor vehicle accidents on a farm are included.)

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (in Years)Total Deaths
0-1415-2425-4445-6465 and over
Tractors48117-30
Electric current--1--1
Falls--1-12
Firearms-2---2
Blow from falling or projected object-13-15
Drowning or submersion1--2-3
Other and unspecified1---12
              Totals, 1966611169345
              Totals, 196588144337

37 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them):

The Factories Act 1946, sections 41 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Workers' Compensation Act 1956; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1926; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1957; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5 A).

Government Departments and other organisations concerned with the administration of the Acts, or who have responsibilities for occupational accident prevention, have the scope of their work summarised in the following pages, and legislative requirements are also covered.

Department of Labour—This Department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are the Factories Act 1946, of which a large section is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories, the Construction Act 1959, which completely covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on works of building and engineering construction, and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The Department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare—the Bush Workers Act 1945 and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. It has also administrative responsibility for the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. In addition, the Department supervises more than 700 awards and industrial agreements, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. Special attention is given to dangerous machinery. The Department employs some 130 Inspectors of Factories (including seven who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 30 Safety Inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive.

The Department of Labour also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education. It collaborates with the Department of Education and with teachers training colleges and technical schools in the instruction of technical teachers in occupational safety and in the safety training of apprentices and senior school pupils. Further, every two months it issues occupational safety posters to industry and publishes a range of safety booklets, pamphlets, warning notices, and other printed publicity. Its library of occupational safety films, which is widely used by industry, Government Departments, trade unions, industrial organisations, etc., is believed to be the largest specialised film library of its kind in the world. The Department produces industrial safety displays and exhibits, and has its own specially fitted exhibition van by means of which the displays are taken on tour regularly through selected areas of the country and exhibits used in the education and instruction of apprentices, school children, workers, employers, and the general public. The Department also publishes the Labour and Employment Gazette, a quarterly industrial periodical which includes a substantial amount of material relating to occupational safety.

In Wellington the Department has a Safety Centre consisting of a lecture room and a large display and demonstration area. The centre is used for courses for field staff and departmental officers and is also available to teachers, trade and industry groups, other Government Departments and so on.

The Department co-operates with all other bodies working in this and related fields and seeks specialist advice from time to time from such other Departments as Health, Marine, Forestry, Mines, Railways, Works, Electricity, Agriculture, and Scientific and Industrial Research, and collaborates with them in matters of mutual concern.

A joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety Education of the Departments of Labour and Health ensures that the educational work of these Departments in this field is co-ordinated and wherever responsibility is shared that it is undertaken jointly. The National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.) and the Workers' Compensation Board, are also associated with this committee for the purpose of mutual sharing of information.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The exceptions include ships' machinery, aircraft, boilers, lifts, and cranes. The Act provides for inspection of machinery and the investigation of accidents by Inspectors of Machinery who are officers of the Department of Labour. Penalties are prescribed for failure to comply with the requirements of the Act including failure to use any machine guard that has been provided for securing safety.

The Act has been extended to include amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. Another amendment to the Act requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural pursuits. Regulations which came into force on 1 June 1967 provide that all safety frames which are fitted to tractors after that date shall have been tested and bear a certificate number. Provision has also been made for the compulsory fitting of safety frames on all new wheeled tractors used for agricultural purposes, sold or let on hire after 1 September 1970. Exemption may be granted where the operation makes it impracticable to fit a frame.

Construction Act—The Construction Act is to promote the safety and welfare of workmen engaged on construction work and also to provide for the safety of persons in the vicinity of the work. The penalities section has been amended to provide for fines up to $500, for offences committed under the Act.

The Construction Regulations 1961 made under the Act cover notifiable work, provision for certificates of competency, requirements for health and welfare, general safety standards, scaffolding, excavation, powder-powered tools, safety supervisors and safe practices for construction blasting.

Bush Workers Act—The Bush Workers Act 1945, as amended by the Bush Workers Amendment Act 1967, makes provision for the safety and protection of workers engaged in any tree felling or logging undertaking, or felling trees for land clearance including persons working on their own account or under a contract of service. It is an offence under the Act to carry out any unsafe work method which is likely to endanger any person working in the bush. Inspectors appointed under the Act have the authority to insist on the wearing of protective equipment such as safety helmets, gloves, goggles etc. The Act binds the Crown.

Department of Health—This Department has general responsibility under the Health Act 1956 for occupational health as one sphere of public health, and, in addition, the Factories Act 1946 gives to Medical Officers of Health and Inspectors of Health the same powers and responsibilities as Inspectors of Factories with regard to the health and welfare provisions of the Act.

Marine Department—This Department has overall responsibility for the safety of persons working on the waterfront, for physical conditions on ships affecting the safety of ships' crews, and for the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950.

Safety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

With the exception of fishing boats not exceeding 40 ft register length, pleasure yachts not exceeding 50 tons register, missionary ships, and certain small vessels engaged in carrying agricultural or pastoral produce, the hull, machinery, and equipment of every New Zealand ship are required to be surveyed once in every 12 months by a Surveyor of Ships of the Marine Department. A certificate of survey sets out the limits in which the vessel may ply, the number of passengers and/or crew she may carry, and the lifesaving appliances to be carried.

Port Safety—All cargo gear used in working cargo must comply with the requirements of the General Harbour (Safe Working Loads) Regulations. Cargo gear is tested and inspected by officers of the Marine Department before being put into use, and is afterwards inspected annually by officers of the Department.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950 is designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the operation of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air receivers; hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; all types of power-driven cranes.

All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. In the calendar year 1967 there were 23,987 inspections of boilers, 4,802 inspections of lifts, and 2,905 inspections of cranes.

Mines Department—This Department is responsible for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries.

The Mining Act 1926 requires that certificates must be held by mine managers of any mine where there are more than 12 men employed above ground, or more than six underground. Provision is made for proper ventilation in mines, the air temperature must not exceed 80°F in any working place, special care is required to be taken in handling explosives, dangerous places must be properly timbered, and special regulations are made as to hauling machinery, etc.

The Coal Mines Act 1925 deals with the control of coal dust, the use of safety lamps, first-aid endorsement on certificates of competency, the prohibition of work in places where the presence of gas is suspected, and the inspection of the mine before the commencement of work, etc.

The Quarries Act 1944 contains provisions as to inspectors, and the appointment, qualifications, and duties of quarry managers. Adequate rules are provided for the safety of workers and the prevention of accidents. The definition of a quarry covers hydro-electric works construction and dams for public water supply.

New Zealand Electricity Department—In addition to its major role of supplying bulk power, the New Zealand Electricity Department, amongst other things, administers the Electricity Act 1945, the Electricity Supply Regulations, the Electrical Wiring Regulations, the Electricians Act 1952, the Electric Linemen Act 1959, and the Gas Industry Act 1958.

The Electrical Wiring Regulations set out minimum requirements for electrical installations, apparatus, and appliances used on consumers' premises. It is the responsibility of Electrical Supply Authorities to inspect such installations to see that they comply with the Wiring Regulations, which are designed to promote safety to life and property. The “Handbook to the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1961” incorporates explanatory notes and diagrams.

Ministry of Transport—The Ministry is responsible for the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation. The Ministry lays down standards of aircraft construction and maintenance by means of Civil Airworthiness Requirements and by regulation controls the standards of crew competence and physical fitness.

Department of Internal Affairs—The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosives Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, and use of explosives, dangerous goods, and cinematograph film.

Explosives—The empowering legislation is the Explosives Act 1957. The regulations in force are the Explosives Regulations 1959, and the Explosives Authorisation Order 1959 lists the explosives which may be imported into or manufactured in New Zealand. The explosives legislation is concerned solely with explosives proper, such as blasting powder, gelignite, and detonators which are used in blasting operations, explosive compositions used in ammunition, signals, or fireworks, and also ammunition signals, and fireworks in their final manufactured form.

Dangerous Goods—The relevant legislation is the Dangerous Goods Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Regulations 1958. Substances controlled under the heading of dangerous goods embrace a wide range of inflammable materials, such as petrol, kerosene, fuel oil, calcium carbide, white phosphorus, ammonium nitrate, the chlorates of sodium, potassium, and calcium, compressed gases, and liquefied petroleum gas.

Cinematograph Films—The Cinematograph Films Act 1961 and its associated regulations include provisions for the licensing of theatres and other buildings in which cinematograph film is projected and of cinematograph-film projectionists.

State Services Commission—Progress towards safety at work can come only from deliberate, informed, and organised effort in every work place. It is a recognised fact that most industrial accidents result from unsafe conditions, unsafe human acts, or from a combination of both.

Consequently, occupational accidents, with their resultant loss of productive hours, suffering, and incapacity, will be kept to a minimum only if (a) safe working conditions are provided; and (b) safe working methods are adopted.

To this end the State Services Commission has ensured that positive measures are adopted towards the prevention of accidents at work. It realises that safety at work is important to morale and efficiency. It accepts the fact that leadership in the organisation of safety measures must come from top management. It endeavours to have every worker assured that there is a definite policy for safety based on the best available knowledge and methods, and that organisation and resources are in existence to ensure the implementation of that policy.

Safety work must be, and is, in the hands of experienced people. The Commission itself watches statistics and trends and directs special attention to causes and localities with a high incidence of accidents. It encourages Departments to campaign for safety, and offers active assistance where needed. Also, on behalf of its associated Departments, the Commission is a member of the National Safety Association of New Zealand.

Ministry of Works—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of Safety Officer. He is invariably an officer with considerable practical knowledge and experience of departmental construction works. It is his duty to see that every section of the work is safeguarded to the maximum extent.

Safety requirements prescribed in various Goverment Acts and regulations play a major part in safety promotion on construction works. The Safety Officer is required to have a sound working knowledge of these requirements. In addition, he is sent to training courses conducted periodically by the National Safety Association of New Zealand. From this training and with the help of Divisional Technical Staff (Mechanical, Civil Engineering, etc.) to whom he can look for specialised knowledge and assistance, the Safety Officer is well qualified to police the various sections of the works and ensure that the various safety regulations are complied with.

In the main it is the Department's foremen and overseers who can play the most important part in accident prevention on the job. These supervisors are in direct control of the day-to-day work, and by instructing their workers in the use of correct, efficient, and safe working methods, can prevent accidents. It is therefore an important part of the Safety Officer's job to make supervising staff safety conscious. To do this, staff talks on safety are given, circulars, booklets, and extracts from safety regulations are distributed, posters are displayed on the works site, and film showings are made at regular intervals.

Workers' Compensation Board—This Board is a statutory body set up under the provisions of the Workers' Compensation Act. One of its responsibilities is a general requirement to “prevent accidents to workers by such means as the Board thinks fit, and co-operate with any Government Department and other bodies and persons for that purpose”. It is also required to assist in providing facilities for the treatment and rehabilitation of injured persons. It has interpreted these requirements by sponsoring the formation of the National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.), and by making grants to the Department of Labour for safety education, the Department of Health for the construction of Industrial Health Centres at New Lynn, Onehunga (experimental), Penrose and Mt Wellington (Auckland), at Petone, and at Woolston and Hornby (Christchurch) and the Foreshore Clinic at Dunedin. It has also made a grant to the Auckland Hospital Board towards the cost of a rehabilitation centre for disabled civilians at Otara (Auckland). The Board also sponsors a scheme for first-aid instruction in remote areas by the Order of St. John.

National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.)—This organisation was sponsored and is largely financed by the Workers' Compensation Board. It comprises member firms interested in promoting occupational safety, and is controlled by an elected executive functioning through specialist committees, five branch committees, and a small headquarters staff, together with a number of field officers. It seeks to stimulate firms and organisations in taking all possible measures to reduce accidents in their own establishments, and especially in establishing their own internal safety organisations, full-time or part-time safety officers, and where possible joint management-worker safety committees. The Association also issues safety education material, undertakes general safety instruction and supervisor training within firms through its field staff, and organises periodical courses for farm safety officers and industrial safety officers. Its field of interest is substantially limited to occupational safety.

Chapter 38. Section 38 NEW ZEALAND OVERSEAS TERRITORIES AND THE COOK ISLANDS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—New Zealand is responsible for Niue, the Tokelau Islands, and the Ross Dependency, also for the international relations of the Cook Islands Government.

Self-governing Territory—The 15 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand on 4 August 1965. The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and on 11 June 1901, they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. Prior to the advent of self-government, the group had been a non-self-governing territory administered under the Cook Islands Act 1915 and the Island Territories Act 1943.

Territory which is Mainly Self-governing—The island of Niue, which was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, has reached a stage of internal self-government. The Resident Commissioner, however, is still the head of the executive government of Niue. Any future constitutional development on Niue would still be subject to negotiations with the New Zealand Government, and the New Zealand Parliament can still legislate for Niue.

Non-self-governing Territory—The Tokelau Islands became a legal part of New Zealand in 1949. The group had formerly been part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, although New Zealand had administered it on behalf of the United Kingdom since 1925.

Reports on the progress made in both Niue and the Tokelau Islands are forwarded annually to the United Nations.

Administered Territory—New Zealand administers the Ross Dependency. The Ross Dependency has been inhabited for some years by parties of persons maintaining the permanent scientific bases.

The heading “New Zealand Overseas Territories and the Cook Islands” does not include Stewart Island or the Chatham Islands, which form part of New Zealand. The following minor islands, which are referred to on page 1 of this Yearbook are also excluded: Three Kings Islands, Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, Antipodes Islands, Bounty Islands, Snares Islands, and Solander Island. Apart for Campbell Island, none of these islands is regularly inhabited, but a scientific staff of 11 men is stationed on Campbell Island maintaining meteorological records, conducting ionospheric research, and manning a radio station. The Kermadec Islands are also excluded for, although they are in the same category as the Cook Islands in that they originally ranked as annexed islands, all New Zealand laws extend to them and there is no separate administration. A meteorological station and an aeradio station have been established on Raoul Island and have an official staff of 10 men. This is the only island of the Kermadec Group that is inhabited.

The Minister of Island Affairs is charged with administration of Niue and the Tokelau Islands and in terms of the Cook Islands Constitution Amendment Act 1965 he has also been designated as the Minister charged with handling Cook Islands affairs in so far as they affect New Zealand. The Department of Maori and Island Affairs is the executive agency for the administration of Niue and the Tokelau Islands and the channel of communication between the New Zealand and Cook Islands Governments. The Department controls the operations of the N.Z.G.m.v. Moana Roa and the purchase and shipping of equipment and stores to island administrations. In addition, the Department takes an interest in the welfare of islanders in New Zealand, and is associated with the South Pacific Commission and the South Pacific Health Service. The former is an advisory and consultative body set up by the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, France and the United States of America, all of which are responsible for the administration of non-self-governing territories in the Pacific. The functions of the Commission are to recommend to the member Governments means for promoting the social, economic, and medical welfare of the peoples in the region, and to this end several projects have been organised. The South Pacific Health Service advises member Governments on health matters, collects and distributes epidemiological information, assists in the maintenance of professional staffs, and encourages medical research and the training of indigenous people as assistant medical practitioners and nurses.

The Department also administers a training scheme under which selected students and trainees from the Cook, Niue and Tokelau Islands receive education and vocational training in New Zealand. The Department of Education's Officer for Islands Education advises the Department on educational policy matters, assists with the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of school journals and textbooks in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment.

By arrangement between the Governments of Western Samoa, Fiji, and New Zealand, young Samoans, Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelau Islanders receive training at the Fiji School of Medicine in Suva to equip them for duty in their own territories as medical officers, assistant dental officers, pharmacy and laboratory assistants, and assistant health inspectors. Students also receive diploma level instruction in tropical agriculture in Western Samoa and Fiji.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 850,000 square miles of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the Equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 93 square miles, while Niue has an area slightly in excess of that figure.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. With one exception, Penrhyn, none of the islands possesses a good harbour.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 74.5°F, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 84 in.

Administration:Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown in the right of the Government of New Zealand. The Cook Islands Constitution Amendment Act 1965 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand in the Cook Islands.

The general direction and control of Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and no fewer than three nor more than five other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of the members of the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The principal administrative officer of the Government of the Cook Islands is the Secretary of the Premier's Department, who is appointed by the High Commissioner acting on the advice of Cabinet. The Cook Islands Public Service is controlled by the Secretary of the Premier's Department and is organised in the following departments: Agriculture, Education, Health, Justice, Police, Post Office, Electric Power, Public Works, Radio, Social Development, Co-operatives, Survey, Treasury, and Customs. In most cases the heads of these departments are expatriate officers but are gradually being replaced by Cook Islanders. In the outer islands, Resident Agents, subject to the control of the Secretary of the Premier's Department, are responsible for all aspects of administration.

The House of Arikis—The House of Arikis of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 arikis representing all islands in the Group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Islands Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands. The Rarotonga Island Council was established by the Rarotonga Island Council Ordinance 1958 and reconstituted by the Rarotonga Island Council Amendment Act 1965. The powers and authority formerly vested in the Resident Commissioner are now carried out by the Cook Islands Minister of Justice.

The councils of the islands of Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, Pukapuka, and Rakahanga, were established by the Island Councils (other than Rarotonga) Ordinance 1960. Changes in the constitution of these island councils following the attainment of self-government have not yet been finalised.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except Customs duties) and to carry out various works and services on each island.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Amendment Act 1965, consist of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: Three members from Aitutaki and Manuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penryhn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at three-yearly intervals, the last being held in April 1968. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the Assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

By virtue of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, Cook Islanders remain British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands taken on 1 September 1966 recorded a total population of 19,247, an increase of 869 or 4.73 percent as compared with the Census of 25 September 1961. Details of population of the islands of the group as at 1 September 1966 are set out in the following table.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga5,0474,9249,971
Aitutaki1,2731,3062,579
Mangaia9831,0192,002
Atiu7006271,327
Mauke333338671
Mitiaro144149293
Manuae15-15
Palmerston404686
Pukapuka355329684
Nassau9968167
Manihiki314270584
Rakahanga161162323
Penrhyn285260545
Suwarrow---
Totals9,7499,49819,247

During the year ended 31 December 1967 births numbered 817 and deaths 162. The number of deaths of children under one year of age was 46, which represents a mortality rate of 56.30 per 1,000 live births.

The net migration movement of Cook Islanders to New Zealand is about 500 persons a year.

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. They also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this and tuberculosis provide the main health problems of the group. The objective of the health services—to improve the health of the community—is being pursued by a system of village sanitary inspection and group medical examination, combined with modern treatment of disease in dispensary, clinic, and hospital.

The staff of the Health Department numbered 232 at 31 March 1968.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-ray, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. The tuberculosis sanatorium was closed in June 1966 and a new general hospital will be built on this site. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, and Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission, secondary education being provided by the Government for children selected from throughout the Group.

Education is free and compulsory between the ages of six and 15 years. At 31 March 1968 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 6,478, comprising 6,080 pupils at Government schools and 398 at denominational schools. At the same date, 68 scholars were receiving schooling or long-term training under the New Zealand Government Training Scheme.

Labour and Employment—There is a wide variation in types of employment in the different islands. On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and there is little opportunity for them to engage in other pursuits which would provide exports and a consequent higher living standard. In the islands of Manihiki and Penrhyn pearl diving is carried out under regulations which restrict this employment to Polynesians, and otherwise govern the industry. A strict control of this industry is enforced to ensure that the beds are not depleted. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit and copra, the staple production on which living standards depend. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, the bulk of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage earners in Government departments, in plantation work, and in the handling of fruit for export.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of two clothing factories and a fruit juicing and canning factory. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market. The manufacture of handicraft is on a domestic basis.

A number of Cook Island Maoris go to New Zealand to seek employment or to learn trades.

Agriculture—The principal export crops of the Cook Islands are citrus fruit, copra, pineapples, and tomatoes. The following are the estimated areas planted in the principal crops: coconuts, 14,000 acres; citrus fruits, 1,100 acres; taro, 320 acres; bananas, 460 acres; tomatoes, 300 acres; pineapples, 130 acres; manioc, 360 acres; kumeras, 500 acres; yams, 20 acres; coffee, 55 acres.

Transport and Communications—The New Zealand Government vessel, Moana Roa, maintains a service between New Zealand and the Cook Group at approximately monthly intervals visiting Rarotonga and those of the outer islands which are offering cargo. Occasional calls at Rarotonga are also made by trans-Pacific cargo vessels. The Matson Line vessels regularly visit Rarotonga en route from the Pacific coast of America and uplift passengers and mail.

Under an agreement signed in February 1969, the New Zealand Government is to develop and maintain an international airport at Rarotonga. It is expected the airfield will be operational by the middle of 1971.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and a limited service operates on Aitutaki.

Trade—A summary of exports by country of destination and imports by country of origin for the last five years is contained in the next table.

Country19631964196519661967
Imports $(000)
New Zealand1,7682,1712,1222,3082,032
Australia6984189150191
United Kingdom204130133194229
Canada4512502015
United States of America9593976247
Japan and Hong Kong203103318306233
Other68183158156244
Totals2,4522,7773,0673,1962,991
Exports $(000)
New Zealand1,6491,8421,8371,7261,758
Australia3109--
United States of America1232-
United Kingdom11---
Other1512191219
Totals1,6701,8671,8681,7401,777

There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand. The New Zealand Customs Tariff applies in the Cook Islands as modified by the Cook Islands Customs Duty Order 1962. The New Zealand Government makes an allocation of overseas exchange annually to the Cook Islands Government and by agreement, the Cook Islands Government in the use of this exchange follows, where appropriate, the import policies applying in New Zealand. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

Details of the quantities and values of the principal commodities exported are shown below.

Commodity19661967
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 cases$(000)cases$(000)
Citrus fruits83,59419961,340156
Bananas4,511129,59024
Pineapples7,659 boxes173,282 boxes7
Tomatoes64,677 tons6332,742 tons31
Copra1,0531361,061101
Mother-of-pearl shell18142219
Handicrafts, grassware, etc....30...36
Manufactured goods...399...395
Jewellery...140--
 gallons gallons 
Fruit juice627,514787731,315906

Foodstuffs continue to be the largest class of import; major imports are set out in the following table.

CommodityValue
196519661967
 $$$
Foodstuffs716,518859,758764,310
Drapery and piece goods399,802389,420281,523
Oils and petrol, etc.92,900116,058136,149
Tobacco and cigarettes50,70856,74039,723
Vehicles and parts141,034155,872223,690
Timber and cement138,43485,994117,878

Public Finance—New Zealand currency is in use in the Group. The principal sources of revenue within the Group in 1967 were import duties $283,545, export duties $9,295, stamp sales $198,506, and income tax $126,781.

The New Zealand Government has continued to make subsidies and grants available for capital development in health, education, and other social services. Subsidies are fixed three-yearly in advance.

A comparative statement of receipts and expenditure for the last five years is now given.

YearSubsidies from New ZealandReceipts from Cook IslandsExpenditure
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1962-631,4741,0602,184
1963-641,5501,3262,506
1964-651,6181,6143,260
1965-661,7471,2963,072
1967-681,8691,8173,686

The principal items of expenditure in 1967-68 were $660,005 on education, $561,344 on health services, and $673,356 on public works.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. The island is situated in latitude 19° 02' south and longitude 169° 52' west, somewhat west of the centre of the irregular triangle formed by Samoa, Tonga, and the southern Cook Islands, and is 600 miles distant from the latter. The island, which has an area of 64,028 acres, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 220 ft, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 90 ft above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 76.6°F, and the average annual rainfall is 79.4 in.

Administration—The Niue Act 1966 provides for the appointment of a Resident Commissioner charged with the administration of the Executive Government of Niue. Under statutory authority, with the prior approval of the Minister of Island Affairs, the Resident Commissioner may delegate any of his powers to the Executive Committee of the Niue Island Assembly, over which he presides. The Assembly meets regularly and consists of 14 members elected by universal suffrage and representing all villages on the island. The Executive Committee has four members, one of whom acts as Leader of Government Business. The Executive Committee does in fact exercise powers delegated to it by the Resident Commissioner over a very wide range of Government activities.

Laws are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament, or regulations issued thereunder, or by ordinances passed by the Assembly.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Niuean is of Polynesian stock and the language a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands.

The population at the census at 28 September 1966 was 5,199 comprising 2,535 males and 2,664 females; at 31 March 1968 it was calculated to be 5,258 (2,573 males and 2,685 females).

The inhabitants are distributed amongst 12 villages, of which Alofi is the largest. Niueans are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. A number of Niueans migrate to New Zealand each year.

For the calendar year 1967 births totalled 187 and deaths 45. There were 5 deaths of children under one year of age, the infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births being 26.7.

Health—Niue, although situated in the tropics, is largely free from diseases prevalent in tropical countries. The Niuean standard of general hygiene is very good by Pacific standards.

All medical and dental treatment, including hospital services, is provided free of charge, the money for this expenditure being provided out of subsidies from the New Zealand Government. There is a Government hospital. Attached to the hospital is an outpatients department, X-ray unit, laboratory, and dispensary. The staff at April 1967 numbered 52.

The amounts expended on public health during the past five years were as follows.

Item1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
Amount expended$110,848$110,848$108,688$124,318$156,062
Population5,0445,1455,1575,1995,258
Amount per head of population$22.0$20.6$20.2$23.91$29.68

Education—The eight primary schools and the high school are all under the control of the Government.

The total number of children attending school in Niue at 31 March 1968 was 1,754 and scholarship pupils attending school or receiving training in New Zealand numbered 51. Education is free and compulsory for those aged from six to 14 years, but most children remain at school until they reach 16 years.

Labour and Employment—The only substantial employer of labour is the Government, which employs Niueans in the Education, Police, Public Works Health, Agriculture, and other Departments, and in the loading or discharge of vessels. A large number of unskilled labourers are employed on public works. There is no unemployment problem.

Agriculture—The principal agricultural exports are copra, bananas, and kumeras. All the copra exported is grown by the Niueans.

The extremely rocky nature of the ground makes all agriculture difficult, as practically the whole of the arable land is confined to small pockets of soil among the coral rocks. Of the total area of some 64,900 acres, approximately 50,900 are more or less continuously cultivated, while some 13,600 acres are in forest. The remaining 400 acres are either in coastal forest and scrub, light forest, or heavy forest. The Agriculture Department has a programme for soil study and plant improvement, rehabilitation of coconut areas and rearing of cattle for local consumption.

As the Niuean depends for his livelihood upon his family lands, alienation is prohibited, so that there are no landowners apart from the Niueans and the Government.

Transport and Communication—There are no internal transport services. The transport of goods and produce to and from the port of Alofi is carried out by Government and privately-owned motor vehicles. There are some 76 miles of all-weather roads on the island.

At Alofi there is an open roadstead only, and cargo is handled by lighters.

Full postal services are provided at Alofi, where there is a Post Office Savings Bank. A single-line telephone system connects all villages on the island, and a radio station is maintained by the Government for overseas communication.

Construction of an airport at a cost of $380,000 was approved in March 1968. The airport will be 4,500 ft in length, and will be constructed by the Niue Government with technical advice and financial assistance from New Zealand.

Trade—During 1967-68 inward cargo totalled 4,849 tons, while outward cargo totalled 1,195 tons. As usual the bulk of the trade was with New Zealand.

The values of exports and imports for the latest five years available are given below.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1963102326428
1964155456611
1965130502632
1966109516625
1967103598701

Exports of principal commodities over the latest five years were as follows.

Item19631964196519661967
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
  $ $ $ $ $
Copra (tons)35337,30457766,17634747,13629238,30222022,594
Bananas (cases)3,8138,4586,35614,4404,90712,7502,1155,3482,7006,750
Kumeras (bags)4,70020,0208,14533,5803,14113,3602,94211,2844,80718,354
Plaited ware...3,796...10,426...14,834...12,892...11,562

The New Zealand Customs Tariff as modified by the Cook Islands Customs Duty Order 1962 is in force, and there is free trade between the islands and New Zealand.

Public Finance—Revenue on the island is raised principally from import and export duties, the sale of stamps and High Court fines. Local income tax is levied in accordance with the Income Tax Ordinance 1961 and an “aid to revenue” tax of 5c in $1 is imposed on wage earners if their income is not otherwise subject to income tax.

Deficits are met by a subsidy from New Zealand. A comparative statement of receipts and expenditure during the latest five financial years is given in the following table.

YearReceiptsExpenditureSubsidy
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1963-64388764572
1964-654701,048602
1965-665821,235695
1966-675771,387729
1967-687531,560751

TOKELAU ISLANDS: Descriptive—Situated some 300 miles to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, are the three atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olosega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 100 miles to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 yards in length, while none is wider than 400 yards nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 10 ft above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 650 acres; Atafu, 500 acres; Nukunonu, 1,350 acres. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 40 miles of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu and 57 miles between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the Tokelau Islanders their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—The Tokelau Islands were included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now invested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants of the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

The High Commissioner for New Zealand in Western Samoa is Administrator of the Tokelaus and in this capacity is responsible to the Minister of Island Affairs.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the islanders agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. To date nearly 200 migrants have entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders, or “fono”, comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the “aumaga” or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and also in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as Faipule and the Pulenu'u.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans.

On 24 September 1967 a census showed a total population of 1,883.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu291324615
Fakaofo348392740
Nukunonu248280528
Totals8879961,883

Health—The health authorities in the Tokelau Islands receive advice and guidance from Apia. The incidence of disease in the islands is comparatively slight.

Samoan medical practitioners are stationed in the group. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—There are now 20 trained Tokelau teachers in the group. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised. The mission school on Nukunonu is equipped by the New Zealand Government in a similar fashion to the schools of the outer islands.

Tokelau pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa and Fiji.

Communications—Trading visits are made at fairly regular intervals by a chartered vessel.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance—The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1968 amounted to 140 tons. Apart from copra, the only exports are handicraft.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra, Customs duty of 12&1/2; percent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, and the sale of postage stamps. Expenditure for the year 1967-68 was $124,438.

Under the Tokelau Islands Copra Regulations 1952 a Copra Stabilisation Fund was established by a levy on purchases of copra for export, and is used to supplement the prices received by the producers, or by the purchasers on resale after export, as may be necessary from time to time. At 31 March 1968 there was $21,040 in the fund.

ROSS DEPENDENCY: Descriptive—The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 160,000-175,000 square miles of land and 130,000 square miles of permanent ice shelf. The land is virtually entirely covered by ice, but has bases inhabited by scientific personnel.

Administration—By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand, and administrative officers (commonly referred to as Administrators) have been appointed from time to time since 1923. Since 1956, the Leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The Leader has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antartica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division DSIR.

The New Zealand Government decided that the New Zealand bases in the Ross Dependency would continue to be operated after the conclusion of the International Geophysical Year. In March 1958 the Government appointed the Ross Dependency Research Committee to co-ordinate and supervise all New Zealand activity in the Ross Dependency, with particular reference to the scientific and technical programme, and to co-operate with other countries operating in Antarctica.

The implementation of the approved programme is the responsibility of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research which has an Antarctic Division.

Responsibility for co-ordinating the scientific details of the approved programme, the procurement of scientific equipment and spares, and the working up of scientific data has been delegated as follows: Meteorology, Director, New Zealand Meteorological Service; Survey and Maps, Surveyor-General, Department of Lands and Survey; Geology and Glaciology, Director, Geological Survey; Special Upper Atmosphere Investigations and Aurora, Director, Physics and Engineering Laboratory; Seismology, Geomagnetism, Ionosphere, Director, Geophysics Division; Oceanography, Director, Oceanographic Institute; Biology, Director, Dominion Museum.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Department of External Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channel is the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which is also New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research.

In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, promote international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information, but does not require New Zealand to renounce her territorial claim to the Ross Dependency.

The New Zealand Geographic Board, which is the place-names authority for the Ross Dependency, published in 1958 a provisional Gazetteer of the Ross Dependency. A supplement to the provisional Gazetteer was published in 1960, second and third supplements in 1963, and a fourth in 1965.

Exploration—Various expeditions have operated within the area of the Dependency since the coastline was explored by Sir James Ross in 1841.

In December 1956 a New Zealand expedition under the leadership of Sir Edmund Hillary sailed for McMurdo Sound in HMNZS Endeavour. In January 1957 Scott Base was established near Cape Armitage on Ross Island. The purpose of the expedition was twofold: to take part in the crossing of the continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, and to participate in the Antarctic programme of the International Geophysical Year. During the early months of 1957 the expedition was successful in finding a route and setting up depots across the Ross Ice Shelf and up the Skelton Glacier to the Polar Plateau.

In the summer of 1957-58 the expedition explored a route farther south and established depots for the use of the crossing party of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Sir Edmund Hillary and four other New Zealanders reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958. The crossing of the continent was successfully achieved on 20 March 1958 when Sir Vivian Fuch's party reached Scott Base. Further reference to the activities was made in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.

Field Work—Field parties generally using dog teams and sledges, and more recently mechanical transport have since 1957-58 completed a geological and topographical reconnaissance survey of the whole of the exposed land area in the Dependency. The resulting information, has since 1965, provided the location of areas of interest to geological parties undertaking specialised investigations.

The Lands and Survey Department has issued a series of 42 maps based on survey work carried out by New Zealand field teams in the Antarctic during the past few years. More are in the course of preparation.

Scientific Programme—For the purposes of the International Geophysical Year a joint New Zealand-United States scientific station, known as Hallett Station, was established at Cape Hallett in January 1957. Throughout the International Geophysical Year New Zealand maintained at Scott Base and Hallett Station a scientific programme in close accord with the aims and objects of the IGY. (References to these activities are contained in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.)

Since 1957, at Scott Base, regular observations have been undertaken in seismology, geomagnetism, ionosphere, meteorology, aurora, and glaciology.

In 1968 a new scientific station was built near Lake Vanda in the Wright Valley of Victoria Land. It is planned that Vanda Station be occupied continuously to facilitate investigations in this ice-free area, and also to undertake meteorological and geophysical studies complementary to those being undertaken at Scott Base.

Biological Programme—Biological studies have been conducted during each summer season at various localities throughout the Dependency. Huts have been erected at Cape Royds and Cape Byrd to facilitate this continuing work.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without a licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, the purpose of which is to enforce conservation of whale stocks.

NAURU—Nauru Island is about half a degree below the equator and lies 166° 55' east of Greenwich. It is an elevated island about 3&1/2; miles long and 2&1/2; miles wide, with a circumference of 12 miles, and an area of 5,263 acres. With the exception of a narrow coastal belt favourable for the growth of coconuts, and of a brackish lagoon, the island consists of phosphate deposits overlying a bed of coralliferous limestone. There are about 1.3 million tons of phosphate rock exported annually.

Nauru was brought under the International Trusteeship system by a trusteeship agreement which was approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 1 November 1947. The Governments of Australia, New Zealand, and Britain were designated as the joint Administering Authority, and it was agreed that the Australian Government should continue to administer the island on their behalf. From January 1968 Nauru has been an independent territory.

Chapter 39. Section 39 TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Table of Contents

BOOM IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has boomed in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to international tourists of all countries. The tourist industry is the fastest growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention. World spending on travel abroad increased almost three times as fast as total national incomes in nine years to 1966, according to a study by the Department of Economic Affairs in Britain.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all the services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in world tourism. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. It is estimated that there are 11,000 beds in hotels and 10,000 beds in motels. New scenic routes have been developed, notably the Haast Pass road across the Southern Alps, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—The travel surge has resulted in a doubling of visitors in the last six years as shown in the following table; a similar scale of increase has applied to New Zealanders going overseas, particularly to Australia and Britain.

Year Ended 31 MarchTemporary VisitorsThrough Passengers*Total Travel ArrivalsNew Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily
TouristsOn BusinessPersons on Working Holiday Under 12 MonthsOthersTotal
*Tourists on cruise ships and passengers in transit arriving and leaving in the same vessel or aircraft.
195820,7234,025 5,02429,77231,46861,24024,510
195921,9273,6558564,73531,17326,04557,21828,674
196024,7944,2411,4316,09136,55735,63772,19434,667
196127,2994,9632,4806,18240,92436,38677,31047,204
196235,1695,3973,6957,42751,68838,58790,27547,781
196339,4996,2703,5629,55458,88538,73297,61753,625
196447,9787,9073,57310,24669,70439,714109,41862,164
196557,4988,2135,99510,32982,03540,253122,28874,536
196665,0399,96911,90511,10398,01655,265153,28188,145
196774,27510,00618,24210,348112,87172,561185,43299,890
196889,95312,8587,56012,817123,18884,839208,027104,094

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Likewise some persons shown as immigrants intending permanent residence are persons on extended working holidays or visits longer than 12 months.

Travel Transactions—Expenditure by New Zealanders on overseas travel tends always to outrun the amount received in travel receipts as shown in the following table extracted from the balance of payments account. It is therefore important to build up tourist revenue.

March YearTravel Credits*Travel Debits

*Expenditure by travellers in New Zealand.

†Travel expenditure (business and private) overseas and fares paid while travellers are abroad; fares paid in New Zealand are not included.

 $m$m
1961-628.428.5
1962-638.628.2
1963-6411.130.2
1964-6512.635.1
1965-6613.541.0
1966-6714.544.9
1967-6817.440.4

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all long-stay visitors to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country or Area1963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
Canada1,7872,0302,8192,9733,298
United States14,45515,95817,20116,52222,401
United Kingdom6,6457,7449,44410,01710,681
Australia32,98340,36848,35258,09666,045
Other countries13,83415,93520,20025,26320,763
All countries69,70482,03598,016112,871123,188

Traditionally, Australia has always been the major source of tourists but other areas have gained in relative importance, notably the United States, as can be seen in the following table giving percentage distribution of visitors according to country of origin.

March YearAustraliaUnited KingdomCanadaUnited StatesOthersTotal
195061142617100
195559132818100
1960481131820100
196549932019100
1966491031721100
196751931522100
196856832013100

Points of Arrival in New Zealand—The points of arrival for visitors to New Zealand are given below for years ended 31 March.

Point of ArrivalTemporary VisitorsThrough PassengersTotal
1966-671967-681966-671967-681966-671967-68
*Mainly passengers on flights through Auckland International Airport.
Auckland: Air63,96470,7488,750*12,548*72,71483,296
                    Sea10,2107,04145,81054,24456,02067,285
Totals74,17477,78954,56066,792128,734144,581
Wellington: Air14,70015,495--14,70015,495
                        Sea6,2915,23016,45315,85822,74421,088
Totals20,99120,72516,45315,85837,44436,583
Christchurch: Air17,17624,2265256717,22824,793
Lyttelton: Sea133912-13591
Other: Air1898264-4538
              Sea2083491,2301,6221,4381,971
Grand totals112,871123,18872,56184,839185,432208,207

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives over 70 percent of all visitors. Most of the visitors arrive by air, while through passengers are mostly passengers on cruise liners.

Arrivals and Departures by Sea and Air—There is a continuing trend towards a greater use of air by migrants including tourists. This is illustrated in the following diagram.

Figure 39.1. ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES - BY SEA AND AIR

ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES - BY SEA AND AIR

Seasonal Flow of Arrivals—Arrivals are highest in December, January, and February. These arrivals, taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts. The seasonality pattern of arrivals for the year ended 31 March 1968 is given in the following table.

Month of ArrivalTemporary VisitorsThrough PassengersAll Arrivals
From AustraliaFrom United States and CanadaAll Visitors
 Percent
April6.64.76.57.27.5
May6.04.15.65.17.0
June5.54.65.14.35.9
July6.05.96.17.67.1
August6.65.76.38.06.7
September5.26.26.18.08.3
October7.27.37.76.37.9
November7.012.08.77.78.2
December16.19.313.913.310.9
January12.512.111.812.411.9
February10.215.811.611.710.1
March11.012.210.68.68.5
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Hotel Accommodation in New Zealand— Leading hotels in the main centres and Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels in the major resort areas all provide first-class accommodation. Some hotels have a private bathroom or shower and toilet with every bedroom. Most of the other hotels have a proportion of bedrooms with private bath and toilet.

Leading hotels in resort areas and main centres usually operate on a room-only basis with meals an optional extra. Room charges per person range between NZ$4 and NZ$10 a night and most have private bath and/or shower facilities.

As in other parts of the world, reservations, especially at the main scenic areas, are often difficult to obtain if early application is not made. Therefore it is advisable to arrange for reservations well ahead of the proposed visit.

There are now 14 Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels, recent additions being Wanaka and Franz Josef in the South Island and Waitangi in the North Island. Wanaka, overlooking Lake Wanaka, has 37 rooms, all with private bath and screened balcony. Franz Josef Hotel is on the West Coast of the South Island and has 39 rooms. Both Wanaka and Franz Josef accommodate travellers on the Haast Pass road linking eastern and western sides of the Southern Alps. Waitangi is situated in the Bay of Islands, a world famous big-game fishing area, and has 39 rooms, all with private bath.

Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels are situated at the following places:

North IslandSouth Island
WaitangiLake Pukaki Inn
WaitomoHermitage, Mount Cook
WairakeiGlencoe Motor Inn, Mount Cook
Lake House, WaikaremoanaWanaka
TokaanuFranz Josef
Chateau Tongariro, National ParkEichardt's, Queenstown
 Te Anau
 Milford

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—The New Zealand Government has made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels, to provide accommodation of a high standard to meet the demand from overseas tourists on the main tourist routes and at the four main centres of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Under this scheme, the Government has made available NZ$17 million for approved accommodation, much of which has already been taken up, resulting in the availability of an additional 2,500 first-class beds.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—New Zealand has often been described as “the world's most exciting travel package”. With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled hunting, fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions—each one could make a country famous. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori race offers a culture for study which is unique to New Zealand.

Resort Development—A major development in New Zealand was the opening of the Haast Pass road in November 1965. It links the Southern Lakes region on the eastern side of the Alps with the West Coast and opens up one of the greatest scenic round-trip drives in the world.

In Rotorua a Maori Arts and Crafts Institute was established to preserve and foster traditional Maori culture. The institute has assumed control of the Whakarewarewa Reserve and displays Maori arts and crafts in traditional settings as well as presenting traditional songs and dances.

At Queenstown the Government and private enterprise have co-operated in the development of winter sports facilities. At Coronet Peak the access road has been improved, a new restaurant completed, and a chairlift has been in operation since 1964.

At Pakatoa Island in the Hauraki Gulf a tourist and holiday resort has been developed. Only 12 minutes from Auckland by amphibian aircraft and 45 minutes by hydrofoil, the island has accommodation in a chalet village.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

Summer:December, January, February
Autumn:March, April, May
Winter:June, July, August
Spring:September, October, November

Transport—All main cities, secondary centres, and tourist resorts are linked by road or rail services and there are extensive internal air services. The North and South Islands are also linked by roll-on roll-off steamer services.

Several car rental companies, including some operating internationally, supply self-drive and chauffeur-driven cars. Several companies, including the Government Tourist Bureau, operate coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods. Between Wellington and Auckland, in the North Island, there are scheduled coach services particularly aimed at servicing tourists' needs. At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lakes regions of the South Island, there are a number of set or bespoke air tours available. One private airline runs a scheduled service between Christchurch and these regions solely to serve tourists.

Travel Services—A wide range of fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

Sporting Attractions:Fishing—Declared to be the line-fisherman's paradise, the coasts, bays, and harbours of New Zealand abound in a great variety of salt-water fish, and nearly every river, stream and lake has a supply of trout.

In the North Island the most popular fresh-water fishing resorts are Lake Taupo and Rotorua, where rainbow trout predominate, averaging between three and four pounds. Of the rivers, perhaps the Tongariro is the most famous.

In the South Island fishing is more varied than in the North. Dry-fly fishing is popular in the open streams and rivers of Canterbury, while snow-fed rivers, that is the Hurunui, Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, and Waitaki, offer quinnat salmon, generally weighing between 15 and 20 lb. In the Waiau River system, particularly at the outlets of Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri, atlantic salmon are found, generally weighing about 4 lb. Rainbow and brown trout of fine quality can be found in most rivers, lakes and streams.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the eastern shores of North Auckland in the Bay of Islands are New Zealand's deep-sea fishing grounds. The main bases are Otehei Bay and Russell. Other centres are Whangaroa, Whangarei, Whitianga and Tauranga. Swordfish (black and striped marlin and broadbill) are prize catches, while hammerhead, mako, thresher, and tiger sharks and kingfish are all found in New Zealand waters. The best catches are made from January to March or April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the season usually extending for six weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking. Six species of deer, thar and chamois, are all rated as noxious animals, and the sport is readily available for those fit enough to penetrate the high back country. Wapiti can be shot in Fiordland.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing season in New Zealand extends from June to October, and both North and South Islands offer good ski-ing grounds, with unobstructed runs of up to 3,500 vertical feet.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include chairlifts, a T-bar, a Poma lift, and two rope tows. Mount Egmont is the other principal ski-ing area of the North Island.

In the South Island the principal areas are Mount Cook (for ski-touring), Coronet Peak, Lake Ohau, Porter's Pass, and Arthur's Pass. Coronet Peak has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand; it has a summit chairlift and ski tows; equipment may be hired, and professional instruction is available.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population, encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse-racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Scenery and Recreation—The 1960 and 1962 issues of the Yearbook contained pictorial supplements entitled “Scenic New Zealand” and “New Zealand's National Parks”. In the 1965 issue of the Yearbook the photographs were devoted to the wide opportunities of outdoor recreation and in the 1967 issue the pictorial supplement covered “Attractive New Zealand”. The attractions of the national parks are described in Section 10A.

Thermal Areas and Spas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes, all usually quiet, in the centre of the North Island. Most notably in the Rotorua locality are a variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blow-holes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places. The Tourist Department controls baths at Rotorua, Morere, and Te Aroha.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs is a well-known New Zealand spa. The Ward Baths, in the Government Gardens, are in the heart of the town and are popular with guests and city residents alike. The Ward Baths consist of the private Rachel Baths of alkaline silicaceous sulphur water and hot swimming pools. All are used for the relief of stiff or aching muscles and joints. The Priest and Radium pools produce a pleasant stimulating effect through the skin. In addition, Aix Treatments are available in a newly-constructed wing of the Ward Baths. The Blue Baths are public baths also in the Government Gardens with two swimming pools—one for adults and one for children, and are very popular with the fit and well.

At Taupo, Wairakei, and Matamata hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Many visitors delight in the number and range of small shops. With the accelerated growth of tourism in recent years, there are more shops devoted to souvenirs and goods of special interest. Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, excellent woollen goods including lambskin and sheepskin rugs and clothing, and a range of charms, teaspoons, and pottery depicting Maori emblems and natural features.

Tourist and Publicity Department—Under the Tourist and Publicity Act 1963 the principal functions of the Department are to encourage and develop the New Zealand tourist industry and tourist traffic, to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to operate publicity, information, and public relations services; and to maintain a travel service. The Publicity Division among other things, supplies New Zealand publicity material by way of publication, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas, to create a background knowledge of New Zealand and its people and way of life.

The Tourist Division promotes tourism and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Officers of the Department organise travel itineraries for both New Zealand travellers and overseas visitors, reserve their accommodation, and meet overseas vessels and aircraft. Bureaus are now sited in Auckland, Te Aroha, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, with a further 23 agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and New York, and the Department is represented in South Africa and Hawaii.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand Travel and Holidays Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a member of the International Union of Official Travel Organisations, an association whose principal aims are to ease travel difficulties and obstacles and promote travel research, and also is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific Area.

Chapter 40. Section 40 MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

MAORI WELFARE—The legislative basis of the Maori welfare programme is the Maori Welfare Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori welfare organisations consist of two statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the District Maori Councils, Maori Executive Committees, and Maori Committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the Department.

  2. The Department of Maori and Island Affairs which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The main organisation in the non-statutory group is the Maori Women's Welfare League. It was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3,000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, women's and other organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the New Zealand Maori Council is to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

The Department of Maori and Island Affairs, through the activities of its Welfare Division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The Department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The Department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with him.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of the higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education particularly pre-school.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori Committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their associations for the promotion of welfare. The subsidy granted in the financial year ended 31 March 1968 amounted to $36,000.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their death often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of service has been very considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; statutory administrator of the estates of mental patients (other than Maoris); manager (when so appointed by the Court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys payable in respect of the death of a worker. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor are prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $2,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $3,000, the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1968, 4,795 estates and funds valued at $38,233,723 were accepted for administration. The administration of 3,479 estates and funds was completed. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1968 numbered 20,483 and were valued at $193,390,709.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specified securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest. Recognising that the safety of the moneys is thereby assured, the great majority of testators and settlors desire their funds to be placed in the Common Fund.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1968 totalled $7,913,680, the favourable terms offered by the Office again proving popular with borrowers. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1968 totalled $56,974,215. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1968, 12,077 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1968 was 225,125. In addition to preparing the will of the testator in the first instance, the Public Trustee prepares any subsequent will or codicil that may be desired. During the year ended 31 March 1968 effect was given in 9,122 cases to changes desired by testators.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1967-68, was 7,022 which was 49 more than the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1957-582,3981,956261
1958-592,3561,896246
1959-602,7842,258280
1960-612,8332,496343
1961-622,8482,229357
1962-632,8202,304308
1963-643,1922,571366
1964-653,4472,690435
1965-663,4502,591340
1966-673,6652,947361
1967-683,6982,901423

Patents—The applications received during 1967-68 were broadly classified as follows: mechanical engineering 1,070; electrical engineering, 662; building construction, 330; home science and miscellaneous 415; primary industries, 159.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 977, the United States of America 814, Great Britain 684, Germany 363, with the remaining 860 distributed among 28 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1967-68, applications for trade marks covered the whole of the 34 classes prescribed, the most favoured being Class 5: pharmaceutical and sanitary substances, etc., 403; Class 25: clothing boots, shoes, etc., 230; Class 3: soaps, detergents, perfumery, cosmetics, etc., 294.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand, 905; United States of America, 752; Great Britain, 507; Australia 148; with the remaining 589 distributed among 24 other countries.

Renewal of registration of 2,711 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs—A total of 426 industrial designs was registered during the year 1967-68.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also subsists in New Zealand in sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both Conventions. Most of the important countries of the world (except at present Russia and China, but all English-speaking countries) have acceded to the one or the other or to both Conventions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed $600.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $12 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $60 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The value of furniture and household effects, including wearing apparel of himself and family, which a bankrupt may select and retain as his own property is $300.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee on a resolution by creditors.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there were 21 in 1964, eight in 1965, 15 in 1966, 12 in 1967, and 10 in 1968. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearNumber of BankruptciesPetitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by CreditorsOrders of Discharge or Annulment GrantedOrders for Liquidation of Companies by Assignee
*Does not include 15 companies for which outside liquidators were appointed.
19644834285515624
19654834255815024
19664834156814924
19676025336913050
19687586936511062*

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees.

The annual average of bankruptcies was 365 for the five years 1954-58, compared with an average of 562 for the years 1964-68.

Assets and Liabilities—Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realised by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realised by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to cases commenced in previous years. Time-lag variations of this nature account for the amounts paid during 1959 exceeding the figures for amounts realised. Company liquidations are included in the totals.

YearNumber of BankruptciesAmounts Realised by Official AssigneesAmounts of Debts ProvedAmounts Paid in Dividends, Preferential and Secured ClaimsAmounts Paid in Government Commission

*1,

†2,

‡4,

§3 deceased persons' estates under Part IV of the Administration Act 1952 included.

  $(thousand)
19584953701,63826226
19596183901,51040225
19604953311,33828026
19614253041,41625123
1962591*4462,13932829
1963566§4411,66038334
1964507*3251,78530127
1965507*3362,33831227
19665073782,03430625
1967652*3742,31224827
19688204873,74325423

The table following shows for each of the last 11 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
19583,31016.0
19592,44426.6
19602,70220.9
19613,33217.7
19623,61815.3
19632,93423.1
19643,52016.8
19654,61013.3
19664,01015.1
19673,54610.7
19684,5656.8

Apart from dividend, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

Amount of Liabilities—The following table shows for each of the last five years a classification of bankruptcies according to the amount of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19641965196619671968
*Excludes partnerships, 1963, 2; 1965, 1; 1966, 4; 1967, 12; and 1968, 12.
Under $5001087787102121
        $500- $999123109111117191
  $1,000-$1,99910311199147153
  $2,000-$3,999809784112136
  $4,000-$9,999597483102120
$10,000 and over3438396087
Totals507506*503*640*808*

Most failures are for comparatively small amounts. Of a total of 2,964 bankruptcies during the five years surveyed, 17 percent were for liabilities of less than $500, 22 percent under $1,000, and 21 percent for liabilities under $2,000.

Industry Groups of Bankrupts—The following table shows in broad groups the industries of those persons adjudged bankrupt in the last five years. The classification is based on the international standard industrial code. Companies are here excluded.

Industry Group19641965196619671968
*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1965, 1; 1966, 4; 1967, 12, and 1968, 12.
Agriculture and livestock production4230424677
Forestry, hunting, and fishing101582223
Mining and quarrying3-435
Manufacturing—
    Food and beverages812121025
    Footwear and textiles85968
    Wood, furniture, and fixtures76101113
    Printing and publishing1-223
    Machinery (not electrical)138655
    Transport equipment418131928
    Other2321321623
Construction807456101110
Wholesale and retail trade5571746671
Other commerce33646
Transport, storage, and communication67735890113
Personal and community services6455697794
Activities not adequately described—
    Contractor15671318
    Labourer5767595882
    Other2318124142
Totals483482*479*590*746*

The types of activity in which bankrupts were engaged at the time of failure frequently bear little relationship to the fact of insolvency. Personal extravagance or business incompetence are probably much more important factors in the majority of cases.

The occupational status of individual bankrupts during each of the calendar years 1958-68 is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership. Under the heading “Working for Salary or Wages” are included small numbers returning no occupational status.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking on Own Account But Not Employing LabourTotal*
195821380183476
195928899202589
1960246109117472
196119486117397
1962247134169550
1963279104163546
196427569139483
196526891123482
196627392114479
1967331116143590
1968434119193746
*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1958, 3; 1959, 5; 1960, 1; 1961, 3; 1962, 9; 1963, 2; 1965, 1; 1966, 4; 1967, 12, and 1968, 12.

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Measurements of standards or levels of living between countries constitute a complex problem for which there is no completely adequate or satisfactory solution in the way of an index that can be applied internationally. By most accepted criteria it is recognised that the countries with the highest standards of living include the United States of America, Canada, Sweden, Switzerland, New Zealand, and Australia in approximately that order.

Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. In a report in 1954 a committee of experts convened by the Secretary General of United Nations jointly with the International Labour Office and UNESCO concluded that the measurement of differences or changes in the levels of living is a complex problem which has no completely adequate or satisfactory solution. “The level of living is an organic unity embracing both material and non-material aspects of culture”. In seeking to analyse the factors affecting the level of living, the Committee proposed a classification as follows: 1. health, including demographic conditions; 2. food and nutrition; 3. education, including literacy and skills; 4. conditions of work; 5. employment situation; 6. aggregate consumption and savings; 7. transportation; 8. housing, including household facilities; 9. clothing; 10. recreation and entertainment; 11. social security; and 12. human freedoms. In the opinion of the Committee there is no single statistical measure of the level of living as a whole that can be applied internationally. In this connection, the Committee advised against the use of per-head national income as an international index of the level of living. It concluded in fact, for several reasons, including difficulties of determining purchasing power parities and of converting currencies, no type of monetary index as a general international measure of levels of living could be recommended. The Committee agreed, however, that monetary comparisons are not without interest in comparing economic differences between groups of individuals and countries, but calculations must be carefully prepared and properly interpreted.

Some comparative indicators are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, and newspaper circulation.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS RELATED TO STANDARDS OF LIVING

ItemNew ZealandUnited States of AmericaCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSweden

*At September 1967.

†England and Wales.

Number per 1,000 of population—
    Private passenger cars (1966)280396274265180241
    Television sets (1966)205*376284219254277
    Telephones (1967)398*499399258207479
Annual consumption of energy per head, 1966 (In terms of coal, kg)2,6449,5957,8784,9315,1395,080
Enrolment in higher education per 100,000 of population (1965)1,9482,8401,6511,159493923
Persons per hospital bed (1964)90110908012070
Persons per doctor (1964-66)670670820720830910
Housing (1960-61)—Percentage of dwellings with—
    Piped water99.594.089.1 98.791.4
    Baths97.188.180.3 78.760.9

STANDARDS COUNCIL—By the Standards Act 1965 the Standards Council was established as an independent body of 43 members from 1 April 1966. The functions of the Council are to promote standardisation in industry and commerce and to promulgate standards with the object of improving the quality of goods produced, promoting industrial efficiency and development, and promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The Council largely continues the functions previously performed under earlier legislation in 1941. It functions through the Standards Association which has taken the place of the former Standards Institute. The Standards Association is paying increasing attention to international standardisation and to consumer goods.

LOTTERIES—Under the Gaming Act 1908 the Minister of Internal Affairs may grant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for raffles of property. The Police may issue raffle licences where an individual prize does not exceed $20 in value, and where the total value of the prizes does not exceed $50; and authorised members of the Police may from time to time approve of organisations conducting raffles, provided the value of the prizes in any raffle does not exceed $10. By the Stamp Duties Act 1954, any licence granted for the raffling of any real or personal property in excess of $1,500 value is subject to a lottery duty of 10 percent of the value of the tickets sold in the lottery. Information as to receipts from this source will be found in Section 26B—Taxation.

The Gaming Act also permits sweepstakes and art unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

The Gaming Amendment Act 1962 makes provision for the conduct of national lotteries under the control of the Minister of Internal Affairs. The “Golden Kiwi” and the “Mammoth” national lotteries have been established. In both cases the number of tickets in a lottery is limited to 250,000. “Golden Kiwi” tickets cost 50 cents each and the prize list totals $66,000; “Mammoth” tickets cost $2 each and the value of the prize list is $270,000. Profits from these lotteries are available for distribution for charitable, research, or cultural purposes, or for other purposes that will be beneficial to the community.

During the year ended 31 March 1968, 18,004 licences covering small raffles with prizes ranging from $50 to $1,500 in cash or goods were issued to local or national organisations. Raffles in which the prizes are less than $50 in total, and with no one prize exceeding $20, are licensed and supervised by the Police. In addition, 41 “Golden Kiwi” and 4 “Mammoth” lotteries were conducted. The aggregate results of the regular lotteries for the eight latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1960-611961-621962-631963-641964-651965-661966-671967-68
Number of lotteries 1729745455534945
Gross sales$(000)1,1952,9509,2506,7508,0008,8758,3757,124
Commission on sales$(000)189336925675744776725655
Expenses$(000)119164318238273258245231
Prizes$(000)3401,2604,4443,5104,2424,7224,4583,786
Net proceeds$(000)5561,1903,5632,3272,7413,1192,9472,452
Lottery duty$(000)119295925675800887837712
Net profit$(000)4378952,6381,6521,9412,2322,1091,739

Under the Gaming Amendment Act 1962 a Board of Control has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various Distribution Committees which consider applications for assistance from lottery funds and make allocations. Grants paid during 1967-68 were as follows: $272,522 for the welfare of aged persons; $337,845 to charitable and philanthropic organisations including various mayoral and other relief or distress funds; $805,678 to youth organisations, sporting bodies, national water safety, and to various bodies providing community facilities; $258,351 for medical research; $223,748 for scientific research; Queen Elizabeth Arts Council $320,000; and miscellaneous grants, $153,094.

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of the liquor law of New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. The principles on which the liquor law of New Zealand rests are that no liquor may be sold without a licence, that new licences are not to be authorised unless they are shown to be necessary or desirable in the locality, and that there should be close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and services.

There is a Licensing Control Commission whose principal functions are to ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation, services, and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern and tourist house premises licences, restaurant licences and wholesale licences are needed and to authorise their issue; to review provisional hotel licences and determine whether the licence to be issued in their place should be a hotel or tavern premises licence; to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, amenities, and services; to grant club charters; and to hear appeals from licensing committees. There is a right of appeal to the Commission from every decision of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character in which case the appeal is to the Supreme Court. Many of the Commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the Supreme Court, and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Appeals now lie to the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1968 comprised 1,057 hotel premises licences, 27 tavern premises licences, 40 tourist-house premises licences, and 169 wholesale licences.

There were 47 permanent club charters and 177 renewable club charters in force on 31 March 1968. All the permanent charters and some of the renewable charters permit the sale of liquor to members for consumption off as well as on the premises.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry whether the issue of a hotel tourist-house, or tavern premises licence, or a wholesale or wine reseller's licence is desirable in a particular locality. In the case of a hotel, tourist-house, or tavern premises licence the Commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. It may direct that any bar-room of a hotel or tavern shall contain facilities for sit-down drinking. There is provision for a poll of residents on the question whether a hotel or tavern premises licence is not desired in the locality, and if the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the licence the Commission may not authorise one unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll the Commission (or in the case of a wholesale or wine reseller's licence, the Licensing Committee) then calls for applications for the licence. On each application the Commission fixes a fair price which the applicant, if successful, must pay. The decision of the Commission or the committee as to which applicant should receive the licence in effect fixes the exact site of the proposed premises. In the case of a hotel or a tavern any adult residing within a quarter of a mile may object to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board on the grounds that the site is in the immediate vicinity of a church, school or hospital, or that the objector will be adversely affected by the establishment of a hotel or tavern on the site. In considering an objection on the ground of adverse affection, the Board has regard to the provisions of any district planning scheme (or if there is no such scheme, planning principles), to the distance between the site and the nearest substantial number of houses, to the provision made for off-street parking, and to other relevant circumstances.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotel bar-rooms. The closing hour had been 6 p.m. since 1917. Voting for later closing was 641,105 and for 6 p.m. closing it was 353,662. Under the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1967 the usual hours of opening and closing of hotels or taverns were fixed at 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. respectively. Provision was made for the Licensing Committee to vary the hours for particular hotels but no premises are to be open for the sale of liquor to the public for more than eleven hours a day. Sales from licensed premises are prohibited on Sundays, Christmas Day and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with the meal up to 11.30 p.m. on any day and between 12 noon and 2.30 p.m. on Sunday, Christmas Day, and Good Friday. By the same Act the hours during which licensed restaurants may sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 authorises the Commission to grant permits to a hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the Commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling the sale of liquor through privately held licences supervised by licensing committees and since 1949 by the Licensing Control Commission. The system of licensing committees and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. In the case of trusts public control is direct since the whole of the liquor trade in a trust district is conducted by the trust, which is elected by the residents and is responsible to them.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts— Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition, three local trusts at Hornby and Cheviot in Canterbury and Mt Wellington in the Auckland suburbs are operating hotels.

The only remaining no-licence districts are parts of the Wellington and Auckland Metropolitan areas, namely, Auckland Suburbs, Eden, Grey Lynn, Roskill, Wellington East, Wellington South, and Wellington West. Because of the circumstances of these areas and their relation to the metropolitan areas as a whole, legislation was enacted in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of them should carry restoration and introducing a new form of trust control known as suburban trusts.

On the carrying of restoration in any remaining no-licence district the Licensing Control Commission will review the area and decide what hotel, tourist-house and tavern premises licences and what wholesale licences are necessary or desirable in the district or any locality or place therein. If the Commission is of the opinion that it should authorise the issue of any licence a further poll is taken on the question whether all licences to be so authorised should be offered to suburban trusts.

Should the trust proposal be carried, any local authority in the district may apply (or if no such application is made within the prescribed time 100 or more residents may apply) for the licence or licences to be issued to a suburban trust and the application must be granted if it conforms to the standards defined by the Commission. A suburban trust would then be established in accordance with the regulations to operate the licence or licences. If the trust proposal were not carried the ordinary procedure under the Sale of Liquor Act would be followed.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of parliamentary representatives was held on 26 November 1966, voting in New Zealand for both European and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1966 election was National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1. The relative strengths after the six preceding general elections were as follows: November 1949, National 46, Labour 34; September 1951, National 50, Labour 30; November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; and November 1963, National 45, Labour 35.

The total number of electors on the roll for the election in 1966 was 1,399,720 comprising European, 1,347,123 and Maori, 52,597. The number of votes recorded, including informal, was 1,212,127 (European 1,173,819; Maori 38,308), this figure including 9,880 special votes cast by persons who were not on the roll.

The following table shows for the last three general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

—–Votes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
196019631966196019631966
National557,046563,875525,94547.5947.0743.64
Labour508,179524,066499,39243.4243.7441.44
Social Credit100,90595,176174,5158.627.9414.48
Liberal-10,3395,243-0.870.44
Communist2,4233,1670.210.26
Other1,9501,4220.160.12
Total valid votes1,170,5031,198,0451,205,095100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes6,4607,2777,032.........
        Total votes recorded1,176,9631,205,3221,212,127.........

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 26 November 1966, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the thirteenth at which the three issues— national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1966 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows.

—–194919541957196019631966
For national continuance660,573672,754723,059765,952791,767817,760
For State purchase and control135,982164,380160,483138,644157,581176,946
For national prohibition268,567250,460260,132255,157235,959198,859

The percentage of votes recorded for State purchase and control was 12.8 of the total votes in 1949, 15.1 in 1954, 14.0 in 1957, 12.0 in 1960, 13.3 in 1963, and 14.8 in 1966. National continuance reached 63.4 percent in 1935, since when it fell gradually to 54.0 percent in 1946, recovered substantially at the expense largely of the State purchase and control vote to 62.0 percent in 1949, was steady at 61.9 percent in 1954, rose to 63.2 percent in 1957 and to 66.0 in 1960, 66.8 in 1963, 68.5 in 1966. Votes cast in favour of national prohibition amounted to 47.3 percent in 1925, but fell heavily at each of the next two polls, reaching 29.6 percent in 1935. There was little variation in this percentage in 1938 and 1943, but further falls to 25.2 percent, 23.0, 22.8, 22.0, 19.9 and 16.7 percent were recorded in 1949, 1954, 1957, 1960, 1963, and 1966 respectively.

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of three years as at present totalled 678,960; votes for a maximum term of four years totalled 317,973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30' east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time 11 h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946. The times stated in this article are New Zealand Standard Time, unless otherwise stated.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by means of astronomical observations and by comparison with radio time signals from observatories in other parts of the world.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1967 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography 1967.

SubjectBooksPamphletsTotal
General111425
Religion, theology204363
Sociology, statistics61319
Political science245074
Law, public administration, social welfare342458
Education473784
Trade, communications, transport111021
Linguistics, philology14519
Sciences6042102
Technology, and trades135972
Agriculture, forestry272653
Domestic science11314
Commercial management171633
Fine arts, etc.111223
Entertainment, sport13821
Literature423072
Geography, travel232851
History, biography563086
Totals440450890

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

At 31 March 1968 there were 1,409 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the provisions of the Copyright Act.

COMPUTERS—Technological change is an influential contributor to economic growth. Outstanding examples are the electric motor and the computer. A useful study “The Role of the Computer in the New Zealand Economy” was published in 1968 by the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research. Basically, computers are logical electronic information handlers whether they are used for accounting, traffic control, scientific calculations, design simulation, or controlling industrial processes. The first computer was imported into New Zealand in 1960 and by 1968 the total had risen to 87. In actual practice few computers are sold; they are imported by one of the large computer companies on behalf of the user who rents the equipment and pays importation charges of around three-quarters of the first year's rental which for a medium-sized unit may be $50,000.

An international comparison of computer rental expenditure in relation to national income in 1967 was made by the Institute of Economic Research. Equating New Zealand's proportion to a base of 100, the corresponding figure for Australia was 140, and for Denmark 180, Norway 135, and Finland 120. (The latter three countries were selected because they have populations under five million and have important agricultural sectors.) Computer applications in New Zealand are not generally at an advanced stage and few of them are working more than one shift.

The demand for computers has come from Government departments, local authorities, universities, primary producer boards, private firms in industries such as printing, forestry, insurance, oil, food processing, electrical equipment manufacturing, building and construction, clothing, engineering, airways, banking, retailing, motor assembly, paint manufacturing, and stock and station agents. Of the 87 digital computers in 1968, 59 were in the private sector. The Treasury runs a computer bureau service for some other Government departments, while small private firms use independent bureaus and those run by equipment suppliers.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

—–196919701971
*Date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Years' Day  1 January  1 January  1 January
Good Friday  4 April27 March  9 April
Easter Monday  7 April30 March12 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday* (observance)  2 June  1 June  7 June
Labour Day27 October26 October25 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 6 February (Waitangi Day); Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day.

NATIONAL SONG—New Zealand's National Song is God Defend New Zealand, the words being written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods.

The verses are now given.

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet, Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar, God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nation's van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

Chapter 41. Section 41 OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, BART., G.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B.E.

Official Secretary—D. C. Williams, Esq.

(His Excellency assumed office on 1 December 1967)

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD  
Lieutenant-Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan 18403 May 1841
THE CROWN COLONY  
Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May 184110 Sep 1842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec 184317 Nov 1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov 184531 Dec 1847
Governor in Chief  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan 18487 Mar 1853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY  
Governor of New Zealand  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar 185331 Dec 1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B.6 Sep 18552 Oct 1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.4 Dec 18615 Feb 1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G.5 Feb 186819 Mar 1873
The Right Hon. Sir James Fergusson, BART., G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., C.I.E.14 Jun 18733 Dec 1874
The Right Hon. the Marquess of Normanby, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., P.C.9 Jan 187521 Feb 1879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G.17 Apr 18798 Sep 1880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.CM.G.29 Nov 188023 Jun 1882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan 188322 Mar 1889
The Right Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May 188924 Feb 1892
The Right Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun 18926 Feb 1897
The Right Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug 189719 Jun 1904
The Right Hon. Baron Plunket, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O.20 Jun 19048 Jun 1910
The Right Hon. Baron Islington, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., D.S.O.22 Jun 19102 Dec 1912
The Right Hon. the Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.19 Dec 191227 Jun 1917
Governor-General of New Zealand  
The Right Hon. the Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun 19177 Jul 1920
The Right Hon. Earl Jellicoe, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep 192026 Nov 1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, BART., G.C.B., G.C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O.13 Dec 19248 Feb 1930
The Right Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Right Hon. Baron Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957
The Right Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D.5 Sep 195713 Sep 1962
Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E.9 Nov 196220 Oct 1967

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856

Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
  1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
  2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
  3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
  4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
  5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
  6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
  7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
  8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
  9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 18911 May 1893
27. SeddonRight Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189321 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., K.C.M.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. NationalRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191914 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May 192530 May 1925
35. CoatesRight Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRight Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. CoalitionRight Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRight Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserHon. Peter Fraser1 Apr 194030 Apr 1940
41. FraserRight Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.30 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
42. HollandRight Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec 194926 Sep 1957
43. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake26 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
44. NashRight Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
45. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake, C.H.12 Dec 1960 

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL

Right Hon. K. J. HOLYOAKE, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of State Services, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department.

Right Hon. J. R. MARSHALL, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Industries and Commerce, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Hon. J. R. HANAN,* Attorney-General, Minister of Justice, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister of Island Territories.

Hon. T. P. SHAND, Minister of Labour, Minister of Immigration, Minister of Mines, Minister of Electricity.

Hon. N. L. SHELTON, Minister of Customs, Associate Minister of Industries and Commerce.

Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Science.

Hon. J. RAE, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of the State Advances Corporation, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Hon. A. E. KINSELLA, Minister of Education.

Hon. D. N. McKAY, Minister of Health, Minister of Social Security, Minister in Charge of the Child Welfare Division, Minister for the Welfare of Women and Children.

Hon. D. C. SEATH, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister for Local Government, Minister of Civil Defence.

Hon. P. B. ALLEN, Minister of Works, Minister in Charge of Police.

Hon. W. J. SCOTT, Postmaster-General, Minister of Marine, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. J. B. GORDON, Minister of Transport, Minister of Railways.

Hon. D. MacINTYRE, D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D., Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. D. S. THOMSON, M.C., E.D., Minister of Defence, Minister of Tourism, Minister Assistant to the Prime Minister, Minister in Charge of Publicity, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. L. R. ADAMS-SCHNEIDER, Minister of Broadcasting, Minister Assistant to Minister of Customs.

Hon. R. D. MULDOON, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Department of Statistics, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Parliamentary Under-Secretary—

D. J. CARTER, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Agriculture.

Clerk of the Executive Council, P. J. Brooks, B.A., D.P.A., Admin Prof.

*Died 24 July 1969. Rt. Hon. J. R. Marshall became Attorney-General and Minister of Justice, Hon. D. MacIntyre Minister of Maori Affairs, and Hon. B. E. Talboys acting Minister of Island Territories.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. K. J. Holyoake, C.H.

Leader of the Opposition—N. E. Kirk.

Speaker—Hon. R. E. Jack. Chairman of Committees—J. H. George.

Clerk of the House—H. N. Dollimore, C.B.E., LL.B.

NameElectoral District

*Government Member.

† Elected 3 August 1968 following the death of Sir Walter Nash. Voting at by-election Young (L.) 5,968; Kennedy-Good (N.) 4,576; Weal (S.C.) 1,604; Ursin (I.) 295.

‡ Died 24 July 1969; no by-election held, with General Election pending.

For European Electorates 
Adams-Schneider, Hon. L. R.*Hamilton
Allen, A. E.*Franklin
Allen, Hon. P. B.*Bay of Plenty
Amos, P. A.Manurewa
Arthur, Sir Basil, Bt.Timaru
Bailey, R. L.Heretaunga
Barclay, R. M.New Plymouth
Blanchfield, P.Westland
Carter, D. J.*Raglan
Christie, G.Napier
Colman, F. MacD.Petone
Connelly, M. A.Riccarton
Cracknell, V. F.Hobson
Dick, A. D.*Waitaki
Donald, H. V.,*D.S.O., M.C.Wairarapa
Douglas, N. V.Auckland Central
Faulkner, A. J.Roskill
Finlay, Dr A. M.Waitakere
Fraser, W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, W. W.Mount Albert
Gair, G. F.*North Shore
Gandar, L. W.*Manawatu
George, J. H.*Otago Central
Gordon, Hon. J. B.*Clutha
Grieve, G. G.*Awarua
Hanan, Hon. J. R.*Invercargill
Harrison, J. R.*Hawke's Bay
Highet, D. A.*Remuera
Holland, E. S. F.*Fendalton
Holyoake, Right Hon. K. J., C.H.*Pahiatua
Howard, Hon. Miss M. B.Sydenham
Hunt, J. L.New Lynn
Jack, Hon. R. E.*Waimarino
King, N. J.Waitemata
Kinsella, Hon. A. E.*Hauraki
Kirk, N. E.Lyttelton
Lapwood, H. R.*Rotorua
Luxton, J. F.*Piako
McCready, A.*Otaki
Macdonald, R.Grey Lynn.
MacDonell, B. P.Dunedin Central
Macfarlane, Hon. R. M., C.M.G.Christchurch Central
MacIntyre, Hon. D., D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D.*Hastings
McKay, Hon. D. N.*Marsden
McLachlan, C. C. A.*Selwyn
McMillan, Mrs E. E.North Dunedin
Marshall, Rt. Hon. J. R.*Karori
Mathison Hon. J.Avon
May, H. L. J.Porirua
Moyle, C. J.Manukau
Muldoon, Hon. R. D.*Tamaki
Munro, Sir Leslie, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O.*Waipa
Nordmeyer, Hon. A. H.Island Bay
Pickering, H. E. L.*Rangiora
Rae, Hon, J.*Eden
Riddiford, D. J., M.C.*Wellington Central
Rowling, W. E.Buller
Scott, Hon. W. J.*Rodney
Seath, Hon. D. C.*Waitomo
Shand, Hon. T. P.*Marlborough
Shelton, Hon. N. L.*Rangitikei
Spooner, G. A.Wanganui
Stevenson, Mrs R. M.*Taupo
Talbot, R. L. G.*Ashburton
Talboys, Hon. B. E.*Wallace
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C., E.D.*Stratford
Tizard, R. J.Pakuranga
Tombleson, Mrs E. I.*Gisborne
Walding, J. A.Palmerston North
Walker, H. J.*St. Albans
Walsh, G. A.*Tauranga
Watt, Hon. H.Onehunga
Whitehead, S. A.Nelson
Young, T. J.Hutt
Young, V. S.*Egmont
Young, W. L.*Miramar
For Maori Electorates 
Rata, M.Northern Maori
Ratana, Mrs I. M.Western Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Mrs T. W. M.Southern Maori
Reweti, P. B.Eastern Maori

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS

ParliamentDate of Opening of SessionDate of Ending of Session
Thirty-second21 January 195831 January 1958
10 June 1958  3 October 1958
24 June 195923 October 1959
22 June 196028 October 1960
Thirty-third20 June 1961  1 December 1961
  7 June 196214 December 1962
12 February 196312 February 1963
20 June 196325 October 1963
Thirty-fourth10 June 1964  4 December 1964
27 May 196530 October 1965
26 May 1966  1 November 1965
Thirty-fifth26 April 196724 November 1967
26 June 196819 December 1968
15 May 1969 

LIST OF LEGISLATION, 1968—During the main parliamentary session of 1968, which commenced on 26 June, and which ended on 19 December, the General Assembly passed 152 public Acts, 21 local Acts, and 8 private Acts. The following is a list of public, local, and private Acts passed during the session.

PUBLIC ACTS

Agricultural Chemicals Amendment

Agricultural Pests Destruction Amendment

Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation)

Airport Authorities Amendment

Animal Remedies Amendment

Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment

Apprentices Amendment

Appropriation

Appropriation (No. 2)

Arms Amendment

Broadcasting Authority

Broadcasting Corporation Amendment

Burial and Cremation Amendment

Civil Defence Amendment

Coal Mines Amendment

Commissions of Inquiry Amendment

Construction Amendment

Costs in Criminal Cases Amendment

Counties Amendment

Customs Acts Amendment

Customs Amendment

Customs Orders Confirmation

Dental Amendment

Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities

Dogs Registration Amendment

Domestic Proceedings

Economic Stabilisation Amendment

Education Amendment

Electricity

Electrical Supply Authorities Association Amendment

Electricity Distribution Commission Amendment

Engineering Associates Amendment

Estate and Gift Duties

Estate and Gift Duties Amendment

Finance

Fire Services Amendment

Fisheries Amendment

Friendly Societies Amendment

Gaming Amendment

Gaming Amendment (No. 2)

Government Life Insurance Amendment

Government Railways Amendment

Guardianship

Harbours Amendment

Hospitals Amendment

Human Tissue Amendment

Hydatids

Immigration Amendment

Impounding Amendment

Imprest Supply

Imprest Supply (No. 2)

Imprest Supply (No. 3)

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment

International Finance Agreements Amendment

Joint Family Homes Amendment

Judicature Amendment

Judicature Amendment (No. 2)

Juries Amendment

Land Amendment

Land Drainage Amendment

Land and Income Tax Amendment

Land and Income Tax (Annual)

Land and Income Tax Amendment (No. 2)

Land and Income Tax Amendment (No. 3)

Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Amendment

Land Valuation Proceedings Amendment

Law Practitioners Amendment

Licensing Trusts Amendment

Litter

Local Authorities Loans Amendment

Local Authorities (Members' Interests)

Local Elections and Polls Amendment

Local Legislation

Machinery Amendment

Maori and Island Affairs Department

Maori Purposes

Marine Farming

Maternal Mortality Research

Matrimonial Proceedings Amendment

Matrimonial Property Amendment

Meat Amendment

Meat Export Control Amendment

Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Amendment

Medical Practitioners

Minimum Wage Amendment

Ministry of Transport

Motor Spirits Distribution Amendment

Municipal Corporations Amendment

Municipal Insurance Amendment

Mutual Insurance Amendment

Nassella Tussock Amendment

National Military Service Amendment

National Parks Amendment

New Zealand Loans Amendment

New Zealand Ports Authority

New Zealand Society of Accountants Amendment

Niue Amendment

Niue Amendment (No. 2)

Otago Boys' and Girls' High School Amendment

Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Amendment

Pharmacy Amendment

Police Amendment

Post Office Amendment

Poultry

Primary Products Marketing Regulations Confirmation

Property Law Amendment

Protection of Depositors

Public Revenues Amendment

Public Trust Office Amendment

Quantity Surveyors

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand Amendment

Real Estate Agents Amendment

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment

Reserves and Domains Amendment

Reserves and Other Lands Disposal

River Boards Amendment

Royal New Zealand Air Force Amendment

Rural Housing Amendment

Sale of Liquor Amendment

Sales Tax Amendment

Sales Tax Amendment

Sea Carriage of Goods Amendment

Secondhand Dealers Amendment

Shipping and Seamen Amendment

Social Security Amendment

Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Amendment

Sp Duties Amendment

State Advances Corporation Amendment

Summary Proceedings Amendment

Superannuation Amendment

Swaziland

Taranaki Harbours Amendment

Tenancy Amendment

Tourist Hotel Corporation Amendment

Town and Country Planning Amendment

Transport Amendment

Trespass

Trustee Amendment

Trustee Savings Banks Amendment

University of Canterbury Amendment

Valuation of Land Amendment

Valuers Amendment

Vocational Training Council

Waikato Valley Authority Amendment

Waitangi National Trust Board Amendment

War Pensions Amendment

Water and Soil Conservation Amendment

Weights and Measures Amendment

Westland High School Amendment

Wildlife Amendment

Wool Commission Amendment

Workers' Compensation Amendment

LOCAL ACTS

Auckland Harbour Board Central Area Properties Redevelopment Amendment

Auckland Harbour Board (Half Moon Bay) Vesting and Empowering

Auckland Harbour Board Loan and Empowering

Auckland Regional Authority Amendment

Christchurch Town Hall Empowering

Dunedin City (Rates by Instalment) Empowering

Levin Borough Empowering

Napier Harbour Board Loan and Empowering

Napier Harbour Board Loan and Empowering (No. 2)

Nelson City Empowering

Northland Harbour Board Vesting and Empowering

North Shore Drainage Board

Otago Museum Trust Board Amendment

Paritutu Centennial Park

Southland Harbour Board Empowering Summit Road (Canterbury) Protection Amendment

Taranaki Harbours Board Empowering

Tauranga Harbour Board Loan and Empowering

Tawa Borough Empowering

Tawa Borough (Rates by Instalments) Empowering

Wanganui Bridge

PRIVATE ACTS

Anglican Children's Trust Amendment

Auckland Gas Company Amendment

Bryant Nursery and Trust Board Enabling

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Trust Board Empowering Amendment

Otago Foundation Trust Board Amendment

Slack Adoption

Tokoroa Agriculture and Pastoral Association Empowering

Warkworth Anglican Burial Ground

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the Departments responsible for the administration of the Public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1969 or which had then been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Treasury
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1952Justice
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture
Agricultural Workers Act 1962Agriculture
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Aliens Act 1948Justice
Animals Act 1967Agriculture
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960External Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1927Agriculture
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948Agriculture
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Mines
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Bank of New Zealand Act 1945Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Bauxite Act 1959Mines
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Marine
British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948Internal Affairs
Broadcasting Authority Act 1968Broadcasting
Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961Broadcasting
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Card Tournaments Regulation Act 1933Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriers Act 1948Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Charted Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Child Welfare Act 1925Education
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Act 1956Works
Cinematograph Films Act 1961Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1950Prime Minister
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1925Mines
Commercial Trusts Act 1910Justice
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934-35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consumer Council Act 1966Industries and Commerce
Continental Shelf Act 1964Marine
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Control of Prices Act 1947Industries and Commerce
Cook Islands Act 1915Maori and Island Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Maori and Island Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Act 1956Internal Affairs
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crowns Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture
Dangerous Goods Act 1957Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Agriculture Act 1953Agriculture
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1964Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968External Affairs
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1960Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Security
Distillation Act 1908Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
Districts Courts Abolition Act 1925Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Industries and Commerce
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Industries and Commerce
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Electricity
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Electricity
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Electricity
Electricians Act 1952Electricity
Electricity Act 1968Electricity
Electricity Distribution Commission Act 1967Electricity
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Security
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Engineering Association Act 1961Works
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Act 1910Industries and Commerce
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
External Affairs Act 1943External Affairs
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Security
Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Great Britain) Act 1948Social Security
Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Northern Ireland) Act 1948Social Security
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Federation of Malaya Act 1957External Affairs
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1908Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture
Fire Services Act 1949Internal Affairs
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Marine
Fisheries Act 1908Marine
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Marine
Food and Drugs Act 1947Health
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Gaming Act 1908Internal Affairs
Gas Industry Act 1958Electricity
Gas Supply Act 1908Electricity
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
Geneva Conventions Act 1958External Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Works
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Services Commission
Government Service Tribunal Act 1965State Services Commission
Guardianship Act 1968Justice
Harbours Act 1950Marine
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands
Health Act 1956Health
Hire Purchase Agreements Act 1939Justice
Historic Articles Act 1962Internal Affairs
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Housing Act 1955State Advances
Housing Improvement Act 1945Works
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Assessment Act 1957Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954Labour
Industrial Design Act 1966Industries and Commerce
Industrial Relations Act 1949Labour
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industries and Commerce Act 1956Industries and Commerce
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1952Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Public Trust
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Introduction of Plants Act 1927Agriculture
Inventions Development Act 1966Industries and Commerce
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Mines
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kawerau and Murupara Township Act 1953Internal Affairs
Kawerau Borough Act 1958Internal Affairs
Kermadec Islands Act 1887Maori and Island Affairs
King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Act 1953Health
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Works
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land and Income Tax Act 1954Inland Revenue
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952Lands and Survey
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1939Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Legitimation Act 1939Justice
Lesotho Act 1967External Affairs
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Treasury
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Linen Flax Corporation Act 1945Industries and Commerce
Litter Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1966Internal Affairs
Local Government Commission Act 1967Internal Affairs
Local Railways Acts 1914Works
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Magistrates' Courts Act 1947Justice
Malaysia Act 1963External Affairs
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori and Island Affairs
Maori and Island Affairs Department Act 1968Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934-35Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Welfare Act 1962Maori and Island Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine Farming Act 1968Marine
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Married Women's Property Act 1952Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1963Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture
Meat Export Control Act 1921-22Agriculture
Meat Export Prices Act 1955Agriculture
Medical Advertisements Act 1942Health
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1911Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Industries and Commerce
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1926Mines
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works
Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961Treasury
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Monopoly Prevention Act 1908Industries and Commerce
Mortgages and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Industries and Commerce
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Industries and Commerce
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1958Justice
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Corporations Act 1954Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
Narcotics Act 1965Health
Nassella Tussock Act 1946Agriculture
National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum Act 1930Internal Affairs
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Library Act 1965Education
National Military Service Act 1961Defence
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967Mines
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
Navy Act 1954Defence
New Zealand Army Act 1950Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Industries and Commerce
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945Education
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932-33Treasury
New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Loans Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand National Airways Act 1945Transport
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Marine
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
News Media Ownership Act 1965Justice
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Maori and Island Affairs
Noxious Animals Act 1956Forest Service
Noxious Weeds Act 1950Agriculture
Nurses and Midwives Act 1945Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Oil in Navigable Waters Act 1965Marine
Opticians 1928Health
Orchards and Garden Diseases Act 1928Agriculture
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture
Overseas Representatives Act 1942External Affairs
Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962Legislative
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Petroleum Act 1937Mines
Pharmacy Act 1939Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937Internal Affairs
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964Health
Poisons Act 1960Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Growing Industry Act 1950Agriculture
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture
Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933Agriculture
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture
Primary Products Marketing Act: Regulations Confirmations Acts 1957Agriculture
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Marine
Protection of Depositors Act 1968Justice
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1908Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1961Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Revenues Act 1953Treasury
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works (Electricity Part XIII)
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works
Quarries Act 1944Mines
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1963Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Race Meetings Act 1909Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1963Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Security
Republic of Botswana Act 1967External Affairs
Republic of Cyprus Act 1961External Affairs
Republic of Ghana Act 1960External Affairs
Republic of India Act 1956External Affairs
Republic of Ireland Act 1950External Affairs
Republic of Kenya Act 1965External Affairs
Republic of Malawi Act 1966External Affairs
Republic of Nigeria Act 1963External Affairs
Republic of Pakistan Act 1956External Affairs
Republic of Singapore Act 1966External Affairs
Republic of Tanzania Act 1966External Affairs
Republic of Zambia Act 1965External Affairs
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Treasury
Reserves and Domains Act 1953Lands and Survey
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950Defence
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture
Royal Powers Act 1953External Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1953External Affairs
Rural Housing Act 1939State Advances
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927State Advances
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sale of Wool Act 1937Agriculture
Sales Tax Act 1932-33Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1952Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Industries and Commerce
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Seeds Importation Act 1927Agriculture
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Marine
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Security
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Security
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1956Social Security
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stamp Duties Act 1954Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Industries and Commerce
Standard Time Act 1945Internal Affairs
State Advances Corporation Act 1965State Advances
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Supply of Electrical Energy Act 1917Electricity
Statistics Act 1955Statistics
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947External Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Law Drafting Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966External Affairs
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Act 1956Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Swaziland Act 1968External Affairs
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Marine
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori and Island Affairs
Tariff and Development Board Act 1961Industries and Commerce
Taupo County Act 1962Internal Affairs
Technicians Certification Act 1958Education
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Termites Act 1940State Advances
Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965External Affairs
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Services
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1935Industries and Commerce
Tokelau Islands Act 1948Maori and Island Affairs
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1955Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1953Works
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trade Practices Act 1958Industries and Commerce
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Trading Coupons Act 1931Industries and Commerce
Tramways Act 1908Works
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Roumania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947External Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951External Affairs
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Protection Act 1934 -35Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Treasury
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Turangi Township Act 1964Works
Uganda Act 1964External Affairs
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1908Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
United Nations Act 1946External Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944External Affairs
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordnance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Urban Farm Land Rating Act 1932Internal Affairs
Valuation Equalisation Act 1957Internal Affairs
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939External Affairs
Vocational Training CouncilEducation
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works
Waitangi Day Act 1960Labour
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932-33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
War Disabilities Removal Act 192Justice
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Security
Waterfront Industry Act 1953Labour
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works
Waters Pollution Act 1953Marine
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961External Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Marine
Whaling Industry Act 1935Marine
Wheat Board Act 1965Industries and Commerce
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Commission Act 1951Agriculture
Wool Industry Act 1944Agriculture
Wool Labelling Act 1949Industries and Commerce
Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950Agriculture
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture
Workers' Compensation Act 1956Labour

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. A list of administrative tribunals in New Zealand is now presented. The list does not include tribunals which regulate entry into or expulsion from or regulation within a profession or occupation. (Source: The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice.)

Name of Tribunal and Act Under Which Set UpFunction of Tribunal
Transport— 
    Air Services Licensing Authority
  1. To issue air service licences, to amend and revoke the terms and conditions of such licences and to transfer such licences.

  2. To hold public inquiries dealing with general conditions applicable to air service licences.

        Air Services Licensing Act 1951 (s. 3)
    Air Services Licensing Appeal AuthorityTo determine appeals from decisions of Air Services Licensing Authority.
        Air Services Licensing Act 1951 (s. 33)
    District Transport Licensing AuthorityTo issue, transfer, amend, suspend, revoke, and renew goods, passenger, taxi, and rental service licences.
        Transport Act 1962 (s. 93)
    Harbour Ferry Service Licensing AuthorityTo issue, transfer, amend, suspend, revoke, and renew harbour ferry service licences.
        Transport Act 1962 (s. 96)
    Transport Licensing Appeal AuthorityTo determine appeals from decisions of a licensing authority.
        Transport Act 1962 (s. 156) 
    Transport Charges Appeal AuthorityTo determine appeals from decision of a public body or Commissioner of Transport in relation to transport charges or from decision of Minister of Railways prescribing charges in respect of road passenger service under Part III of Government Railways Act 1949. It may also issue directions to any appropriate body to prescribe or review charges.
        Transport Act 1962 (s. 157)
Businesses or Trades— 
    Cinematography Films Licensing AuthorityTo determine applications for licences to show films and to impose standards for picture theatres.
        Cinematograph Films Act 1961 (s. 4)
    Cinematograph Films Licensing and Registration Appeal AuthorityTo determine Appeals from decisions of—
        Cinematograph Films Act 1961 (s. 81)
  1. The licensing authority.

  2. The Registrar in respect of registration of any film.

  3. The Cinematograph Films Projectionists Licensing Board.

    Conscientious Objection CommitteeTo determine applications for exemptions from membership of industrial unions of workers on grounds of conscience.
        Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 (s. 175)
    Licensing CommitteesTo issue certain licences and permits under the Sale of Liquor Act. The Licensing Control Commission may also delegate certain powers to committees.
        Sale of Liquor Act 1962 (s. 32)
    Licensing Control Commission
  1. To authorise the issue of new licences.

  2. To determine fair price for new licences and on removal of licences.

  3. To prescribe standards of accommodation and facilities on licensed premises and to conduct inquiries into requirements.

  4. To grant and renew club charters.

  5. To hear appeals from licensing committees.

  6. To control the licensing fund.

  7. To conduct inquiries at the request of the Minister of Justice.

        Sale of Liquor Act 1962 (s. 4)
    Local Apprenticeship CommitteesTo approve entry into apprenticeships and deal generally with conditions of apprentices.
        Apprentices Act 1948 (s.7) 
    Motor Spirits Licensing Authority
  1. To determine applications for granting, transfer, revocation, and amendment of licences to sell motor spirits.

  2. To hold inquiries as to whether licensee is conforming with terms of licence.

        Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953 (s. 9)
    Motor Spirits Licensing Appeal AuthorityTo sit as judicial authority for determination of appeals from decisions of Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.
        Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953 (s. 26)
    Pharmacy AuthorityTo consider applications for opening a pharmacy by certain companies, by non-chemists, and by chemists owning another pharmacy.
        Pharmacy Amendment Act 1954 (s. 6)
    Shops and Offices Exemptions TribunalTo determine applications for exemption from provisions of Act or award obliging shops to be closed during certain hours.
        Shops and Offices Amendment Act 1953 (s. 3)
Local Bodies— 
    Local Government CommissionTo review the functions and districts of local authorities and to prepare schemes for the re-organisation of their functions and districts.
        Local Government Commission Act 1967 (s. 3)
    Local Authorities Loans BoardTo consider applications by local authorities for permission to borrow money.
        Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 (Part I) (s.4)
    Inquiry Conducted by Audit OfficerTo settle dispute or obtain evidence to assist towards settlement where local authorities fail to agree about financial adjustments on change of boundaries.
        Electric Power Boards Act 1925 (s. 7)
        Land Drainage Act 1908 (s. 87)
        Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 (s. 28)
        And Others
Land and Property— 
    Copyright TribunalTo determine disputes in relation to the performing rights in copyright material.
        Copyright Act 1962 (s. 30)
    Local Authority or Minister of Agriculture or appointeeTo determine appeals against notification to clear land given by inspector under s. 5 of Noxious Weeds Act.
        Noxious Weeds Act 1950 (s. 5)
    Town and Country Planning Appeal BoardTo determine appeals on—
        Town and Country Planning Act 1953 (s. 39)
  1. Town planning matters under Town and Country Planning Act.

  2. Certain decisions of local authorities under Municipal Corporations Act.

  3. Decisions relating to land subdivision in counties.

Social Security Benefits— 
    Crimes Compensation TribunalTo determine applications for compensation by victims of crimes of violence.
        Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 (s.4)
    Invalids Benefit Appeal BoardTo determine appeals from decisions of the Commission where benefit is declined on medical grounds.
        Social Security Act 1964 (s. 45)
    Miners Benefits Appeal BoardTo determine appeals from decisions of the Commission where benefit is declined on medical grounds.
        Social Security Act 1964 (s. 51)
    War Pensions Appeal BoardTo determine appeals from decisions of War Pensions Board.
        War Pensions Act 1954 (s. 8)
Censorship— 
    Cinematograph Films Censorship Board of AppealTo determine appeals from decisions of Censor relating to cinematograph films.
        Cinematograph Films Act 1961 (s. 91)
    Indecent Publications TribunalTo determine applications on questions relating to the indecency of any book, document or record.
        Indecent Publications Act 1963 (s. 3)
Income Tax, Prices, etc.— 
    Board of ReviewTo sit as judicial authority for hearing and determining objections to assessments of tax or duty or decisions or determinations of Commissioner of Inland Revenue.
        Inland Revenue Department Amendment Act 1960 (s. 3)
    Controller and Auditor—GeneralTo recover loss through default, neglect, etc., of any servant of the Crown or any local authority.
        Public Revenues Act 1953 (s. 26)
    Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal AuthorityTo determine appeals from decisions of Commissioner of Inland Revenue on status of company.
        Land and Income Tax Act 1954 (s. 146)
Co-operative Dairy Companies TribunalTo determine dispute between the company and shareholders as to fair value of shares surrendered.
        Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1943 (s. 17)
Earthquake and War Damage CommissionTo determine applications for compensation for damage of property due to disasters or war.
        Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 (s. 4 (1)
Price Tribunal
  1. To fix prices for goods and services.

  2. To investigate complaints relating to prices of goods and services.

  3. To maintain a survey of prices of goods and services and to institute proceedings for offences relating to prices.

        Control of Prices Act 1947 (s. 3)
Snow Loss Reserve CommitteeTo determine amount of refund of deposit to taxpayer who suffers snow loss.
        Land and Income Tax Act 1954 (s. 136)
Trade Practices Appeal AuthorityTo sit as judicial authority for the determination of appeals from orders of the Trade Practices and Prices Commission.
        Trade Practices Act 1958 (s. 24)
Trade Practices and Prices Commission
  1. To enquire into trade practices and make orders directing the discontinuance or modification of any trade practice contrary to the public interest.

  2. To recommend to the Minister of Industries and Commerce the imposition of price control in any case.

        Trade Practices Act 1958 (s. 3)
Salaries and Conditions of Public Servants— 
    Appeal BoardTo determine appeals by teachers against their assessment or classification.
        Education (Assessment, Classification, and Appointment) Regulations 1965 (Part VII) Reg. 67
    Government Railways Appeal BoardTo determine appeals relating to appointments, grading, dismissals, etc., of railway employees.
        Government Railways Act 1943 (s. 91)
    Government Railways Industrial TribunalTo make wage orders in respect of railway employees.
        Government Railways Act 1943 (s. 100)
    Government Service TribunalTo fix salaries, wages, and related conditions of public service employees up to prescribed level.
        Government Service Tribunal Act 1948 (s. 3)
    Permanent Head or State Services Commission Acting as Disciplinary TribunalTo hear charges of misconduct against public servants.
        State Services Act 1962 (ss. 57 and 58)
    Police Appeal Board
  1. To determine appeals against recommendations of the Police Promotion Board.

  2. To determine appeals under s. 34 of the Police Act against a finding that any member of the police has been guilty of misconduct.

  3. To determine appeals under s. 36 against a decision to dismiss any member.

        Police Act 1958 (s. 46)
    Police Misconduct TribunalsTo hear charges of misconduct against members of the police.
        Police Act 1958 (s. 33)
    Post Office Appeal BoardTo hear appeals relating to appointments regrading, dismissals of Post Office employees.
        Post Office Act 1959 (s. 193)
    Primary Teachers Appointment Appeal BoardTo determine appeals by teachers against non-appointment to positions.
        Education Act 1964 (s. 144)
  1. Public Service Appeal Board

        State Services Act 1962 (s. 61)

  2. Special Board of Appeal

        State Services Act 1962 (s. 62)

To hear appeals against Commission's decisions on promotion, regrading, etc.
    Teachers Court of AppealTo determine appeals by teachers against their suspension, dismissal, or transfer.
        Education Act 1964 (s. 174)
Miscellaneous— 
    Waterfront Industry Tribunal
  1. To make orders as to pay and conditions of work for waterside workers.

  2. To determine appeals from certain decisions of Port Conciliation Committees, the Waterfront Industry Commission and the National Amenities Committee.

  3. To control and direct the activities of Port Conciliation Committees.

        Waterfront Industry Act 1953 (s. 4)
    Coal Mines Council
  1. To settle industrial disputes between owners and workers.

  2. To make inquiries and report to Minister of Mines on matters affecting the coal mining industry.

        Coal Mines Act 1925 (s. 166b)
Commissioner of PatentsTo determine disputes in relation to the grant of patents, designs or registration of trade marks.
        Patents Act 1953
    Court of Inquiry into Competency to hold Certificate under the Coal Mines ActTo make inquiries into competency to hold any certificate and cancel or suspend such certificates.
        Coal Mines Act 1925 (s. 57)
    Medical Advertisements BoardTo consider applications for order prohibiting untruthful medical advertisements.
        Medical Advertisements Act 1942 (s. 3)
Inquiries— 
    Commission of InquiryTo investigate the circumstances of major fires.
        Fire Services Act 1949 (s. 82)
    Committee of Board of HealthTo hear appeal by licensee or manager of private hospital or any medical practitioner in respect of decisions of Director-General in relation to a private hospital.
        Hospitals Act 1957 (s. 143)
    Committee of Inquiry (Milk Board)To conduct an inquiry into organisation of town or milk industry.
        Milk Amendment Act 1951 (s. 19)
    Committee of Milk Council sitting as Appeal Authority against Alteration of Scheme of Milk DeliveryTo determine appeals against amendment, revocation of scheme of milk delivery.
        Milk Delivery Regulations 1949 (Reg. 12)
Court of Inquiry into Aircraft AccidentsTo conduct a public inquiry for the purpose of establishing the circumstances surrounding an aircraft accident.
        Civil Aviation (Investigation of Accidents) Regulations 1953 (Reg. 13)
    Court of InvestigationTo conduct an investigation into shipping casualties.
        Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 (s. 325)
    Minister of Works or his Appointee or Local AuthorityTo hear objections to the compulsory acquisition of land by Crown or local authority.
        Public Works Act 1928 (s. 22)
Tariff and Development BoardAt the request of certain Ministers to inquire into and make recommendations in respect of rates of duty, import licences, and any other matter relating to the protection and development of industry and overseas trade.
        Tariff and Development Board Act 1961 (s. 3)
    Underground Water CommissionTo inquire into proposals of a local authority to declare an underground water area.
        Underground Water Act 1953 (s. 4)

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals

An Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division will consist of up to four Judges of the Supreme Court, to be assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division will be to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It will also hear and determine applications for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.

Court of Appeal: Right Hon. Sir Alfred North, President; Right Hon. Sir Alexander Turner; Right Hon. Sir Thaddeus McCarthy.

Supreme Court, Puisne Judges: Hon. T. E. Henry; Hon. A. L. Haslam; Hon. R. Hardie Boys; Hon. I. H. Macarthur; Hon. C. P. Richmond; Hon. A. O. Woodhouse; Hon. A. C. Perry; Hon. J. N. Wilson; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. D. S. Beattie.

Judges of the Court of Arbitration—Hon. A. P. Blair.

Judge of Compensation Court—Hon. A. P. Blair; Hon. J. B. Thomson.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS

DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
AgricultureDirector-GeneralA. T. Johns, M.SC., PH.D. (CANT.)
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralB. D. A. Greig, M.COM.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralJ. C. White, LL.M., Q.C.
CustomsComptrollerV. W. Thomas, A.C.A., C.A.I.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryW. Hutchings.
 Chief of Defence StaffLieut.-General Sir Leonard Thornton, K.C.B.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal W. H. Stratton, D.F.C.
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General R. B. Dawson, C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O.
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral L. G. Carr, D.S.C.
EducationDirector-GeneralK. J. Sheen, M.A., PH.D.(LOND.)
External AffairsSecretaryG. R. Laking, C.M.G., LL.B.
Government Life InsuranceCommissionerA. C. Paine, D.L.I.
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterA. R. Shearer.
HealthDirector-GeneralD. P. Kennedy, M.B., CH.B., D.P.H.
Industries and CommerceSecretaryM. J. Moriarty, A.C.A., D.P.A.
Inland RevenueCommissionerD. A. Stevens, ACCTS. PROF.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsP. J. O'Dea, ACCTS. PROF., D.P.A.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeJ. L. Robson, C.B.E., LL.M., PH.D.
LabourSecretary of LabourN. S. Woods, M.A., DIP.ED., DIP.SOC.SCI.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralR. J. MacLachlan, B.A., B.COM., DIP.U.V.(AUCK.).
Law DraftingCounsel and Compiler of StatutesD. A. S. Ward, C.M.G., B.A., LL.B.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesH. N. Dollimore, C.B.E., LL.B.
Maori and Island AffairsSecretary, and Maori TrusteeJ. M. McEwen, LL.B.
MarineSecretaryR. N. Kerr, M.E.C.A., A.M.I. (MECH.) E.
MinesUnder-SecretaryI. D. Dick, M. SC.
New Zealand ElectricityGeneral ManagerE. B. MacKenzie, B.E., M.I.E.E., A.M.I.(MECH.)E.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralA. L. Poole. M.SC., B.FOR.SC.
PoliceCommissionerC. L. Urquhart, B.E.M., Q.P.M.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralG. Searle, M.SC., M.I.E.E., M.N.Z.I.E.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadG. R. Laking, C.M.G., LL.B.
 Principal Private SecretaryP. A. Barnes, ACCTS.PROF.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeJ. M. Fielder, A.C.A.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerI. Thomas, LL.B., A.M.INST.T.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralW. M. Hamilton, D.SC., M.AGRIC.SC., N.D.H.(N.Z.)
Social SecurityDirector, Chairman, Social Security Commission, and Secretary for War PensionsG. J. Brocklehurst, B.COM., A.C.A.
State Advances Corporation of New ZealandManaging DirectorC. J. Ashton, ACCTS.PROF.
 General ManagerR. G. Millard, LL.B., ACCTS.PROF.
State InsuranceGeneral ManagerN. R. Ainsworth, ACCTS.PROF.
State Services CommissionChairman of CommissionA. G. Rodda, C.M.G., A.C.A., D.P.A.
 MembersI. G. Lythgoe, M.COM.
  R. G. Norman, B.E., M. SC.
  E. G. Davey, B.COM., A.C.A.
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. P. Lewin, M.A. LL.B., DIP. JOUR.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerR. S. Austin.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryR. J. Polaschek, B.A., M.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A.
TreasurySecretaryH. G. Lang, B.A., B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A.
ValuationValuer-GeneralJ. B. Brown, DIP.AG.(LIN.).
Works, Ministry ofCommissioner of WorksF. R. Askin, B.E., B.SC., M.I.C.E., D.L.C., R.E.
 Government ArchitectF. G. F. Sheppard, F.N.Z.I.A., A.R.I.B.A.
Housing DivisionDirectorJ. V. Jebson, F.N.Z.I.A.

THE STATE SERVICES

The State Services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 36 Departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Law Drafting Office, and other State organisations such as Government Corporations and Agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services. In the following table the staff numbers of the State Services are set out.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
1949196419671968

*Formed in 1956.

†At 30 September 1966.

‡At 30 September 1967.

Public Service Departments50,29064,33068,84269,623
Railways Department26,48424,16823,23122,558
Post Office17,69027,76529,80430,016
Education board and teaching staff13,32124,69928,39129,513
Hospital board staff14,89526,95231,66531,350
Armed forces7,90212,95012,93213,237
N.Z. Broadcasting Corporation8852,1442,6212,680
Police1,5412,6112,7232,847
National Airways Corporation1,1122,1932,6652,645
Air New Zealand3841,0712,1762,375
Tourist Hotel Corporation*-477682740
Legislative Department150151148147
Totals134,654189,511205,880207,731
Total as percentage of total population7.27.37.57.5
Total as percentage of total labour force18.819.819.719.9

In New Zealand with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres the work of the State Services covers a broad field and expansion has taken place as successive Governments have responded to social and economic needs and demands of the welfare state.

The relative cost of government has, however, remained remarkably stable over the past 25 years, being approximately 10 percent of gross national product, as shown in the following table.

YearGovernments Current Expenditure on Goods and Services*Gross National ProductPercentage
*This figure is net of departmental receipts. It also excludes the operating expenses of trading Departments, expenditure of a capital nature, and transfer payments to either persons or local authorities such as social security benefits, pensions subsidies, and interest on the public debt paid in New Zealand.
 $(million)$(million) 
1938-3946.4463.710.0
1948-49100.0978.410.2
1953-54178.01,680.710.6
1958-59236.22,270.410.4
1961-62280.42,723.010.3
1962-63302.22,921.510.3
1963-64320.23,196.510.0
1964-65346.83,487.49.9
1965-66381.03,743.710.2
1966-67418.23,910.910.7
1967-68442.44,043.110.9

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—Arising out of the report of the Royal Commission on State Services, the State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of Departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between Departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new Departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing Departments, the co-ordination of the activities of Departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one Department over the operations of another Department:

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each Department:

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service:

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff:

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service:

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff:

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of or the Minister in Charge of any part of the State Services, provide management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment and problems of organisation, and also furnish advice on and assist with training of staff.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its district representatives, its own officers, and by Departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools; career leaflets are published by some Departments. In some occupations it is necessary to recruit professional and technical staff from overseas. All recruits are appointed on probation normally for two years.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Although the Service has clearly defined salary scales and avenues of promotion, it also provides quick promotion with special salary increases to officers of outstanding merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised so that all persons in the Service, and sometimes persons outside the Service, may apply for higher positions. Appointments are made on the basis of merit which is determined by comparing applicants on the basis of work experience and competence; personal qualities, characteristics and attributes relevant to the position to be filled; and relevant educational or other qualifications.

Appeals—Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board concerning (a) promotions approved by the Commission, (b) decisions by the Commission contrary to the recommendations of classification and grading committees, (c) decisions by the Commission concerning disciplinary charges made against officers, and (d) transfer from any place within, to any place outside New Zealand. An officer may also apply to the Chairman of the Appeal Board for leave to appeal against transfer within New Zealand on grounds of extraordinary personal hardship. The Board's decisions are final.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed, for most of the Service. The Clerical Division still remains to be classified in this way. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

The Commission is responsible for conducting a continuous review of the classification and grading of the Public Service, but an officer has the right to apply to a classification and grading committee for a review of the grading of his position, if he has not had the grading of any position he has occupied reviewed by a classification and grading committee within the previous five years.

Classification and grading committees, after receiving evidence, make recommendations to the State Services Commission. If the Commission decides contrary to a committee's recommendation the applicant may appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Remuneration—Salary rates are related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service, and adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—Successful administration depends in part on the use of up-to-date management techniques. In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with Departments, makes full use of inspection of work and analysis of systems, standards and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is pursued by the Commission's Staff Training Branch. The Branch organises central courses, instructs departmental training officers in training techniques, publishes training material, assists Departments to develop training to meet specific needs, and acts as a general clearing house for the exchange of information on training methods. It also administers the various bursary schemes operated by the Commission.

Office Accommodation and Physical Working Conditions—The Commission is charged with ensuring that adequate and suitable office accommodation is obtained to meet the requirements of the Public Service, and also sets the standards to be maintained in the physical working conditions of all public servants.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among Departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (Parliamentary paper H. 14). At 31 March 1968 there were 47,948 permanent officers and 2,161 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 46,670 and 2,548 respectively.

PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER (OMBUDSMAN)

Under the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962 there has been appointed a Commissioner whose principal function is to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government Departments and related organisations, including hospital and education boards. The Commissioner is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives. Complaints to the Commissioner must be made in writing and be accompanied by a fee of $2. Investigations are conducted in private, but the Commissioner can decide not to investigate complaints where, for instance, the subject-matter is trivial or the complaint has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject-matter of the complaint.

The Ombudsman is empowered to report his opinion, after such an investigation, to the Department and to the Minister concerned, and if no action is taken he may report to Parliament.

The first Ombudsman was appointed on 1 October 1962, and makes an annual report to Parliament in parliamentary paper A. 6. Nearly all complaints held to be justified are rectified by the Department or organisation concerned. No complaint of actual malpractice has been found justified.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsman and the resultant action is given in the following table.

Action on Complaint1 Oct 1962-31 Mar 19661 April 1966-31 Mar 19671 April 1967-31 Mar 1968Total
*There were 85 cases still under investigation at 31 March 1968.
Outside jurisdiction9152192261,360
Declined4571062
Discontinued1606466290
Withdrawn1826575322
Investigated and considered justified2075657320
Investigated and considered not justified9332952111,439
Totals2,4427066453,793*

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the following honours have been conferred by Her Majesty the Queen for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

NEW YEAR HONOURS LIST JANUARY 1969

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Bachelor

Mr Walter Edwin Bate, O.B.E., Mr James Bell Donald.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.)

Mr B. A. Barton-Ginger; Mr N. R. Davis; Mr G. R. Laking.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)

Mr W. Baird; Mr A. W. Gooder; Mr L. W. McCaskill; Mr C. G. Trotter, O.B.E.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Mr W. J. Court; Mr J. H. Ferguson; Miss K. C. E. Hooper; Mr E. A. Lee; Mr B. W. Lindeman; Mr E. W. Mills; Mr L. A. P. Sherriff; Miss J. Taylor; Mr V. W. Wilson; Mr W. J. Winefield; Mr W. B. Young.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.)

Mr R. E. Owen.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Mr E. Blechynden; Mr W. A. Carthew; Mr K. S. Cox; Dr R. J. Feltham; Miss M. A. Hopkirk; Mr M. S. Hughson; Mr E. M. H. Kemp; Mr R. A. illy; Mr I. D. McIvor; Mr A. J. McRae; Mr C. Meachen; Mr D. D. Merritt; Mr C. A. Moore; Mr J. A. Simpkin; Mrs H. A. Te Hana; Mr R. L. Thornton; Mr E. J. Waters; Mr I. D. Whyte.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Mrs U. M. Clarke; Mr W. J. H. Duckworth; Mrs A. D. Duncan; Mrs I. J. Elliott; Mrs J. A. Findlay; Mrs I. A Gore; Mrs A. F. Hardie; Mr M. Matiu; Mr E. A. Matthews; Miss M. R. Michie; Mr J. Millar; Mr T. E. Moore; Sergeant N. B. Oxnam; Mr E. E. Patten; Constable I. Rose; Miss G. I. Simpson; Mr P. B. Stacey; Senior Sergeant N. C. Waters; Mr B. D. Clark (in April 1969 for gallantry).

Queen's Police Medal, for Distinguished Service

Superintendent J. B. McLean.

Queen's Fire Service Medal, for Distinguished Service

Deputy Chief Fire Officer R. C. S. Bush; Station Officer A. R. Mason.

MILITARY DIVISION

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)

Air Commodore S. G. Quill, O.B.E.., D.F.C.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Commander A. V. Kempthorne; Lieutenant-Colonel J. C. Andrew, E.D.; Group Captain R. B. Watson.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)—

Lieutenant (S.D.) I. M. Fraser; Major R. G. Williams; Major G. P. Brown; Warrant Officer Second Class D. W. J. Faulkner; Squadron Leader P. L. D. Cummins; Flight Lieutenant L. E. Goslin.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.)

Group Captain D. B. Flintoff; Squadron Leader R. F. Lawry.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.) for Gallantry

Able Seaman M. L. Ashwell; Able Seaman N. G. R. Sapleton; Private (Temporary Lance Corporal) R. J. Burrell; Sergeant R. E. McNaughton.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Chief Petty Officer/Coxswain W. A. Bradley; Chief Control Electrical Artificer J. W. Iversen; Corporal (Temporary Sergeant) C. Cranmer; Flying Officer (formerly Flight Sergeant) J. R. Charlton.

BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST, JUNE 1969

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.)

Mr Henry Ernest Blyde, C.B.E.; Mr Hamilton Mitchell.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.)

Mr A. O. Glasse, O.B.E., M.E.; Mr A. G. Rodda.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)

Mr E. L. Button, O.B.E., E.D.; Mr R. A. Candy, O.B.E.; Mr L. T. Daniell, D.C.M.; Mr H. R. Wigley, O.B.E.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Mother Mary Bernard (née Miss N. Martin); Mr H. P. Fowler; Mr W. Galloway; Mr H. L. Gibson; Dr H. C. Holland; Mr J. O'Halloran; Mr J. J. Parsons; Mr S. I. Vercoe; Mr A. Walmsley; Mr R. F. Wardlaw.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.)

Mr W. Hay.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Mr E. E. Beale; Mr D. J. Berry; Mr C. O. Coad; Mrs C. E. M. Crawford; Mr M. F. Foley; Mr S. J. Guppy; Mrs L. M. Harry; Mrs R. M. MacLennan; Dr L. C. Mail; Mr R. S. Martin; Mr A. W. Miller; Mr F. W. L. Milne; Mrs Te A. Potaka; Mr A. M. Nicholson; Mr D. S. Reid; Mr V. G. H. Rickard; Mr R. Robertson; Mrs D. F. Steptoe.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Mr D. W. Arter; Miss M. A. M. Bell; Mrs E. C. Brunker; Mrs A. C. Clements; Mr W. F. Collins; Miss A. M. Dent; Mrs C. Harley; Mr D. R. Hyde; Mr J. W. Luskie; Mrs L. Miles; Detective Sergeant J. Russell; Mrs L. J. Swan; Detective F. Thomson.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.)

Assistant Commissioner W. H. A. Sharp; Chief Superintendent A. C. B. Wade.

MILITARY DIVISION

Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.)

Major General R. B. Dawson, C.B.E., D.S.O.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)

Commodore L. S. Stanners, O.B.E.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Surgeon Commander J. S. W. Frew; Lieutenant Colonel J. H. Gray, E.D.; Wing Commander D. M. Crooks.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Lieutenant (Temporary Lieutenant Commander) D. J. Collins; Warrant Officer First Class G. R. Young; Warrant Officer First Class S. D. M. B. Wright; Warrant Officer First Class C. M. Kennedy, B.E.M.; Major A. T. Mortiboy, E.D.; Wing Commander L. J. Thompson.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.)

Wing Commander F. M. Kinvig, A.D.C.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Chief Radioman J. N. Hewson; Chief Mechanician W. A. Barry; Staff Sergeant E. P. Agnew; Staff Sergeant E. G. Willbond; Staff Sergeant R. J. Meek; Staff Sergeant (Temporary Warrant Officer Second Class) P. Quinn; Flight Sergeant E. D. Waghorn; Sergeant P. A. Shilton.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Services in the Air

Flight Lieutenant G. M. Lucas.

AWARDS—SOUTH-EAST ASIA THEATRE

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Major J. A. Mace; Major T. G. Martin.

Military Cross (M.C.)

Lieutenant B. C. Barley; Lieutenant M. F. Dodson; Captain A. G. Howell; Captain H. Russell; Major T. A. Worsnop.

Distinguished Conduct Medal (D.C.M.)

Driver R. J. Prichard; Private A. L. Ropeta.

Mentioned in Despatches (M.I.D.)

Corporal H. M. Bristowe; Driver R. D. Dargaville; Captain D. R. Hughes; Captain R. J. Martin; Sergeant J. R. Whitworth; Corporal H. O. Wilson; Captain B. D. Sinclair; Captain M. J. Steeds; Staff Sergeant J. R. Hardie; Sapper W. Kahika.

Queen's Commendation

Private K. J. Smallridge; Lance Bombardier B. A. Wynyard.

NEW ZEALAND DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

Embassies

Belgium—51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 4.

European Economic Community—51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 4.

France—9 Rue Leonard de Vinci, Paris, XVI.

Germany, West—532 Bad Godesberg. Zanderstrasse 31, Bonn.

Indonesia—60 Djalan Prof. Moh. Yamin S.H., Menteng, Djakarta.

Ireland—New Zealand House, Haymarket, London

Italy—Via Zara 28, Rome, 00198.

Japan—26 Sanbancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo.

Korea—26 Sanbancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan.

Laos—96 Sathorn Road, Bangkok, Thailand.

Nepal—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3, India.

Netherlands—53 Anna Paulownastraat, S.2, The Hague.

Thailand—Anglo-Thai Building. 64 Silom Road, Bangkok.

United States of America—19 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20008.

Vietnam—45 Phung Khac Khoan, Saigon.

High Commissions

Australia—M.L.C. Building, London Circuit, Canberra, A.C.T.

Britain—New Zealand House, Haymarket, London, S.W.1.

Canada—Commonwealth Building, 77 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa.

Ceylon—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3, India.

India—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3.

Malaysia—Police Co-operative Building, Suleiman Road, Kuala Lumpur.

Singapore—13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Western Samoa—Apia.

Other Missions

Australia—Consular Office, United Insurance Building, corner George and Hunter Streets, Sydney.

Greece—Consulate-General, Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 63, Athens 140.

Hong Kong—New Zealand Commission, 1124 Prince's Building, Chater Road.

Philippines—Minister, 1124 Prince's Building, Chater Road, Hong Kong.

South-East Asia Treaty Organisation—Council Representative, 96 Sathorn Road, Bangkok.

Switzerland—Consulate-General, 58 Rue de Moillebeau, CH/1211, Geneva 19.

United Nations—New Zealand Mission, 733 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10017.

New Zealand Mission, 58 Rue de Moillebeau, CH/1211, Geneva 19.

United States of America—Consulate-General, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10020.

Consulate-General, 153 Kearny Street, San Francisco.

Consulate-General, 510 West Sixth Street, Los Angeles.

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Consulate of the Argentine Republic, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, 139 Featherston St., Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, Dominion Farmers Institute, Featherston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Care of Milne and Choyce Ltd., Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 87 Worcester Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul (vacant), Dunedin.

Britain—British High Commission, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Information Office, Shell House, Albert Street, Auckland.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Ceylon—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Chile—Hon. Consul, Care of N.Z. Broadcasting Corporation, Wellington.

China—Embassy of Republic of China, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

Czechoslovakia—Legation of Czechoslovakia, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Royal Danish Embassy, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 101-103 Queen's Arcade, Customs Street, Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, Commercial Building, The Square, Palmerston North.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 12-20 St. Andrew St. Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, General Buildings, Waring Taylor St., Wellington.

Fiji—NZ Agents for the Colony of Fiji, L.D. Nathan & Co. Ltd., Fort St., Auckland.

Finland—Hon. Consul, C.P.D. House, 108 The Terrace, Wellington.

France—Embassy of France, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 3 Claremont Grove, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 203 Queen Street, Auckland.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Third Floor, Prudential Building, Auckland.

India—High Commission of India, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington, N.1.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 24 Grant Road, Wellington.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 298 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

Consulate of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Bldng, Queen St., Auckland.

Hon. Consul, J. Pallot and Co. Ltd., Christchurch.

Malaysia—Hon. Trade Commissioner, P.O. Box 14016, Wellington.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, Shell House, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 178 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, National Mortgage and Agency Co., Dunedin.

Norway—Hon. Consul, 12-22 Johnston St, Wellington.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay, Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, Cnr of Colombo and Lichfield Sts, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes St., Dunedin.

Panama—Hon. Consul, N.I.M.U. Building, O'Connell Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul-General, 219 Sutherland Rd., Wellington.

Peru—Hon. Consul, 1 Parliament Street, P.O. Box 2857, Auckland.

Philippines—Hon. Consul, Wilson and Horton Ltd., Auckland.

Poland—Consulate-General of the Polish Peoples' Republic, 1 Heaton Terrace, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, L. D. Nathan, P.O. Box 190, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105-109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, Molesworth House, Molesworth St., Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Federation House, 95-99 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, 105 Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Corner of Beach Road and Anzac Avenue, Auckland.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 9 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington.

Tonga—NZ Agents for the Government of Tonga, Commerce Bldng, Beach Rd., Auckland.

Turkey—Hon. Consul, Globe Chambers, 11 Swanson Street, Auckland.

U.S.S.R.—Legation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Wellington.

U.S.A.—Embassy of the United States of America, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Consul, A.M.P. Building, Queen Street East, Auckland.

Venezuela—Hon. Consul, Brooklyn Flats, Emily Place, Auckland.

Yugoslavia—Consul-General, 49 Hobson Street, Wellington.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Australia with responsibility for New Zealand are: Brazil (Canberra), Burma (Canberra), Ceylon (Canberra), Chile (Sydney), Ireland (Canberra), Israel (Canberra), Korea (Sydney), Lebanon (Sydney), Malaysia (Canberra), Norway (Sydney), Pakistan (Canberra), Philippines (Canberra), Vietnam (Canberra).

NEW ZEALAND TRADE REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

There are official trade commissioners at the diplomatic missions in Canberra, Sydney, London, Athens, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur, Djakarta, Singapore, New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles at the addresses given on a preceding page.

Addresses of additional official trade commissioners and other representatives are as follows:

Australia—330 Collins Street, Melbourne.

M.M.I. Building, 344 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Canada—635 Dorchester Boulevard West, Montreal 2, Quebec.

409 Granville Street, Vancouver 2, B.C.

Fiji—Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Victoria Parade, Suva.

Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Nandi Airport.

France—Apartment 2,185 Avenue Victor Hugo, Paris 16.

Jamaica—Resident in Trinidad.

Pacific—Department of Industries and Commerce, Bledisloe Building, Auckland.

Tahiti—Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Rue du General de Gaulle, Papeete.

Trinidad and Tobago—90 Independence Square, Port of Spain.

U.S.A.—Association's Building, 1145 19th Street, N.W., Washington D.C., 20036.

Trade Correspondent, 2354 Kalakaua Avenue, Waikiki, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklet Overseas Representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand Representatives Overseas published by the Department of External Affairs, Wellington.

Chapter 42. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION

YearPopulation Mean Population Year Ended 31 March
At 31 DecemberAt 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchOverseas Passenger Arrivals*Overseas Passenger Departures*

*Excluding through passengers and tourists on cruising liners.

† Provisional.

‡Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

1,9181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74813,71812,214
1,9191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166,48211,97811,473
1,9201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66026,90023,990
1,9211,292,8921,267,4981,274,9171,252,20646,09031,908
1,9221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,283,54641,12830,396
1,9231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38234,10828,581
1,9241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02936,25430,487
1,9251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99542,21129,913
1,9261,429,6691,409,8121,413,7431,392,07342,44930,714
1,9271,450,3561,438,1321,439,0041,420,83845,68234,018
1,9281,467,3701,453,8211,456,0751,443,55135,83737,072
1,9291,486,1341,471,1101,473,4191,460,36334,79934,088
1,9301,506,8091,489,2031,493,0191,478,02733,83931,454
1,9311,522,7621,511,7001,514,2151,498,41630,74125,632
1,9321,534,7391,525,5451,527,0621,517,94017,89121,063
1,9331,547,1241,538,0281,539,5901,530,11918,71321,308
1,9341,558,3731,550,1251,551,5231,542,65119,68722,022
1,9351,569,6891,560,9921,562,2331,554,29724,90128,051
1,9361,584,6171,573,9271,575,2311,565,26326,93628,050
1,9371,601,7581,587,2111,589,9721,578,75731,67032,023
1,9381,618,3131,604,4791,606,7631,594,27538,73836,352
1,9391,641,6391,624,7141,628,5121,611,36242,64837,685
1,9401,633,6451,640,9011,637,3051,633,44731,43225,404
1,9411,631,2761,636,2301,630,9481,635,71513,81413,100
1,9421,636,4031,634,3381,639,5721,630,4197,1026,893
1,9431,642,0411,634,0941,635,6351,640,1913,1332,592
1,9441,676,2861,643,9001,655,7951,637,5703,7473,640
1,9451,727,8171,679,9721,694,6411,664,5857,2076,189
1,9461,781,2141,756,7561,759,5261,710,68013,30910,966
1,9471,817,4531,789,4761,798,2621,770,29125,35822,320
1,9481,853,8061,828,0251,834,6551,807,61133,14427,388
1,9491,892,0421,864,5601,871,7481,843,76735,94631,765
1,9501,927,6291,902,8831,909,0921,881,31750,88043,000
1,9511,970,5221,938,0321,947,5291,917,93454,64447,122
1,9522,024,5561,984,7301,996,1491,958,72962,49846,834
1,9532,074,7812,037,5532,048,8262,009,50666,24044,208
1,9542,118,4342,087,7402,094,9102,061,37661,8546,404
1,9552,164,7342,130,9272,138,9462,105,76761,61054,580
1,9562,209,1322,175,3732,182,8332,150,29066,47258,380
1,9572,262,8142,221,1692,232,5912,194,10876,00564,563
1,9582,315,9002,275,5152,285,8522,246,09379,66664,258
1,9592,359,7462,326,1292,334,6172,298,81483,64873,656
1,9602,403,5672,370,1662,377,0102,345,60289,37786,164
1,9612,461,2432,414,2962,426,6542,388,004106,238104,618
1,9622,515,8352,474,5882,484,8732,441,400132,656113,824
1,9632,566,9152,527,8682,536,9122,498,357143,872130,233
1,9642,616,9702,582,4072,589,1502,550,114164,646149,162
1,9652,663,8432,628,9002,635,3522,601,219190,291178,300
1,9662,712,2502,676,8092,682,9682,647,199219,939207,918
1,9672,747,0932,727,1482,729,1882,695,310250,406235,971
1,9682,776,2652,755,0922,756,2422,737,036259,381267,471
1,969 2,780,839 2,763,107255,736266,584

VITAL STATISTICS

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live BirthsMarriages
Live BirthsDeathsUnder 1 YearLive BirthsDeathsNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population
1,92129,62311,474..23.249.00..10,8838.54
1,92230,44811,874..23.339.03..9,8347.53
1,92329,14812,239..21.959.21..10,3527.79
1,92429,26011,540..21.638.53..10,5027.76
1,92529,86911,8441,30921.578.5643.8210,8177.81
1,92630,00912,5171,31221.238.8543.7210,9947.78
1,92729,37612,6001,31620.418.7644.8010,7967.50
1,92829,04512,8601,16619.958.8340.1410,9197.50
1,92928,96313,2201,08619.668.9737.5011,4037.74
1,93028,92313,1451,11219.378.8038.4511,4947.70
1,93128,93413,0621,07719.118.6337.2210,2546.77
1,93227,62912,8751,03918.098.4337.6110,4926.87
1,93327,28212,8621,04317.728.3538.2311,0677.19
1,93427,30313,8101,06017.608.9038.8211,7887.60
1,93527,21613,6641,12817.428.7441.4512,7448.16
1,93628,46714,6581,16818.079.3141.0314,4489.17
1,93729,98515,2151,17818.869.5739.2914,9739.42
1,93830,94216,8741,53719.2610.5049.6715,9599.93
1,93932,94915,9331,37120.239.7841.6117,79110.92
1,94037,03615,8751,36222.629.7036.7818,08411.04
1,94139,23417,0471,56224.0610.4539.8113,8308.48
1,94237,90418,1171,38823.1211.0536.6212,7757.79
1,94334,75117,1221,35021.2510.4738.4712,0217.35
1,94438,10717,0491,47323.0110.3038.6513,6468.24
1,94541,65117,6861,44924.5810.4434.7716,6939.85
1,94647,64717,7201,52427.0810.0731.9921,09611.99
1,94749,80417,4421,48727.709.7029.8619,04710.59
1,94849,14917,2851,35026.799.4227.4717,7509.67
1,94948,90517,5781,46826.139.3930.0217,3549.27
1,95049,41418,0841,36425.889.4727.6017,0998.96
1,95149,88918,8361,37425,629.6727.5416,9158.69
1,95251,92818,8961,47526.019.4728.4017,0618.55
1,95351,94318,3541,33525.358.9625.7017,2248.41
1,95454,13118,8761,30225.849.0124.0517,5578.38
1,95555,67619,2251,36526.038.9924.5217,7958.32
1,95656,59319,6961,31325.939.0223.2017,5318.03
1,95758,48420.8621,42026.209.3424.2817,6147.89
1,95860,63520,3011,41626.538.8823.3518,3058.01
1,95961,86921,1281,47726.509.0523.8718,3157.84
1,96062,85020,8921,42026.448.7922.5918,9097.96
1,96165,47621,7821,49026.998.9822.7619,4268.00
1,96265,12722,0811,33126.218.8920.4419,5727.86
1,96364,67522,4161,26925.498.8419.6219,8567.81
1,96462,45922,8611,19324.128.8319.1020,7207.97
1,96560,17822,9761,17422.838.7219.5121,7028.20
1,96660,18823,7781,06422.438.8617.6822,9498.55
1,96761,16923,0071,10222.418.4318.0223,5158.62
1,96862,28424,4641,16422.608.8818.6924,0578.73

EDUCATION

Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 July*PrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers* CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extramural and Part-time Students)

*Figures earlier than 1928 are for December.

†Excludes Correspondence School pupils.

1,918198,40926,37113,4141,366..5002,226
1,919199,78420,97714,1531,497..5823,060
1,920203,69822,19314,1191,439..6803,822
1,921211,77723,92415,5551,634..9044,123
1,922217,24224,86117,5441,998..1,1513,958
1,923218,64626,01019,4912,134..1,2024,202
1,924220,07826,30220,2792,473..1,2744,236
1,925221,44925,93320,7822,511..1,2714,442
1,926225,60826,77822,6502,794..1,1984,653
1,927227,77727,35823,4742,932..1,2004,878
1,928221,16926,39427,0843,506..1,1154,802
1,929220,34726,55628,5133,877..1,1884,623
1,930219,27426,61729,2844,513..1,1554,801
1,931220,97626,44831,0534,602..1,1655,111
1,932217,23626,39030,9444,512..9905,171
1,933203,58926,09730,4734,315..4435,085
1,934201,87026,58430,9154,430....5,059
1,935200,13526,92331,6114,743..4295,101
1,936213,49727,54031,8945,108..1,1855,218
1,937212,07627,50732,1155,595..1,3465,238
1,938209,96128,27134,3456,059..1,5225,707
1,939208,64127,97235,6926,266..1,5885,979
1,940208,43327,86835,2736,379..1,4575,528
1,941208,59527,83633,2536,451..1,5035,065
1,942208,72126,98332,3916,483..,14634,373
1,943206,88428,52134,8937,184..1,7755,953
1,944207,29229,22340,7238,121..1,6787,267
1,945211,74229,58344,2798,933..1,4318,425
1,946218,12930,58144,9859,424..1,57511,361
1,947229,80431,92945,2499,968..1,63411,874
1,948235,24332,81845,1099,793..1,87511,964
1,949244,37733,94146,51210,243..2,32111,598
1,950254,66435,77548,23210,511..2,68411,515
1,951265,23037,10950,68211,045..2,70410,956
1,952282,69939,34254,12411,622..2,71010,691
1,953298,48141,27759,55812,476..2,76910,831
1,954311,54142,79766,34413,627..2,83410,803
1,955320,58044,08672,11714,970..2,84710,851
1,956332,04946,26175,35415,832..2,96311,077
1,957344,95947,95378,84316,265..3,21811,761
1,958356,22448,41882,69916,984..3,60212,881
1,959365,76151,54989,50817,663..3,75314,388
1,960371,82552,88799,36519,293713,83815,809
1,961376,47554,079109,63220,7522213,81416,820
1,962384,31355,293118,52322,2904414,22317,214
1,963392,59556,341124,97823,6035324,53618,303
1,964404,25757,154128,70924,4396204,69119,640
1,965415,58257,244132,09425,0738574,79022,145
1,966429,91656,050136,10425,5851,1635,02224,302
1,967445,04554,910141,92226,2321,3555,15626,313
1,968455,11953,782152,42227,0201,4856,09628,821

NOTE—In addition, in 1968, 325 students attended Massey University, 61 attended Otago University, and 200 attended Lincoln College for courses of less than one year's duration, 88,468 students were enrolled for part-time day and evening classes, including 13,334 with the N.Z. Technical Correspondence Institute; 940 pupils received tuition from the Primary Correspondence School and 480 pupils received tuition from the Secondary Correspondence School.

JUSTICE

YearSummary Convictions in Magistrates' Courts*Total Convictions or Sentences in Superior CourtsTotal Distinct Persons Sentenced in Superior CourtsPrisoners in Gaol at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
NumberRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Population

*Excluding Children's Court cases from year 1914 onwards.

†Change in legislation has resulted in more cases being dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

1,91733,30228.996230.543770.339540.83
1,91828,42124.656320.553550.311,0050.87
1,91931,76626.638080.684610.398520.69
1,92034,74027.961,0110.814590.379960.79
1,92136,49228.581,4751.166160.481,0440.81
1,92233,99526.051,4171.096010.461,0520.83
1,92336,70129.141,6631.256250.471,1410.85
1,92438,98228.821,3881.035550.411,1970.87
1,92543,40731.351,4651.065110.371,2840.92
1,92644,88731.751,5621.105690.401,3880.97
1,92744,54030.951,7391.215690.401,4831.02
1,92843,41929.821,3680.944780.331,4350.98
1,92944,31130.071,3450.914730.321,3420.90
1,93045,54430.501,5241.025380.361,5231.01
1,93140,37426.661,6241.076000.401,6141.06
1,93240,59126.581,7101.126360.421,5220.99
1,93336,04323.411,5130.985310.341,4100.91
1,93435,75223.041,2130.784900.321,1990.77
1,93536,23023.191,1480.734720.301,1120.71
1,93639,51725.091,1780.754620.299150.58
1,93742,72626.871,3180.835070.327900.49
1,93849,65130.901,3220.824880.307770.48
1,93952,28832.111,4890.915710.358950.55
1,94046,11028.161,3940.855470.338630.53
1,94139,63624.301,4960.925420.339880.61
1,942....1,4600.894570.281,3040.63
1,943....1,3780.844940.301,0240.62
1,944....1,4410.875600.349450.56
1,945....1,8851.116190.379980.58
1,946....1,7130.976550.379920.56
1,94740,99022.791,9481.087400.411,0880.60
1,94844,11924.052,3231.277170.399860.53
1,94950,00026.711,7180.926760.369410.50
1,95051,60627.031,5830.836420.341,0430.54
1,95156,12828.821,5740.816440.331,0400.53
1,95273,96037.051,7060.857040.351,0830.54
1,95382,14340.093610.181790.091,0880.52
1,95480,21038.293260.161480.071,1960.57
1,95577,80636.383770.181470.071,1180.52
1,95687,39440.406010.282040.091,3620.62
1,95798,64744.185670.251990.091,4740.66
1,958108,79147.595580.242060.091,6420.72
1,959101,65543.545950.252120.091,7140.73
1,960112,88947.497490.322860.121,7770.75
1,961122,54450.485320.222940.121,8180.75
1,962137,39555.226670.292650.121,7070.69
1,963143,01356.237750.303090.121,7650.69
1,964166,49064.106690.262420.091,6890.65
1,965183,85569.768540.323040.121,6530.63
1,966204,54676.248670.322800.101,8980.71
1,967237,26486.941,2830.473180.121,9830.73

POSTAL

Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal Notes*RevenueExpenditure
*Calendar year until 1945
..million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1,91917172.65.56.22.8....
1,92018080.76.77.93.0....
1,92118088.46.86.73.1....
1,92217894.76.85.63.1....
1,923192107.07.45.53.3....
1,924214111.48.06.03.6....
1,925236120.18.66.33.8....
1,926243130.29.06.74.1....
1,927248137.39.36.44.4....
1,928259144.69.76.24.4....
1,929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1,930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1,931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1,932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1,933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1,934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1,935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1,936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1,937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1,938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1,939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1,940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1,941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1,942..235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1,943..238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1,944..244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1,945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1,946..265.821.07.3..13.312.7
1,947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1,948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1,949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1,950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1,951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1,952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1,953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1,954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1,955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1,956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1,957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1,958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1,959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1,960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1,961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1,962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1,963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1,964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1,965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
1,9665731,025.167.67.34.787.084.9
1,9675761,085.169.17.24.991.593.6
1,9685681,119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
1,9695751,155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

Year Ended 31 MarchMiles Open for TrafficRevenue Train-milesRail Passenger JourneysGoods and Livestock*RevenueExpenditure

*Equivalent tonnage of livestock.

†From 1925-26 figures relate to railway operation only.

  (000)(000)tons(000)$(000)$(000)
1,9182,9837,46921,4385,7439,3766,086
1,9192,9837,47822,0305,6129,9786,618
1,9202,9967,40924,5826,00011,5048,210
1,9213,0099,30328,8226,48713,81811,274
1,9223,0218,71728,1226,32113,28812,476
1,9233,0288,34728,2216,61913,45611,004
1,9243,0539,02528,4366,91813,96810,808
1,9253,0859,08426,1077,02514,22611,090
1,9263,13810,31927,6537,24715,17812,330
1,9273,16410,72426,0027,30014,84612,316
1,9283,18010,83925,3807,35814,68812,604
1,9293,28711,11325,5757,61315,05012,750
1,9303,28712,02225,4147,78914,94813,696
1,9313,32211,28222,8146,95813,56212,812
1,9323,31510,16919,1515,82511,57810,604
1,9333,3159,82918,3675,49110,6789,668
1,9343,32010,16319,0475,64211,2589,754
1,9353,32010,62619,6546,02411,81610,278
1,9363,32011,05020,3586,18912,48811,046
1,9373,32011,86821,2356,81313,80812,676
1,9383,32312,77822,4417,51615,18414,584
1,9393,31913,07323,2667,53916,01015,328
1,9403,39013,36724,4547,67417,52415,886
1,9413,39013,56026,2778,42619,38816,814
1,9423,39013,97928,6118,47420,76817,806
1,9433,46015,14036,1338,88724,83020,040
1,9443,50415,32938,6119,02726,93022,732
1,9453,50412,80332,9958,95424,89623,394
1,9463,52813,45532,4189,21026,21025,100
1,9473,52813,16928,8699,32925,64827,290
1,9483,52613,71225,8879,52427,92830,180
1,9493,52613,89526,1689,66630,67833,576
1,9503,52614,42125,8959,94832,12434,722
1,9513,53114,15324,8249,61637,00037,450
1,9523,53912,37121,2929,82940,19443,030
1,9533,53513,40921,45510,02625,17845,510
1,9543,50413,71923,2729,63547,36447,242
1,9553,48914,42024,73510,33654,01851,084
1,9563,42214,88425,07510,67855,74253,550
1,9573,41815,10225,37710,32557,01457,388
1,9583,46614,82524,81710,33260,02062,128
1,9593,42014,60525,43710,36759,64661,010
1,9603,33614,48026,13410,54360,54261,516
1,9613,33314,77326,23310,83062,85862,978
1,9623,33214,94826,32410,82263,39063,632
1,9633,26314,57525,66510,04462,75266,874
1,9643,26514,91825,73411,09067,64867,946
1,9653,25415,31625,13711,97272,78671,932
1,9663,25115,42823,88911,88874,75373,228
1,9673,21215,35923,72311,53475,02875,151
1,9683,11814,91822,18610,58171,65371,880

AGRICULTURE

SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per AcreOatsBarleyPeasPotatoes
*Includes yield of beans.
 acresbushels (000)bushelsbushels (000)tons (000)
1917-18280,9786,80824.234,943569313*101
1918-19208,0306,56831.576,885711506*105
1919-20139,6114,56032.666,968816369*145
1920-21219,9856,87231.245,2251,587355*127
1921-22352,91810,56529.946,7531,151339*112
1922-23275,7758,39530.445,688598697*114
1923-24173,8644,17524.011,965597363*106
1924-25166,9645,44832.625,707798411*122
1925-26151,6734,61730.444,116947288*144
1926-27220,0837,95236.134,9981,243455*117
1927-28260,9879,54136.563,853862802*121
1928-29255,3128,83334.603,065781528124
1929-30235,9427,24030.683,002755294130
1930-31249,0147,57930.443,377838241152
1931-32268,7566,58324.492,818537309117
1932-33302,53111,05536.545,132561585129
1933-34286,2719,03631.563,243731698131
1934-35225,3895,93326.321,980485437109
1935-36248,6398,85935.633,303745563121
1936-37221,7907,16932.323,525747481126
1937-38185,9496,04332.502,6411,086372147
1938-39189,2815,56429.402,6051,07738788
1939-40257,5328,01031.102,081916563141
1940-41243,1978,30634.153,1151,06674294
1941-42258,0028,67133.613,4451,29785290
1942-43286,9989,81934.212,8091,058889139
1943-44233,7867,20830.831,834833889162
1944-45183,8866,99238.024,2091,3851,038126
1945-46161,0495,43933.772,7971,872817140
1946-47141,4075,36837.962,6862,0271,231116
1947-48123,7514,53936.682,8542,0881,129155
1948-49146,7075,95840.613,7192,2561,195110
1949-50125,1594,90039.152,6202,4341,243135
1950-51144,7636,27243.331,8281,902626120
1951-5289,9553,89043.252,4702,18273070
1952-53127,2254,52535.572,3852,14061495
1953-54113,8134,78342.039453,335954156
1954-55103,9894,11339.561,6021,992885144
1955-5668,4792,65838.821,9472,032635101
1956-5765,7432,95044.882,8882,855846145
1957-5883,9363,72744.401,4603,5521,047157
1958-59132,9136,03945.431,5762,661830150
1959-60163,1588,70053.321,8253,137924157
1960-61186,7889,30949.842,3493,416931190
1961-62186,2887,83542.061,8863,561763191
1962-63225,7489,15640.561,0294,2021,001181
1963-64203,96010,06849.361,5845,7761,102201
1964-65183,9699,19849.992,4944,670878243
1965-66199,52510,72153.732,3995,0301,058231
1966-67230,56212,77855.421,5535,9091,183184
1967-68312,96016,25351.932,4679,6741,334232

LIVESTOCK

YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs

*Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over.

† Estimated.

 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1,918..711..2,86926,538259
1,919..732..3,03525,829235
1,920..783..3,10223,920267
1,921..890..3,13923,285350
1,922..1,015..3,32322,222384
1,923..1,125..3,48123,081401
1,924..1,185..3,56323,776407
1,925..1,196..3,50424,548440
1,926..1,181..3,45224,905473
1,927..1,182..3,25825,649520
1,928..1,243..3,27427,134587
1,929..1,291..3,44629,051557
1,930..1,390..3,77030,841488
1,931..1,479..4,04429,793469
1,932..1,562..4,07228,692506
1,933..1,703..4,15527,756584
1,934..1,796..4,26428,649653
1,935..1,807..4,25729,077755
1,936..1,803..4,21730,114801
1,937..1,785..4,35231,306795
1,938..1,743..4,46932,379749
1,939..1,724..4,52831,879676
1,940..1,719..4,49631,063706
1,941..1,759..4,53931,752769
1,942..1,757..4,642..689
1,943..1,715..4,448..605
1,944..1,648..4,43933,200573
1,945..1,697..4,59133,975594
1,9462,0661,6622,6004,667..549
1,9472,0481,6582,5864,63432,682546
1,9482,0781,7142,6384,71632,483548
1,9492,0411,7472,6814,72332,845545
1,9502,0881,8502,8674,95533,857555
1,9512,1491,8982,9115,06034,786564
1,9522,2821,9062,8835,16535,384566
1,9532,4781,9622,9685,44636,193628
1,9542,6341,9993,1105,74538,011649
1,9552,8081,9953,0795,88739,117681
1,956........40,255..
1,9572,8611,9982,9485,80942,382602
1,9582,9151,9672,9705,88646,026628
1,9592,9701,9313,0045,97346,876692
1960*3,0191,8872,9735,99247,134660
1,9613,3341,9293,1116,44648,462655
1,9623,4621,9683,1366,59848,988686
1,9633,5581,9973,1336,69150,190766
1,9643,5682,0113,1286,69651,292771
1,9653,6282,0323,1746,80153,748716
1,9663,8562,0883,3627,21857,343667
1,9674,2412,1313,5067,74760,030603
1,9684,5492,2323,6988,24760,474614
19694,7862,3043,7718,557..563

TRADE

YearExcluding Gold and Specie*
ExportsImports (c.d.v.)Imports c.d.v. + 10 percent
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency.

† From 1955 c.i.f. value.

‡ Provisional.

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
1,91761.253.2937.732.8241.536.11
1,91856.949.3343.938.0648.341.86
1,919105.188.1655.146.2060.650.82
1,92091.073.28111.990.07123.199.08
1,92188.469.3777.760.9685.567.05
1,92284.464.6563.348.5169.653.37
1,92390.568.1278.859.3686.765.29
1,924103.976.8288.265.2297.171.75
1,925109.579.1295.368.84104.875.72
1,92689.563.3190.664.0699.670.46
1,92795.966.6681.456.5889.662.23
1,928110.275.6681.555.9989.761.58
1,929108.973.9188.660.1297.566.14
1,93088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
1,93168.745.4048.231.8253.034.99
1,93268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
1,93379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
1,93492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
1,93590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1,936110.770.2880.571.0888.556.18
1,937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1,938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1,939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1,940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1,941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1,942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1,943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1,944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1,945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1,946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1,947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1,948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1,949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1,950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1,951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1,952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1,953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1,954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1,955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1,956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1,957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1,958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1,959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1,960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1,961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
Jan-Jun
1,962332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended June
1,963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1,964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1,965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1,966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1,967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968801.2292.02617.4225.02668.5243.66
YearExports of New Zealand Produce
Wool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Including fine animal hair.

† Provisional.

 lb(m)$(m)lb(m)$(m)lb(m)$(m)
1,917145.818.614.02.7178.324.4
1,91884.711.010.41.9108.715.1
1,919196.825.938.47.1274.239.1
1,920106.414.030.05.6162.323.7
1,921118.27.111.91.3158.710.4
1,922228.115.335.24.0321.523.8
1,923165.415.824.83.4217.621.8
1,924162.022.718.23.7206.230.5
1,925166.028.515.13.2205.735.5
1,926166.517.417.12.7213.223.7
1,927179.220.314.32.4220.525.9
1,928189.427.111.02.2226.833.4
1,929198.425.112.82.3235.030.7
1,930154.211.212.71.5197.215.3
1,931165.58.211.00.9211.711.0
1,932186.78.614.51.0238.211.5
1,933229.611.320.21.5286.314.8
1,934209.620.216.52.0255.825.0
1,935173.910.315.81.5222.714.2
1,936261.721.116.91.9314.426.6
1,937234.130.911.01.9282.338.1
1,938224.919.412.61.6271.324.4
1,939226.518.412.91.5277.423.3
1,940231.024.220.62.9300.333.8
1,941161.617.424.63.7215.725.2
1,942215.623.338.45.8307.536.7
1,943153.518.525.04.0206.827.0
1,944129.215.829.74.8188.625.4
1,94568.38.455.59.5166.325.4
1,946264.435.841.77.5265.453.2
1,947257.440.050.811.6375.363.9
1,948324.664.840.211.8421.089.0
1,949327.366.940.611.7429.893.1
1,950302.5110.633.316.4394.0149.3
1,951246.5188.523.824.5316.9256.4
1,952340.9122.733.916.6438.1164.0
1,953304.0124.732.418.2391.6169.2
1,954303.6130.835.620.4392.9176.9
1,955322.8138.141.323.2417.6187.9
1,956333.7136.640.722.0428.1183.1
1,957338.4161.242.825.3431.8212.1
1,958358.5122.041.317.7457.1160.1
1,959414.7137.446.819.4529.2179.5
1,960402.4152.952.025.3522.4205.0
1,961435.1152.953.724.3555.0200.7
Jan-June
1,962282.697.833.814.6359.4127.5
Year ended June
1,963450.5163.265.228.5577.0214.5
1,964430.2201.870.639.7565.6271.6
1,965398.9149.971.236.1531.5208.6
1,966467.7170.281.937.8613.4231.9
1,967349.4117.779.532.9500.8174.1
1968394.397.9105.634.9580.0155.4
YearExports of New Zealand Produce
Frozen and Chilled Meat
Beef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Provisional.
 lb(m)$(m)lb(m)$(m)lb(m)$(m)
1,91799.94.0169.67.7276.312.0
1,91882.33.2139.66.4228.19.8
1,91987.53.6329.715.2428.119.3
1,92084.93.4428.019.7581.523.3
1,921102.73.6375.918.5484.122.3
1,92257.81.2331.315.4394.016.8
1,92383.41.8250.015.9340.918.0
1,92475.71.7278.417.0359.919.0
1,92581.42.2291.019.7382.422.3
1,92649.61.2279.715.4339.817.3
1,92751.21.3199.116.1264.918.2
1,92884.82.3317.517.2424.920.6
1,92943.61.3306.017.2373.719.8
1,93046.91.5381.919.2452.121.9
1,93152.81.2387.915.7463.517.8
1,93259.90.9431.315.0520.316.9
1,933104.01.9427.516.0582.719.7
1,934100.61.9390.819.0556.623.8
1,935103.72.2406.720.0583.125.5
1,93695.32.3390.620.2573.424.5
1,937112.23.0407.722.0606.029.4
1,938115.83.6407.522.4601.830.2
1,939136.94.5449.522.2661.530.8
1,940167.56.0524.427.8781.439.4
1,94188.63.5423.724.5591.933.2
1,942102.84.5487.227.6643.035.6
1,94356.92.3416.123.9494.227.6
1,94415.70.6427.723.0465.525.0
1,94566.02.9536.030.3633.235.2
1,946137.86.7563.935.9756.446.5
1,947150.98.7572.445.1779.058.7
1,948152.18.1558.743.8769.457.2
1,949132.26.7575.543.0770.654.4
1,950132.27.0568.845.6757.257.2
1,95196.05.8467.539.6614.950.7
1,952126.610.3660.860.9846.978.8
1,95399.49.9564.760.5725.478.8
1,954133.414.7620.578.0809.6100.5
1,955210.726.8578.483.8845.6121.2
1,956263.829.2604.987.2927.3127.7
1,957258.831.3561.487.0869.8128.1
1,958259.351.1603.985.5907.8146.9
1,959199.044.4720.587.0973.5142.4
1,960220.444.4772.697.21,045.4152.3
1,961213.944.4767.889.91,031.5144.2
Jan-June
1,962109.321.6482.452.5622.380.6
Year ended June
1,963283.958.8790.398.21,138.4169.5
1,964267.258.1813.5107.21,152.5180.0
1,965267.657.4807.8135.01,145.8208.5
1,966223.154.6814.0121.41,106.7193.1
1,967234.263.9811.0119.51,114.3200.8
1968*264.782.3891.8143.71,238.4245.1
YearExports of New Zealand Produce
ButterCheesePreserved Milk and Cream
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Provisional.
 tons$(m)tons$(m)cwt (000)$(m)
1,91712,7204.144,2877.9370.3
1,91821,5516.844,1728.2630.7
1,91917,2916.278,61615.6941.2
1,92015,6006.061,10312.31251.6
1,92144,92422.368,43916.41662.2
1,92256,01018.158,0609.41021.1
1,92362,50721.472,07313.71451.0
1,92463,47323.379,72414.01201.0
1,92562,26620.568,83811.61230.9
1,92658,40217.473,07711.91010.7
1,92772,77721.874,64011.21110.7
1,92872,47922.678,36413.41540.8
1,92982,69026.588,95514.01230.7
1,93094,21223.790,64912.91360.7
1,93199,42821.381,8178.91150.5
1,932109,27721.389,5229.91430.5
1,933131,76223.399,1479.51580.6
1,934130,72620.199,2259.41930.8
1,935139,46527.286,3788.81860.7
1,936139,80730.682,91010.22120.8
1,937148,80434.082,35810.72210.7
1,938130,72733.080,52611.91830.6
1,939122,16532.283,86311.72190.8
1,940131,13536.5101,67516.52360.8
1,941113,19031.6118,31219.72651.4
1,942119,88233.9134,38123.72461.4
1,943106,99829.4100,49718.32341.2
1,944115,37937.177,70314.91651.1
1,945103,47738.687,42619.03022.0
1,946101,79439.775,74616.93402.4
1,947127,70857.787,04423.24003.3
1,948135,63467.575,62322.45314.4
1,949147,67070.993,93825.36885.7
1,950138,26771.799,89029.18136.6
1,951147,46483.0106,61933.39347.9
1,952184,028112.391,25531.11,25513.1
1,953159,106102.9101,36036.71,26012.6
1,954132,48189.690,39632.89048.2
1,955150,965102.085,04227.41,0187.2
1,956167,449106.388,87744.51,0428.8
1,957145,07576.988,47635.81,35411.5
1,958175,39277.789,42824.81,0617.6
1,959192,978111.683,45244.21,40811.5
1,960157,051100.379,41337.11,20611.1
1,961165,04078.887,60739.81,0098.4
Jan-Jun
1,96284,71841.552,15321.36054.4
Year ended June
1,963164,58590.992,20937.01,2679.5
1,964181,955109.687,59435.11,45211.0
1,965189,144119.693,24940.71,73318.9
1,966190,416109.696,48841.71,99122.0
1,967199,954109.4102,71145.12,66229.8
1968*200,444111.796,06345.92,76330.2
YearExports of New Zealand Produce
Apples and PearsGrass and Clover SeedsHides and Skins
QuantityValueQuantityValueValue

*Provisional.

†Whole fruit only.

 lb(000)$(m)cwt$(m)$(m)
1,9177––16,4840.13.7
1,91812––15,9950.15.3
1,91913––49,9060.56.9
1,9201,405––23,8210.310.1
1,9212,0420.137,3190.34.0
1,9224,7410.170,1200.64.1
1,9235,9540.147,0310.44.8
1,9249,7840.236,3310.36.3
1,9258,7870.245,3680.37.7
1,92629,3500.757,7260.46.4
1,92721,8410.590,3620.56.5
1,92840,6181.050,2380.37.7
1,92940,3431.257,8590.45.9
1,93053,0911.336,5600.34.4
1,93153,6071.340,9530.32.5
1,93263,2221.634,3370.22.1
1,93357,5371.480,3080.33.7
1,93462,6791.648,7510.34.4
1,93541,5781.071,6490.44.8
1,93649,3371.279,9820.56.6
1,93737,7200.958,1070.44.5
1,93861,8471.545,4840.54.8
1,93941,9061.145,8290.65.1
1,94023,7090.545,7420.76.5
1,941425––88,1911.18.2
1,942327––82,4991.29.5
1,943185––90,7201.38.8
1,94420––158,4752.99.0
1,945159––166,5533.610.0
1,94612,1590.3150,5983.911.5
1,947239––147,0113.320.8
1,94840,2041.7174,8433.418.9
1,94921,3640.8161,9933.013.4
1,95028,6031.4164,1144.220.0
1,95127,9441.488,4282.525.7
1,95255,2694.1163,4524.219.9
1,95346,1223.4179,2673.721.4
1,95449,6933.1184,2535.620.9
1,95541,6392.679,3982.718.4
1,95664,4864.1146,4033.221.2
1,95757,3893.6162,5522.420.2
1,95873,1374.6148,2303.016.6
1,95976,7544.891,2212.026.5
1,96076,8064.8128,4583.426.6
1,96181,8404.8131,9212.624.3
Jan-Jun
1,96289,8515.660,0611.215.2
Year ended June
1,96374,4824.7163,5263.625.4
1,96484,9875.3182,2443.530.4
1,96597,1496.191,2162.031.7
1,966113,7407.1203,1843.240.0
1,96788,5285.5223,1643.233.6
1968*85,5716.0234,2863.739.1
YearExports of New Zealand Produce
CaseinSausage CasingsTallow*

*From 1923 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep or goats is included in all figures.

† Provisional.

 cwt(000)$(m)$(m)tons(000)$(m)
1,9175––0.5121.1
1,9181––0.5161.7
1,919160.10.6475.4
1,920270.20.9273.5
1,921330.20.9391.7
1,922290.20.9401.5
1,923500.40.8251.6
1,924460.31.1241.6
1,925440.21.4251.8
1,926360.21.6211.5
1,927470.31.5241.4
1,928420.31.6261.6
1,929570.31.3211.4
1,930570.31.6251.4
1,931530.20.8230.8
1,932430.10.5250.9
1,933490.20.8281.0
1,934580.31.3281.0
1,935650.31.6251.3
1,936810.41.3261.3
1,937780.51.5261.3
1,938410.21.5301.1
1,939390.11.4290.9
1,940240.11.8341.4
1,941120.11.6391.6
1,9425––1.8522.3
1,943150.12.2442.1
1,9446––2.1271.2
1,945160.12.2311.8
1,946150.12.8252.1
1,947520.73.1264.7
1,948821.24.5204.3
1,9491091.24.1265.1
1,9501111.35.3294.3
1,9511181.97.8305.1
1,9521672.69.8499.4
1,9531722.54.9393.9
1,9541632.56.4395.1
1,9552463.78.1435.7
1,9562684.29.8395.3
1,9572834.59.3466.1
1,9584016.29.0516.8
1,9595848.88.3536.6
1,9605648.47.0595.9
1,9615818.87.3586.3
Jan-June
1,9622944.66.0363.1
Year ended June
1,9635958.410.5594.8
1,96483011.312.0767.2
1,9651,03516.811.1577.1
1,96684620.010.9516.7
1,96785218.612.0657.0
196880418.09.4727.0
YearExports of New Zealand Produce
TimberWood PulpNewsprint
*Provisional.
 $(m)tons(000)$(m)cwt(000)$(m)
1,9170.8----
1,9181.1----
1,9190.9----
1,9201.4----
1,9211.0----
1,9221.0----
1,9230.9----
1,9240.9----
1,9251.1----
1,9261.0----
1,9270.9----
1,9280.8----
1,9290.9----
1,9300.6----
1,9310.3----
1,9320.5----
1,9330.5----
1,9340.6----
1,9350.7----
1,9360.5----
1,9370.4----
1,9380.4----
1,9390.3----
1,9400.4----
1,9410.4----
1,9420.2----
1,9430.1----
1,9440.1----
1,9450.1----
1,9460.3----
1,9470.4----
1,9481.0----
1,9491.1----
1,9500.7----
1,9511.5----
1,9521.2----
1,9531.340.4--
1,9541.8201.6--
1,9552.5272.37..
1,9562.1474.0515..
1,9571.8655.37184.3
1,9582.9695.58355.3
1,9594.4775.88735.4
1,9604.2705.69886.2
1,9614.4645.09245.4
Jan-June
1,9622.6332.74272.3
Year ended June
1,9634.1695.51,4418.0
1,9645.0665.52,14711.5
1,9656.5564.72,21911.9
1,9666.5706.02,34111.9
1,9677.3725.91,89010.1
1968*16.2746.12,48215.8

PRODUCTION

SeasonWool ProductionButterfat ProductionTimber ProductionMeat Production
Total Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price per Pound (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in MilkAverage Payout per Pound

*Provisional.

† Butterfat for butter and cheese making. Excludes payment for butterfat in milk and cream consumed as such. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk for manufacture

 lb(m)c$(m)lb(m)lbcb d. ft.(m)ton(000)
1918-1924112.5030.1124170......
1919-2022912.5028.613617417.50301..
1920-212175.8312.715517423.33308..
1921-222106.6714.019919612.08315..
1922-232099.0418.922620114.17304..
1923-2421613.1528.422919312.92317..
1924-2522316.8437.624120214.17344..
1925-262289.9422.723419815.00353..
1926-2724110.5825.525921912.92306..
1927-2825313.8935.126421315.00270..
1928-2926312.4032.628922415.42270..
1929-302627.1318.731422613.33282..
1930-312594.7312.33222159.58229..
1931-322704.3811.83402159.17154..
1932-332774.2911.93972307.50166..
1933-342909.2326.84272357.50198..
1934-352655.4514.44102247.92244..
1935-363047.6123.143724010.42293..
1936-3730313.0939.745825411.42306..
1937-382978.3724.943524712.67323..
1938-393287.6425.140022913.75317..
1939-4031010.7133.243124713.92336..
1940-4133110.7335.546626213.92342..
1941-4234510.7337.043724614.00324..
1942-4334012.1541.340723414.25342..
1943-4433012.1740.238723215.17351..
1944-4537212.1845.343225416.92340..
1945-4636512.0944.137322117.67345541
1946-4736714.8654.540824319.75354560
1947-4836220.9375.841824122.17431549
1948-4936721.5178.945725923.17470556
1949-5039031.65123.447025124.33478577
1950-5139073.20285.549425825.83528530
1951-5240733.49136.350126228.83575602
1952-5341838.49160.953527331.00575578
1953-5442641.88178.449725132.42574589
1954-5545541.39188.350725631.83616637
1955-5646238.49177.853026931.67626682
1956-5749145.63224.052426631.75597670
1957-5849634.30170.155828530.75597688
1958-5954030.06162.355729327.33637731
1959-6057737.21214.754728831.50694773
1960-6158833.62197.755728727.92714758
1961-6258732.65191.755528027.58693821
1962-6362035.70221.3567*282*27.42643828
1963-6461745.89283.1590*292*29.16666852
1964-6562335.12218.8623*305*30.67736823
1965-6669534.69241.1646*308*30.28*766830
1966-6770929.39208.4654*306*29.87*750891
1967-6872822.87166.5636*283*28.10*687986

FACTORY PRODUCTION

YearEstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionAdded ValueNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

*For the year 1915-16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

† Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

 NoNo$(million)
1880-811,43013,922............5.4
1885-861,83319,653......12.9....8.1
1890-912,15223,7613.3....17.1....8.7
1895-962,36125,3973.57.1..18.511.4..9.6
1900-013,05938,6515.615.4..33.017.5..13.1
1905-063,38145,1987.226.6..43.216.6..19.1
1910-113,42142,1428.737.5..57.119.7..24.0
1915-163,65744,67310.659.7..83.824.1..31.6
1920-213,89462,97223.5106.0..151.045.0..51.4
1925-264,64370,21228.3102.614.5157.054.3..64.8
1930-315,04770,62527.890.616.9143.452.837.069.0
1931-324,82362,33522.477.715.3121.543.829.565.8
1932-334,84762,58321.377.915.0120.342.428.465.9
1933-344,88365,96121.587.015.1131.844.830.763.9
1934-355,12672,09523.497.716.3146.649.033.764.8
1935-365,39178,70126.2113.717.3167.553.837.566.4
1936-375,58487,82232.6135.019.6198.863.845.368.8
1937-385,78093,53437.4143.519.6213.069.551.072.6
1938-396,00293,63839.9142.318.6213.270.953.477.2
1939-406,19899,34943.8160.420.7240.680.260.882.0
1940-416,252104,78448.6186.022.4274.888.867.784.3
1941-426,225108,27553.6193.024.1291.298.375.687.5
1942-435,985106,17958.9203.825.1311.6107.884.089.3
1943-446,062109,22162.8214.127.3329.7115.689.892.0
1944-456,340113,53468.4233.029.1357.2124.296.697.5
1945-466,847118,88675.8234.130.6367.1132.9103.9103.6
1946-477,498124,92583.0262.734.6411.3148.6115.8111.6
1947-487,822130,50495.9349.740.2518.4168.7130.5126.6
1948-497,852132,427102.8390.143.9572.8182.7141.1147.2
1949-507,815133,245112.5430.048.3634.7204.7158.8156.0
1950-518,113138,435130.0533.857.7760.4226.6171.6175.2
1951-528,546144,352150.1581.564.0862.0280.5219.7195.0
1952-538,511143,164157.0637.970.5927.9290.1222.9218.2
1953-548,377146,488173.2665.780.5990.4324.8247.8244.5
1954-558,366153,575196.8730.695.71,101.2370.6278.6276.5
1955-568,515158,238215.9769.6113.11,171.9402.3294.4337.1
1956-578,488156,752221.9790.0119.81,204.1414.1300.4360.2
1957-588,529162,985240.0835.8132.11,289.9454.0328.3378.6
1958-598,565168,742256.6837.3140.61,318.9481.6347.7411.8
1959-608,550171,973272.4878.2145.71,411.2533.1394.0448.5
1960-618,745181,346301.2939.4158.01,513.6574.2423.4498.6
1961-628,981187,579323.1977.0173.61,613.1636.0471.0561.1
1962-639,034191,515339.91,005.8190.31,681.2675.5495.9634.7
1963-649,365199,265368.61,160.7206.41,924.1763.4568.4673.9
1964-659,753211,050412.01,344.0232.02,185.2841.2621.8747.3
1965-669,945222,851455.01,416.4263.42,374.4958.0709.2853.5
1966-6710,394229,302492.71,466.3292.62,483.71,017.4741.4948.4

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal
*Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act $1.9 million in 1958-59, $4.7 million in 1959-60, $2.0 million in 1960-61, $0.8 million in 1961-62, $0.8 million in 1962-63, $0.8 million in 1963-64.
$(million)
CONSOLIDATED FUND
1,91927.617.144.737.3...7.4
1,92032.519.752.247.6...4.6
1,92144.424.268.556.3...12.3
1,92232.723.556.356.90.7...
1,92331.224.055.252.5...2.6
1,92432.823.159.952.3...3.6
1,92533.124.257.354.8...2.5
1,92634.015.549.547.1...2.3
1,92733.816.149.948.7...1.2
1,92833.716.650.249.9...0.4
1,92935.711.547.248.41.2...
1,93039.011.750.750.4...0.3
1,93137.28.946.149.43.3...
1,93232.413.145.449.74.3...
1,93331.213.945.145.1...––
1,93434.112.947.048.41.4...
1,93540.411.952.349.0...3.3
1,93643.19.252.351.8...0.6
1,93753.98.462.361.4...0.9
1,93863.326.389.688.0...1.6
1,93964.622.887.485.8...1.6
1,94065.628.293.893.2...0.6
1,94168.732.2102.998.5...3.5
1,94270.338.7109.1105.8...3.3
1,94372.437.8110.2101.8...8.3
1,94484.031.1115.1110.7...4.5
1,94591.428.5119.9117.4...2.4
1,94696.731.1127.8125.3...2.5
1,947181.435.2216.6207.4...9.2
1,948192.242.0234.2230.7...3.6
1,949202.141.0243.0237.8...5.3
1,950207.742.3250.0241.4...8.6
1,951244.443.2287.5271.0...16.5
1,952313.947.7361.6336.3...25.3
1,953308.547.1355.6349.0...6.6
1,954312.452.2364.6361.0...3.6
1,955325.057.4382.4368.8...13.7
1,956334.960.0394.9386.6...8.3
1,957345.667.0412.6405.9...6.7
1,958317.969.3387.2387.50.3...
1,959409.771.1480.8*480.0*...0.8
1,960552.976.8629.7*628.4*...1.3
1,961474.894.0568.7*567.9*...0.8
1,962508.393.0601.3*600.6*...0.6
1,963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9...
1,964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7...
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
1,965783.2120.5903.7894.5...9.2
1,966852.2122.2974.5970.9...3.5
1,967918.8132.51,051.31,050.6...0.7
1,968949.4147.31,096.71,095.3...1.4
1,969992.1162.51,154.61,146.9...7.7

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION (Nominal Amounts)

As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States of AmericaLondonAustraliaNew Zealand

*Includes $1.9 million in 1964, $17.5 million in 1965, $29.9 million in 1966, $44.9 million in 1967, $65.1 million in 1968, and $72.3 million in 1969 held by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

†Comparability affected by devaluation on 22 November 1967. Devaluation adjustments added $21.5 million to the debt in London and $29.0 million to the debt in United States.

‡ Includes debt in Europe $70.8 million.

 N.Z.$(million)$
1,919-191.46.8154.0352.2298.80
1,920-191.46.8204.2402.3325.30
1,921-199.43.3210.0412.6325.60
1,922-211.84.6221.7438.1336.70
1,923-221.34.3212.3437.9330.40
1,924-229.74.2209.3443.2328.80
1,925-241.65.9208.1455.6330.30
1,926-256.17.3214.3477.7338.80
1,927-265.08.1218.6491.7841.90
1,928-279.58.3214.9502.8343.80
1,929-298.78.3221.4528.4359.20
1,930-293.28.6233.1534.8359.10
1,931-309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1,932-268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1,933-270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1,934-269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1,935-269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1,936-265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1,937-261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1,938-261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1,939-261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1,940-263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1,941-264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1,942-255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1,943-264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1,944-265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1,945-266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1,946-189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1,947-189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1,948-166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1,949-159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1,950-156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1,951-155.6-1,178.81,334.5688.60
1,952-155.6-1,151.81,307.3658.70
1,953-155.6-1,179.81,335.4655.40
1,954-175.6-1,233.21,408.7674.80
1,955-195.6-1,261.61,457.2683.80
1,956-191.6-1,278.81,470.4675.90
1,9578.9200.9-1,304.51,514.2681.70
1,9587.9199.2-1,357.11,564.2687.40
1,95947.1236.6-1,349.01,633.1702.10
1,96037.9235.5-1,415.61,689.0712.60
1,96137.0216.3-1,483.01,736.3719.20
1,96225.1254.0-1,528.61,807.7730.50x
1,96341.5272.5-1,620.41,934.3765.20x
1,96441.8279.9-1,700.02,021.7782.90x
1,96554.3*276.5-1,908.82,139.6813.90x
1,96688.3*244.8-1,922.82,256.0842.80
1,967107.3*283.4-2,021.32,412.0884.40
1968170.7*329.4-2,116.52,616.6949.70
1,969179.2*336.2-2,261.02,776.5998.40

LOCAL AUTHORITIES*

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther Receipts Total
From RatesFrom Other Sources

*Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

‡Revised series from and including year ended 31 March 1925.

$(million)
1,9185.46.62.514.414.255.3
1,9195.97.01.914.714.656.2
1,9206.39.06.721.921.860.4
1,9217.110.76.924.625.564.2
1,9227.612.211.030.730.273.5
1,9238.612.514.835.831.486.4
1,9248.913.411.433.733.093.1
1,9259.314.415.939.638.8106.7
1,92610.116.015.741.841.8118.8
1,92710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
1,92811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
1,92911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
1,93012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
1,93111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
1,93211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
1,93310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
1,93411.016.58.536.135.5124.0
1,93511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
1,93611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
1,93712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
1,93813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
1,93914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
1,94014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
1,94114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
1,94214.926.07.248.048.1153.2
1,94315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
1,94415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
1,94515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
1,94617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
1,94719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
1,94819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
1,94921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
1,95023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
1,95125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
1,95229.049.121.398.497.7115.7
1,95330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
1,95432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
1,95536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
1,95637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
1,95741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
1,95845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
1,95948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
1,96051.5101.783.6231.8231.2287.1
1,96155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
1,96258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
1,96362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
1,96468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
1,96577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
1,96680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
1,96785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
1,96892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5

LOCAL AUTHORITIES*—LOAN INDEBTEDNESS

(Exclusive of Inscribed Debt)
As at 31 MarchCountiesCities and BoroughsHarbour BoardsElectric Power DistrictsOtherTotal

Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

$(million)
1,9183.026.914.7 5.450.0
1,9193.327.414.8 5.551.0
1,9204.130.615.0 5.855.4
1,9215.132.115.30.36.659.4
1,9226.036.116.53.07.168.7
1,9237.643.217.26.17.681.7
1,9248.044.218.39.58.588.4
1,9259.251.819.513.08.6102.2
1,92610.856.120.017.510.1114.4
1,92712.060.120.520.210.8123.6
1,92812.463.221.020.411.6128.5
1,92912.764.521.524.011.7134.4
1,93013.163.020.925.316.1138.4
1,93113.364.321.026.016.9141.4
1,93213.463.421.126.216.9141.0
1,93313.263.621.226.117.1141.2
1,93413.162.721.026.417.0140.3
1,93512.862.021.126.816.4139.0
1,93612.561.520.427.016.1137.5
1,93712.361.020.324.116.3134.0
1,93812.261.119.723.816.2133.0
1,93912.261.219.524.915.5133.4
1,94012.461.519.926.216.0136.0
1,94112.360.019.926.214.7133.1
1,94212.259.319.625.014.6130.7
1,94311.757.719.624.714.2128.0
1,94411.356.419.423.613.9124.6
1,94510.855.119.023.112.9120.8
1,94610.454.518.722.412.7118.7
1,9479.953.416.821.712.5114.3
1,9489.553.016.522.212.1113.2
1,9499.351.916.123.212.0112.4
1,9508.952.215.624.011.4112.1
1,9518.652.514.824.911.2112.0
1,9528.654.315.026.011.8115.7
1,9538.659.517.828.814.1128.8
1,9548.668.020.731.917.6146.9
1,9559.273.421.634.420.0158.6
1,95610.280.223.237.724.6176.0
1,95711.989.426.139.631.3198.2
1,95813.5102.831.442.639.0229.4
1,95914.8111.535.145.948.6256.0
1,96017.4124.140.147.857.7287.1
1,96119.8132.646.049.371.2318.8
1,96222.3141.448.051.474.4337.6
1,96324.0156.656.154.179.5370.2
1,96428.4172.465.453.781.8401.8
1,96531.8187.272.158.187.0436.2
1,96631.5202.579.860.087.6461.4
1,96735.5214.482.862.090.3485.0
1,96840.2227.788.064.5113.0533.5

BANKING AND CURRENCY

YearAssets of Trading BanksLiabilities of Trading BanksNotes in Hands of Public†Net Overseas Assets of Banking System† ‖
Advance and Discounts*Notes and Coin and Balances at Reserve BankSecuritiesTotal Selected Assets§DepositsTotal Selected Liabilities§

*Includes term loans and export finance from 1964 on.

†Average of weekly figures.

‡Average of monthly figures.

§ As at last balance day in December, assets exclude shareholders' funds, while both assets and liabilities exclude inter-branch accounts within New Zealand, contingencies, and certain transit items.

‖Includes holdings of Reserve Bank.

**Devaluation adjustment November 1967.

$(million)
1,93589.419.410.2166.0123.0132.012.884.0
1,93691.825.011.0167.8130.4131.815.078.2
1,93798.428.215.8171.6133.6135.617.863.4
1,938111.423.015.8170.2130.0133.620.042.0
1,939109.431.623.0192.2134.6152.024.020.6
1,94096.040.433.6203.0154.8164.029.647.2
1,94199.435.442.0210.6161.4168.234.860.2
1,94290.847.656.2237.8181.8201.643.077.0
1,94386.665.875.4265.4212.6229.255.284.4
1,94493.678.877.2281.8235.2244.464.299.6
1,945103.6104.863.6329.0260.2285.270.0160.8
1,946116.6135.657.0358.0299.6321.076.4201.4
1,947153.0132.046.0384.0328.4355.280.2205.2
1,948196.4137.637.8387.0351.0381.681.6168.2
1,949166.8172.229.4416.6372.2417.885.0141.2
1,950189.4173.426.8450.6404.4468.090.4150.2
1,951265.8166.626.4540.6501.4550.698.0208.0
1,952339.6127.426.0536.4506.0510.2102.0145.2
1,953273.6210.628.0582.6530.6563.2106.8207.2
1,954314.0183.850.4603.2563.6611.6115.4236.0
1,955365.8137.050.4600.6559.8599.0119.0176.6
1,956341.2144.857.6575.4537.4568.8120.0171.8
1,957329.8155.857.4599.2557.8592.2122.4173.0
1,958350.8152.057.0577.0558.0560.2124.2104.2
1,959340.2161.057.0632.6566.8629.8125.4179.8
1,960355.4212.646.8700.6647.8720.6131.2195.0
1,961435.0170.646.6648.2652.0705.4135.0107.4
1,962401.0192.446.4687.2646.6701.2133.2128.4
1,963403.8187.046.2722.6676.5723.8133.0159.2
1,964439.9188.046.2804.8724.8782.2129.6167.4
1,965493.2145.253.4812.0729.9796.0128.0139.5
1,966513.4114.664.7826.6731.7817.9125.3114.8
1,967527.596.672.3826.2721.5800.8117.8116.0**
1,968522.479.984.1879.6739.9851.3121.4181.2

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK

YearNumber of Depositors at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

†Fifteen months, 1 January 1920 to 31 March 1921.

‡Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

§From 1940-41 the year of opening includes national saving accounts.

‖Does not include $22.9 million from war gratuity accounts shown in italics in next line.

¶Excludes 15,439 amounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

**Excludes Cook Islands accounts credit of $0.9 million.

 Number$(million)
1,918590,20536.22.129.98.466.8
1,919630,78359.52.451.99.976.8
1920-21664,81988.63.682.39.886.7
1921-22678,93058.33.260.51.087.7
1922-23690,79053.43.255.51.088.7
1923-24710,15759.23.359.03.592.2
1924-25735,14859.23.460.81.793.9
1925-26758,15563.73.565.21.995.8
1926-27783,82758.93.560.32.198.0
1927-28804,72555.23.561.2-2.495.5
1928-29828,29654.53.556.21.897.3
1929-30852,75757.13.659.21.698.9
1930-31878,04349.13.556.1-3.595.3
1931-32877,09038.93.250.9-8.886.5
1932-33797,09733.92.939.3-2.484.1
1933-34798,26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934-35817,61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935-36840,67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936-37880,85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937-38920,80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938-39946,82260.93.569.2-4.9121.4
1939-40960,56550.33.258.9-5.4116.0
1940-411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2§
1941-421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942-431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943-441,494,136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944-451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945-461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946-471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947-481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948-491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949-50 22.9-7.615.3425.1
1,730,072175.09.7154.030.7
1950-511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951-521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952-531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953-541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954-551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955-561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956-571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957-582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958-592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959-602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960-612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961-622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962-632,190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963-642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964-652,275,813505.525.0500.629.9852.7
1965-662,312,392506.625.7520.611.7864.4
1966-672,330,687524.325.9540.89.4873.8
1967-682,327,076486.727.1511.12.7875.6**
1968-692,350,793486.227.9506.57.6883.2

MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration
Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.
 $(m)$(m)Percent $(m)
1,91938.022.15.8422,49650.4
1,92096.946.25.7545,128124.9
1,921133.958.95.8955,746163.6
1,92269.526.56.4233,78470.9
1,92352.129.26.5731,02160.0
1,92475.744.56.3833,29367.7
1,92582.259.56.3034,28967.3
1,92694.267.96.2236,03870.4
1,92780.058.56.4734,10664.7
1,92866.448.06.4631,14160.3
1,92967.150.56.4630,76062.3
1,93077.756.76.3532,11261.7
1,93160.440.16.2525,62644.1
1,93226.820.16.2816,94326.4
1,93318.316.35.8815,38122.0
1,93415.618.25.5615,76019.1
1,93523.727.55.0618,62824.4
1,93632.535.14.7323,04431.2
1,93739.439.64.6025,17837.7
1,93838.038.74.6526,26946.7
1,93940.133.24.5828,96547.3
1,94035.228.24.6928,05744.2
1,94132.531.94.6928,82851.5
1,94229.130.24.7328,20746.5
1,94324.333.44.7227,65748.3
1,94431.240.14.6333,70176.3
1,94536.242.04.5133,28464.9
1,94645.046.64.1038,06076.7
1,94762.251.93.8542,99489.9
1,94864.150.83.9048,80180.9
1,94970.646.83.9836,56476.8
1,95072.046.23.9939,05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957,938158.7
1,952135.974.54.1556,609218.3
1,953147.462.84.2948,378201.4
1,954140.872.04.4952,615228.8
1,955169.282.34.6956,571273.4
1,956192.570.74.7649,100241.9
1,957182.475.45.0945,334229.4
1,958199.192.25.2450,573279.4
1,959217.188.85.1549,153255.2
1,960239.0102.35.0152,855285.4
1,961300.8136.65.0161,412375.6
1,962331.5133.85.2757,813360.1
1,963295.1135.65.5153,566336.3
1,964339.8168.85.7059,836419.9
1,965420.0206.85.7869,548536.2
1,966487.7230.06.0771,508592.6
1,967493.4293.36.3168,639589.2
1,968467.8236.16.6463,925541.8
1,969482.3260.96.7466,583565.9

BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS

YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

*Public, private, and overseas.

†The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386.0 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1,918164135.5177.22006.1
1,919141109.3119.532811.9
1,92014595.8155.550119.1
1,921336156.51,117.03377.0
1,922690252.31,668.741726.3
1,923674249.31,337.850226.0
1,924670237.31,408.056542.7
1,925653197.3942.162129.5
1,926752205.81,171.465521.5
1,927867217.71,359.069817.4
1,928806233.21,534.673622.0
1,929687182.41,004.290324.9
1,930780166.61,654.789313.4
1,931848217.62,084.479516.6
1,932661151.31,249.881213.7
1,933450123.4979.883014.6
1,93432689.1517.8933401.5
1,93525782.1451.081048.5
1,93626066.0339.794219.9
1,937222111.9343.488812.2
1,938267129.0460.982413.2
1,93926788.3451.068117.8
1,94021384.8250.63917.6
1,94116570.9142.028822.5
1,9428259.564.51981.9
1,9434537.840.12703.1
1,9445126.9102.14643.0
1,9454537.1236.47416.8
1,9465241.997.01,43522.1
1,9477431.189.51,81319.2
1,948148100.6286.61,75117.4
1,94917976.8406.32,15716.0
1,95014298.5251.82,07420.4
1,95114596.5273.62,02025.6
1,952168112.5502.31,74466.8
1,953215144.3762.02,04186.1
1954277165.1826.92,68555.5
1,955304224.8764.62,69536.7
1,956390261.11,095.53,25541.2
1,957437360.71,564.53,502161.1
1,958495369.61,638.33,03461.5
1,959618389.81,510.42,73794.2
1,960495331.21,337.83,76774.0
1,961425303.61,415.83,56771.7
1,962591446.12,138.43,35145.1
1,963566441.11,660.34,16574.1
1,964507325.51,784.95,05490.0
1,965507335.62,337.55,56385.8
1,966507378.52,033.55,609187.3
1,967652373.92,312.24,829102.7
1,968820487.23,743.55,010190.1

INSURANCE

YearLife (Ordinary and Industrial)AccidentFire
Policies in ForceSum AssuredNet Revenue*Net Expenditure*Net Revenue*Net Expenditure*

*Excluding unexpired risks reserves.

†Excludes annuities.

 (000)$(million)$(thousand)
1917-1828392712642....
1918-19299987286541,9481,496
1919-203181089127982,2021,540
1920-213391181,0829102,5641,772
1921-223571261,4301,2382,8082,318
1922-233701311,4361,3042,8582,338
1923-243891411,5341,4152,8702,414
1924-254121521,7381,5832,8922,558
1925-264331632,3161,9603,0342,447
1926-274551742,6612,2902,9812,705
1927-284801842,6822,4472,9942,891
1928-295031962,8462,5983,0023,067
1929-305322113,3252,8983,0332,665
1930-315532243,4913,0983,1062,613
1931-325462253,0532,9133,1072,903
1932-335432242,6382,3632,9862,332
1933-345582262,5322,2252,8572,158
1934-355892332,7852,4022,7452,099
1935-366282483,0262,8082,7512,038
1936-376862723,5283,4012,7101,975
1937-387513024,4474,2702,5901,867
1938-398013225,2124,6732,6602,021
1939-408363415,6394,7852,7852,117
1940-418653555,2824,6102,8842,245
1941-429003745,2104,4563,0142,334
1942-439223884,7824,1303,1242,674
1943-449544085,3604,5843,3582,648
1944-459924385,4364,8643,1422,572
1945-461,0364775,9225,3043,2802,706
1946-471,0965326,7585,6843,6563,088
1947-481,1515938,0746,9224,0863,348
1948-491,1926508,9427,9704,6443,424
1949-501,22670710,1108,9905,1083,844
1950-511,26377411,97410,4225,4984,476
1951-521,30486613,66112,1216,1064,857
1952-531,34595816,37314,4056,8185,585
1953-541,3811,05818,36716,0637,5106,168
1954-551,4271,18420,44418,1138,2526,495
1955-561,4631,32422,75520,7748,4497,110
1956-571,4941,46425,63123,6928,7937,307
1957-581,5281,62328,33726,4499,2968,057
1958-591,5611,80430,74128,69410,0248,414
1959-601,5982,02633,36230,52611,1488,849
1960-611,6952,27837,52633,29212,0629,738
1961-621,7232,54840,90936,14813,36610,690
1962-631,7512,84344,25539,55914,78312,026
1963-641,7933,19549,03443,71416,38513,643
1964-651,8463,60954,19848,65617,60814,624
1965-661,9114,07062,96355,63819,64515,729
1966-671,9734,58769,34461,64621,56417,383
1967-682,0285,09572,99967,24423,00319,890

INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES

YearTotal Industrial Stoppages*Firms AffectedTotal Duration (Days)Average Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedEstimated Loss in Wages

*The number of lockouts included in total industrial stoppages were: 1925, 2; 1928, 2; 1929, 1; 1931, 1; 1940, 1; 1944, 1; and 1965, 2.

†Includes workers indirectly involved.

‡In each of the years 1964 and 1966 4 stoppages resulted in an additional 4 penalty (suspension) stoppages provided for under Port Bureau Rules.

§Road transport and electrical industry stoppages affected a large number of firms, the total for which has been excluded as numbers are not available, apart from one firm which was affected by a road transport stoppage in the first quarter.

        $
1,921771127699.9910,433119,20811.43180,954
1,922586785114.686,41493,45614.57121,564
1,923497960312.317,162201,81228.18228,148
1,92434581343.9414,81589,1056.01125,464
1,92583935987.209,90574,5527.5398,298
1,92659673145.326,26447,8117.6364,710
1,9273840832.184,47612,4852.7923,638
1,92839562536.499,25821,9972.3844,608
1,92947603427.287,15125,8893.6253,880
1,930384439210.325,46731,6695.7974,598
1,931243726210.926,35648,4867.6389,088
1,932236731313.619,355108,60511.61211,430
1,933154320513.673,55865,09918.30118,668
1,93424371205.003,77310,3932.7514,242
1,9351265887.332,32318,5637.9930,532
1,936431282215.147,35416,9802.3125,772
1,93752723206.1511,41129,9162.6264,258
1,938721032873.9911,38835,4563.1184,208
1,939666364166.3015,68253,8013.43120,788
1,94057994357.6310,47528,0972.6856,124
1,94189972332.6215,26126,2371.7269,104
1,94265781432.2014,34551,1893.57126,358
1,943691141221.7710,91514,6871.3540,358
1,9441492692811.8929,76652,6021.77148,024
1,9451541,2553792.4639,41866,6291.69185,092
1,946961222592.7015,69630,3931.9480,224
1,9471342348346.2226,970102,7253.81375,338
1,9481018856086.0228,49493,4643.28391,970
1,9491231,3156725.4661,536218,1723.55781,546
1,9501291,1895674.4091,492271,4752.971,028,472
1,9511093543,46431.7836,8781,157,39031.386,222,614
1,952501771082.1616,29728,1231.73138,742
1,953738801451.9922,17519,2910.8796,866
1,954614471362.2316,15320,4741.27132,732
1,955651142113.2520,22452,0432.57370,574
1,956504263907.8013,57923,8701.76168,412
1,95751881653.2415,54528,1861.81166,046
1,95849831523.1013,70918,7881.37128,464
1,959731192293.1418,76229,6511.58214,922
1,96060803445.7314,30535,6832.49232,824
1,96171893534.9616,62638,1852.30298,670
1,962961294985.1839,92193,1572.33749,484
1,96360913666.0914,91154,4903.65496,226
1964932303333.5834,77966,8341.92513,072
1,9651052182872.7315,26721,8141.43184,040
1966145151§4623.1833,13299,0952.99878,192
1,967891075716.4228,490139,4904.90869,120
1,9681532098585.6137,458130,2673.481,096,790

Chapter 43. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British — first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at the Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859 Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened — Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived. Westland Province established.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885 New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886 Tarawera eruption, resulting loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to 74, including four Maori

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889 South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891 Inauguration of Liberal régime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa. with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1900 Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to 76.

1901 T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu railway purchased by Government. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener reported and advised on New Zealand defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Foundation stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7,000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1927 Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths. Daylight saving (half hour) permanently adopted for summer months.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange raised at instance of Government to 125 N.Z. for 100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. Issue of New Zealand silver coinage.

1934 First official trans-Tasman air mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester arrived on an official visit. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Bank notes of trading banks ceased to be legal tender. Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of guaranteed prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored. Railcar services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.

1937 New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage, Hon. W. Nash, and Mr W. J. Jordan. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.

1938 Mr W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of primary products by Imperial Government. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington. Naval engagement off River Plate in which HMS Achilles, largely manned by New Zealand ratings, took part.

1940 Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service. National savings scheme inaugurated.

1941 Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. First enrolment of married men for military service. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Gold to value of $4.8 million salvaged from RMS Niagara. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 Death of Right Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., member of War Cabinet and former Prime Minister. North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde — 21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia - New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest. Mutual-aid Agreement between Canadian and New Zealand Governments signed.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the “country quota” passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 First women members of Legislative Council (two) appointed. Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, V.C., assumed office as Governor-General (17 June). Railways Department inaugurated inter-island air freight service.

1947 $25 million presented to United Kingdom Government by New Zealand. Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce and fixation of basic price taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Mt. Ngauruhoe erupts after 22 years' quiescence. Adjustment of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum on question of compulsory military training answered in the affirmative. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office on 13 December for first of three successive terms.

1950 British Empire Games held at Auckland. Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Two New Zealand frigates departed for Korean waters. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Kayforce sailed from Wellington for Korea on 10 December. Death of Right Hon. Peter Fraser, Prime Minister, 1940–49.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered, followed by deregistration of certain other unions — e.g., freezing workers — seamen and miners also involved. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. Off-course betting operations commenced by Totalisator Agency Board. United States of America, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Royal Commission on Railways. Proclamation of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II read by the Governor-General at Parliament Buildings on 11 February. New Zealand team at Olympic Games at Helsinki gained one gold and two bronze medals. Report of Royal Commission on the Waterfront Industry released.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Coronation Day for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second marked in New Zealand by nationwide civic programmes. Mt. Everest conquered on 29 May by British expedition, the summit being reached by the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and the Sherpa Tensing. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. The London-Christchurch air race won by RAF Canberra No. 3 in record time of 23 hours 51 minutes. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores. Her Majesty broadcast to the Commonwealth and Empire from Auckland on 25 December. The first Proclamation issued by a reigning Sovereign in New Zealand summoned Parliament for its opening by the Queen on 12 January 1954.

1954 Continuation of Royal Tour, including meetings of the Privy Council and Executive Council and opening of a special session of Parliament New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. New Zealand won seven gold, seven silver, and five bronze medals at Empire Games in Vancouver. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-East Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 New Zealand made contribution to defence of South-East Asia by sending squadron of fighter bombers and part transport squadron to Malaya and, later in the year, an Army Special Air Service Squadron. Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau begins operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Report of Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems released. Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Guaranteed price scheme for potatoes announced. Petition for increased State aid to private schools rejected. Building controls abolished. Team sent to Olympic Games at Melbourne wins two gold medals. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington. Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurde Sound. New Zealand shared fully in programme for International Geophysical Year, including Antarctic section. Dairy produce given unrestricted, duty-free right of entry to Britain till 1967. Plan announced to almost double generating capacity of New Zealand's power systems by 1970 at cost of $470 million, including the laying of a cable across Cook Strait. Restraints on credit continued. Lord Cobham succeeded Lord Norrie as Governor-General on 5 September. Separate Court of Appeal constituted. Sir Leslie Munro elected President of United Nations General Assembly. National Government defeated and Labour Government assumed office on 12 December. Battalion sailed for service in Malaya.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. Sir Edmund Hillary and companions reached South Pole overland from Scott Base. Royal Tour of Her Majesty the Queen Mother. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Electric power restrictions in North Island. Increase in family and age benefits. Army reorganised as an operational regular brigade group. New Zealand won four gold, six silver, and nine bronze medals at Empire Games in Cardiff. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer. Report made by Royal Commission on Local Authority Finance. Revised trade pact provided for variation of margins of preference on United Kingdom imports.

1959 Mr C. M. Bennett, a distinguished Maori, appointed High Commissioner in Malaya. National Consumer Council appointed and four regional consumer committees established. Institute of Nuclear Sciences established. Commission of inquiry into meat industry. Scheme provided for capitalisation of family benefit for housing purposes. Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau — Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Report issued by Committee on New Zealand Universities chaired by Sir David Hughes Parry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland. Commission on Education appointed with Sir George Currie as chairman. Institute of Economic Research established. Meat export development company formed. Industrial Development Conference held in Wellington. New Zealand athletes won two gold medals in one day at Olympic Games in Rome, also one bronze medal. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed. Conference of British Commonwealth Statisticians held in Wellington. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office on 13 December.

1961 Review of Maori Affairs (Hunn Report) published. Trade agreement with Malaya signed. United Nations seminar on Human Rights held in Wellington. Right of unrestricted and duty free access to United Kingdom market for meat and dairy produce emphasised in discussions on possible entry of United Kingdom into European Economic Community; assurance given that special arrangement will be sought to protect vital interests of New Zealand. Minister to European Economic Community appointed. Expansion of overseas trade posts and wide extension of market surveys. Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). Monetary and Economic Council appointed. New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation. New Customs tariff introduced. Tenders accepted for Cook Strait electric power cable. Death of Right Hon. Sir Sidney Holland, Prime Minister, 1949–57. Television broadcasts extended to Wellington and Christchurch.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Trade promotion council established to advise Government on all matters affecting overseas trade. Television extended to Dunedin. New Zealand Broadcasting Service became a corporation. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. Visit of King Bhumibol and Queen Sirikit of Thailand. Protracted discussions, including Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference, on possible trade repercussions of Britain's proposal to join European Economic Community. Report presented by Royal Commission on State Services chaired by Mr Justice McCarthy. Building programme for universities 1963–68 at cost of $52 million approved in principle. United Nations and ECAFE seminar on basic statistics for economic and social development held in Wellington. Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson succeeded Lord Cobham as Governor-General. New Zealand won 10 gold, 12 silver, and 10 bronze medals at Commonwealth Games at Perth and was third most successful country behind Australia and England. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1963 Breakdown of Britain's bid to enter European Economic Community; New Zealand held an Export Development Conference in Wellington and sent trade missions to several countries, including Australia, the United States of America, Canada, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong. Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh. The Queen opened New Zealand House in London. Approval was given by Government for expenditure of 22 million on defence re-equipment, for a seven-year $15 million radio and TV expansion programme, for development of a $28 million New Zealand iron and steel industry. The World Bank loaned $5.6 million for port development. A ten-shilling unit was decided upon for the introduction of decimal coinage in July . Work was begun on the $18.8 million Manapouri tail-race tunnel as part of an electric-power project. Death of Lord Freyberg, New Zealand wartime leader and former Governor-General. Crash of a National Airways Corporation DC3 aircraft in the Kaimai Ranges killed 23 persons, and 15 lives lost in accident to a bus returning from Waitangi Royal celebrations. Controversy over proposed French nuclear tests in Pacific.

1964 Access road tunnel of six miles commenced for underground powerhouse at Lake Manapouri. Loan of $23.2 million negotiated with World Bank to meet overseas costs of inter-island power transmission. Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydroelectric power scheme at estimated cost of $140 million. Use of natural gas at Kapuni investigated. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei. Report of port streamlining committee to speed up turn round of ships; Exports and Shipping Council established. New agreement on beef exports to United States. Agricultural Development Conference held. First school of veterinary science opened at Massey University, Grants of $64.6 million to universities approved for five years from 1965. Big increase in tourist receipts to $18.0 million for year. New Zealand team won three gold and two bronze medals at Olympic Games in Tokyo. Reports made by overseas consultants on steps to meet traffic problems of central areas of main cities. Private savings banks opened by trading banks.

1965 United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East held its 21st session in Wellington attended by some 300 delegates and observers from 37 countries. Centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. Eleventh Conference of Commonwealth Parliamentary Association held in Wellington. Visit to New Zealand by Archbishop of Canterbury. Inter-island electric power transmission project completed. Increased expenditure planned for higher education, technical institutes, and teachers' colleges. First tender let for construction work on New Zealand's longest traffic tunnel (5 m. 43 ch.) for Kaimai railway deviation. Contract let for oil-fired thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. Artillery unit committed to combat service in Vietnam. Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8's) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link South Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed. $44.6 million drawn from International Monetary Fund. New Zealand elected to United Nations Security Council.

1966 Labour force reached 1,000,000. Licensed television sets reach 500,000 with 60 percent of houses equipped. Value of goods produced in New Zealand factories exceeds $2 thousand million. Tender for $12 million let for widening Auckland Harbour Bridge. Further port modernisation plans announced by harbour boards. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives. Embassies established in Rome and Bonn. Royal Tour by Her Majesty the Queen Mother. Visits by the President of the United States, Mr Lyndon B. Johnson, and the Vice-President, Mr Hubert Humphrey. Vogel Building of 17 storeys completed and occupied by Ministry of Works in Wellington. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand published. New Zealand won eight gold, five silver, and 13 bronze medals at Commonwealth Games in Jamaica. Social Credit party gains first seat in Parliament. Contract let for main steel mill building at Glenbrook, South Auckland. Revival of United Kingdom interest in joining European Economic Community.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Low wool prices led to extensive purchases by Wool Commission for remainder of season. Subsidies on butter and flour abolished. Assisted migration scheme curtailed. Sharp rise in persons unemployed. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of 1). Savings banks deposits in trading banks exceed $200 million. Contributions by public to Freedom from Hunger Campaign since 1962 reached $3.5 million. Flight to Antarctic by RNZAF Hercules plane. Infantry battalion moved to Vietnam. Extension from 6p.m. to 10p.m. of hotel hours for sale of liquor. Taxation Review Committee Report completed. Roll-on roll-off vessels on Wellington-Lyttelton run and Auckland-Lyttelton-Dunedin run. Plan announced to build large coal-fired power station at New Plymouth. New Zealand put case to G.A.T.T. session for improved trade arrangements for primary products. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by 19.45 percent following United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent of the pound sterling. Sir Arthur Porritt succeeded Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson as Governor-General.

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. Prime Minister attended five-power defence conference held at Kuala Lumpur to discuss problems raised by projected withdrawal of British forces from South-east Asia in 1971. Death of Right Hon. Sir Walter Nash, Prime Minister, 1957-60. T.e.v. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Strong earthquake in Inangahua area resulted in three deaths. Coaster Maranui sank in gale off Coromandel Peninsula with loss of nine lives. Order of $24 million placed for combat aircraft for RNZAF for delivery in 1970 and of $21 million for new frigate. General agreement reached on plans for building aluminium smelter at Bluff using electricity from Manapouri power scheme. Manapouri tunnel pierced. Construction commenced of natural gas pipe line from Kapuni to Auckland and Wellington. Jet planes introduced in internal air services. Report of World Bank published on medium-term economic policy for New Zealand. Guidelines for economic growth in next decade contained in report of Targets Committee of National Development Conference. New Zealand team won one gold and two bronze medals at Olympic Games in Mexico City. Human Rights Year specially observed.

Chapter 44. SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SubjectYearPage
Building stones1,892194
Varieties of soil1,892193
Patents, designs, and trade marks1,893350
Acclimatisation1,894430
Co-operative system of constructing public works1,894234
Frozen meat trade, the1,894311
Labour in New Zealand1,894362
Railways in New Zealand: Their history and progress1,894377
Sheep farming1,894302
Southern Alps, the1,894474
State farms1,894243
West Coast Sounds, the1,894482
Cheviot Estate, the1,895264
Shipping companies1,895389
Wellington-Manawatu railway, the1,895381
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1,896281
Waihi Gold Mining Co.1,897432
Wattle growing in the Auckland Provincial District1,897430
Mount Cook: Its glaciers, and the Hermitage1,898552
Scenic wonderland, a1,898565
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1,899548
Forest trees and the timber industry1,899470
Gold dredging industry, the1,899509
Moa, heir of the1,899517
Mount Cook district, the1,899554
Tokaanu to Raetihi1,899539
Tuhoeland1,899546
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1,899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1,899543
Chatham Islands, the1,900531
Coal deposits of New Zealand, the1,900479
Hemp industry, the1,900477
Kauri gum1,900489
Maori mythology1,900536
Mount Sefton, ascent of and a night on Mount Cook1,900519
New Zealand contingents for South Africa1,900449
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1,900486
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1,900509
Maori religion1,901530
Marlborough Sounds, and Otago lakes, the1,901517
Sydney pageant, the1,901527
Cook Islands, the laws of1,902573
Maori, neolithic, the1,902578
Maori sociology1,903641
Timber trees of the world1,903605
Exotic trees in Canterbury1,904569
Hanmer thermal springs1,905631
Maori, colour sense of the1,905637
Thermal springs district1,905614
Maori marriage customs1,906638
Tree planting1,906611
White Island, a day on1,906637
Maori, ancient: His amusements, games, etc.1,907707
New Zealand international exhibition1,907701
Maori, ancient: His clothing, etc.1,908734
Agriculture in New Zealand1,912809
HMS New Zealand and Government training ship Amokura1,913932
Mineral waters of New Zealand1,913896
External trade of New Zealand, the1,915858
Maori, topographical nomenclature of the1,919936
Wages and working hours in New Zealand1,919860
Education system of New Zealand, the1,925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1,925835
Local government in New Zealand1,925845
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1,925823
Wellington municipal milk supply1,925777
Cancer in New Zealand: A statistical study1,926889
Totalisator, the1,926838
Britomart, mission of, at Akaroa, in August 18401,9271,012
Mortality rates, New Zealand1,927995
Livestock production: A review based on standard values and units1,929990
Dairy farm survey1,938429
Ross Dependency1,938900
Plants and fauna1,94028
Libraries1,940928
Tourist attractions: mineral waters and spas1,940932
Alexander Turnbull Library1,946914
National Film Unit1,946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with reference to the Consumers' Price Index1947–49998
Economic policy and national income1,9501,033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951–521,066
Standardisation1951–521,076
Sources of statistical information1,9531,016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 19541,9541,121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions1,9551,143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of report1,9561,201
Consumers' Price Index—1955 Revision1,9571,214
New Zealand Activities in the Antarctic1,9581,247
New Zealand's International Activities1,9591,221
Grassland Research in New Zealand1,9601,243
University Education for Science and Technology1,9611,186
New Zealand and the European Economic Community1,9621,150
Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, 6 to 18 February 19631,9631,167
The Development of New Zealand's Railway System 1863–19631,9631,175
The Arts in New Zealand, including the visual arts, literature, music and opera, and drama and ballet1,9641,145
The Maori People as shown by the Population Census 19611,9651,160
Industrial Relations—The next Ten Years and Beyond1,9661,131
Population Growth and Economic Development in New Zealand1,9661,136
Scientific Research in New Zealand1,9671,118
Recent Constitutional Changes in the South-west Pacific1,9681,104

Chapter 45. Support of the Arts

INCLUDING NOTES ON ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS

PATRONAGE has always been part of the history of the arts. If the arts are to flourish in the face of strong competition from mass media entertainment there must be both private patronage and assistance from the State and from other sources of public funds. In New Zealand private patronage has become an important source of finance and encouragement for the arts, and the State and public bodies are playing an important part by providing direct financial help as well as other forms of assistance. The Departments of Internal Affairs and Education, the Council of Adult Education and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation have for many years given valuable assistance to the arts in the course of their everyday functions, and many local and statutory bodies make worthwhile donations of finance and facilities.

The Government displayed a notable interest in historical literature at the time of the centennial celebrations in 1940. A series of centennial surveys, covering various aspects of the country's history, and other works, such as the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography and Making New Zealand, were commissioned and published by the Department of Internal Affairs, making a landmark in New Zealand historical publishing.

In 1946 State aid for literature was put on a permanent basis by the establishment of the New Zealand Literary Fund, financed from the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs.

Assistance to the arts other than literature began in 1947 when a Cultural Fund administered by the Department of Internal Affairs was instituted. This was funded partly from art union profits, and assistance from it was given with the approval of the Minister of Internal Affairs and the Prime Minister. The Fund was used mainly to help talented young people to further their studies abroad by awarding bursaries to them to pay for travel and study. In addition to this a few small grants were made to national organisations engaged in cultural activities.

As this scheme of assistance developed bursars were selected on the recommendations of committees of people with professional qualifications in the arts. Grants to national adminisrative organisations, e.g., the New Zealand Brass Bands' Association, were also continued and others were made to emerging groups showing promise of becoming professional companies, viz., the New Zealand Opera Company, the New Zealand Ballet Company, and the New Zealand Players' Company. In the visual arts grants were made to meet the transport costs throughout New Zealand of exhibitions from overseas, while exhibitions of New Zealand art were sent abroad. Exhibitions of New Zealand books both in New Zealand and abroad were supported, and the publishing of a few books outside the scope of the New Zealand Literary Fund was financed.

Arts Advisory Council—The next important step, taken in 1960, was the establishment of the Arts Advisory Council. A main aim of the Council was the encouragement of professional standards, and accordingly substantial recurring grants were made to the New Zealand Opera Company and the New Zealand Ballet Trust. Assistance was given to the New Zealand Federation of Chamber Music Societies, the New Zealand Drama Council, the British Drama League, the Christchurch Civic Orchestra Foundation, the New Zealand Film Institute, the Association of New Zealand Art Societies, and a number of regional activities. Its training awards were tenable either overseas or locally, travel grants to and from New Zealand were awarded, and overseas artists were encouraged to give master classes. The Council directly commissioned works from artists, allocated money for the purchase of contemporary works of art, including pottery and paintings. It subsidised the transport expenses of important exhibitions in the visual arts.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council—In October 1963 legislation establishing the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand was passed. By a Proclamation under the Act it came into force on 1 April 1964. The Arts Council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

The Council set up four main committees, each dealing with one of the main branches of the arts—music, visual arts, ballet, and drama. On each of these committees one or more members of the Council sit, the rest of the committee being composed of people experienced in the relevant art form.

The Council's policy is largely governed by the funds available to it and its basic problem has been to determine the priorities among the many hundreds of claimants for its assistance. Naturally, the principal objective of the Council is the encouragement of activities that are professional in character and standard, and to this end it regards its major responsibility as being to maintain at the highest level of performance the New Zealand Opera Company, the New Zealand Ballet, the regional orchestra projects in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and the professional theatre.

The Council is aware of the importance of the creative artist to the community and its aim is to devise and shape policies that provide the necessary stimulus to composers, playwrights, choreographers, and artists to produce the best of which they are capable.

There is no doubt that New Zealand as a whole provides considerable support for the arts, but the tendency exists for its resources, both financial and artistic, to be diffused so that the quality of performance and presentation that comes from concentrating talents and finance is lost.

No organisation can raise standards and spread its activities at the same time. To reconcile the highest standard of performance with the needs of scattered communities throughout New Zealand will be one of the major problems the Council will have to solve in the coming years.

The Council operates on an annual budget and for the year ended 31 December 1967 received grants of $60,000 from the Government and $300,000 from the Golden Kiwi Board of Control.

ART GALLERIES

Before any permanent art galleries were established in New Zealand, groups of interested people in a number of centres formed themselves into the first art societies. The history of the art societies and art galleries is closely linked, and in a number of cases, particularly in the smaller centres, facilities and services are still shared. Generally, however, the institutions have developed their separate functions and they occupy separate premises. The Association of New Zealand Art Societies was founded in 1930 to help the societies to co-ordinate their activities and to co-operate on matters of common interest. There are now 38 member institutions, and the association is thus the most representative in this country in matters generally pertaining to the amateur visual arts. Art gallery interests are fostered by the Art Galleries and Museums Association of New Zealand, all the main galleries being members.

Auckland City Art Gallery—Opened in 1887, the Auckland City Art Gallery was the first in New Zealand. At that time the collection was formed of the old master paintings and other works given by Sir George Grey, a former Governor of New Zealand, a few works by local artists, together with gifts from J. McCosh Clark, Albin Martin, the Auckland Society of Arts, and others. Among the many gifts of pictures and money by citizens, mention must be made of the J. T. Mackelvie bequest of a large collection of pictures and objets d'art with an endowment of $44,000 for its development. The gallery is financed by the city council.

National Art Gallery—Officially opened in 1936, the National Art Gallery occupies the first floor of the National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum, the ground floor housing the museum collections. The two institutions are administered by a board of trustees with separate management committees for the gallery and museum, these having been constituted under the National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum Act 1930. In 1936, the New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts, Wellington, sold its gallery in Whitmore Street (this having been in effect a Wellington City Art Gallery) and devoted proceeds of the sale, its art collection, and building fund to the National Art Gallery. In return for this, the academy was granted accommodation in perpetuity within the gallery, but it remains a distinct and separate body.

Finance for the National Art Gallery is provided by annual grants from the Government, the Wellington City Council, the Wellington Harbour Board, the Lower Hutt City Council, and from other adjacent local bodies. Works of art are purchased by the Sir Harold Beauchamp and T. Lindsay Buick bequests, through grants from the Government and Wellington City Council, and from time to time, from the T. G. Macarthy Trust.

The main collection is confined to contemporary paintings, drawings, and sculpture by British and foreign, and New Zealand and Australian artists. Gift collections include the Archdeacon Smythe (eighteenth- and ninteenth-century British water-colours and drawings) and the Nicholas Chevalier, William Swainson, and J. C. Richmond collections (early New Zealand). The gallery is particularly rich in graphic art thanks to the gift collections from Bishop Monrad (mainly early Dutch and Flemish), Sir John Ilott (etchings and engravings by old and modern masters), and Rex Nan Kivell (contemporary British).

Robert McDougall Art Gallery—The Robert McDougall Art Gallery, Christchurch, was named after the donor and was opened in 1932. It is administered and wholly financed by the Christchurch City Council, who appoint the Art Gallery Committee.

The main collections include European art of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. New Zealand oil paintings, water-colours, and graphic art (early and contemporary), and a special Canterbury section. There is also a collection of miniatures. The Canterbury Art Society presented its collection of 118 paintings and other works of art to the McDougall Gallery when it was officially opened.

Dunedin Public Art Gallery—The permanent collection of the Dunedin Public Art Gallery originated in purchases from the New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition 1889. Two sections of the exhibition building were purchased by the Art Gallery Society to house these works. These erections of corrugated iron and timber served till 1905 when Lady McLean instigated the building of a permanent gallery which has now become the Early Settlers' Museum. A second New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition, 1925–26, featured an important overseas art exhibition for which an attractive and well-designed gallery was built in Logan Park. This building was purchased by Sir Percy and Lady Sargood and presented to the city as a memorial to their son, killed in the First World War. This is the present Dunedin Public Art Gallery.

The overseas collection includes a fine Romney and other notable works from the eighteenth century to the present day. Archdeacon Smythe's main gift of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century British water-colours and drawings went to the Dunedin Gallery. Vander Velden's Otira Gorge is particularly notable in the New Zealand section which comprises about one-third of the whole collection.

A board of trustees administers the gallery for the city and income derives from city council grants, membership subscriptions, gifts, bequests, and interest on investments.

Other Art Galleries—The collections in the following municipal galleries are generally a combination of European and New Zealand paintings, sculpture, and graphic art of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The Sarjeant Art Gallery, Wanganui, beautifully sited in Queen's Park and opened in 1919, is named for the donor, Henry Sarjeant. It is maintained by the Wanganui City Council and administered by a subcommittee of the council.

The Hawke's Bay Art Gallery and Museum, Napier, owes its being to the initiative of the local art society. The art gallery was opened in 1936, the centre block added in 1938, the museum wing with the Children's Museum in 1954, and the Holt Gallery in 1959.

The Gisborne Art Society, originally a branch of the Hawke's Bay and East Coast Society became independent in 1953, and acquired a spacious old homestead, Kelvin Rise, for use as an art gallery and museum.

The Hamilton Art Gallery building was presented in 1941 by Mrs Allen Bell and opened as a public art gallery in 1947.

The Art Gallery, Palmerston North, is owned and maintained by the city council but is administered by the Manawatu Society of Arts. It was erected in 1959 with public subscriptions, contributions from the art society, and a subsidy from the city council.

The Bishop Suter Art Gallery, Nelson, was founded in 1898 as a memorial to Andrew Burn Suter, Bishop of Nelson. It is administered by a self-perpetuating trust board.

The Southland Centennial Museum provides a small art gallery in Invercargill, controlled by the Museum Trust Board, comprising representatives of contributing local authorities, and other interested bodies.

The Invercargill Public Art Gallery, opened in 1951, is situated in a fine house given to the city by the late Sir Robert and Lady Anderson. The gallery is financed by annual grants from the Invercargill City Council, Southland Savings Bank, and subscriptions and donations, and is administered for the city council by the local art society.

In 1956, J. W. Grant gave to the citizens of Timaru the property in Wai-iti Road which is now known as the Aigantighe Art Gallery.

The Waihi Arts Centre and Museum represents an enterprising venture in establishing a gallery that will be sufficiently lively to attract visitors from other larger centres.

Important collections of early New Zealand paintings are held by the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington; the Hocken Library, Dunedin; the Auckland City Public Library; and the Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch.

Exhibitions—Most art galleries owe their inception to the initiative of groups of citizens, very often the local art society; their premises to private benefactors; and their maintenance and running costs to the Government (in the case of the National Gallery), to local authorities, and, to a lesser extent, to members' subscriptions. Staffing generally is meagre, and the combined purchasing resources of all the galleries scarcely reaches five figures.

To compensate for this inadequacy, temporary loan exhibitions from overseas have always been an important feature of art gallery activities. In the early part of the century these were provided by the Baillie and Murray Fuller exhibitions, and collections brought out in connection with industrial exhibitions organised from time to time in the main centres. In 1932 the Empire Art Loan Exhibitions Society was founded in London by Sir Percy Sargood “to arrange from public or private sources, exhibitions of representative works of fine art and craft work for loan to galleries and art societies within the British Commonwealth of Nations, the Colonies and Dependencies of Great Britain”. Under this scheme many important exhibitions have been brought to New Zealand and Australia, the two countries acting as a separate zone for reasons of economy. Grants from the Department of Internal Affairs defrayed transport costs within New Zealand.

In 1939 the National Gallery was entrusted with the task of assembling the Centennial Exhibition of International and New Zealand Art. The international section included sculpture by Henry Moore, Eric Gill, Charles Wheeler, paintings by Marquet, Vlaminck, Utrillo, Dufy, John, Peploe, Paul and John Nash, Frances Hodgkins, and Stanley Spencer among the total of 562 items. After the Second World War, the British Council provided numerous important exhibitions and others were secured through the good offices of diplomatic representatives in Wellington. Since 1956 Eric Westbrook and Peter Tomory, both with previous exhibition experience with the Arts Council of Great Britain, and Gilbert Docking, formerly Director of the Newcastle Art Gallery, New South Wales, have ensured an abundant programme through the Auckland Gallery. From 1960 to 1964 grants from the Department of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Arts Advisory Council, eased the financial strain, particularly in the case of the smaller participating galleries, and since 1 April 1964 the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand has continued these grants, initiated further travelling exhibitions, commissioned works of art, and subsidised the purchase of items for gallery collections.

MUSEUMS

Auckland War Memorial Museum—After the First World War, Auckland citizens subscribed over $400,000 to erect a War Memorial Museum on Observatory Hill in the Auckland Domain. Twenty-four local authorities in the Auckland metropolitan area agreed to support the museum by annual contributions, and the council of the institute was widened to include representatives of the local authorities. In 1960 an extension to the museum, costing $900,000, was opened as a Second World War Memorial. Citizens of the Auckland provincial district subscribed over half this sum and the balance was met with a Government subsidy.

Dominion Museum—The Dominion Museum was founded by the Government in 1865, as the Colonial Museum, in a building built for the purpose in Museum Street, Wellington. The first curator was Dr (afterwards Sir) James Hector, Director of the Geological Survey. In 1907, on the colony being declared a Dominion, the Colonial Museum became the Dominion Museum. As the collections had outgrown the building, plans were made in 1912 for a new building on the same site, but nothing was done until after the First World War. A board of trustees was then set up to control the Dominion Museum and National Art Gallery and in 1936 both institutions took up joint occupancy of a new building on an elevated site in Buckle Street, Wellington.

Canterbury Museum—The Canterbury Museum was opened to the public in 1866, when the Provincial Geologist, Julius von Haast, arranged his collections in the Provincial Council Building. Haast was familiar with the cultural movements that had already stirred European countries to action and, with the support of a small band of pioneer citizens, he worked to found a permanent museum. A building was finally erected on the present site and opened in 1870. Additions were made in 1872, 1876, 1882, and 1958, the last being a Centennial Memorial Wing costing $300,000 which almost doubled the exhibition floor space and included a lecture theatre seating 250. With the end of provincial government, in 1876, the control of the museum passed to the University of Canterbury, with a substantial endowment of high-country land. The income from this source declined, and from 1947 the administration and maintenance of the museum has been undertaken by a trust board supported by the local authorities of Canterbury.

Otago Museum—The founding of the Otago Museum followed the successful New Zealand Exhibition, held in Dunedin in 1865. Dr (later Sir James) Hector's collections of geological and other specimens were held to be of such permanent value and interest that in 1868 the Hector collection was opened to the public as the Otago Museum in a gallery of the new post office. In 1874 the Provincial Government decided that the museum should be housed in a permanent building and voted $25,000 for the first portion of the present structure. Following the abolition of provincial government, control of the museum was transferred to the Otago University in 1877, with pastoral lands to provide an income. This amounted to about $1,540 annually and soon proved inadequate. Additions to the buildings were made in 1890 (the annexe), 1910 (the Hocken Wing), 1929 (the Willi Fels Wing), and 1963 (the Centennial Memorial Wing). This latest addition, costing $350,000, added 30,000 sq. ft to the display halls, storerooms, and staff quarters, including two auditoria seating 400 and 150 respectively. The Otago University could not provide increased funds for the growth of the museum, and in 1955 control was transferred to a trust board representing the contributing local authorities of Otago.

Wanganui Museum—The Wanganui Public Museum had its origin in the private collection of Mr S. H. Drew. A wooden building opened in 1895 was replaced in 1928 as a result of a bequest from Miss Elizabeth Alexander and an extension in 1968 has brought the display space up to 11,000 sq. ft and provided a lecture hall seating 215. This museum is now the fifth largest in New Zealand and has notable collections of Maori artifacts, paintings, and birds.

Other Museums—Natural history and ethnological collections of national value are maintained at the four metropolitan museums, together with reference libraries. At Auckland a Museum of Transport and Technology was formed in 1964 on a site at Western Springs, and it is attracting the support of industry and specialist societies. At Christchurch a similar Museum of Science and Industry opened in 1965 on a site at Hornby. Historical material of local interest has been collected and displayed at the Waitangi Treaty House; Pompallier House; the Russell Museum; the Waimate North Mission House; the Waipu Pioneers' Memorial Museum; the Dargavile and Whangarei Museums; the Matakohe and Port Albert Museums; Albertland Museum, Wellsford; the Melanesian Mission Museum at Auckland; “Journey's End” Cottage, Onehunga; the Fencible Cottage, Howick; the Waiuku Museum; the Pioneer Cottage, Pukekohe; the Waikato Museum, Hamilton; the Coromandel, Thames, and Waihi Mining Museum; the Gavin Gifford Memorial Museum, Te Awamutu; the Elms Mission House, Tauranga; Te Amorangi Museum, Rotorua; the Hawke's Bay Art Gallery and Museum; Army Museum, Waiouru; the Norsewood Pioneer Museum; Taranaki Museum; Richmond Cottage, New Plymouth; the Alexander Museum, Wanganui; the Smith Memorial Museum, Picton; the Riverslands Cob Cottage; Nelson Museum; the Langlois-Eteveneaux House, Akaroa; Canterbury Museum; Arthur's Pass National Park Museum; the South Canterbury Memorial Museum, Timaru; the Waimate Historical Museum; the Black's Point Museum, Reefton; the West Coast Historical Museum, Hokitika; the North Otago Pioneer Gallery, Oamaru; the Otago Early Settlers' Association, Dunedin; the Alexandra Historical Museum; the Lakes District Centennial Museum, Arrowtown; the Vincent County and Dunstan Goldfields Museum, Clyde; the Maniototo Early Settlers' Museum, Naseby; Southland Museum, Invercargill; and the Stewart Island Museum (whaling).

Educational activities at the four metropolitan museums were stimulated by the generous gift of $20,000 from the Carnegie Corporation, and in 1938 education officers were appointed to each museum—half their salary being paid from the grant and half by the Department of Education. From 1941 the museum education service was accepted as part of the education system of New Zealand.

In 1947 the Art Galleries and Museums Association of New Zealand (Inc.) was formed to raise the standard of service, exchange information, and improve the qualifications of staff. Fifty-five art galleries and museums, and 109 members of trust boards and staffs belong to the association, which has instituted a system of fellowships and travel and training grants, and holds meetings and issues newsletters to further its objects.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS

In the literary field, the following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. The approved categories of assistance are: (1) Grants towards the publishing costs (or by other appropriate means) to enable the publication of writing of literary merit in such fields as contemporary creative literature, historical writing, reprints of New Zealand classics, and Maori literature; (2) Grants to New Zealand authors undertaking creative work on approved projects; (3) Grants towards the cost of publication (or other appropriate means) of critical books and studies, to encourage the reading and study of New Zealand literature; (4) Such other assistance as the committee, with better knowledge gained by its experience, may deem desirable.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship is awarded annually to a New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee, from funds available from lottery profits under Section 22 of the Gaming Amendment Act 1962. It is of the value of $2,000. The scholarship is intended to enable the recipient to give all or most of his time to the project or projects nominated by , either in New Zealand or abroad, during the year of tenure. Applications for tenure during the following calendar year are made by 30 September to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for one year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago, a condition being that the fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. The fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin.

  4. Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $200, is awarded annually to a New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee, from funds available from lottery profits under Section 22 of the Gaming Amendment Act 1962. (Applications are not called for.)

  5. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually for award to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander and published in New Zealand during the year. The award consists of a medal. (Applications are not called for.)

  6. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) is available annually for the best prose writing by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is $200. (Applications are not called for.)

  7. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) is available annually for the best poetry written by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is $100. (Applications are not called for.)

  8. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Awards—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors two biennial awards for short stories, one published and one unpublished. Both are open to New Zealand citizens (men and women), or persons who have been resident in New Zealand for the last five years, although the latter competition is limited to persons 25 years of age or younger. The awards made in 1967 were valued at $210 and $100 respectively.

  9. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors, preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for one year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin.

HISTORIC ARTICLES ACT 1962

This Act, which came into force on 1 April 1963, has for its main purpose the control of the export from New Zealand of Maori artifacts of early type, important books and papers more than 90 years old of which there is no copy in the main types of library, and biological, botanical, and mineralogical type specimens. Permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs for the export of historic articles must be secured, and the Minister may withhold permission if he is satisfied that removal would be detrimental to historical or scientific study or research in New Zealand, or contrary to the public interest.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES

Though a Controller of Dominion Archives was appointed in 1926, in the person of the Librarian of the General Assembly Library, it was not until the Archives Act 1957 was passed that the protection of New Zealand's public records was put on a firm statutory basis.

The Archives Act established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers. No archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without his approval and he has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and considerable original research is done in the National Archives by scholars, students, officials, and the public.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 15. An officer of the National Archives also collaborates with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay and East Coast Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST

Under the Historic Places Act 1954 a New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created for the purpose of preserving and marking historic places and objects, together with those of archaeological, scientific, educational, architectural, literary, or any other special interest. The Trust is currently composed of 14 members, 12 of them appointed, one elected by associate or public members, and one who is co-opted for special knowledge. A branch organisation operates through either regional or district committees, of which there are 15, or representatives, of whom there are four. This multiplicity of obligations, measured against its means, makes some sort of selection advisable, and much of the early emphasis of Trust work was concerned with the erection of bronze plaques and notice boards to commemorate significant sites or buildings. Inscriptions had to be painstakingly studied and carefully prepared. But the Trust is slowly giving more attention to preservation which, in the case of buildings, often means first-aid repairs and, less frequently, restoration. Repairs are usually financed through a grant-in-aid to the owner or occupant. The title to the property is not affected because the Trust considers that continued use is essential for preservation. In fact the Trust has taken title to only three properties, namely, the Waimate North Mission House, “Hurworth” (formerly the homestead of Sir Harry Atkinson) near New Plymouth and an armed constabularly and militia redoubt site at Pirongia. The Trust is also aware of the accelerating loss of our prehistoric heritage. Roading, hydro-electric development, closer settlement and other undertakings all on an increasing scale, have meant the loss or destruction of many of our archaeological remains. The Trust has assisted those groups or institutions anxious about the need for some form of salvage archaeology. But this need has now reached such a scale that a more systematic and continuing answer is required. The Trust has therefore collaborated with the Ministry of Works to provide two archaeologists to survey the areas affected by the Tongariro power development scheme and the Kapuni gas pipeline, and to rescue wherever possible the field monuments threatened by those two projects. The Trust also publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection and through its regional committees has begun to record and classify the historic and architecturally significant buildings and the more important sites throughout the country.

Chapter 46. Select Bibliography New Zealand Books

Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

THE following list of books and serials has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Emphasis has been placed on works which are known to be in print, but some standard works which are out of print have been included. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand or written by resident New Zealanders. Works which are clearly university or school texts have been omitted unless they represent the most concise and authoritative treatment of a subject. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The standard current bibliography of New Zealand books and pamphlets as from 1967 is the New Zealand National Bibliography issued by the Alexander Turnbull Library for the National Library of New Zealand. This replaces Copyright Publications formerly issued by the General Assembly Library and the Current National Bibliography formerly issued by the National Library Centre. Prices of New Zealand imprints are as shown in the Associated Booksellers New Zealand books in print, in publishers' catalogues and from other sources, but prices of overseas publications are given at the overseas rate.

Having regard to the importance of serial publications as records of current research, opinion, and original work, a number of journals, annuals, and bulletins have been cited where appropriate. In sections where they occur the serials follow the monographs in a separate sequence, and, where not otherwise noted, prices are for a year's subscription.

Copyright Periodicals currently received—The 1967 issue, issued by the General Assembly Library, is the standard approach to the full range of published material in this field.

INDEX TO SUBJECTS

Agriculture1,090
Antarctica1,099
Architecture1,092
Arts, general1,092
Banking1,084
Bibliography, general1,082
Biography1,099
Biology, general1,089
Business management1,091
Defence1,087
Dentistry1,090
Descriptive works1,096
Directories1,082
Drama and theatre1,095
Economics1,084
Education1,086
Encyclopaedias1,082
Essays1,095
Fauna1,089
Fiction1,094
Flora1,089
Forestry1,090
Gazetteers1,096
Geography (descriptive works)1,096
Geology1,088
Government1,086
Historical works1,097
Home economics1,091
Humour1,096
Industry1,090
Landscape1,092
Language1,091
Law1,084
Libraries1,082
Literature, general1,093
Maori language1,091
Maori people, past and present1,087
Medicine1,090
Mental health1,083
Miscellaneous1,096
Music1,092
Painting1,092
Pacific islands1,099
Plays1,095
Poetry1,093
Power1,090
Psychology1,083
Public administration1,086
Religion1,083
Science, general1,088
Social science1,083
Sport1,092
Statistics1,083
Technology1,090
Transport and communications1,087
World wars1,098

ABBREVIATIONS

a.Annually
Ak.Auckland
AssnAssociation
ChChristchurch
Dept.Department
D.S.I.R.Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
DnDunedin
Ed.Edition; Editor
Govt. Print.Government Printer
irr.Irregular
Lond.London
m.Monthly
Mimeo.Mimeographed
n.p.No price
N.Y.New York
o.p.Out of print
O.U.P.Oxford University Press
PrPress
q.Quarterly
vol.Volume
WnWellington

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

ALEXANDER TURNBULL LIBRARY, English Printed Books to 1700 in the Alexander Turnbull Library. Wn, Alexander Turnbull Library, 1963. 50c.

COLLIE, BARBARA. New Zealand books in print 1968. Wn, New Zealand Book Publishers Assn, 1968. $5.00.

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand - Australia - Pacific - Antarctic. Book Auction Records, 1962–1967. Wn, the Author, 1961. $3.00.

HOCKEN, T. M. A. Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p.

UNION CATALOGUE OF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVED IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES. 2d Ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. J. S. Gully, comp. $1.00.

UNION LIST OF SERIALS IN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 2d Ed. Wn, National Library Service, 1964. $7.00

UNION LIST OF THESES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ZEALAND, 1910–54. D. L. Jenkins, comp. Wn, New Zealand Library Assn, 1956. Mimeo. $2.00.

—– Supplement 1955–1962, with some additions and corrections . . . Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1963. $1.20.

*Wilson, J. O. A Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand, 1817–1900. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. 75c.

INDEX TO NEW ZEALAND PERIODICALS. Wn, National Library, 1947-a. $5.00

N.Z. GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Copyright Newspapers Currently Received. Biennial. 15c.

N.Z. GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Copyright Periodicals Currently Received. Biennial. 50c.

N.Z. NATIONAL ARCHIVES. National Archives of New Zealand; a review and a summary of work. Wn, 1966. gratis.

—– A summary of work 1967-

N.Z. NATIONAL LIBRARY. New Zealand National Bibliography 1967– $5.00.

LIBRARIES

MC ELDOWNEY, W. J. The New Zealand Library Association 1910–60 and its Part in New Zealand Library Development. Wn, N.Z. Library Assn, 1962. $1.20.

NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE. School Library Service. Planning the School Library. New Ed. Wn, 1962. gratis.

OSBORN, A. D. New Zealand Library Resources: Report of a Survey . . . Wn, N.Z. Library Assn. 1960. 75c.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Pacific Bibliography. 2d Ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $8.00.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES, 1967. A. L. Olsson, ed. Wn, N.Z. Library Assn, 1967. 90c.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. N Z. Library Association, 10 Park St., Wellington. 6 p.a. $2.40 to non-members.

TURNBULL LIBRARY RECORD. Wn, Friends of the Turnbull Library. semi-a. $2.50.

ENCYCLOPAEDIAS AND DIRECTORIES

AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF NEW ZEALAND. Edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $15.00.

THE NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS WHO'S WHO, 1967–68 Ed. Wn, L. T. Watkins, 1967. $13.00.

NEW ZEALAND MANUFACTURERS' DIRECTORY, 1968. Official Directory of Members. Ak, Breckell & Nicholls, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Lond., O.U.P., 1965. $6.00.

UNIVERSAL BUSINESS DIRECTORIES LTD. Universal Business Directories. 1968 issues 9 vol. $37.50.

WISE'S NEW ZEALAND POST OFFICE DIRECTORY. 4 vols. Auckland City and Environs 1968–69; Wellington City and Environs 1968–69; Christchurch City and Environs 1968; Otago and Southland 1969.

PSYCHOLOGY AND MENTAL HEALTH

ROGERS, C. A. Measuring Intelligence in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland University, 1956. $1.75.

STALLWORTHY, K. R. The Facts of Mental Health and Illness. 3d Ed. Ch, N. M. Peryer, 1961. o.p.

RELIGION

BLAIKLOCK, E. M. Layman's Answer; an examination of the New Zealand theology. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1968.

ELDER, J. R. History of the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1840–1940. Ch, Presbyterian Bookroom, 1940, o.p.

GEERING, L. G. God in the New World. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1968.

MORAN, P. F. History of the Catholic Church in Australasia. Sydney, F. Coffee, 1895. 2 vol. o.p.

MORLEY, W. The History of Methodism in New Zealand. Wn, McKee, 1900. o.p.

PURCHAS, H. T. A History of the English Church in New Zealand. Ch, Simpson & Williams, 1914. o.p.

See also MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT.

SOCIAL SCIENCE, SOCIAL WELFARE, AND STATISTICS

BROWN, B. M. The Rise of New Zealand Labour; a History of the New Zealand Labour Party from 1916 to 1940. Wn, Price Milburn, 1962. $2.25.

FONG, N. B. The Chinese in New Zealand. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press; Lond. O.U.P., 1959, $4.10.

LARKIN, T. C. New Zealand's External Relations. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, London, O.U.P., 1962. $1.80.

LOCHORE, R. A. From Europe to New Zealand: An Account of Our Continental European Settlers. Wn, Reed, 1951. $1.05.

NEALE, E. P. Guide to New Zealand Official Statistics. 3d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. $1.60.

N.Z. DEPT. OF JUSTICE. Crime and the Community: A Survey of Penal Policy in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $2.00.

—– Crime in New Zealand. A survey. Wn, Govt. Print., 1968, $4.50.

N.Z. DEPT. OF STATISTICS. Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $1.00.

*N.Z. DEPT. OF STATISTICS. Statistical Publications, 1840–1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 95c.

N.Z. SOCIAL SECURITY DEPARTMENT. The Growth and Development of Social Security in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. o.p.

ORR, ELIZABETH W. Women at Work; a guide to employment and training opportunities for women returning to work. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1968. 75c.

PERRY, C. S. The Indecent Publications Tribunal: a social experiment. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1965, $2.75.

SHARPE, D. R. Youth Leadership and the Growth of Personality. Wn, Reed, 1966. 85c.

SUMNER, E. F. W. Superannuation Explained. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell (N.Z.), 1965. $4.50.

*THOMPSON, R. H. T. Race and Sport Lond., O.U.P., 1964. $1.05.

—– Race Relations in New Zealand: A Review of the Literature. Ch, National Council of Churches, 1964. 75c.

EXTERNAL AFFAIRS REVIEW. Wn, Dept. of External Affairs. m.

N.Z. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS. Farm Production. Wn, Govt. Print., a. 95c.

—– Prices, Wages, and Labour. Wn, Govt. Print., a. 95c.

—– Industrial Production. Wn, Govt. Print., a. $3.00.

—– Population, Migration and Building, Wn, Govt. Print., 75c.

—– Vital Statistics. Wn, Govt. Print., a. 65c.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, Semi-a. $1.00.

POLITICAL SCIENCE. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington. Semi-a. 40c.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND BANK LTD. Investment and Industry in New Zealand. Wn, 1964. gratis.

BLYTH, C. A. ed. The Future of Manufacturing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1964. $2.50.

BRIGHT, T. N. Banking Law and Practice in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1962. $7.00.

CATT, A. J. L. Investment Decision Making in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1964. 50c.

CORNWALL, J. P. M. ed. Planning and Forecasting in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1965. $2.00.

LLOYD, P. J. The Economic Development of the Tourist Industry in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1964. gratis.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. Ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times, 1964. $2.50.

MORIARTY, M. J., ed. New Zealand Farm Production and Marketing. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; Lond., O.U.P., 1963. $1.80.

N.Z. INSTITUTE OF VALUERS. Principles and Practice of Urban Valuation in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, 1959. $4.20.

*N.Z. MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL. The New Zealand Financial System. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $1.50.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Money and Banking in New Zealand. Wn, 1963. 75c.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Overseas Trade and Finance, with Particular Reference to New Zealand 2d ed. Wn, 1966. $1.00.

SINCLAIR, K., and MANDLE, W. F. Open Account: A History of the Bank of New South Wales in New Zealand, 1861–1961. Wn. Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. $1.25.

CANTERBURY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. Economic Bulletin. Ch, The Chamber. m. $1.50.

MONTHLY ABSTRACT OF STATISTICS. Wn, Govt. Print. m. 50c. Annual Subscription. $5.00.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Bulletin. Wn, The Bank. m. gratis.

LAW

ADAMS, E. C. The Law of Estate and Gift Duties in New Zealand 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1956. With supp. 1960. $11.00.

ADAMS, E. C. The Law of Stamp Duties in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth. 1966. $7.75.

ADAMS, Sir F. B., ed. Criminal Law and Practice in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell (N.Z.), 1964. $14.70.

BARTON, G. P. ed. Judicature Act, including Code of Civil Procedure and Court of Appeal rules. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell (N.Z.), 1965. $5.00.

BARTON, J. S. The New Zealand Company Secretary. 8th Ed. by W. G. Rodger. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. $5.75.

BIRKS, W. R. The Legal Relationship of Parent and Child. Wn, Legal Publications, 1952. $6.00.

BURNS, P. T. and O'KEEFE, J. A. B. Functions and Powers of Justices of the Peace and Coroners. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968. $6.00.

BUTTERWORTH'S CASES ANNOTATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND STATUTES REPRINT, 1908–57, by H. J. Wily. Wn, Butterworth. 1958–1965. 3 vol. $40.00.

CAMPBELL, I. B., and NEAZOR, D. P. Workers' Compensation Law in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell (N.Z.), 1964. $8.50.

CAMPBELL, I. D. The Law of Adoption in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1957. $7.00.

CASEY, M. E. Hire Purchase Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1960. $2.50.

CHALMERS, C. C. The Road Traffic Laws of New Zealand. 5th Ed. by R. T. Dixon. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $13.50.

CROSS, A. R. N. Evidence. New Zealand edition by D. L. Mathieson. Wn, Butterworth, 1963. $11.

CUNNINGHAM, H. A. Taxation Laws of New Zealand. 6th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1967. $20.50.

DAVIS, A. G. Law of Torts in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1959. $7.75.

DERHAM, D. P. An introduction to Law. New Zealand ed. by H. R. Gray. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968. $5.25.

DOBBIE, A. E. Probate and Administration Practice in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworth. 2d Ed. 1966. $11.00.

DUGDALE, D. F. New Zealand Hire Purchase Law. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1965. $4.00.

GARROW, J. M. E. Garrow and Willis's Criminal Law. 5th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $14.00.

—– Garrow's Law of Real Property. 5th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1961. $12.75.

—– Garrow and Gray's Law of Personal Property in New Zealand. 5th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $9.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and HENDERSON, E. W. Garrow and Henderson's Law of Trusts and Trustees . . 3rd Ed. Wn, Butterworth. 1966. $11.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and WILLIS, J. D. Garrow and Willis's Law of Wills and Administration and Succession on Intestacy. 3rd Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1960, with supp. 1965. $15.00.

—– Garrow and Willis's Principles of the Law of Evidence in New Zealand. 5th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1966. $6.25.

GOODALL, S. I. Goodall's Law and Practice Relating to Conveyancing in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1951. o.p.

INGLIS, B. D. Family Law Vol. 1, 2d Ed. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell. 1968, $12.00.

A LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. Lond., Sweet & Maxwell, 1955—(Vol. 6, Australia, New Zealand, and their Dependencies . . .) 2d Ed., 1958. $3.00.

LUXFORD, J. H. Commercial Law of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1961–62. 4 vol. $40.00.

LUXFORD, J. H. Liquor Laws of New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1964. $13.50.

—– Police Law in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1967. $21.00.

—– Real Estate Agency in New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1964. $7.00.

MACDONALD, J. W. Macdonald's Law Relating to Workers' Compensation in New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth. 1968. $17.00.

MC VEAGH, J. P. Land Valuation Law. 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth 1967. $7.00.

MARSHALL, J. R. and PAGE, E. F. The Law of Water-Courses and a Handbook for Catchment Boards. Wn, Legal Publications, 1957. $4.20.

MAZENGARB, A. J. Mazengarb's Industrial Laws of New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1956. $11.50.

MAZENGARB, O. C. The Law and Practice Relating to Actions for Negligence on the Highway. 4th Ed. Sydney, Butterworth, 1962. $11.00.

MORISON, C. B. Morison's Company Law in New Zealand. 3d Ed. by F. C. Spratt . . . Wn, Butterworth 1958 2 vol. with supp. No. 2 1964. $25.00.

N.Z. LAWS, STATUTES, etc. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–61. 16 vol. $120.00.

THE NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF FORMS AND PRECEDENTS OTHER THAN COURT FORMS. Editor: E. C. Adams Wn, Butterworth, 1963–$11.75 ea. (Vol. 14 1968).

NORTHEY, J. F. Commercial Law in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1966. $7.75.

—– Introduction to Company Law in New Zealand. 6th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $6.00.

PATERSON, D. E., An Introduction to Administrative Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1967. $8.00.

PAUL, T. F. Land and Income Tax in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworth. 2d Ed. 1967. $4.50.

ROBINSON, K. The Law of Town and Country Planning. Wn, Butterworth, 1966. $6.00.

ROBSON, J. L. ed. New Zealand: The Development of its Laws and Constitution. 2d Ed Lond., Stevens & Sons, 1967 $10.50.

SIM, Sir W. J. The Practice of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal of New Zealand. 10th Ed. by Sir R. Stout and Sir W. A. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1966. $17.50.

SIM, Sir W. J. Sim's Divorce Law and Practice in New Zealand. 7th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1965. $8.50.

SMITH, N. W. Maori Land Corporations. Wn, Reed, 1962. $1.05.

—– Maori Land Law. Wn, Reed, 1960. $4.20.

STAPLES, C. A. Land Tax in New Zealand. 5th Ed. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1963. $1.25.

STEPHENS, M. O. Traffic and Transport Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell (N.Z.), 1964. $8.50.

TONKIN, A. S. The Law and Procedure Relating to Company Meetings and Winding-up in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1958. $3.25.

TONKIN, A. S., AND THOMPSON, M. I. The Law and Taxation of Private Companies. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1962 (i.e., 1963). $4.25.

WARD, D. A. S., and WILD, H. R. C. Mercantile Law in New Zealand. 5th Ed. (rev.) Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968. $14.50.

WEBB, P. R. H. Source Book of Family Law, being a New Zealand edition of Webb and Bevan. Wn, Butterworth, 1967. $13.50.

WILY, H. J. Wily's Magistrates' Court Practice . . . 6th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $15.00.

—– Wily's Tenancy Legislation. 5th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1962. $4.50.

—– ed. The Abridgement of New Zealand Case Law. Wn, Butterworth, 1963-. 17 vol. $13.00.

WILY, H. J. AND STALLWORTHY, K. R. Mental Abnormality and the Law. Ch, N. M. Peryer, 1962. $6.30 ea.

WOODS, N. S. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.10.

NEW ZEALAND LAW JOURNAL. Butterworth, Wn. Fortnightly. $10.25.

NEW ZEALAND LAW REGISTER. Wn, N.Z. Law Publishing Co., 1950—a. 1968. $4.00.

NEW ZEALAND LAW REPORTS. Butterworth, Wn. m. $20.00.

GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

BISHOP, C. L. Local Authority Finance, Accounts and Administration. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1959. $12.50. Supplement 1966. $4.00.

BROWN, J. B. Rural Land Administration in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration. Lond., O.U.P., 1966 $2.00.

CHAPMAN, R. M., JACKSON, W. K. AND MITCHELL, A. V. New Zealand Politics in Action; the 1960 General Election. London, O.U.P., 1962. $3.50.

*DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 2d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. 20c.

GLUE, W. A. History of the Government Printing Office. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $2.00.

JOLLIFFE, W. Jolliffe's Local Government in Boroughs and Counties. 8th Ed., Ed. by J. P. McVeagh. Wn, Ferguson and Osborn, 1964-. 2 vol. Vol. 1. $16.00.

LAMB, R. C. Early Christchurch; The Beginnings of Municipal Government 1862–1868. Ch, Canterbury Public Library, 1963. $1.25.

MILNE, R. S. Political Parties in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. $6.90

MITCHELL, A. V. Waitaki Votes; a Study of a New Zealand By-election, 1962. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1962. $1.00.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949, ed. by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50.

ORR, G. S. Report on Administrative Justice in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $2.00.

SCOTT, K. J. The New Zealand Constitution. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1962. $2.50.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES HANDBOOK OF NEW ZEALAND. Govt. Print., Wn. a. $1.50.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, Wn. Semi-a. $1.

EDUCATION

ASHTON-WARNER, S. Teacher. New York, Simon & Schuster; Lond., Secker & Warburg, 1963. $2.80.

EWIN, J. L. Origins of the New Zealand Primary School Curriculum, 1840–1878. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1960. $2.75.

N.Z. COMMISSION ON EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. Report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. $2.75.

PARKYN, G. W., Success and Failure at the University. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1959. 2 vol. Vol. 1. $4.20. Vol. 2, 1967. $3.60.

RICHARDSON, E. S. In this Early World. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1964. $3.50.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

SEARLE, E. J. The Teaching of Science in Post-Primary Schools. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1958. $3.00.

SHALLCRASS, J. J. Educating New Zealanders; essays in education. Wn, Reed. $1.75.

SUTTON-SMITH, B. The Games of New Zealand Children. Berkeley, Calif., University of California Press, 1959. US$4.00.

WATSON, J. E. Intermediate Schooling in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1964. $3.75.

EDUCATION. Wn, School Publications Branch, Dept. of Education, P.O. Box 2836. 10 p. a. $1.00.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

COLLINS, R. J. G., and FATHERS, H. T. M. Ed. The Postage Stamps of New Zealand. Wn, Royal Philatelic Society of N.Z., 1938–64. 4 vol. Vols 1–3 o.p. Vol. 4. $12.60. Vol. 5, 1967. $16.80.

CONTAINER AND CARGO HANDLING COMMITTEE. Report. London, New Zealand Tonnage Committee, 1967. W. Molyneux, Chairman. $1.50.

HARVIE, E. F. Venture the Far Horizon. The Pioneer Long-distance Flights in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1966. $2.50.

PALMER, A. N., and STEWART, W. W. Cavalcade of New Zealand Locomotives. Rev. and enl. ed. Wn, Reed; 1965. $3.85.

ROBINSON, H. A History of the Post Office in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

DEFENCE

DORNBUSCH, C. E., comp. The New Zealand Army; a Bibliography. Cornwallville, N.Y., Hope Farm Press, 1961. US$4.00.

See also World War.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

ALPERS, A. F. G. Maori Myths and Tribal Legends. London, J. Murray, Hamilton, Paul, 1964. $3.00.

ARMSTRONG, A. G., and NGATA, R. Maori Action Songs. Wn, Reed, 1960. $1.50.

ARMSTRONG, A. G. Maori Games and Hakas. Wn, Reed, 1964. $1.95.

BEST, E. The Maori As He Was. Wn, Govt. Print., 1952. $2.00.

BIGGS, B. G. Maori Marriage; an Essay in Reconstruction. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1960. $2.10.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1949. $3.75.

—– Vikings of the Sunrise. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1954. $3.85.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. $5.00.

GOLSON, J., ed. Polynesian Navigation; a Symposium on Andrew Sharp's Theory of Accidental Voyages. Rev. ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1963. $1.50.

GREY, Sir G. Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the Maori. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1956. $1.75.

HARRÉ, J. N. Maori and Pakeha; a Study of Mixed Marriages in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1966. $3.00.

MEAD, S. M. The Art of Maori Carving. Wn, Reed, 1961. $1.75.

METGE, JOAN. The Maoris of New Zealand. London, Routledge, 1967. 30s.

—– A New Maori Migration: Rural and Urban Relations in Northern New Zealand. London, Athlone Press; Melbourne, University of Melbourne Press, 1964. $4.50.

*N.Z. DEPT. OF MAORI AFFAIRS. Integration of Maori and Pakeha. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 20c.

ORBELL, MARGARET R. Maori Folktales in Maori and English. Ak, B. and J. Paul. $2.50.

PHILLIPPS, W. J. Maori Houses and Food Stores. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1952. $1.80.

—– Carved Maori Houses of Western and Northern Areas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955. $5.00.

—– Maori Life and Custom. Wn, Reed, 1966. $3.75.

POCOCK, J. G. A. ed. The Maori and New Zealand Politics; talks from a N.Z.B.C. series with additional essays. Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1965. $1.80.

REED, A. W. Myths and Legends of Maoriland. 7th Ed. Wn, Reed, 1961. $3.00.

—– Treasury of Maori Folklore. Wn, Reed, 1963. $4.50.

RITCHIE, J. E. The Making of a Maori; a Case Study of a Changing Community. Wn, Reed, 1963. $2.15.

SCHWIMMER E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1966. $2.10.

SHARP, C. A. Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1963. $2.10.

WESTRA, Ans. Maori. Photographs Ans Westra. Text James Ritchie. Wn, Reed, 1967. $6.30.

(See also Historical Works, Maori Tribal, and Language, Maori and English.)

TE AO HOU. Department of Maori Affairs, Wn. q. 75c.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. D.S.I.R., Wn, q. $6.00.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

CALLAGHAN, F. R., ed. Science in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1957. o.p.

MC BRIDE, C. P. Scientific Research in New Zealand: Expenditure and Manpower 1926–1966. Wn, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1966. 50c.

DIRECTORY OF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE, 4th Ed., 1962. H. Jansen, ed. Wn, N.Z. Association of Scientists, 1962. $4.50.

N.Z. D.S.I.R. INFORMATION BUREAU. D.S.I.R. Handbook. 6th Ed. Wn, 1966. n.p.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE AND MUSEUM. Records. The Museum, Ak. irr. Price varies.

CANTERBURY MUSEUM, CHRISTCHURCH. Records. The Museum, Ch. irr. Price varies.

N.Z. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH. Bulletins. D.S.I.R., Wn. irr. Price varies.

—– Information Series. D.S.I.R., Wn. irr. Price varies.

N.Z. DOMINION MUSEUM, WELLINGTON. Dominion Museum Records, The Museum, Wn. irr. Price varies.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. D.S.I.R., Wn, . $6.00.

GEOLOGY AND EARTH SCIENCE

ADKIN, G. L. and Collins, B.W., A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. $4.50.

BANWELL, C. J., and others. Physics of the New Zealand Thermal Area. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1957. $1.50.

COTTON, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th rev. Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. Lond., Muller, 2d revised. 1967. (U.S. Ed., About Earthquakes. N.Y., Harper, 1957.) 30s.

GARNER, D. M. Hydrology of New Zealand Coastal Waters, 1955. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1961 $1.25.

*GARNER, D. M. and RIDGWAY, N. M. Hydrology of New Zealand Offshore Waters. Wn, Govt. Print., 1965. $1.50.

GARNIER, B. J. The Climate of New Zealand. Lond., E. Arnold, 1958. $7.00.

GRINDLEY, G. W., HARRINGTON, H. J. and WOOD, B. L. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $3.75.

THOMPSON, B. N. ed. New Zealand Volcanology: Central Volcanic Region. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. $2.00.

—– New Zealand Volcanology: Northland, Coromandel, Auckland. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. $1.00.

—– New Zealand Volcanology: South Island. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. $1.00.

TOEBES, C. Applied Hydrology. Wn, Technical Correspondence School, 1963.

WELLMAN, H. W. Structural Outline of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1956. 65c.

WILLIAMS, G. J. Economic Geology of New Zealand. Melbourne, Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1965. $8.40.

N.Z. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Geological Bulletins. The Survey, P.O. Box 368, Lower Hutt. irr. Price varies.

—– Geological Memoirs. The Survey, Lower Hutt. irr. Price varies.

—– Palaeontological Bulletins. The Survey, Lower Hutt. irr. Price varies.

HYDROLOGY ANNUAL. Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council. $2.50.

JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGY. Wn. semi-a. $1.00 per copy.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS. D.S.I.R., Wn, q. $10.00.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions: Geology. The Society, c/o P.O. Box 196, Wellington, irr. $2.00 per vol.

BIOLOGY, GENERAL

MORTON, J. E. AND MILLER, M. New Zealand Sea Shore. Ak, Collins. $9.00.

NEW ZEALAND ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Proceedings. The Society, Box 202, Wellington, a. $1.25.

TUATARA. Journal of the Biological Society, Victoria University of Wellington, Box 196, Wellington. irr. 40c. per issue.

FAUNA

ALPERS, A. F. G. Dolphins. 2d Ed. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade; Lond., John Murray, 1963. $2.50.

BENNETT, E. W. The Marine Fauna of New Zealand: Crustacea Brachyura. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $2.00.

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand; new edition by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1967. $16.50.

FALLA, R. A., and others. A Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. Lond., Ak, Collins, 1966. $4.50.

FORSTER, R. R. Spiders of New Zealand. Dn, Otago Museum Trust Board. Part I, 1967 $3.00; Part II, 1968. $5.00.

FREED, D. W. Bibliography of New Zealand Marine Zoology, 1769–1899. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1963.

HOWARD. W. E. Control of Introduced Mammals in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. $1.25. $1.25.

GASKIN, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1966. $4.75.

LEE, K. E. The Earthworm Fauna of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $6.00.

MARPLES, B. J. An Introduction to Freshwater Life in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs. 1962. $2.00.

MOON, G. J. H. Refocus on New Zealand Birds. 3d Rev. Ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $6.00.

NATUSCH, S. Animals of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs. 1967. $4.95.

PARROT, A. W. Sea Fishes of New Zealand. Lond., Hodder. 1966.

PENDERGRAST, J. G. and COWLEY, D. R. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak, London, Collins, 1966. $1.50.

POWELL, A. W. B. Native Animals of New Zealand. Auckland Institute & Museum, 1951. 75c.

—– Shells of New Zealand, an Illustrated Handbook. 4th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. $2.25.

ROYAL FOREST AND BIRD PROTECTION SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Sea and Shore Birds: 24 col. illus. with Descriptive Letterpress. 2d Ed. Wn, The Society, 1953. $1.75.

—– New Zealand Birds: 24 col. illus. of Forest-inhabitating Birds with Descriptive Letterpress. 3d Ed. Wn, The Society, 1959. $2.10.

SHARELL, R. The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $3.50.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF MARINE AND FRESHWATER RESEARCH. Wn, D.S.I.R. q. $6.00 p.a.

NOTORNIS, New Zealand Ornithological Society, c/o R. B. Sibson, King's College, Ak. q. $2.00.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions: Zoology. The Society, Wn. irr.

FLORA

*ADAMS, J. N. M. Mountain Flowers of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1965. $1.85.

ALLAN, H. H. Flora of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961 — 3 vols. Vol. 1. 1961. $10.50.

—– A Handbook of the Naturalised Flora of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1940. o.p.

*BROOKER, S. G. and COOPER, R. C. New Zealand Medicinal Plants. Ak, Auckland Museum. 1961. $1.00.

CHAMBERLAIN, E. E. Plant Virus Diseases in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1954. $1.50.

COCKAYNE, L., and Turner, E. P. The Trees of New Zealand. 6th Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $2.50.

COCKAYNE, L., New Zealand Plants and their Story. 4th Ed., by E. J. Godley. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.00.

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. Wn, Dept. of Agriculture, 1960. 20c.

DRUCE, A. P. Botanical Survey of an Experimental Catchment, Taita, New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1957. $1.50.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; the Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station, 3d Ed. Edinburgh, William Blackwood, 1953. o.p.

LAING, R. M., and BLACKWELL, E. W. Plants of New Zealand. 7th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

PHILIPSON, W. R., and HEARN, D. Rock Garden Plants of the Southern Alps. Ch, Caxton Press, 1962. $4.75.

POOLE, A. L., and ADAMS, N. M. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

SAINSBURY, G. O. K. Handbook of New Zealand Mosses. Wn, Royal Society of New Zealand, 1955. $2.55.

SALMON, J. T. Field Guide to the Alpine Plants of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. $5.60.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions: Botany. The Society, Wn. irr.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF BOTANY. Wn, D.S.I.R., q. $6.00.

MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY

HERCUS, Sir C. E. and BELL, Sir G. The Otago Medical School Under the First Three Deans. Edinburgh, Livingstone, 1964.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health: A History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

ROBB, Sir G. D. Medical Odyssey. Ak, Collins, 1967. $2.50.

SAUNDERS, J. L. The New Zealand School Dental Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. (Not for sale.)

NEW ZEALAND DENTAL JOURNAL. N.Z. Dental Association, Lister Building, Auckland. q. $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND MEDICAL JOURNAL. British Medical Association, Wn. m. $6.00.

TECHNOLOGY, POWER AND INDUSTRY

BLYTH, C. A. The future of manufacturing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, Lond., O.U.P., 1964. $2.50.

FARRELL, B. H. Power in New Zealand; a Geography of Energy Resources. Wn, Reed, 1962. $4.25.

HEINZ, W. F. Prospecting for Gold. 2d Rev. Ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1964. 75c.

SPEER, N. M. The Electrical Supply Industry in New Zealand, its Progress and Achievement. Wn, Electrical Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand, 1962. $3.00.

THOMSON, HELEN M. S. Fibres and Fabrics of Today. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.60.

ELECTRIC SUPPLY AUTHORITIES' ENGINEERS' INSTITUTE OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions . . . Annual Conference. The Institute, Wn. a. $4.20.

NEW ZEALAND ELECTRICAL JOURNAL. Technical Publications Ltd., Wn. m. $2.00; $2.50 overseas.

NEW ZEALAND ENGINEERING. Technical Publications Ltd., Wn, m. $5.00; $6.00 overseas.

NEW ZEALAND PATENT OFFICE JOURNAL. Patent Office. Wn, m. $14.00.

AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, etc.

BOWEN, W. G. Wool Away: The Art and Technique of Shearing. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs. 3rd Ed. 1963. $1.75.

CONNELL, R. P., and HADFIELD, J. W. Agriculture. 7th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. $2.10.

COOP, I. E. The Principles and Practice of Animal Nutrition. 2d Rev. Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. $1.75.

DU FAUR, R. T. Sheep Farming for Profit. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.00.

DURING, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2d Ed. rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison & Co., 1963. $4.25.

—– Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. 4th Ed. rev. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.75.

HILGENDORF, Weeds of New Zealand and How to Eradicate Them. 7th Ed. by J. W. Calder. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1967. $2.25.

MC MEEKAN, C. P. Grass to Milk. 3d Ed. Wn, N.Z. Dairy Exporter, 1964. $3.00.

—– Principles of Animal Production. 3d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. $2.75.

PLANT PROTECTION IN NEW ZEALAND, by J. D. Atkinson and Others. Wn, Govt. Print., 1956. $5.60.

REED, A. H. AND OTHERS. The New Story of the Kauri. Wn, Reed, 1965. $6.30.

REES, S. W. Pig Farming for Profit. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.00.

*REID, J. S. New Zealand Building Timbers (how, where and when to use them), 3d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 50c.

SUTHERLAND, W. T. G. The Sixty Million Muster. Wn, Reed, 1966. $3.75.

WATSON, R. N. New Zealand Farm Accounting. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $7.75.

WHITTLESTONE, W. G. The Principles of Mechanical Milking. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $3.00

WILD, L. J. Soils and Manures in New Zealand. 6th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. $1.05.

CANTERBURY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. AGRICULTURAL BULLETIN. Ch, The Chamber, m.

DAIRYFARMING ANNUAL. Massey University, P.B. Palmerston North. a. $1.25.

N.Z. SOIL BUREAU. Bulletins. Wn, D.S.I.R. irr. Price varies.

NEW ZEALAND GRASSLAND ASSOCIATION. Conference Proceedings. The Association, Wn. a. $1.50.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE. Wilson and Horton. m. $2.40.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF FORESTRY. N.Z. Institute of Foresters, Rotorua. semi-a. $2.00.

NEW ZEALAND PLANTS AND GARDENS. Royal N.Z. Institute of Horticulture, P.O. Box 1368, Wellington. q. 25c per copy.

NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Proceedings. The Society, Hamilton. a. $1.50.

NEW ZEALAND VETERINARY JOURNAL. Editorial Services Ltd., P.O. Box 2721, Wn. bi-m. $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND WEED CONTROL CONFERENCE. Proceedings. The Conference, Wn. a. $1.50.

SHEEPFARMING ANNUAL. Massey University, Palmerston North. a. $1.25.

HOME ECONOMICS

CARPENTER, Emily E. Home Management and House Care. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968. $2.25.

*SIRSKI, JOANNA. Freezing. Dn, Dept. of University Extension, University of Otago. 1967. 45c.

BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

BARTON, J. S. The New Zealand Company Secretary. 8th Ed., by W. G. Rodger. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. $5.75.

COWAN, T. K. Financial Accounting in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1966. $8.00.

HANLEY, GARRY, ed. Personnel Management in New Zealand. 3d rev. 1967. $5.00.

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 3d rev. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $12.00.

RODGER, W. G. and GILKISON, W. S. Auditing; the Principles and Practices of Auditing under New Zealand Conditions, 3d Ed. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1962. $8.40.

LANGUAGE, MAORI AND ENGLISH

BIGGS, B. G. English — Maori Finder List. Ak, The Author, 1961. 75c.

—–, and others, ed. Selected Readings in Maori. Rev. Ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $1.50.

WILLIAMS W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 6th Ed., by H. W. Williams, Rev. and Augmented Under the Auspices of the Polynesian Society. Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. o.p.

WILLIAMS, W. L. First Lessons in Maori. 13th Ed. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. $1.35.

TE REO. Linguistic Society of New Zealand, c/o Dept. of Romance Languages, University of Auckland, Ak. a. $1.00.

ARTS IN GENERAL, PAINTING AND MUSIC

*AUCKLAND ART GALLERY. P. van der Velden, Paintings, 1870–1912. Ak, 1959. o.p. and Similar Catalogues on Other N.Z. Artists.

BAILEY, Mrs Rona and ROTH, H.O. Shanties by the Way; a selection of New Zealand popular songs and ballads. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $3.85.

*BRASCH, C. O. Present Company; Reflections on the Arts. Ak, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1966. 75c.

JENSEN, O. The N.Z.B.C. Symphony Orchestra. Wn, Reed, 1966. $4.00.

SIMPSON, E. C. A Survey of the Arts in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1961. $1.50.

*TAYLOR, E. M. Engravings on Wood. Wn, Mermaid Press, 1957 $4.20.

*WOOLLASTON, M. T. The Far-away Hills; a Meditation on the New Zealand Landscape . . . Ak. Auckland Gallery Associates, 1962. 50c.

—– ERUA, Ak, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1966. $3.30.

ASCENT. A journal of the arts in New Zealand. Caxton Press. semi-a. $3.00.

LANDSCAPE

PASCOE, J. D. ed. National Parks of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1965. $3.50.

SALMON, J. T. Heritage Destroyed; the Crisis in Scenery Preservation in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1960. 85c.

ARCHITECTURE

ALINGTON, M. H. Frederick Thatcher and St. Paul's, an Ecclesiological Study. Wn, Govt. Print., 1965. 45c.

*TAYLOR, C. R. H. The Gothic Beauties and History of the Canterbury Provincial Buildings. 4th Ed. Ch. Canterbury Provincial Buildings Board. 1963. 25c.

*WARREN, D. E. Some Canterbury Churches. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1957. 55c.

SPORT

BRIDGE, L. D. Mountain Search and Rescue in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Federated Mountain Clubs of N.Z., 1961. $1.00.

BURRELL, R. W. ed. Bushcraft Manual. Wn, National Mountain Safety Council, 1968. 40c.

CARMAN, A. H. Ranfurly Shield Rugby; the complete book of match reports. 2d rev. Ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $2.50.

DOOGUE, R. B., and MORELAND, J. M. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. Wn, Reed. 4th ed. 1966. $2.75.

HARRIS, N. H. Lap of Honour; the Great Moments of New Zealand Athletics. Wn, Reed. 1963. $1.85.

HINTZ, O. S. Trout at Taupo, Lond., M. Reinhardt. New Ed. 1964. $3.00.

LYDIARD, A. L., and Gilmour, G. Run to the Top. 2nd Ed. Ak, Minerva, 1967. $3.50.

*MIERS, K. H. Shooters' Guide to New Zealand Waterbirds. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1960. 15c.

MULGREW, P. D. No Place for Men. Wn, Reed, 1964. $2.50.

N.Z. DEPT. OF EDUCATION. Physical Education Branch. (Sports Series) 1954—(Guide Books for Teachers and Coaches on Various Sports, e.g., rugby football, athletics, hockey) 25c ea.

NOLAN, M. A. Bush Lore. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. $1.35.

PASCOE, J. D. Land Uplifted High. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1962. $1.85.

PAUL, G. R. Cruising in New Zealand Waters. Rev. Ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1963. 95c.

SMITH, M. W. Game as You Like (Biographies of Sportsmen) Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1965. $2.40.

CRICKET ALMANAC OF NEW ZEALAND. A. H. Carman, Wn. a. $1.25.

RUGBY ALMANAC OF NEW ZEALAND. A. H. Carman, Wn. a. $1.00.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

JOHNSON, O. A. A. R. D. Fairburn, 1904–57; a Bibliography of his Published Work. Ak, University of Auckland, 1958. 50c

LANDFALL. Landfall Country; Work from Landfall, 1947–61, Chosen by Charles Brasch. Ch, Caxton Press, 1962. $4.50.

MC CORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. Lond., O.U.P., 1959. $2.25.

MULGAN, A. E. Great Days in New Zealand Writing. Wn, Reed, 1962. $1.85.

REID, J. C. ed. A Book of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1964. $1.60.

SMITHYMAN, W. K. A Way of Saying; a Study of New Zealand Poetry. Ak, Collins, 1965. $2.25.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2d ed. Wn, Reed, 1966. $1.50.

TURNER, G. W. The English Language in Australia and New Zealand. London, Longmans, 1966. $3.75.

LANDFALL. Caxton Press, 119 Victoria St., Ch. q. $3.50 pa.

POETRY

ADOCK, K. F. Tigers. Lond., O.U.P., 1967. $2.00.

BAXTER, J. K. Aspects of Poetry in New Zealand. Ch, Caxton Press, 1967. 50c.

—– The Man on the Horse. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1967, $1.80.

—– Pig Island Letters. Lond., Oxford University Press, 1966. $2.00.

*BLAND, P. G. My Side of the Story; Poems 1960–1964. Ak, Mate Books, 1964. $1.50.

*BRASCH, C. O. Ambulando; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1964. $1.50.

*—– C. O. Disputed Ground; Poems 1939–45. Ch, Caxton Press, 1948. 60c.

CAMPBELL, A. Blue Rain. Wn, Wai-te-ata Press, 1967. 50c.

*—– Sanctuary of Spirits; Poems. Wn, Wai-te-ata Press, 1963. 40c.

*CHALLIS, C. G. Building; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1963. $1.50.

CHAPMAN, R. MCD., and BENNETT, J., comps. Anthology of New Zealand Verse. Lond., O.U.P., 1956. $2.10.

CURNOW, T. A. M. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, Eng., Penguin Books, 1966. $1.25.

—– A Small Room with Large Windows; Selected Poems. Lond., O.U.P., 1962. $2.45.

—– Whim Wham Land, by Whim Wham. Ak, Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1967. $2.50.

*DALLAS, R. Daybook; Poems of a Year. Ch, Caxton Press, 1967, $1.50.

—– Shadow Show. Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1968. $1.50.

*DOYLE, C. D. Messages for Herod. Ak, Collins, 1965. $1.25.

—– ed. Recent Poetry in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1965. $1.80.

*DUGGAN, E. M. More Poems. Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1951. $1.25.

DUNSTAN, Peggy. Patterns on Glass; selected poems. Ch, Pegasus, 1968, $1.75.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966. $2.50; paper $1.50.

FRAME, J. The Pocket Mirror. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1968. $2.50.

GILBERT, Ruth. The Luthier. Poems. Wn, Reed, 1966. $1.25.

GLOVER, D. J. M. Enter Without Knocking. Ch, Pegasus Press. 1964. $1.75.

—– Sharp edge up. Verses and Satires. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $1.95.

—– Since Then. Wn, Mermaid Press, 1957. $1.05.

HART-SMITH, W. The Talking Clothes, poems. Sydney, Angus and Robertson, 1966. $A1.95.

*HENDERSON, P., pseud. The Halting Place. Ch, Caxton Press, 1963. $1.50.

*—– Unwilling Pilgrim; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1955. $1.25.

*HERVEY, J. R. She was My Spring. Ch, Caxton Press, 1954. $1.50.

*HOOPER, P. A Map of Morning and Other Poems. Ch, Pegasus, 1964. $1.25.

IRELAND, Kevin. Educating the Body. Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1967. $1.50.

JOHNSON, L. A. Bread and a Pension; Selected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1964. $1.50.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems; with an Introduction by Allen Curnow. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1962. $1.75.

*MULGAN, A. E. Golden Wedding and Other Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1964. $1.25.

MURDOCH, W., and MULGAN, A., comps. A Book of Australian and New Zealand Verse. Lond., O.U.P., 1950. 90c.

NGATA, Sir A. T., ed. (Nga Moteatea) The Songs. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959-. (Part 1, $3.25; Part 2, $4.25).

*OLIVER, W. H. Fire Without Phoenix; Poems 1946–54. Ch, Caxton Press, 1957. $1.25.

RODDICK, A. M. The Eye Corrects; poems 1955–1965. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $1.25.

*SCHRODER, J. H. E. The Street and Other Verses. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1962. $1.25.

SMITHYMAN, W. K. Flying to Palmerston; poems. Ak, O.U.P. for the University of Auckland, 1968.

*STEAD, C. K. Whether the Will is Free; Poems 1954–62. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1964. $1.25.

*TUWHARE, H. No Ordinary Sun; Poems. Hamilton, Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1964. $1.05.

WILKINSON, I. G. Houses by the Sea and the Later Poems of Robin Hyde (pseud.), Ch, Caxton Press, 1952. $1.25.

*WILSON, P. S. Staying at Ballisodare. Lond., Scorpion Press, 1960. 85c.

WOODHOUSE, A. R., comp. New Zealand Farm and Station Verse 1850–1950. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950. Reprinted 1967. $2.50.

FICTION

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; The Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964, 55c.

N.Z. NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE. School Library Service. Fiction for Post-primary Schools; an Annotated List. 2d Ed. Rev. and Enl. Wn, 1960. Photoprinted.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction since 1945. Dn, J. McIndoe, 1968. $1.20.

ADSETT, D. R. A Magpie Sings. Wn, Price Milburn, 1963. $1.60.

AMATO, R. The Full Circle of the Travelling Cuckoo. With the memoir of author by M. Shadbolt. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1967. $1.95.

ASHTON-WARNER, S. Bell Call. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1964.

—– Greenstone. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs. 1967. $2.60.

—– Incense to Idols. Lond., Secker & Warburg, 1960. $1.80.

—– Spinster. Lond., Secker & Warburg, 1958. $1.80.

BALLANTYNE, D. The Cunninghams. Lond., Robert Hale; Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1963. $1.60.

—– D. A Friend of the Family. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.90.

—– The Last Pioneer. Lond., Robert Hale; Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1963. $1.35.

BILLING, G. J. Forbush and the Penguins. Wn, Reed, 1965. $1.60.

BRATHWAITE, E. The Evil Day. Lond., Collins, 1967. $2.50.

—– The Flying Fish. Lond., Ak, Collins, 1964. $2.20.

COWLEY, Mrs C. J. Nest in a Falling tree. Lond., Secker and Warburg, 1967. 30s.

DAVIN, D. M. New Zealand Short Stories. Lond., O.U.P., 1953. $1.20.

DUCKWORTH, M. R. A Barbarous Tongue. Lond., Hutchinson, 1963. $1.60.

DUGGAN, M. N. Summer in the Gravel Pit; Stories. Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul; Lond., Gollancz, 1965. $2.10.

FRAME, J. The Adaptable Man. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1965. $2.10.

—– The Edge of the Alphabet. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1962. $1.75.

—– The Reservoir; Stories and Sketches. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966. $2.25.

—– A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $2.25.

—– Scented Gardens for the Blind. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1963. $1.75.

—– Snowman, Snowman; Fables and Fantasies. New York, G. Braziller, 1963.

FRANCE, H. R. Ice Cold River. Lond., Constable; Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1961. $1.75.

GEE, M. G. The Big Season. Lond., Hutchinson, 1962. $1.60.

—– A special Flower. Lond., Hutchinson, 1965. $2.35.

GILBERT, G. R. Love in a Lighthouse. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1956. $1.25.

GROVER, R. F. Another Man's Role. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.10.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. Lond., Heinemann, 1960. $1.60.

—– Power of Joy. Lond., M. Joseph, 1965. $2.10.

JOSEPH, M. K. The Hole in the Zero. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.25.

—– A Pound of Saffron. Lond., Gollancz; Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1962. $1.85.

LEE, J. A. Children of the Poor. London, Mayfair Books. 50c. (paper)

—– Shining With the Shiner. Lond., Mayfair Books, 1963. 55c.

MANSFIELD, K. Selected Stories, Chosen and Introduced by D. M. Davin. Lond., O.U.P., 1953. $1.40.

MIDDLETON, O. E. G. A Walk on the Beach. London, Joseph, 1964. $2.10.

MITCALFE, B. Salvation Jones. Ak, Mate Books (Ak) 1962. 75c.

MUIR, Word for Word. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1960. $1.80.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1960. $1.35.

SARGESON, F. Collected Stories. Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1964. $1.60.

—– The Hangover. Lond., MacGibbon and Kee, 1967. $2.50.

—– I for One. Ch, Caxton Press, 1954. 60c.

—– Memoirs of a Peon. Lond., MacGibbon & Kee, 1965. $3.10.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Among the Cinders. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1965. $2.25.

—– The Presence of Music; three novellas. Lond., Cassell, 1967. $2.80.

—– Summer Fires and Winter Country. Lond., Eyre & Spottiswoode; Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1963. $2.10.

STEAD, C. K. New Zealand Short Stories, 2d series. London. O.U.P., 1966. $1.55.

WALLIS, R. F. Point of Origin. Boston, Houghton Miflin; Lond., Bodley Head, 1963. $1.70.

WILKINSON, I. G. Check to your King . . . by Robin Hyde (pseud.) Wn, Reed, 1960. $1.50.

WILSON, G. E. M. Brave Company. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1963. $1.50.

FICTION, JUVENILE

ATKINSON, Mollie M. Richard Bird in the Bush. 3d ed, Wn, Reed 1968. $1.35.

FINLAYSON, R. D. The Springing Fern. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs,1965. $1.75.

LOCKE, E. V. The Runaway Settlers. Lond., Cape; Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1965. $1.60.

MITCALFE, B. The Long Holiday. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. $1.20.

*MORICE, S. The Book of Wiremu. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1958. 25c.

WEST, J. T. The Golden Country. Lond., Dent; Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1965. $1.50.

*WESTRA, A. Washday at the Pa. Ch, Caxton Press, 1964. $1.05.

ESSAYS

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. The Woman Problem and other prose. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.50.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Eye of the Lizard, a Selection of Editorials from the New Zealand Listener, 1949–59. Wn, Reed, 1960. $1.55.

DRAMA AND THEATRE

NEW ZEALAND DRAMA COUNCIL. List of Recommended Plays. Wn, 1955. 25c.

PLAYS

JONES, S. The Tree. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 50c.

MASON, B. E. G. The Pohutukawa Tree; a Play in Three Acts. 4th Ed. Wn, Price Milburn, 1967. $1.50.

SARGESON, F. Wrestling with an Angel; two plays, A Time for Sowing and The Cradle and the Egg. Ch, Caxton Press, 1964. $1.75.

HUMOUR

CRUMP, B. J. Hang on a Minute Mate. Wn, Reed, 1961. $1.60.

REID, J. C. The Kiwi Laughs; an Anthology of New Zealand Prose Humour. Wn, Reed, 1960. $1.60.

MISCELLANEOUS

GLOVER, D M. Denis Glover's Bedside Book. Dn, Reed, 1963. $1.60.

GAZETTEERS, etc.

DOLLIMORE, E. S. The New Zealand Guide. 3d Ed. Dn, H. Wise, 1962. $4.50.

REED, A. W. A Dictionary of Maori Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1961. $1.50.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS: GENERAL

AUSUBEL, D. P. The Fern and the Tiki; an American View of New Zealand. Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1960. $2.25.

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1961–62. 2 vol. $6.

BRAKE, B. New Zealand; Gift of the Sea. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1963. $3.50.

CONSTABLE, L. D. Home Territory. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1953. 35c.

CUMBERLAND, K. B. This is New Zealand; a Pictorial Description. 5th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 82c.

CUMBERLAND, K. B., and Fox, J. W. New Zealand; a Regional Geography. 2d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. $1.85.

GRIFFITH, R. J. New Zealand from the Air in Colour. Text John Pascoe. Wn, Reed, 1968. $3.00.

HALL, D. O. W. Portrait of New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Reed, 1966 $3.25.

HOLCROFT, M. H. New Zealand. Wn. Reed, 1963. o.p. popular ed. 1968. $1.85.

MC INTYRE, P. Peter McIntyre's New Zealand. Wn. Reed, 1964. $15.75.

MC LINTOCK, A. H., ed. A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. o.p.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968. $3.50.

WHITE, L. L. White's Pictorial Reference of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Ak, White's Aviation, 1960. $14.70.

NEW ZEALAND GEOGRAPHER. New Zealand Geographical Society, University of Canterbury, Ch, semi-a. $3.00.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—HISTORICAL

BEST, A. D. W. The Journal of Ensign Best, 1837–1843. Ed. by Nancy M. Taylor. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $3.50.

BREES, S. C. Pictorial Illustrations of New Zealand. Facsimile edition. Avon Fine Prints, 1968. $60.00.

BUTLER, S. A First Year in Canterbury Settlement. Edited by A. C. Brassington and P. B. Maling. Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1964. $1.85.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery. Edited . . . by J. C. Beaglehole . . . Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955-.

DRUMMOND, Mrs A. E. H. Married and Gone to New Zealand; Being Extracts from the Writings of Women Pioneers. Lond., O.U.P.; Hamilton, Paul's k Arcade, 1960. $1.85.

—– At Home in New Zealand; an illustrated history of everyday things before 1865. Ak. Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1967. $2.80.

EARLE, A Narrative of a Residence in New Zealand. Ed. by E. H. McCormick. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. $7.15.

HEAPHY, C. Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand. Facsimile edition. Dn, Hocken Library, 1968. $4.25.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; a Tale of the Good Old Times. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. $1.50.

MARKHAM, E. New Zealand or Recollections of It. Edited with an introduction by E. H. McCormick. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $3.00.

MURRAY-OLIVER, A. A. St. C. M. Augustus Earle in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968. $15.00.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. O.U.P., 1968. 80c.

TAYLOR, Mrs N. M. Early Travellers in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1959. $9.60.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand. An Abridgement. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. $1.75.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—REGIONAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

BROWNE, V. C. The Coast. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1962 (i.e. 1963) 75c.

LISTER, R. G. ed. Central Otago. Dn, New Zealand Geographical Society, 1965. $3.50.

N.Z. MINISTRY OF WORKS. Town and Country Planning Branch. National Resources Survey. Part II. Bay of Plenty Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. $6.50.

N.Z. MINISTRY OF WORKS. Town and Country Planning Branch. National Resources Survey. Part III. Northland Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $4.50.

*PACKARD, W P. Mount Cook National Park Handbook. Ch, Mount Cook National Park Board, 1959. (Corresponding Handbooks for other Parks in process of publication.) 40c.

REED, A. H. The Four Corners of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1954. $2.50.

SAUNDERS, B. G. R. ed. Introducing the Manawatu. 2d Ed. Palmerston North, Department of Geography, Massey University, 1964, $2.00.

HISTORICAL WORKS—GENERAL AND PERIOD INCLUDING MAORI WARS

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Lond., O.U.P., 1961. $2.10.

BURDON, R M. The New Dominion; a Social and Political History of New Zealand 1918–39. Wn, Reed; Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1965. $5.00.

CHAPMAN, R. M., and SINCLAIR, K., ed. Studies of a Small Democracy; Essays in Honour of Willis Airey. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade for the University of Auckland, 1963. $2.50.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. New Zealand in the Making. 2d Ed. Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1959. $4.30.

—– The Welfare State in New Zealand. Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1959. $4.70.

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–56. $9.00.

DALTON, B. J. War and Politics in New Zealand. Sydney, S.U.P., 1968. $3.75.

MC CORMICK, E. H. Tasman and New Zealand; a bibliographical study. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. 70c.

MC LINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MILLER, J. O. Early Victorian New Zealand . . . 1839–52. Lond., O.U.P., 1958. $3.10.

—– The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2d Rev. Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

N.Z. DEPT. OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. Centennial Branch. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 vols. o.p.

N.Z. NATIONAL HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. (Leaflets on various historic sites. gratis.) (Booklets. See under Individual Authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., Wilson, G. H. O.)

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Lond., Faber, 1963. $2.50.

ROSS, A. New Zealand Aspirations in the Pacific in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964. $6.45.

SCHOLEFIELD, G. H., ed. The Richmond-Atkinson Papers. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960. $21.00.

SINCLAIR, K. A. History of New Zealand. Penguin Books, 1959. 48c.; Lond., O.U.P., 1961. $2.50.

—– The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2d Ed. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1961. $3.00.

SUTCH, W. B. The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, Oxford U. P., 1966. $2.75.

*WILSON, G. H. O. War in the Tussock; Te Kooti and the Battle at Te Porere. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 50c.

WARDS, I. M. The Shadow of the Land; a study of British policy and racial conflict . . . 1832–1852. Wn, Historical Publications Branch, 1968. $6.00.

WRIGHT, H. M. New Zealand, 1769–1840; Early Years of Western Contact, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1959. $3.80.

HISTORICAL NEWS. Whitcombe and Tombs in Association with the History Dept., Canterbury University, Christchurch. 2 p.a. 25c.

POLITICAL SCIENCE. See full entry under Political Science. Includes Historical Articles.

NEW ZEALAND Journal of History. (Dept. of History, University of Auckland). semi-a. $3.00.

HISTORICAL WORKS—MAORI TRIBAL

STAFFORD, D. M. Te Arawa. Wn, Reed, 1967. $8.40.

HISTORY—REGIONAL AND LOCAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ADKIN, G. L. The Great Harbour of Tara; Traditional Maori Place-names and Sites of Wellington Harbour and Environs. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs 1959. $2.85.

ALLAN, R. M. Nelson; a History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed, 1965. $4.50.

*BURNETT, R. I. M. The Paremata Barracks. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. 35c.

HALL-JONES, J. Early Fiordland. Wn, Reed, 1968. $3.95.

MAY, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2d rev. ed Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $5.00.

MILLER, F. W. G. Golden Days of Lake Country. 4th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1966. $3.50.

NEWPORT, J. N. W. Footprints; the Story of the Settlement and Development of Nelson Back Country Districts. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1962. $4.20.

NORRIS, H. C. M. Settlers in Depression; a History of Hamilton, New Zealand, 1875–1894. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1964. $2.50.

SCOTTER, W. H. A History of Canterbury, Vol. III: 1876–1950. Ch, Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee, 1965. $4.20.

*STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 50c.

WORLD WAR, 1914–18

AITKEN, A. C. Gallipoli to the Somme; Recollections of a New Zealand Infantryman. Lond., O.U.P. 1963. $3.00.

Official History of New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Ak, Whitcombe & Tombs, under Authority of N.Z. Govt. 4 vols. 1919–23. o.p.

WORLD WAR, 1939–45

The following represent a selection of general volumes of the New Zealand Official History. Unit Histories have been listed in earlier volumes of the Yearbook.

BAKER, J. V. T. The New Zealand People at War; War Economy. Wn, War History Branch, 1965. $2.50.

KAY, R. L. Italy Vol. II: From Cassino to Trieste. Wn, Historical Publications Branch, 1967. $2.50.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Report on Experience. 2d ed. Ak, Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1967. $1.80.

N.Z. DEPT. OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. War History Branch. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. 3 vols. Wn, 1949–63. $2.10 each.

PHILLIPS, N. C. Italy. Wn, War History Branch, 1957– Vol. 1 Sangro to Cassino, 1957. $2.50.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War: Political and External Affairs. Wn, War History Branch, 1958. $2.50.

BIOGRAPHY

ANDERSON, A. M. A River Rules My Life. Wn, Reed, 1963. Reprint 1966. $2.50.

ARNOLD, T. New Zealand Letters of Thomas Arnold the Younger. Ed. by James Bertram. Ak, University of Auckland, 1966. $7.80.

ASHTON-WARNER, Sylvia. Myself. N.Y., Simon and Schuster, 1967.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; the Origins and the Story of the Movement. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1963. $2.25.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Dance of the Seasons; an Autobiographical Essay. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. 35c.

JONES, J. J. The Cradle of Erewhon; Samuel Butler in New Zealand . . . Austin, University of Texas Press, 1959. $3.70.

LEE, J. A. Simple on a Soap-box. Ak, Collins, 1963. $2.25.

LENNARD, C. G. Sir William Martin; the Life of the First Chief Justice of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. $2.25.

*MC CORMICK, E. H. The Fascinating Folly; Dr Hocken and his Fellow Collectors. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1961. 65c.

MC INTYRE, P. The Painted Years. Wn, Reed, 1962. $4.20.

N.Z. DEPT. OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. The New Zealand Honours List. 6th Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $1.50.

O'FARRELL, P. J. Harry Holland, Militant Socialist. Canberra, Australian National University, 1964. $4.95.

PEARSON, W. H. Henry Lawson among Maoris. Wn, Reed, 1968. $4.95.

SCOTT, MARY E. Days That Have Been; an Autobiography. Hamilton, Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1966. $2.10.

SEDDON, T. E. Y. The Seddons; an autobiography. Ak, Collins, 1968. $3.40.

SINCLAIR, K. William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.05.

STEVENS, W. G. Freyberg, V.C., The Man, 1939–1945. Wn, Reed, 1965. $1.85.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND. 9th Ed. Edited by G. C. Peterson. Wn, Reed, 1968. $6.00.

PACIFIC ISLANDS

CUMBERLAND, K. B. South-west Pacific. A Geography. 4th Ed, Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968.

DAVIDSON, J. W. Samoa mo Samoa; the emergence of the independent state of Western Samoa. Oxford U.P. 1967. $11.70.

NEW ZEALAND IN ANTARCTICA

HATHERTON, T. ed. Antarctica. Wn, Reed, 1965. $10.50.

HELM, A. S., and MILLER, J. H. Antarctica; the Story of the New Zealand Party of the Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.75.

HILLARY, Sir E. P. No Latitude for Error. Lond., Hodder, 1961. $2.80.

QUARTERMAIN, L. B. South to the Pole; the early history of the Ross Sea sector, Antarctica. London, O.U.P., 1967. $7.95.

ANTARCTIC. N Z. Antarctic Society, Wn. q. $2.00.

Chapter 47. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS

[Obtainable from the Government Bookshop, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag), Wellington; State Advances Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344) Auckland; 130 Oxford Terrace (P.O. Box 1721), Christchurch; T. and G. Building (P.O. Box 1104), Dunedin; and Alma Street (P.O. Box 857), Hamilton.]

TitleLatest No.Date of IssuePrice per Copy (Post Free)
*$6.00 a year po ree.
   $
Annual Report of the Government Statistician (H. 39)1,969June 19690.15
New Zealand Official Yearbook1,969October 19692.50
Pocket Digest of New Zealand Statistics1,969June 19690.60
Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics..August 19661.00
Statistical Publications, 1840–1960..April 19610.95
Annual Statistical Reports:
    Balance of Payments1967–68March 19690.45
    Farm Production1967–68October 19690.95
    Incomes and Income Tax to 1966–67..February 19691.15
    Industrial Injuries1,966September 19680.65
    Industrial Production1966–67May 19693.00
    Insurance1967–68June 19690.45
    Justice1,967August 19690.95
    Local Authority Statistics1967–68September 19691.45
    National Income and Expenditure1967–68March 19690.45
    Special Supplement: The Accounts of the Government Sector1966–67April 19680.45
    Population, Migration and Building1967–68March 19690.85
    Prices, Wages and Labour1,967January 19690.95
    Transport1,968July 19690.85
    Vital Statistics1,968September 19690.65
Trade Publications:
    Exports1967–68July 19693.00
    External TradeJul 68-Jun 69July 19690.10
    External Trade, Country AnalysesJul 68-Mar 69July 19690.50
    External Trade, Report and Analysis of1965-66-67December 19681.15
    Imports (pt. A) Commodity by Country1966–67November 19684.00
    Imports (pt. B) Country by Commodity1966–67November 19684.00
Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy:
    Part 1. Transactions between 110 Productive Industries at Producers' Prices1959–60September 19660.45
    Part 2. Derived Tables from Transactions of 110 Industries1959–60December 19660.45
    Part 3. Transactions Between 44 Productive Industries and Derived Tables1959–60March 19670.45
    Part 4. Description of the Input-Output Tables and System1959–60December 19670.85
Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics of New Zealand, 1861–1954..July 19560.20
Census of Building and Construction1963–64August 19660.45
Census of Distribution1,963February 19650.85
Census of Libraries1,964July 19650.65
Census of Agriculture1959–60February 19640.65
Census of Population and Dwellings:
    Vol. 1. Increase and Location of Population1,966October 19671.15
    Vol. 2. Ages and Marital Status1,966August 19681.25
    Vol. 3. Religious Professions1,966September 19680.45
    Vol. 4. Industries and Occupations1,966August 19691.55
    Vol. 5. Incomes1,966May 19690.75
    Vol. 6. Education and Birthplaces1,966October 19690.45
    Vol. 7. Race1,966June 19690.55
    Vol. 8. Maori Population and Dwellings1,961May 19651.15
    Vol. 9. Dwellings and Households1,961December 19641.35
    Vol. 10. General Report (Including Details of War Service, Dependent Children, and Usual Place of Residence)1,961December 19651.55
    Appendix A. Census of Poultry1,966November 19680.45
    Appendix B. New Zealand Life Tables, 1965–671,966September 19690.45
    Provisional Report on Population and Dwellings1,966November 19660.45
Monthly Abstract of Statistics....0.60(*)
Special Supplements:....Cents
    Compound Interest, Annuity-certain and Life Annuity Tables..August 196375
    Consumers' Price Index, 1965 Revision..September 196655
    External Trade, Country AnalysesJul 68-Mar 69July 196950
    Life Annuity Tables, 1960–62 Mortality Experience..June 196610
    New Nominal Wage Rates Index..October 196845
    Population and Labour Force Projections1967–2000March 196955
Supplements:
    Accounts of the Government Sector1966–67January 19685
    Balance of Payments1967–68October 19685
    Census of Mining and Quarrying, 1963–64..December 19655
    Company Shares: Dividend Yields on Market Prices..June 19635
    External TradeJul 68-Jun 69July 196910
    Export Prices and Terms of Trade..July 19615
    Exports Transported by AirJul-Dec 68March 19695
    Ex-Nuptial Births..January 19675
    Factory Production, General Summary1966–67August 19685
    Gross Domestic Product in Constant Prices to 1967–681967–68Nov-Dec 19685
    Import Prices and Volume Index Numbers..June 19615
    Imports Transported by AirJul-Dec 68May 19695
    Income Trends1967–68Nov-Dec 19685
    Industrial Classification of Salary and Wage Payments1966–67August 19675
    Industrial InjuriesSep QuarterMay 19695
    Inter-Industry Study — Gross Capital Formation1959–60May 19665
    Inter-Industry — Net Domestic Output1959–60April 19665
    Land Transfers1968–69June 19695
    Livestock Estimates1,969May 19695
    Livestock Numbers and Other Farm Statistics1,968January 19695
    Manufacturers' StocksMar QuarterJune 19695
    Mortgages1968–69June 19695
    Moving-Annual Index of Production to June 1966..Oct-Nov 19665
    National Income and Expenditure1967–68October 19685
    Population at 1 April 1969..June 19695
    Prices and Wage Index Numbers, 1913–1957..April 19585
    Productivity and Volume of Production Indexes1967–68August 19685
    Projection of Net Family Formation..September 19655
    Projections of Permanent Private Dwellings 1969 to 1980..September 19695
    Projections of the Industrial Distribution of the Labour Force, 1962–72..March 19635
    Remarriage and Length of Widowhood, 1955–57..May 19615
    Retail TradeDec QuarterMarch 19695
    Seasonal Correction of Statistics..May 19685
    Share Prices Index; 1960 Revision..March 19615
    Study of Population Age Structures..January 19645
    Survey of Commercial Gardeners' Incomes1966–67January 19695
    Survey of Dairy Farmers' Incomes1966–67June 19695
    Survey of Sheep Farmers' Incomes1966–67June 19695
    Survey of Town Milk Producers' Incomes1966–67June 19695
    Wholesale Prices Index..October 19595
    Wool Price Index Revision..December 19645

Chapter 48. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE 1969

(A Summary Adapted from Steering Committee Report)

THE CONFERENCE IN PERSPECTIVE—The National Development Conference, held in Wellington on 5–9 May 1969, marks the coming of age of a form of economic planning which has been evolving in New Zealand over the past two decades. During this period there has developed a growing demand for more co-ordinated, longer term thinking about the economy and a growing awareness of the value of setting objectives and targets by a process of co-operation and consultation both within and between sectors. This process, known as “indicative” planning, is as much in contrast with a completely unplanned type of economy as it is with planning of the authoritarian type. Its guide lines and targets are not imposed on the economy; rather they are arrived at by consultation and consensus between Government and the private sector, and so serve as “indications” of what appears to each to be feasible and desirable.

A series of “key sector” conferences* culminating in the Agricultural Development Conference of 1963–64 were features of this process. As a result of these conferences three important concepts (all of which were basic to the work of the National Development Conference) were introduced into economic policy making in this country. They were:

  1. The use of medium- and long-term economic projections as the basis for planning;

  2. The setting of targets for sector production up to a decade ahead; and

  3. The establishment of continuing machinery such as the Agricultural Production Council to review these targets and to advise Government on policies required to achieve them.

Other sectors (particularly forestry, tourism, and manufacturing) were not slow to see the advantages of co-ordinated forward planning, and preparations for the Forestry and Tourism Development Conferences were under way before the decision to hold a conference covering all aspects of the economy was taken.

Recognition of the National Development Conference as a further major step in the development of indicative planning helps to place the whole conference in perspective. It was not something that had been artificially introduced but followed naturally from past events and should just as naturally lead in the future to more sophisticated techniques of planning.

One of the virtues of extending the scope of indicative planning is that the sector targets will not be set in isolation, but within the framework of comprehensive integrated projections. This process of setting targets for the economy as a whole focuses attention on key issues; it identifies obstacles to be overcome; it clarifies possible alternative policies; and the very existence of targets stimulates speculation about what is needed to achieve them, and so sets in motion many of the forces of attainment.

At the same time target setting tends to bring thought and action into the cold light of appraisal, subsequent review, and criticism. This leads to more informed discussion which we believe must improve the quality of decisions reached and of policies agreed upon.

It is essential that planning should not be regarded by anybody as simply a convenient way of getting Government financial assistance and tax concessions; to do so would soon undermine the whole purpose of the conference. Provided Government and the private sector recognise their respective responsibilities in joint planning without overlooking the limitations inherent in attempting to project future trends, a much more efficient allocation of our physical and human resources should result with consequent benefit to the whole community.

The attainment of the targets accepted by this conference will, over the next decade, require major new developments which cannot be achieved without changes in attitudes and policies—a theme which recurs in many committee reports.

As the basis for development Government should, apart from setting an example of efficient resource allocation within its own sector, do its best to minimise the effects on the economy of disturbances originating from overseas, such as fluctuations in export prices.

*National Housing Conference 1953.

Industrial Development Conference 1960.

Export Development Conference 1963.

Agricultural Development Conference 1963–64.

It should also foster policies aimed at a more rational and even rate of growth, and hence avoid internal policies which impart a momentum to the economy which cannot be sustained, and which bring in their train harsh restrictive measures or lead to undesirable spiralling of costs and prices.

The development programme accepted by the conference will remain not much more than an intellectual exercise if it does not influence year to year budgetary decisions of Government and industry. Longer term planning will succeed and the targets will be achieved if, and only if, there is good short-run economic management. Flexible monetary and fiscal policies, firmly and promptly applied, will be needed to check incipient booms and recessions.

Devaluation, coupled with export incentives, has given a stimulus to exports and import substitution. Though not without its problems in terms of holding costs and prices, devaluation offers the opportunity, which should not be dissipated, for a desirable restructuring of the economy. This lends urgency to many of the policy issues which were outlined in committee reports and which have yet to be tackled. Their implementation should not be delayed if the country is to get full benefit from devaluation.

Government can do much to provide the right economic climate and give the necessary encouragement for development. However it is private enterprise which will have to provide the essential drive and effort and be prepared to take the risks involved if the conference objectives are to be achieved.

It finally rests with individuals and groups throughout the community to decide whether they support the recommendations of the conference and are prepared to contribute to the effort required to reach and sustain the target level of growth.

Targets—The Conference has expressed the growth objectives in the form of “targets”, the most important being:

An increase in real gross national product of 4 1/2 percent a year. (After allowing for population growth this means for example that the volume of goods and services available to the average man, woman, and child in 1978–79 would be 27 percent higher than it was in 1967–68.)

An increase in exports of 6.6 percent a year. This means that exports which totalled $838 million in 1967–68 will have to double to $1,690 million by 1978–79. (Of the required increase of $852 million some $80 million is to meet a projected 5 percent fall in terms of trade.)

An increase in the share of our gross national product used for investment, i.e., the creation of capital assets. This means that investment will very nearly double from $1,033 million in 1967–68 to $1,920 million in 1978–79.

Agriculture—Export earnings from pastoral products should rise by 1978–79 to $430 million representing 50 percent of the total increase in exports called for by the Targets Committee. In addition exports of horticultural products, grains, and seeds should increase by 273 percent or $41 million. Livestock numbers over the same period will increase by 33 percent to 130 million ewe equivalents.

Manufacturing—Exports of manufactured goods (other than forest, agricultural, and fisheries products) should increase sevenfold from $26 million to $208 million.

Forestry—Exports of forest products should increase by 174 percent or by $61 million. Planting of new forests by Government and private interest is recommended to be stepped up to 52,000 acres a year.

Tourism—Visits by long-stay tourists should increase from 113,000 to 586,000 by 1978–79. This represents a 15 percent compound annual increase and will require major developments in accommodation and facilities.

Minerals—Although one of the most difficult areas to predict, mineral development could possibly yield an increase in export and import savings of some $30 million by 1978–79 which could rise further to $9 million if a commercial oil field is developed by that time.

Building—Fast recovery is needed in this sector with output increasing at about 6 percent a year to 1972–73—a challenging prospect.

Status of the Targets—The targets adopted represent the best available indication of the probable pattern of future development. But this plan does not necessarily indicate the “optimum” economic development. More research will be required by the permanent planning machinery before anything approaching “optimum” use of resources can be assessed. Views about what is desirable may well change as further research is completed. But indicative planning should help to achieve a sectoral structure which is capable of making a greater volume of goods and services available to New Zealanders without creating balance of payments difficulties.

It is obviously not possible to plan in precise detail each and every development which will occur or should occur in the economy between now and 1978–79. Neither is it feasible to predict, beyond the limited indications given in sector reports, what changes the next decade will bring. It is impossible to be categorical about which industries will enjoy the greatest growth or which may encounter the greatest difficulties.

There are bound to be surprises in the future. Indicative planning can do more than present a reasoned guide to the progress which the economy can make, based on projections of the existing situation and incorporating foreseeable change and development.

Measures necessary to Achieve the Targets—The conference committees worked on the basic assumption that the community, because it wants improved living standards, will be prepared to accept the measures necessary to step up the rate of economic growth. Purposeful stimulation and a significant acceleration will be essential, particularly over the next 4 years, because of the considerable gap between present performance and the target growth rate. If the average target rate of 4.5 percent is to be achieved over the first 5 years, the earliest possible action should be taken to accelerate the rate of growth during the 4 years remaining to 1972–73.

The conference approved 632 recommendations. All are designed to assist in the attainment of the objectives.

Where practicable, market forces should be allowed to determine the allocation of resources. There is, however, a consensus that in many cases action by Government in some form or other is needed. Examples of proposed action range from encouragement of specific forms of research to the development of machinery to encourage the flow of resources into export-orientated industries. The following paragraphs draw attention to some of the changes proposed.

Exports and Import Savings—We cannot achieve the targets unless there is a major expansion in exports and in the efficient home production of goods at present imported. In spite of the need to increase traditional exports, New Zealand cannot continue to enjoy rising living standards from the sale of pastoral products alone. The change of attitude required to bring about an acceleration in the process of industrialisation should in no way sacrifice the economic development of pastoral or other agricultural commodities. Indeed, continued industrialisation in the form of greater processing of raw agricultural products should contribute to the future prosperity of agriculture. But while the major increase in export income in the next decade, as shown in the targets, is to come from pastoral products, an even faster rate of increase will have to come from non-traditional sources particularly forest products, manufacturing, and tourism.

Marketing—As the expansion of exports depends on our ability to market what we produce, we should give full rein to our ingenuity in finding both new markets and new products, particularly those resulting from a greater depth in processing of our raw materials. We need improved marketing techniques, more purposeful market research and analysis, closer attention to quality standards, and adequate transport facilities. To develop the necessary marketing skills, adequate training facilities should be provided.

Industrial Policy and Protection—Industrial policy should be aimed at identifying, creating, and expanding growth industries. We will have to introduce more mature and rational criteria for industrial development and for protection of local industry. It is widely accepted that over a period, the import licensing system with its built in rigidity should be generally replaced by the more flexible instrument of tariff protection. New concepts in industrial policy including methods of tariff setting are recommended for urgent investigation.

Land Use—Many recommendations concern ways of ensuring that the country's limited productive land resources are used to best advantage. This entails not only allowing market forces* to operate where they serve to maximise the economic yield from land, but also taking steps to preserve an attractive physical environment and a countryside which provides adequately for recreation.

Productivity—One of the more important groups of proposals deals with the improvement of techniques in all fields of economic activity. More use will have to be made of modern developments in the field of financial management, methods engineering, quality control, accounting services, and the like.

In order to make the best use of costly capital facilities, attention should be given to an expansion of the shift system wherever this is appropriate.

Advisory Services—Expansion of advisory and information services, particularly for industries concerned with new export development, are needed to promote the widest possible application of new techniques and processes.

Research—There should be substantial increases in research, concentrated as far as reasonably practicable in fields likely to benefit the economy in the foreseeable future. Early returns from research are more likely to occur where industry is responsible for initiating the research and where it is contributing to the cost.

Education—A substantial increase in the share of the national resources allocated to education is required if the overall targets are to be attained.

Manpower and Training—Skilled labour is one of our scarcest resources. It is already clear that the decade will bring a greatly increased demand for skilled men and women. To meet the demand we will have to:

Provide the means for forecasting skill needs far enough in advance to allow adequate and appropriate training and retraining facilities to be expanded.

Determine the most effective role for the various educational institutions so that they jointly provide for basic education needs as well as for training in the vocational skills required.

Emphasise the part to be played by on-the-job training in upgrading the labour force in line with the increasing sophistication of plant, materials, and processes.

Ensure that margins for various levels of skill and educational qualifications are adequate to provide the incentive for a sufficient number of people to obtain the necessary skills and qualifications.

Promote the movement of labour from areas of localised unemployment to areas where shortages exist, through measures aimed at assisting the relocation and retraining of workers.

Adopt a long-term selective immigrant policy designed to meet foreseeable labour shortages.

Finance—The promotion of an efficient financial system is essential for the mobilisation of resources for growth. Increased production requires a greater willingness to invest in new capital assets. Investment finance must be found and effectively channelled into growth industries. This can be facilitated by implementing the recommendations aimed at:

Promoting increased savings.

Ensuring that the channelling of funds into new or non-traditional areas is not impeded by lack of facilities.

A major revision of the role of the Development Finance Corporation.

Encouraging more overseas investment in New Zealand.

Taxation—Taxation concessions directed at the attainment of particular objectives as well as grants for special circumstances will continue to play their part amongst the measures needed to attain our objectives. At the same time, many of the proposals for better services to industry will require additional Government expenditure. The opportunity for substantial reductions in general rates of taxation will therefore be limited. Some improvement in the tax structure should nevertheless be possible.

Continuing Machinery—A National Development Council has been appointed to keep under review the targets and objectives set as a result of the National Development Conference and the measures necessary for their implementation. It will maintain close liaison with twelve or more Sector Councils and the Government.

Chapter 49. DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY AND FOREST INDUSTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND

(Contributed by New Zealand Forest Service)

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION—As a convenient and easily obtainable building material, wood has always played an important part in the New Zealand scene. That it continues to do so is shown by the consistently high rate of sawn wood consumption per head of population, the highest in the world according to the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. For over 100 years the forest industry encompassed little more than sawmilling, which, as demands on it became more exacting, supported planning, joinery, box-making, sash and door, and furniture factories. The timber all came from the native forests. By the mid 1880s, production of sawn timber had reached 170 million board feet a year, roughly one-quarter of the present level. Logging, sawmilling, and associated industries employed about 18,000 persons, some 13 percent of the labour force. The value of the output was roughly 18 percent of the value from all industries at that stage of their development. There was a small export trade in forest products in which kauri gum, used for varnishes, overshadowed timber as an earner of overseas income.

New Era—Although the rate of expansion was interrupted by such events as the First World War and the world-wide economic depression of the 1930s sawn timber output gradually increased, reaching 340 million board feet by 1941. About this time new factories began to come into play. Produce from man-made forests of introduced softwood species entered the market in worth-while quantities and helped to meet emergency demands for timber arising from the Second World War. Manufacture of wood pulp and paper and of panel products began. These developments ushered in changes which were to revolutionise the New Zealand timber industry. There was a gradual transfer of the main burden of wood supply from the indigenous to the exotic forests. Progress in more elaborate wood processing soon outdistanced that achieved by sawmilling.

Exotic Forests—The resources on which these changes depended arose from a far-sighted decision made soon after the Forest Service became a separate department in 1919. The inventory of the native forests undertaken as one of its first major tasks aroused dismay. To meet the demands of an expanding home market it was estimated that the existing forests could sustain supplies for only 40–50 years. There was little hope of maintaining output from regrowth, the trees being very slow growing and almost impossible to regenerate under the logging practices in vogue. The remedy adopted, based on experience already gained in afforestation with introduced tree species, was a bold scheme to build up the area of man-made State forest to 300,000 acres by 1935. Contemporaneously, private interests also made forest plantations on the same large scale so that by the target date some 900,000 acres in all had been planted. Most of the private planting and a large proportion of the State planting was radiata pine, which found favour because of fast growth and ease of handling.

When the planting took place the properties of radiata pine timber were not well known. Its homeland is a very limited area of California where the timber industry is dominated by other timbers available there in much larger quantities. Through research in which New Zealand played a prominent part, and in which other countries such as Australia shared, this species was proved as a general purpose softwood and a good pulpwood. On these properties and the large resource which was built up, the country's exotic timber industry is now based. The forests contrast with the native forests in being readily renewable through natural regeneration or replanting after exploitation so that industries dependent on them are assured of continuous supplies. Also they are highly productive and can support large wood-processing units. The progress made in exotic afforestation and the subsequent harvesting of the crops is summarised in the following table:

TABLE 1—EXPANSION OF EXOTIC FORESTS AND PRODUCTION OF EXOTIC WOOD 1921–1969

Year (March Ended)Exotic Forest AreaExotic Wood ProductionExotic Wood Production as percent of Total Wood Production
..(000 acres)(million cu. ft.)percent
1,92118924
1,92626123
1,93170638
1,936928815
1,9419711220
1,9469832132
1,9511,0064141
1,9561,0346855
1,9611,06911467
1,9661,18516379
1,969..20986
Source: Statistics of Forests and Forest Industries in New Zealand, N.Z.F.S.

New Industries—Although other species such as Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, Corsican and other pines are grown in State forests, radiata pine dominates the forest industry now and will do so into the foreseeable future. Unless otherwise stated it is the exotic timber dealt with in this account. It is versatile; it can be sawn, peeled for veneer, cut into chips and reconstituted as particle board, or made into groundwood or chemical pulp from which hardboard, softboard, paperboard, and paper can be manufactured. Industry uses it for all these purposes. Although over 500 sawmills still remain widely distributed throughout the country and some still draw supplies from native forests, most of the sawn timber comes from the few large sawmills dependent on the exotic forests. Three of them are linked with pulp and paper factories.

Manufacture of plywood and other panel products, particle board and fibre board, has developed rapidly only since the Second World War. The logs used for plywood comprise about equal quantities of timber from the indigenous forests, mostly rimu, and from the exotic forests, radiata pine and some Douglas fir. Table 2 illustrates the growth that has taken place in production of panel products.

TABLE 2—PRODUCTION OF PANEL PRODUCTS 1945–1968

YearPlywoodParticle boardFibreboard
 (million sq. ft. 3/16 in. basis)(million sq. ft. 1/2 in. basis)tons
1,9456,862
1,95024.613,526
1,95532.720,591
1,96043.11.224,830
1,96554.26.431,736
1,96843.411.333,075
Source: Statistics of Forests and Forest Industries in New Zealand, N.Z.F.S.

Paper-making from imported pulp began as long ago as 1874 at Mataura in the South Island and two other small mills in Auckland and Dunedin which have since closed. Local raw material first came into use about 1940 when Whakatane Board Mills Ltd. began to make cardboard from groundwood pulp from radiata pine. The very large integrated sawmilling and pulp and paper plants of New Zealand Forest Products Ltd., and Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. were opened in the mid 1950s. Both companies produce groundwood and sulphate pulp, though New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. manufactures groundwood pulp at its Auckland plant. Paper from New Zealand Forest Products comprises kraft (wrapping), paperboard, printing and writing papers; from Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. newsprint.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., which has recently begun production of refined groundwood pulp for its own use and for export, concentrates on production of lightweight papers and tissues in a factory close to the Tasman complex. Table 3 gives production figures over the last 30 years.

TABLE 3—PRODUCTION OF PULP AND PAPER 1940–1969

YearWood PulpNewsprintPrinting and Writing PapersOther Paper and Paperboard
 tonstonstonstons
1,94021712,873
1,94515,43420,619
1,95021,43821,787
1,95572,77240,273
1,960242,77276,08485,585
1,965396,401184,31711,869114,909
1,969485,975199,53021,140168,854
Source: Statistics of Forests and Forest Industries in New Zealand, N.Z.F.S.

The growth of these wood-using industries has naturally required an accompanying development of forestry, logging, and transport. In fact the changes in these sections of the industry have been as notable as those described above. Logging and transportation have been revolutionised by mechanisation and the growing of exotic plantations has involved extensive silvicultural research programmes and an application of the results. In addition the development of over 1 million acres of man-made exotic forests has required substantial capital outlays and the employment of large numbers of men.

ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FOREST INDUSTRIES—A measure of the economic significance of an industry is its contribution to the gross national product; in 1966 the forest sector's share was estimated to be 3.7 percent. The manufacturing industries within it (i.e., wood processing but not forestry or logging) contributed in that year 12.2 percent of the country's net industrial output.

Two further yardsticks which put an industry in a national perspective are the capital intensity of that industry and the net output per worker. The table below sets out some of the more relevant values.

TABLE 4—INVESTMENT AND NET OUTPUT PER WORKER

CategoriesNet Output* per WorkerInvestment per Worker

*Net output consists of salaries and wages paid interest or borrowed capital and proprietors' surpluses (profits).

† Investment is defined as the average value of plant and premises.

 Average 1964–66
 $$
All New Zealand Industries3,0004,078
Industries based on forestry—
    1. All forest industries (indigenous and exotic)3,6495,972
    2. Sawmilling (based on exotic forestry)3,2093,627
    3. Plywood and veneer (based on exotic forestry)2,8744,982
    4. Pulp and paper making (based on exotic forestry)6,58020,565
    5. Pulp and paper converting (based on exotic forestry)4,77811,540
Source: Industrial Production Statistics 1963–66

It can be seen that the pulp and paper making industry and paper converting industry have a higher-than-average net output per worker, and these high values are associated with a high value of investment per worker.

Employment—In 1968 the total number of persons employed in the forest sector was just under 33,000, 4.2 percent of the total labour force; of this number the forest industries, employed 26,000, 10 percent of the industrial labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island district where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of New Zealand Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., has led to the establishment of two completely new townships—Tokoroa and Kawerau. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries especially transport, vehicle repair and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

Exports and Imports—The new industries led to increased and diversified exports. The rapid rise in exports of pulp and paper are illustrated in table 5.

TABLE 5—EXPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCTS 1900–1968

YearLogsSawn TimberPanel* ProductsPulpNewsprintOther Paper and Paper Board
*This item consists mostly of fibreboard.
 millions of cu. ft.millions of bd. ft.millions of sq. ft.tons (000)tons (000)tons (000)
1,90049
1,91072
1,92050
1,93039
1,94013
1,950253
1,95533227
1,960451170496
1,96516373541101
1,9685191149311817
Source: Statistics of Forests and Forest Industries in New Zealand; N.Z.F.S.

This rapid rise in exports has also created for the first time in the country's history a favourable balance between the export and imports of wood and wood products, partly by the high value of the exports and partly by establishing internal self-sufficiency in goods at one time only obtainable through imports. Between 1950 and 1967 imports of pulp for papermaking fell from 29 percent to 4 percent of apparent consumption; of industrial papers from 43 percent to 7 percent; of printing and writing papers from 100 percent to 32 percent; of newsprint from 100 percent to nil. The very rapid rise in the value of exports and the effect of this on the forest products trade balance is shown in table 6.

TABLE 6—VALUE OF FOREST PRODUCTS IMPORTS AND EXPORTS

YearValue of ImportsValue of Exports
 ($000 c.i.f.)($000 f.o.b.)
1,95012,000862
1,95233,8001,366
1,95417,4003,546
1,95620,6009,592
1,95822,22614,152
1,96022,22216,932
1,96217,81615,248
1,96418,04023,800
1,96621,81225,407
1,96815,84951,218
Source: Statistics of Forests and Forest Industries in New Zealand; N.Z.F.S.

Although exports of forest products have risen sharply in recent years they contribute only modestly to total exports; 6 percent by value in 1968. However they represent a large proportion of manufactured exports, 41 percent in 1968, this figure being based on sawn or otherwise processed products not logs.

The main markets for exports are Australia and Japan, which absorbed 90 percent of the 1968 shipments. The value of forest products exported to Australia in 1968 was more than double the 1962 figure, the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) contributing to this improvement. However, the trade in other commodities also increased more rapidly, so that the proportion supplied by forest products has fallen in the last year or two. There has been a spectacular rise in the value of exports to Japan in the last two years, as a result of growth in the log trade and the opening of markets for sawn timber and industrial papers from New Zealand. A more detailed indication of exports to these countries is shown in table 7.

TABLE 7—EXPORTS TO JAPAN AND AUSTRALIA

Year (Calendar)To AustraliaTo Japan
Value of Forestry ExportsValue of Total ExportsForestry Exports as percent of Total ExportsValue of Forestry ExportsValue of Total ExportsForestry Exports as percent of Total Exports
 $(000)$(000)percent$(000)$(000)percent
1,96014,99026,900471,07917,7846
1,96211,69821,824542,39418,84013
1,96419,28634,958553,39234,01810
1,96618,49535,343525,28564,8168
1,96826,60670,0953819,49376,70325
Source: Trade Statistics, Department of Statistics.

PRESENT-DAY STRUCTURE OF FORESTRY AND FOREST-BASED INDUSTRIES—The preceding review of what has so far been achieved leads to an examination of the foundations in which the future will be built. Their base is the wood resource. The State owns 80 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 1.3 million acres of exotic forest. It makes sales, usually of standing timber but in some cases of logs, from both types of forest to the timber industry. Owing to the poor prospects of sustained yield from most of the indigenous forests, the policy is to ration the cut to spread the resource over as long a period as practicable. Their contribution to timber supply will inevitably diminish but it is hoped that it will remain a source of special purpose timbers for several decades. The exotic forests are renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies who are utilising them and managing them, in several cases to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The privately owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Wood-based industries—These industries are characterised by extreme diversity in size of plant and processes used. Sixty percent of the output of the forests is sawn: the 500 or so sawmills vary from those with the simplest equipment and employing one or two men part-time to modern mills with large output and elaborate equipment for every stage from unloading logs to final sorting and grading of the produce. At one extreme 44 percent of the mills produce only 6 percent of the sawn timber output, at the other 4 percent of the mills produce 43 percent. Small mills are scattered throughout the country, almost every country town having a mill serving the surrounding district. On the other hand the large mills must be sited near to an appropriately large forest resource and most depend on exotic forests owned either by the sawmilling company or the State. Associated and often integrated with the sawmills are establishments which apply preservative treatment, plane and dress timber, make boxes, casks, and other wooden containers and handles, pegs, ladders, seats, and other household utilities. About 1,000 of the 1,100 firms in the industry are private companies, partnerships or under individual control. Only 8 of the plants employ more than 100 people. The largest firms are public companies.

A feature of the industry, not confirmed to the small mills, is the vertical integration that prevails. Most sawmills have links with wood processing plants, merchanting outlets and, increasingly, with group building firms. As a consequence of their experience during trade recession when firms lacking marketing outlets suffer a greater than average decline in domestic sales, this trend towards vertical integration must be expected to continue.

The largest sawmills form part of the major pulp and paper mill complexes. Other large mills have outlets for off-cuts and other wood waste in the form of pulpwood chips sold under contract to pulp and paper factories. There are two State-owned sawmills, one large and the other of medium size. The larger mill is equipped for preservative treatment, for converting its waste to chips, and for some degree of further manufacture of its products.

Most of the 16 plants manufacturing various kinds of wood-based panels are plywood and veneer factories. Others produce hard and soft fibreboard, particle board, coreboard, and edge-glued timber panels. Some of the hardboard and particle board is faced with veneer. The usage for veneer cutting is 350,000 cu. ft a year, rimu and radiata pine in roughly equal quantity meeting most of the demand. Special measures are taken to maintain adequate supplies of the high-quality logs needed. As they are of high value transport over long distances or use of imported logs is practicable. Other panel products absorb 4 million cu. ft of wood annually, 3 million cu. ft of it waste from sawmills and veneer factories.

The pulp, paper, and paper processing industries have made their main development over the past 15 years. They now take 20 percent of the roundwood supply, produce 47 percent of the gross value of the forestry sector's output and 50 percent by value of its exports. Their ability to meet any of the domestic demands has greatly reduced the need for imports. The industry falls into two divisions, the pulp and paper manufacturing group and the paper processing group.

The first is dominated by two firms, New Zealand Forest Products Ltd., and Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., both of them integrated pulp, paper, and sawmilling companies. Certain economic features are set out in table 4. They owe their success to their large scale and because they are sited close to very large wood resources. In the case of the Forest Products Company these resources are owned by the company, and in the case of the Tasman Company by the State.

There are over 100 paper-converting plants employing more than 4,000 people converting domestically produced papers and boards into consumer goods such as cartons, bags, writing pads, exercise books, and toilet wraps. In contrast to the paper and paperboard factories, the paper converting establishments are almost all located close to their main markets. Many are subsidiaries of enterprises using large quantities of packing materials.

THE OUTLOOK—There are several reasons for believing that New Zealand's forest industries are entering a period of expansion and greater prosperity. They are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies which will increase over the next 30 years. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad, particularly for paper. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence they must import.

New Zealand is in a position to take advantage of these circumstances, but to do so as effectively as possible, planning is necessary. Expansion should be a regular process, using the raw material efficiently, developing manufacturing capacity systematically, and producing what the markets require. This means that planning must encompass management and utilisation of the forests and any necessary extension of them; requirement in manpower with the necessary skills; requirements in finance; analyses of market development; and requirements in research to develop new products and more efficient techniques.

Although most of the problems involved in industrial expansion are the concern of individual companies, the general agreement within industry and the Government that overall planning on important issues was necessary led to the holding of a Forestry Development Conference in February 1969 to discuss the subject. The main recommendations of this conference were incorporated in the Forestry Committee's report to the National Development Conference held in May 1969 to review New Zealand's economy comprehensively.

After analysis of all factors thought to be relevant, the Forestry Development Conference formulated ideas for likely development of the forest industries for the next 10 years and also longer term development prospects.

Short-term prospects—The production targets in table 8 were presented to the National Development Conference to indicate the likely expansion of the forest industries over the next 10 years.

TABLE 8—PRODUCTION TARGETS FOR FOREST INDUSTRIES

CommodityAverage 1965–67Targets Years Ended 31 March
1968*19731979
*Actual.
 unit    
Newsprinttons (000)187.9195.5203340
Industrial paperstons (000)134.3166.8251345
Printing and writing paperstons (000)15.921.43651
Sawn timbermillion bd. ft.747675881970
Panel productsmillion sq. ft.144155253330
Export logsmillion cu. ft.17.438.45025
Export Wood Chipsmillion cu. ft.1017
Export pulptons (000)66.285.8133196

It will be noted that rapid growth is forecast for this short time; production of panel products to more than double the present output, of paper to rise by 92 percent and of sawn timber by 44 percent. The Forestry Development Conference considered the targets realistic and capable of attainment. Expansion of plant necessary for the increased production is in some cases already in progress.

Much of the higher production is intended for export. Table 9 gives the export targets of the forestry sector.

TABLE 9—EXPORT TARGETS FOR FOREST PRODUCTS—YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH

CommodityVolume in Million Cubic Feet Roundwood EquivalentValue in $million f.o.b. (Values at Current Market Prices)
1968*197319791968*19731979
*Actual.
Logs, sawn timber and wood chips47918212.833.530.4
Pulp and paper26406421.634.659.5
Other wood products230.44.46.3
              Totals7313314934.872.596.2

The increase in export values represents an annual growth of 9.7 percent. The Forestry Development Conference accepted these targets as also realistic considering that limitation of exports was more likely to be imposed by availability of wood supplies and industrial capacity than by market outlets.

Studies of the implications of these proposals in respect of capital led to the conclusion that, for the additional afforestation and the industrial expansion planned, estimated capital requirements between 1968 and 1973 were $237 million and between 1973 and 1979, $260 million. Over three-quarters of the total amount of $497 million for the 11-year period will be required to finance expansion of afforestation, logging, and the pulp and paper industry.

The manpower needs of the forestry sector were expected to rise by 5,500 persons between 1968 and 1973 and by 4,200 more between 1973 and 1979, the largest increases occurring in the pulp and paper and the sawmilling industries. The importance of skills was recognised and proposals were made for facilities to develop them.

Long-term Development—Long-term industrial expansion is naturally more difficult to assess. However, the main factors determining the growth will be the size of markets and the availability of raw materials. A national forestry planning model which took into account these two factors was prepared for the Forestry Development Conference and this broadly indicates the possible direction of future growth. Because forests take many years to grow, wood supply and future afforestation plans were given careful thought. Demand projections forecast that by the year 2000 consumption of paper and panel products in New Zealand will be more than four times the 1968 level; consumption of sawn timber is expected to go up 50 percent. On top of this, exports of processed forest products will grow, probably to as much as three times present quantities. It is estimated that, in the year 2000, processed products will be 170 million cu. ft equivalent, compared with 51 million cu. ft in 1968. It is hoped that 50 million cu. ft now exported annually as logs will gradually be replaced over the next 30 years by processed products.

This long-term industrial expansion will require continuing increase in the area of the nation's exotic forests, the Forestry Development Conference recommending that there should be a minimum annual planting programme of 52,000 acres for the next 20 years. Increased production up to the end of the century would be based for the most part on existing forest resources and would be sustained thereafter by the additional planting proposed. This programme would give the country a total exotic forest area of nearly 2.5 million acres, compared with the present area of 1.3 million acres.

The location of the additional forests is important. Because of the economies obtainable in pulp and paper manufacture from large-scale enterprises, this industry must be based on large forests. The policy of concentrating planting was therefore endorsed. In the regional priorities it was recommended that first preference be given to the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty to ensure resources for further development of existing plants, with Nelson in next place for starting of a new industry in the near future. Hawke's Bay and Southland were selected as suitable locations for the 1990s.

Planning for the future—A feature of the Forestry Development Conference was the widespread acceptance of the necessity for co-operative national planning to rationalise the forestry sector's future expansion. Recognising that all interested parties must participate in such planning, it was recommended that a Forestry Development Council with representatives of the Government and the industry be set up as part of the continuing consultative planning machinery which will be established following the National Development Conference. Such a council would provide a forum where problems facing wood growers and wood users can be discussed and where independent views could be expressed on the best method of resolving them. The critical evaluation by the Conference reinforced the prevailing optimism for the future of the country's forestry and forest industries.

Chapter 50. CAPTAIN JAMES COOK, R.N., F.R.S., AND HIS THREE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY IN THE PACIFIC, 1768–79

(Contributed by A. A. St C. M. Murray-Oliver, M.A., A.N.Z.L.A., of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington)

New Zealand featured prominently in each of Cook's voyages; indeed, with Tahiti, it afforded him one of his invaluable main bases. And, in his turn, Captain Cook plays a prominent role in the history of New Zealand. It could almost be claimed that the European history of New Zealand began with Cook. True, Abel Janszoon Tasman was the first known European to discover this country, which he first sighted on 13 December 1642, off the west coast of the South Island. But Tasman spent only three weeks in New Zealand waters, for four of his men were killed by the Maoris at Golden Bay (which he named Murderers' Bay). His two ships sailed up the coast of the North Island to Cape Maria van Diemen, sketchily charting only this small part of Staten Land, as Tasman named New Zealand. On his return to Batavia he was reprimanded by the Dutch East India Company for his lack of initiative in carrying out the exploration upon which they had sent him.

Cook spent six months here on his first voyage, charting much of both the North and the South Islands, discovering the strait that bears his name, and proving conclusively that New Zealand was not part of the legendary Great South Land. He returned thrice on his second voyage and again on the third voyage and it was thanks to his careful observations that New Zealand became known to the western world. The Cook Bicentenary is therefore of especial significance to this country.

It is difficult in the world of today to appreciate fully the effect that Cook's explorations had upon eighteenth century Europe. Something of this impact is indicated by the endless reprints of the accounts of them, translated into a dozen languages, and almost innumerable other books relating to Cook written since his death. Significant, too, is the fact that the King of France and Benjamin Franklin, envoy to France for the rebel American colonies, forbade any molestation of Cook despite their countries being at war with England.

Studying great events in retrospect, one faces the problem of determining a first cause. A series of unrelated events brought about the first voyage, from which the others naturally followed. The British Navy—not alone, nor even the first—was closely involved in Pacific exploration, especially in the second half of the eighteenth century. A chance event of particular significance occurred when Captain Samuel Wallis in HMS Dolphin discovered King George the Third's Island (now known as Tahiti), on his voyage around the world in 1766–68. The influential Royal Society was urgently concerned to find just such an island in the South Seas where the Transit of Venus could be observed when the planet passed between the earth and the sun in 1769. By comparing these observations with others taken in northernmost Europe and at Hudson's Bay in Canada, it was hoped to calculate the distance of the earth from the sun. George III had ascended the throne in 1760 and under his patronage new impetus was imparted to scientific research and to the expansion of his realm by geographical discovery. His Majesty willingly granted 4,000 when, in November 1767, the Royal Society requested that the Admiralty should send a ship to the South Pacific for the taking of astronomical observations.

Tahiti was also well sited for the complementary enterprise outlined in the Admiralty's “Secret Instructions” to Cook. After he had completed his work there, he was to try to discover the Southern Continent presumed to lie in the South Seas, which might offer valuable possibilities for trade. If he could not find it, he was to make for New Zealand. And he was to take possession of any new lands for Britain that he could secure. These were the chief reasons, too, for Cook's second voyage, because the French also were seeking the elusive continent. The third voyage, however, was made in search of another dream of the geographers—the long hoped for North-West Passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific, which both Byron and Wallis had been sent to seek; or, alternatively, a North-East Passage. Science, politics and, not least, trade: all three played their part in the decision to explore the Pacific.

*Based in part on the author's text in Captain Cook's Artists in the Pacific 1769–79 with the permission of the publishers, Avon Fine Prints Ltd., of Christchurch.

Although he had not been commissioned before, the Admiralty had been impressed by Cook's first-rate record as a cartographer and navigator in Canadian waters during and after the Seven Years' War. He was also favourably known already to the Royal Society, which was to elect him a Fellow in 1776. His appointment to command the new expedition was logical, if unforeseen. Similarly unexpected but equally well founded was the Admiralty's selection of a ship, purchased in March 1768 before Cook's appointment was officially announced. The Earl of Pembroke (re-rigged and renamed The Endeavour Bark) was a Whitby-built cat, a broad-beamed collier with precisely the qualities later specified by Cook as being necessary for the purposes of his exploration. Such vessels were well known to him from his years in the North Sea coal trade before he joined the Royal Navy. So for the second voyage the Endeavour was succeeded by similar vessels, the Marquis of Granby and the Marquis of Rockingham, which sailed as the Resolution and the Adventure. On the third voyage the Resolution was accompanied by the Discovery, another collier (the brig Diligence). It comes as a shock to realise the dimensions of these craft: the Endeavour was of only 368 tons, her length being 106 ft. The largest, the Resolution, was no more than 462 tons.

A number of Cook's men were later to become well-known. Seven of them became admirals. But the name that will always be associated with his is that of Joseph Banks. In 1766 Banks had visited Newfoundland and Labrador in a British warship to further his interest in natural history and botany. At the age of 23 he had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which readily supported his request to sail on the first voyage of Cook. The Admiralty consented; but on the second voyage Banks planned to take so numerous a suite that the accommodation especially built for him would have made the Resolution unseaworthy. Although he abandoned that voyage and instead made an expedition to Iceland, Banks remained on friendly terms with Cook.

We owe much to Banks. Cook personally gained a great deal from close association with this young and wealthy member of the landed gentry. The two artists and the naturalists on the first voyage were employed personally by Banks, not by the Admiralty nor the Royal Society: but the rewarding precedent had been set for subsequent voyages. Without the extensive scientific studies and the pictorial records that were made, much of the value and present-day interest of the voyages would have been lost. The contribution that Banks and his men made to botanical research is immeasurable.

Banks entrusted Dr Solander with the recording of the natural history specimens obtained on the voyage of the Endeavour and for many years employed a number of artists who made finished drawings from the hundreds of sketches taken on the voyage. Three sets of copperplates of botanical specimens were engraved but were not published, for Solander died and Banks lost interest. But he was responsible for obtaining the bulk of the 7,000 exotic plants introduced into England during the reign of George III, and much of the development of the world-famous botanical gardens at Kew resulted from his work and planning. Banks became President of the Royal Society in 1778 and held this post until his death in 1820. He received a baronetcy in 1781, was knighted in 1795, and was admitted to the Privy Council in 1797. In the world of science, Banks was as great a man as Cook was in the history of exploration.

Vast success attended Cook on his circumnavigations. Not all success—there were failures, mistakes, tragedies: the greatest, his tragically unnecessary death on the island of Hawaii on Sunday morning, 14 February 1779. Cook was no more perfect than any other great man. But his achievements have never been surpassed. Some 200 monuments have been erected throughout the world to commemorate them, but his memory is still best honoured by his lasting place in the hearts of men beside Britain's other naval heroes, Drake and Nelson.

Discoveries of new lands; scrupulous observations and charting; superb navigation, even aided as he was on the last two voyages by the first accurate chronometers: the conquest of scurvy, which had decimated earlier crews—all these facets of the man are noteworthy. But for New Zealand and, no less, for Australia the prime significance of the Cook Bicentenary lies in the fact that it is very largely as a result of James Cook's explorations that the two nations exist today as partners in the British Commonwealth of Nations.

No more appropriate tribute could be paid than that of Admiral the Hon. John Forbes in the official account of the third voyage: “To the memory of Captain James Cook, the ablest and most renowned Navigator this or any country hath produced . . . If the arduous but exact researches of this extraordinary man have not discovered a new world, they have discovered seas unnavigated and unknown before. They have made us acquainted with islands, people, and productions, of which we had no conception. And if he has not been so fortunate as Americus to give his name to a continent, his pretensions to such a distinction remain unrivalled; and he will be revered, while there remains a page of his own modest account of his voyages, and as long as mariners and geographers shall be instructed by his new map of the Southern hemisphere, to trace the various courses and discoveries he has made. . .”

Cook's Early Years

James Cook was the second of the seven children of a Scottish farm labourer of the same name who had married a Yorkshire woman, Grace Pace. Cook's ancestry was reflected in his appearance. He was tall and lean, over 6 ft in height, a plain but handsome man. His head was small, his cheek-bones high, his brown eyes remarkably lively. Thoughtful and considerate, he was nevertheless quick-tempered.

Cook was born at Marton-in-Cleveland in Yorkshire in 1728, but a few years later his father, who was employed by Thomas Scottowe, became manager of the latter's farm called Airy Holme, at Great Ayton, a village a few miles from Marton. There young James grew up as a farm boy. He was taught to read by Miss Mary Walker, and Scottowe paid for some elementary schooling locally. When he was 17 Cook was apprenticed to a general storekeeper, William Sanderson, at the nearby small seaport of Staithes, but it was a sea-faring life that appealed to him, and after 18 months he was apprenticed to the Walker Brothers of Whitby, engaged in the coastal colliery trade. During the winter months he lived with John Walker, by whom he was taught mathematics and navigation and who became a firm friend.

For nearly ten years Cook was a sailor in the difficult waters of the North Sea and this experience stood him in good stead in his later career. He rose to be mate and the Walker Brothers offered him command, but on 17 June 1755 he volunteered for the Royal Navy. Five days later he joined HMS Eagle (60 guns) as an able seaman, but within a month was promoted to master's mate. During the Seven Years' War between France and England Cook served in Canadian waters and first established his reputation as a cartographer in surveying the Saint Lawrence River. After the war he was engaged in surveying the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. In 1764 he received his first command, the Grenville, and in the same year his right hand was crippled when a powder horn exploded as he held it; but the precision of his work was not affected. Cook made accurate observations of the eclipse of the sun in 1766 and from these he calculated the longitude of Newfoundland. His findings were transmitted to the Royal Society and there made a most favourable impression.

Early in Cook's naval career a new commander was appointed to the Eagle. Captain Palliser, later to be Rear-Admiral Sir Hugh Palliser, then became Governor of Newfoundland while Cook was carrying out his surveys in that area and it was under him that Cook was given command of the Grenville. In 1770 Palliser joined the Navy Board as Comptroller of the Navy and subsequently became one of the Lords of the Admiralty, in 1776. From the outset he had been impressed by Cook's ability—as had other commanding officers—and from being first his patron became his friend. This was to be of decisive importance in Cook's life.

Alexander Dalrymple was the leading geographer of the day. He propounded his theory of the existence of a great southern continent to balance the land masses of the Northern Hemisphere, claiming that the western coast of the Great South Land had been found by Tasman when he discovered New Zealand. This was the reason for Cook's additional “Secret Instructions”—which do not, in fact, seem to have been particularly secret—ordering him to try to discover the southern continent after he had observed the Transit of Venus. Dalrymple had seemed the obvious man to send on the expedition, but Cook was chosen: worse, Cook's first voyage made it apparent that there was almost certainly no such continent. The second voyage confirmed the certainty and the great geographer never forgave the great explorer for demolishing the myth.

Cook had been promoted from Master to Lieutenant when he was placed in command of the first voyage. The Royal Society appointed him as an official observer of the Transit, along with their astronomer on the voyage, Mr Green, and granted him a gratuity of 100 guineas on this account. On his return Cook was raised to the rank of Commander, in August 1771, when he was granted an audience by the King—five days after Banks had been received by George III. Cook “had the honour of presenting to his Majesty a complete Journal of the Second Voyage, together with some curios, drawings and Charts that he had made . . .” The Royal Society admitted him as a Fellow in 1776. For the third voyage Cook was promoted to Post-Captain, in 1775. Had he survived, the probability is that he would have become an admiral and have been knighted.

When Cook was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society, he presented a paper on the prevention and cure of scurvy. For this, the Society awarded him one of its highest honours, the Copley Gold Medal. On his death, the Royal Society took the unprecedented step of striking a special gold medal in Cook's honour and in 1784 this was forwarded to Mrs Cook by Sir Joseph Banks, the President of the Society. It is reported that George the Third wept upon hearing of the explorer's death. He granted the widow an annual pension of 250 and 25 a year to her sons; and awarded Cook a posthumous coat-of-arms. In heraldic terms, the description of it is: “Azure, between the two polar stars or, a sphere on the plane of the meridian, shewing the Pacific Ocean, his track thereon marked by red lines. And for a crest, on a wreath of the colours, is an arm bowed, in the uniform of a Captain of the Royal Navy. In the hand is the Union Jack on a staff proper. The arm is encircled by a wreath of palm and laurel.”

The First Voyage, 26 August 1768–13 July 1771

Lieutenant James Cook sailed from Plymouth in His Majesty's Bark the Endeavour on 26 August 1768. Included in the ship's complement of 94 were Charles Green, the Royal Society's astronomer, and young Mr Joseph Banks, F.R.S., and his suite, among whom were Dr Daniel Solander, F.R.S., naturalist at the British Museum; Alexander Buchan, landscape and figure artist; Sydney Parkinson, botanical draughtsman; and Herman Spöring, assistant naturalist.

As instructed, Cook sailed first to Madeira, to “there take on board such a quantity of wine as you can conveniently stow for the use of the Bark's company”. More important were stores of fresh beef and onions, especially the latter. Cook persuaded his men to eat onions and sauerkraut, together with any fresh greens which could be gathered. By this and other means he successfully overcame the threat of scurvy, previously dreaded on long voyages.

Rounding Cape Horn at the end of January 1769, the Endeavour passed through the Tuamotu Islands early in April. On 13 April she made the Dolphin's anchorage at Matavai Bay, Tahiti. Despite the glowing report Wallis had given of this Pacific paradise, Cook at once established the observatory with a “fort” and “Centinels”. Though they seemed proper on this first visit, such precautions were not necessary and Fort Venus was dismantled when the expedition departed. There had, however, been some unfortunate incidents with the natives. Wallis had remarked upon their inclination towards petty theft and the amorous propensities of the women. Cook had ample confirmation of both.

The primary avowed purpose of the voyage was not accomplished. Although the Transit of Venus was duly observed by Green, Solander, and Cook, the refractive effects caused by the atmosphere of Venus prevented sufficiently precise observations to serve the needs of the Royal Society. The same difficulty was found also in the Northern Hemisphere. Yet, by all else that Cook so successfully accomplished, the voyage must be accounted a triumph.

Buchan had died of epilepsy on 17 April and Parkinson alone was left with the responsibility of recording not only plants but also birds, fishes, landscapes, and the native peoples and their occasions. His output was prodigious, for he accomplished nearly 1,000 botanical drawings (with hundreds more in other fields), over 270 being finished drawings in addition to more than 670 preliminary sketches.

Until the end of July, Cook remained in the Society Islands, as he named the group, calling at Huahine, Raiatea, and Tahaa. While at Tahiti he had the Endeavour careened and freshly provisioned, before setting out to search for the Southern Continent in accordance with his secret instructions. With him from Tahiti he took Tupaia and a young boy, his servant. Tupaia was a young and intelligent high-born priest, who had been the lover of Purea, or Queen Oberea as Wallis knew her. Cook hoped he would be useful as an interpreter in other lands and this proved to be the case, especially in New Zealand.

When Cook had found no trace of the Great South Land after a month, he sailed west as instructed for New Zealand, which was sighted on 7 October 1769, in latitude 38° 51' S. This was off Poverty Bay, the name bestowed by Cook when he left the area—replacing his first choice, Endeavour Bay—“because it afforded us no one thing we wanted”. Although he named Young Nick's Head in honour of the boy who first saw land from the masthead at 2 p.m., this feature was not the land Nicholas Young described, which was the high country of the interior. It should be noted that Cook's dates based on nautical time ran from noon to noon, and made no allowance for westing.

Cook noted that “the face of the Country is of a hilly surface & appears to be cloathed with wood and Verdure”. In the afternoon next day Maoris were first sighted but contact was not established until the morning of Monday, 9 October, when Tupaia spoke to Maoris in canoes and was able to make himself understood. That afternoon Cook anchored and took a party of men ashore in two boats, being accompanied by Banks and Solander. This was where the city of Gisborne now stands. In an encounter with the Maoris one of the latter was killed. Other Maoris were to lose their lives as the Endeavour cruised round the New Zealand coast. Although most of these deaths seemed unavoidable, Cook greatly regretted such happenings. In general, relations with the Maoris were good in most of the subsequent encounters between the two races, largely due to Cook's unceasing endeavours in this direction.

Before leaving Poverty Bay, Cook persuaded three young Maoris to board the ship, returning them ashore before he sailed, a practice he adopted whenever possible, the better to become acquainted with the native inhabitants. Unable to obtain fresh water or supplies at his first landing place, Cook sailed south on 11 October, down the coast of Hawke's Bay, naming prominent natural features as he went. Most of his names remain in use today. On several occasions Maoris came off in their canoes to the ship. Cape Kidnappers records one such, when Cook was forced to fire upon them to rescue Tupaia's servant boy whom they had seized.

Cape Turnagain marks the point where Cook retraced his track to the north, on 17 October. Three days later he reached Gable End Foreland and on 22 October anchored in Anaura Bay, where wild celery (Apium prostratum) was gathered as an anti-scorbutic; this was done whenever opportunity offered along the coast of New Zealand. Sweet potatoes—the kumara—were purchased from the natives, who told of a better watering place a little to the south. This was the thickly-populated Tolaga Bay, as Cook named it. The native name appears to have been Uawa. The Endeavour lay at anchor there in Cook's Cove from 23 to 29 October, while water and wood were taken in, and tapa cloth from the Society Islands was traded with the Maoris for artifacts and supplies.

Parkinson wrote that: “The country about the bay is agreeable beyond description, and, with proper cultivation, might be rendered a kind of second Paradise. The hills are covered with beautiful flowering shrubs, intermingled with a great number of tall and stately palms, which fill the air with a most grateful fragrant perfume.” The Cordyline australis and its three related species are the tallest lilies in the world. Sometimes appropriately called palm lilies, perhaps unfortunately the name Cabbage-tree has persisted, after Cook's men used the heart of one as a substitute for cabbage. The manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) was cut to serve as brooms and Cook noted that, dried, it could substitute for tea and he named it tea-tree; the early settlers used it for the same purpose on occasions.

Continuing northward Cook noted the many Maori villages ashore and numerous cultivated areas, particularly in the Bay of Plenty after he had rounded East Cape, which he correctly assumed was the easternmost part of New Zealand, on 31 October. Hicks Bay and Whale Island were named at this time, also Mount Edgecumbe. On 2 November the first Maori double canoe was sighted off White Island. Cook was much impressed by the superb workmanship and artistry of the great war canoes. In Hawkesworth we read: “The ingenuity of these people appears in nothing more than in their canoes: they are long and narrow, and in shape very much resemble New England whale boats: the larger sort seem to be built chiefly for war, and will carry from forty to eighty, or an hundred armed men. We measured one which lay ashore at Tolaga: she was sixty-eight feet and an half long, five feet broad, and three feet and an half deep . . .”

On 4 November they came to Mercury Bay, where the Maori women dived for enormous crayfish in the surf among the rocks. Innumerable fine mackerel and a variety of shellfish also afforded a welcome change of diet. Here was seen a small fortified pa sited on another rock with a natural archway through it, which aroused much wonder. The Transit of Mercury was clearly observed on 9 November. Six days later the Endeavour sailed on, but: “Before we left this Bay we cut out upon one of the trees near the watering place, the Ships Name, date & ca and after displaying the English Colours I took formal possession of the place in the name of his Majesty.”

Rounding Coromandel Peninsula Cook came into Hauraki Gulf and on 19 November discovered the Firth of Thames, then abounding in magnificent kauri and kahikatea trees. Bream Bay and Bream Head were reached on 25 November and were so named because of the number of snapper in these waters, which were identified as bream. Off Cape Brett on 27 November, Cook was impressed by a chief in a canoe, who wore a splendid dogskin cloak, had his buttocks elaborately tattooed and had his hair tied up on the crown of his head and stuck with white feathers. Cook carefully recorded all such impressions of the peoples he met, and drawings by Parkinson show the various points he described.

The Endeavour anchored in the Bay of Islands—aptly so named by Cook—on 29 November, off Motu-aro Island, where there was a skirmish with the Maoris who, nevertheless, “dealt very fair and friendly”. Although here, as elsewhere, Cook was bothered by thefts by the natives, he punished three men with a dozen lashes each for digging up kumara without permission from the Maoris. After a week in the Bay of Islands, Cook sailed on to come to North Cape on 19 December and Cape Maria van Diemen on 30 December. Meanwhile, Christmas Day had been celebrated with “Goose Pye” made of gannets, which “was eat with great approbation”. The voyage continued down “The Desert Coast” of the western side of Northland, past the Sugar Loaves at New Plymouth, till Mount Egmont was sighted on 11 January 1770, impressive in its majesty although two more days were to pass before the clouds lifted from the snow-streaked summit.

Entry Isle (Kapiti Island) was named on 14 January and next day Cook cast anchor in Ship Cove in Queen Charlotte Sound, careening the ship there the following day. Ship Cove was to be a base on both the other voyages, too. It was here that Banks, and not he alone, was so entranced by the song of innumerable bell-birds, the korimako (Anthornis melanura): “the most melodious wild musick I have ever heard, almost imitating small bells but with the most tuneable silver sound imaginable . . .” From the high land about the Sound Cook saw the Strait that bears his name, and also learned from the Maoris that New Zealand consisted of two large islands. He named Queen Charlotte Sound on 31 January and took possession in the name of her husband, both at Ship Cove and also on Motuara Island. British sovereignty was again proclaimed over the South Island in 1840, by virtue of Cook's claim, following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.

On 6 February Cook sailed, first as far as Cape Turnagain to satisfy his officers that the North Island was indeed an island, then southwards to circumnavigate the South Island. After passing Kaikoura on 15 February, Cook proceeded some distance on a course to the south-east to convince Lieutenant Gore that the land the latter thought he had seen out to sea did not exist. In consequence, he was so far offshore that Banks Peninsula looked as though it were an island and was so called. By 10 March it had become clear that the South Island was certainly not part of any greater land mass. There was some discussion as to whether Stewart Island was joined to the mainland; finally, on Cook's chart, it was shown as a peninsula. On 18 March glaciers were seen on the Southern Alps, as Cook named the lofty mountains of the West Coast, although he did not sight the highest peak, now named in his honour. On 31 March the Endeavour was watering in Admiralty Bay, and the next day she departed from New Zealand with Cook naming Cape Fare-well as they left.

He had more than fulfilled his orders from the Admiralty. An intensive study had been made of the country, its natural history and its inhabitants. Cook had charted more than 2,000 miles of coastline. Banks had gathered an immense amount of botanical material and was much impressed by New Zealand, as “the properest place we have yet seen for establishing a colony”.

Cook would have preferred to sail across the South Pacific, still in search of the elusive continent, before returning to England around Cape Horn. The wintry conditions he would encounter, and the state of his ship after the voyage already accomplished, persuaded him rather to go by way of the East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope. Quite typically he welcomed this excuse for sailing right round the world and, although he had completed the tasks assigned him, for carrying out further exploration—especially of Tasman's New Holland. He headed across the Tasman Sea and on 20 April 1770, Lieutenant Zachary Hicks sighted the south-east coast of what was to be called Australia. This “had a very agreeable and promising Aspect, the land is of a moderate height diversified with hills, ridges, planes and Vallies with some few small lawns, but for the most part the whole was cover'd with wood, the hills and ridges rise with a gentle slope, they are not high neither are there many of them”.

A party tried to land on 28 April but could not because of “the great surff”, and there was disappointment that some aborigines they saw took to the woods. Next day a landing was made and also the first contact with the Australian natives, who were less aggressive than the Maoris had sometimes proved to be. Isaac Smith, Mrs Cook's young cousin who had transferred with Cook to the Endeavour from the Grenville, had the honour of being the first to set foot ashore. Banks made so great a haul of botanical specimens that Cook, who had intended naming the place, equally appropriately, Sting Ray's Harbour, named it Botany Bay. All the plants they found were new, and this entailed a vast amount of work in classification, description, naming and illustrating. Parkinson was now overwhelmed with work. He no longer had time to make finished watercolour drawings but only hasty sketches which recorded the main features of each specimen.

Shortly before they left on 7 May 1770 an inscription was cut on one of the trees. As they sailed north Cook named, but did not enter, Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour). He was sheltered by the Great Barrier Reef but was not aware of its existence until the vessel struck Endeavour Reef on the night of 11 June. Refloated next day with considerable difficulty, although badly holed she safely made the Endeavour River five days later. There, where Cooktown now stands, the ship was careened and temporary repairs were made. Opportunity was taken to make further studies ashore and kangaroos were discovered. There was again some contact with the natives who were more venturesome in this area and attempted to destroy the camp ashore by setting fire to dry grass about it. On 5 August Cook set out for Batavia, rounding the northern tip of Australia and naming it Cape York. Although he had already done so on several occasions further south, Cook again hoisted the English colours on Possession Island and claimed the whole eastern coast of New Holland for His Majesty King George the Third, naming it New South Wales. He also proved that Torres Street did exist, separating Australia from New Guinea, and landed on the latter island on 3 September, at Cook Bay.

Batavia was achieved on 11 October and during the next three months the Endeavour was made seaworthy in the very efficient dockyards there, which earned Cook's praise. The ship's company fell victims to dysentery and malaria. Cook, Banks, and Solander were all ill and recovered, but seven men died at Batavia, including Charles Green and Tupaia. Before the Endeavour reached the Cape of Good Hope in the middle of March 1771, 23 more had died, including Parkinson and Spöring. On 16 April Cook put to sea, homeward bound at last, and at 3 p.m. on 13 July the Endeavour anchored in the Downs. Cook landed shortly afterwards to “repair to London”, there to make his report to the Admiralty.

The Second Voyage, 13 July 1772–30 July 1775

Dalrymple was not convinced. The foremost geographer in England maintained that even if Cook had proved that New Zealand were no continent a great land might yet lie in some region of the South Seas. Amid speculation about new discoveries that might still be possible, a year after his return from the first voyage Captain Cook left Plymouth Sound in the Resolution on 13 July 1772, “with the Adventure (Captain Furneaux) in company”. As on the first voyage, Cook called at Madeira, where he obtained a thousand bunches of onions (which his previous experience led him to believe would be of medicinal value) before sailing via the Canary Islands for the Cape of Good Hope.

Baron Plettenberg, the Dutch Governor, had received orders from Holland to offer every assistance to the expedition, which reached the Cape on 30 October. There a Swedish naturalist, Anders Sparrman (who, like Solander, had been a pupil of Linnaeus), was engaged as assistant by Forster, the naturalist appointed by the Admiralty. Forster, who was accompanied by his son, proved to be of difficult temperament during and after the voyage, but they accomplished very important scientific work, including valuable ethnological studies. The younger Forster's natural history drawings are of particular interest. William Bayly was the astronomer. Upon the withdrawal of Banks, with his over-numerous suite, the Admiralty appointed William Hodges as official artist to Cook. This proved to have been a wise choice for although unfortunately poor as a portraitist, Hodges was particularly interested in the study of light effects, and executed many excellent views of the tropics and the Antarctic. He was employed at the Admiralty for two years after the voyage, working up his drawings into large oil paintings.

Leaving the Cape, Cook followed his instructions and first sought Cape Circumcision (Bouvet Island), before proceeding into the Antarctic waters of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Beaglehole awards Cook high praise for successfully navigating these unknown, treacherous seas; on one occasion they counted two hundred “ice islands”. On 17 January 1773 he crossed the Antarctic Circle, the first to do so. On 8 February the ships parted company but by previous agreement they were to rendezvous at New Zealand.

Furneaux in the Adventure spent three weeks at Van Diemen's Land, landing at Adventure Bay in the first half of March, and deciding that there was no strait to the north of Tasmania. Cook, meanwhile, went first to Dusky Sound on the lower west coast of the South Island, which he had found but been unable to enter on the first voyage. Land was sighted on 25 March and the next day Cook drove under full sail to Dusky Sound. In the Mitchell Library in Sydney is a beautiful watercolour by Hodges, showing the approach to the sound from sea. On 27 March the Resolution sailed into Dusky Bay. Lieutenant Pickersgill found a “snug harbour” which still bears his name.

Here Cook “hauled the Sloop into a small creek and moored her head and stern to the Trees and so near the Shore as to reach it with a Brow or stage which nature had in a manner prepared for us by a large tree which growed in a horizontal direction over the water so long that the Top of it reached our gunwale. Wood for fuel was here so convenient that our yards were locked in the branches of the trees, about one hundred yards from our stern was a fine stream of fresh Water and every place abounded with excellent fish and the shores and Woods were found not destitute of wild fowl, so that we expected to enjoy with ease what in our situation might be call'd the luxuries of life”.

Among the paintings by Hodges still owned by the Admiralty an oil shows the very scene Cook describes—the Resolution's yards are locked in the branches of the trees, a sailor walks aboard along the tree which provided a natural gangplank and ashore can be seen the tents erected for the sailmaker. A forge and an observatory were also speedily set up, and much “spruce beer” was brewed from rimu and manuka foliage as an anti-scorbutic. The first brew, from rimu, was not well received by the crew, but when manuka as well was added it proved “exceeding Palatable and esteemed by every one on board”. Many duck-shooting parties were also enjoyed.

Some Maoris were seen on the first day but it was nearly a week before the first contact was made with the “Indians”—Indian Island commemorates the spot where they were first noted. “Mr Hodges made drawens of them.” There were only a few Maoris there but friendly relations were established and they were welcomed aboard and entertained by playing the bagpipes, fife, and drum; the guests enjoyed the drum the most. Cook took Hodges with him to Cascade Cove, and the artist painted the scene “in cyle Colours which exhibits at one view a better discription of it than I can give”.

Useful and interesting weeks were spent in Dusky Sound. Specimens of minerals were obtained and Cook's careful charts of the area have remained in use for nearly two centuries, only now being replaced. There was some seal-hunting—forerunner of New Zealand's first industry, 20 years later. Five geese brought from the Cape of Good Hope were left at Goose Cove and, as usual, various seeds were sown. Cook recorded a detailed description of Dusky Sound, which he recommended as a fine port, and he wrote at some length of the Maoris he encountered there.

The anchor was weighed on 30 April but first calms and then bad weather presented Cook's putting to sea until 11 May. There was an uneventful passage up the West Coast until six waterspouts were met with, at uncomfortably close quarters, off Cape Stephens on 18 May. The next day the Resolution was greeted with an 11 gun salute from the Adventure as she sailed into Ship Cove, and returned the salute in like manner. Furneaux had expected the ships to winter at Queen Charlotte Sound and had stripped the Adventure in readiness, but Cook did not propose to “Idle away the whole Winter in Port” and at once set matters in train for their early departure.

While awaiting Cook's arrival Furneaux had planted vegetable gardens, which were flourishing. Two earthquakes had been felt by his men before they were joined by the Resolution. Cook landed a ewe and a ram, the only survivors from the Cape of Good Hope, but they presumably ate the tutu plant and died from poisoning, “thus all my fine hopes of stocking this Country with a breed of Sheep were blasted in a moment”. Again Cook was ahead of his time. He planted further wheat, peas, carrots, parsnips, and strawberries, and had great quantities of wild celery and scurvy grass gathered for both ships, as he had been dismayed to find that Furneaux had not been enforcing the necessary precautions and there were a number of cases of scurvy aboard the Adventure. Although a good sailor, Furneaux did not really have an explorer's temperament, as evidenced by his taking up winter quarters at Ship Cove.

Cook noted that only a third of the numbers of Maoris previously found there now remained in Queen Charlotte Sound, and commented upon the small nomadic tribes of up to a hundred persons in each. The Maoris had inquired after Tupaia when Cook arrived and seemed sad when they learned of his death.

On 4 June a 21 gun salute was fired and the ship's company “spent the remainder of our Royal Master's Birthday in Festivity”. Three days later both ships sailed, first south again in search of possible continents, then north-east until 17 July, by which time it was certain none could be found within temperate waters. After passing safely through the shoals of the Tuamotu archipelago—the Islands of Danger—the expedition came to the Society Islands in mid August.

The ships called first at Vaitepiha Bay, where they narrowly escaped wreck on a reef. Later they moved on to anchor at the familiar berth at Matavai Bay, where they were welcomed as old friends. Yet there were changes: there had been tribal wars, the balance of power was changed, and at the end of 1772 the Spanish had made their first visit to Tahiti, when the frigate Aguila spent six weeks there. (She was to return, two years later.) At the time of her visit—but, Cook thought, only coincidentally—the island had been swept by a mysterious disease, possibly some form of gastric influenza.

From Tahiti the vessels moved on to Huahine for a week, and there Furneaux took on board Omai, who was to cut such a figure in England. Next to Raiatea, where Cook recruited Odidee (Hitihiti) as interpreter, remembering poor Tupaia's success in this role. The stay in the Society Islands had completed the cure of the Adventure's men suffering from scurvy and the expedition returned to New Zealand, calling first at Middleburgh (Eua) and Amsterdam (Tonga), which had been discovered by Tasman in 1643. Cook was so impressed by the welcome of the handsome natives that he named the Tongan group the Friendly Isles. They were left behind, reluctantly, on 8 October.

The east coast of the North Island was sighted again, just north of Hawke Bay, on 21 October 1773. Next day, near Cape Kidnappers, canoes came out to the ships and Cook gave a chief two pairs of pigs, two cocks, and four hens, and wheat and vegetable seeds—whence sprang the “Maori cabbage”. Two days later, off Cape Palliser a great gale blew up and on 30 October the Adventure lost company with the Resolution, not to be reunited. On 2 November Cook came to Port Nicholson, which he intended entering, but rather than lose a fair wind he pressed on to Ship Cove, where he anchored a day later.

Again he presented pigs and poultry “from the Isles” to the Maoris. After waiting in vain for the Adventure to arrive, Cook departed on 25 November, leaving a note in a bottle under a tree for Furneaux, for whom he felt no undue concern. While at Queen Charlotte Sound, evidence had seemed to show that the Maoris were indeed cannibals, as Cook had surmised on the first voyage. He had not, however, hitherto been an eye-witness to the practice, which had occasioned some criticism of his reports of it. To make quite sure, Clerke cooked some human flesh, which was eaten by one of the Maoris on deck, to the horror and disgust of Hitihiti.

They need not have taken such pains to obtain their proof. Furneaux, after calling at Tolaga Bay, endured a slow passage to the Sounds, arriving on 30 November, soon after Cook had left. On 17 December ten of his men were killed by the Maoris and eaten, but Cook was not to learn of this for many months. Although the Adventure was in bad repair, Furneaux sailed across the South Pacific into the ice zone until he was south of Cape Horn. He looked again for Cape Circumcision, and finally made the Cape of Good Hope in mid March 1774. He anchored at Spithead on 14 July.

Cook, too, sailed south-east into the ice, crossing the Antarctic Circle on 21 December on Christmas Day, he turned back. He quickly decided to make one further foray to the south, crossing the Circle a third time to reach the most southerly point of all his voyages. On this voyage he came very close to discovering the Antarctic Continent itself. On 7 February he resolved to winter “within the Tropicks”. Easter Island (discovered by the Dutchman Roggeveen in 1722) was sighted on 11 March and almost a week was spent there. The towering monuments, fortunately described with exact detail, aroused the liveliest interest. Cook recorded that 30 men dined within the shadow of a single monument. He had been dangerously ill, so did not himself venture inland.

The position of the Marquesas group had been uncertain since Mendana discovered the islands in 1595, and Cook decided to check this. They were reached in early April and Cook, like others, was impressed by the striking beauty of the natives and by their most elaborate and artistic tattooing. But he was unable to obtain the supplies he needed and remained only a few days. The known haven of Tahiti was attained on 22 April.

Huahine was again visited, and Raitea, where Hitihiti was deposited, in tears. On 4 June 1774 the ship sailed south-east. Palmerston and Niue Islands were discovered before Cook landed at Annamocko (Nomuka) Island—named Rotterdam by Tasman—in the Tongas.

A more friendly welcome awaited the explorer when on 4 September he discovered New Caledonia, the existence of which had been surmised by Bougainville. Cook remained a week at Balade, on the north-eastern coast, and on 13 September he took possession in the name of the King. Despite his favourable account of the 250 mile long island the British did not take advantage of his discovery, which was proclaimed French territory in 1853, and was for many years dreaded as a penal colony. Despite the dangerous reefs which encircle the whole island Cook surveyed much of the eastern coast, reluctantly leaving his task unfinished—for the first time, as he ruefully remarked—rather than hazard his ship further. But he risked satisfying the curiosity of the entire ship's company about the nature of the gigantic trees on the Isle of Pines off the southern tip of the mainland. Still known as Cook pines or pencil pines, these trees (Araucaria columnaris) can reach a height of 250 ft.

On 1 October Cook departed once more for New Zealand, discovering Norfolk Island and its pines en route. His third visit here was relatively brief. On 17 October at day-break he “saw Mount Egmont (covered with everlasting snow)” and the next day made Queen Charlotte Sound. Here he learned that Furneaux had found his way there safely, but Cook was puzzled by the changed attitude of the Maoris. He heard conflicting but disquieting stories, yet had no knowledge of the massacre of the boat's crew from the Adventure and did not realise the nature of this tragedy.

The Resolution finally sailed for home from New Zealand on 10 November 1774, following Furneaux across the South Pacific, to celebrate Christmas at Tierra del Fuego with “goose pie” (again made from sea birds) and Madeira wine. Cook sailed south once more into the Antarctic ice before at last heading north for Africa. The Cape of Good Hope was reached on 21 March 1775 and for five weeks afforded much needed hospitality, welcome after a voyage of more than 50,000 miles.

On 30 July Cook anchored “at Spit-Head. Having been absent from England Three Years and Eighteen Days, in which time I lost but four men and only one of them by sickness”.

The Third Voyage, 12 July 1776-4 October 1780

The second expedition was the greatest voyage of discovery ever undertaken in the Pacific Ocean. The third voyage, to follow so soon after it, had a different background. A determined effort was being made by the European powers to find the North-west Passage—or even a North-East Passage. England had already sent Commodore Byron, then Captain Wallis, but both had failed, although Wallis had discovered Tahiti in compensation. Cook was entitled to rest on his laurels, but the man to find the fabled passage, if it existed, would be Cook, undoubted master of the Pacific. As a practical incentive, a 20,000 reward previously offered by Parliament had now been authorised as being applicable to naval personnel, as it had not been initially.

Cook commenced his third voyage from Plymouth on 12 July 1776, in the Resolution again, now not so stout a ship as she had been. Nor was Cook the same man who had earlier dared new worlds. His wearing experiences had made him now rather older than his years and his always quick temper was just a little shorter. Perhaps he sensed that time was running out.

After calling at Tenerife, Cook arrived at the Cape of Good Hope on 18 October. Captain Clerke, who had not been able to sail until 1 August, joined him on 10 November in the Discovery. They left together on 1 December, bound for desolate Kerguelen Island in the South Indian Ocean, via the Prince Edward Islands which Marc Macé Marion du Fresne had discovered as recently as 1772 (he was killed by the Maoris at the Bay of Islands in June of that year). Before Cook's ships reached Kerguelen the fog was so thick that they had to fire their guns at intervals to keep in touch. There they paused for six days, exploring and surveying.

Tasmania was sighted on 24 January 1777 and from 27 to 29 January the ships lay at anchor in Adventure Bay. Cook had long wanted this chance to visit Van Diemen's Land, but already they were behind the schedule laid down in England and he could not stay longer. He was still forced to accept Furneaux's assurance that Van Diemen's Land was the southern tip of New Holland. Cook sailed again for Queen Charlotte Sound, to make New Zealand his base for the last time.

The Resolution and Discovery made landfall on the west coast, below Cape Farewell, on 10 February and two days afterwards they “anchored in our old station” at Ship Cove. Only then did Cook learn something more of the fate of the Adventure's men in 1773. The Maoris at first were apprehensive of punishment and were cautious in their approach, especially when they saw Omai aboard. Cook still had difficulty in ascertaining which of several accounts of the tragedy might be the truth. It was certain that Kahura had been the leader in the massacre, and he came aboard several times. Omai tried to persuade Cook to kill him but Cook hoped to learn details of what had precipitated the incident. He recorded that he took precautions against a Maori attack as he had never before felt necessary there, conscious as he was of the loss of the boat crew and also of the death of Marion du Fresne and more than a dozen men in the Bay of Islands.

As the Maoris became reassured as to Cook's intentions, more and more encamped around Ship Cove until some two-thirds of the total inhabitants of the Sound had gathered there. Cook was interested to observe their rapid construction of temporary habitations; and again reflected upon the fact that “the New Zealanders must be under perpetual apprehension of being destroyed by each other”.

John Webber was the official artist on this voyage and his oil painting of Ship Cove, from which he made his aquatint, shows a peaceful scene where Cook had “erected two tents upon the same spot we formerly had them”. Cook comments upon the frequency of storms in the area. He found Furneaux's gardens overrun with weeds, but cabbages, onions, leeks, parsnips, radishes, mustard, and a few potatoes had survived. Two chiefs begged goats and pigs shortly before he left, and he gave a pair of each, not very hopefully. And also set two rabbits ashore. “I have at different times left in this Country not less than 10 or a dozen hogs, besides those which Captain Furneaux put a shore, so that it will be a little extraordinary if there is not a breed either in a wild or domestic state or both.”

George the Third—“Farmer George”—had been anxious that the peoples of the Pacific should have the benefits of cattle, sheep, and goats, but the problems of keeping the animals alive on the long voyage had not been fully foreseen. On Sunday 23 February 1777, “Having got on board as much hay and grass as was thought sufficient to serve the Cattle to Otaheite, and compleated the wood and water of both ships, we struck the tents and got everything off from the shore, and the next morning weighed and stood out of the cove”. But the wind was not favourable and Cook's final sailing from New Zealand was delayed a few more days. “At length on the 27th at 8 AM we took our departure from Cape Palliser which at this time bore West 7 or 8 leagues distant, we had a fine gale and I steered EBN.” A chief's son, Te Weherua, aged about 17, sailed with them, taking also a boy servant.

On the voyage to the Society Islands the two ships encountered contrary winds and a succession of calms. On 29 March Cook discovered the islands which he named after himself, landing first at Mangaia. Realising that he could not get to the Tongas in time, he made for Palmerston Island, where from 14–17 April he procured fodder to save the animals from the starvation that threatened them. On 30 April the Resolution and Discovery anchored at Nomuka in Tongatapu, and they remained in the group for nearly three months. Cook noted that the pineapples which he had planted on his previous visit were flourishing. He made an intensive study of Tongan life and customs. An eclipse of the sun was observed. The commander was considerably irritated by constant thefts from the party, which had not occurred on previous visits. Cook unknowingly almost became a pawn in the struggle for power between rival chiefs of the islands. On the occasion of the “Night Dance” depicted by Webber, there had been a plot to kill the captain. Ignorant of this, and appreciating the entertainment provided by his friend King Paulaho, Cook still found the Tongan group to be the Friendly Isles.

The ships were safely at Vaitepiha Bay in Tahiti on 13 August, and 10 days later went on to Matavai Bay. Cook renewed acquaintance with his old friends and noted further developments in the political situation. Webber painted his captain's portrait for Tu, the rising young chief who was to become King Pomare the First. He also recorded Cook witnessing a human sacrifice, which gave rise to some criticism when this became known in England. The expedition went next to the most spectacular of the Society Islands, Moorea, which Cook had not previously visited. Omai was installed at Huahine in a house with a garden and was given a horse and a mare. Finally, they went to Raiatea, where once more they met the beautiful Poetua, whose portrait Webber painted. On 7 December the ships sailed, and Cook then landed on Borabora for the first time. But New Albion was the next goal, and the delights of the Society Islands were abandoned for the long voyage north and east.

Christmas Island was discovered on 24 December and a landing made to observe another eclipse of the sun. Turtle-hunting occupied the men most profitably until 2 January 1778. On 18 January came the great new discovery, when Oahu was sighted, and the next day Kauai, where the Resolution was rejoined by the Discovery before the planned rendezvous on the American coast. Cook named the new group the Sandwich Islands, after his friend the First Lord of the Admiralty, John Montague, 4th Earl of Sandwich.

The Oregon coast of North America was sighted on 7 March 1778—New Albion, Sir Francis Drake had named it in 1579. The weather was bad as the ships proceeded north and it took some time to find an anchorage. This was necessary, as the Resolution kept leaking badly and needed attention at every opportunity. A base was established, from 29 March to 26 April, at Ship Cove on Bligh Island, which lies in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island off the west coast of Canada.

Northward from Nootka, and Cook came into Sandwich Sound on 12 May: later he changed the name to Prince William Sound, honouring the Duke of Clarence, who was to become King William IV. He left it a week later, then found another sound, Cook Inlet, which was thoroughly explored from 25 May to 5 June in the hope that it might lead to the Bering Sea. Tracing the coast of Alaska and sailing through the Aleutian Islands, Cook arrived at the Russian settlement on Unalaska Island, which he left on 2 July. For three months, in very thick weather, the ships groped their way through the fog and ice of the Bering Sea in to the Arctic Ocean. Their northernmost point, at 70° 44' north, was reached on 18 August. Down the Siberian coast they crept, and back east again to the fish and berries and spruce beer of Unalaska, on 3 October. But this was no country to winter in, and on 26 October they began the voyage back to the warm contrast of the Sandwich Islands, sighted on 26 November 1778.

Prevented by pounding surf from making a landing, Cook wearily cruised the shores for seven weeks, supplied with fresh food by the canoes that came off to the ships. He tried making sugar-cane beer now, but the crew mutinously rejected it. King Kalaniopuu came aboard, his rank unrecognised. Later he was to call again with his fleet in great state and ceremony. At least, on 16 January 1779, the anchor was dropped in Kealakekua Bay, which Bligh had found. There were many splendid ceremonies and, it would seem, the acceptance of Cook as the god Lono. The ships sailed away on 4 February; it had been a pleasant sojourn, but food supplies in Hawaii had begun to run low. A week later, against Cook's wish, they were back in the bay. The Resolution had suffered damage to her foremast in a gale and urgent repairs were essential. Minor troubles now arose with the Hawaiians and these worsened rapidly. On Sunday morning, 14 February 1779, Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay. George the Third wept when he heard the news; Britain and Europe mourned with him.

Captain Clerke took over the command; he refrained from vengeance and completed the repairs to the Resolution. On 22 February the ships again left the bay. They gained more supplies, first at Oahu, at Waimea Bay in Kauai, then at Niihau again, before leaving on 15 March for Kamchatka on the Siberian coast. Clerke continued Cook's search for the Passage, and bore north through Bering Strait and across to the American coast. He had long been in ill health and on 22 August he died. Gore was left in charge of the expedition. Only two days later they were back in the harbour of Avatcha Bay at Kamchatka and did not leave its summer pleasantness for home until 10 October 1779.

Their course took them down the coast of Japan, thence to Macao, through the China Sea to the Indian Ocean, to come to the Cape of Good Hope on 12 April. On 9 May the Resolution and Discovery sailed for England, and the sad voyage ended in the Thames on 4 October 1780.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

Of the many books written about Cook and his voyages, none can excel The Journals of Captain James Cook on his voyages of discovery, edited for the Hakluyt Society by Professor J. C. Beaglehole of Victoria University of Wellington. Professor Beaglehole's introductory studies and editorial comment cover not only the actual voyages, which are fully documented, but offer also an immense amount of information about the times and events that engendered them, and the lands and peoples which Cook found. The editor provides vivid insight into the character and temperament of the great explorer.

BEAGLEHOLE, John Cawte (ed.)—The journals of Captain Cook on his voyages of discovery, edited from original manuscripts. 4 vols. (illus.) and a portfolio of charts. Cambridge, for the Hakluyt Society, 1955-.

BEAGLEHOLE, John Cawte (ed.)—The Endeavour journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–71. 2 vols. (illus.) The Sir Joseph Banks Memorial. Sydney, for the Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1962.

BEGG, Alexander Charles and Neil Colquhoun—James Cook in New Zealand. (illus.) Wellington, for the Cook Bicentenary Committee, 1969.

RIENITS, Rex and Thea—The voyages of Captain Cook. (illus.) London, Hamlyn, 1968.

SMITH, Bernard—European vision in the South Pacific, 1768–1850: a study in the history of art and ideas. (illus.) Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1960.

WARNER, Oliver (ed.)—Captain Cook and the South Pacific. (illus.) New York, American Heritage, 1963.

Chapter 51. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pages 1036 to 1062). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population (p. 60)—Recent figures are given in the following table for the total population.

DateMalesFemalesTotalMean Population for Year
31 December 19681,387,8041,388,4622,776,2662,756,242
31 March 19691,389,4091,391,4302,780,8392,763,107

The above figures do not include the population of the Cook Islands, 19,777 (at 31 December 1967); Niue Island, 5,302 (at 31 December 1968); and Tokelau Islands, 1,832 (at 25 September 1968).

Migration (p. 76)—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
196719681969
* Mainly on cruise ships.
Arrivals
Immigrants intending permanent residence38,99930,66023,225
New Zealand residents returning98,536105,533100,609
Temporary vistors112,871123,188131,902
Totals250,406259,381255,736
Crews131,420131,743140,884
Through passengers*72,56184,83988,783
Grand totals, all arrivals454,387475,963485,403
Departures
New Zealand residents departing—
    Permanently21,12828,47229,803
    Temporarily99,890104,094100,818
Temporary visitors departing114,953134,905135,963
Totals235,971267,471266,584
Crews131,851134,249141,217
Through passengers*72,56184,83988,783
Grand totals, all departures440,383486,559496,584

There were 510 assisted immigrants included in the 23,225 arrivals in 1968–69; the total for 1966–67 was 4,097 and for 1967–68 it was 2,764.

Age Distribution (p. 85)—The estimated age distribution at 31 December 1968 is shown in the following table.

Age Group In YearsTotal PopulationMaoris
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
0–4151,319144,372295,69119,57618,61138,187
5–9161,050154,560315,61019,55019,16038,710
10–14146,110139,420285,53015,61015,42031,030
15–19129,450123,180252,63012,25011,68023,930
20–24108,090105,820213,9108,1908,32016,510
25–2990,33088,960179,2907,4307,26014,690
30–3477,06075,730152,7906,4606,33012,790
35–3979,82076,590156,4105,5205,59011,110
40–4483,36078,670162,0304,3604,3708,730
45–4976,84076,970153,8103,3403,2706,610
50–5467,42070,390137,8102,7202,6905,410
55–5964,14064,790128,9302,2401,9904,230
60–6453,10054,940108,0401,6001,3402,940
65–6940,84045,69086,5301,1409902,130
70–7425,70535,47061,1755554801,035
75–7917,26026,47543,735310265575
80 and over15,91026,43542,345190235425
            Totals1,387,8041,388,4622,776,266111,041108,001219,042
Totals—
    Under 14430,619411,852842,47151,97650,491102,467
    Under 16485,709464,122949,83157,46655,861113,327
16 and under 21126,470120,720247,19011,37010,82022,190
Under 21612,179584,8421,197,02168,83666,681135,517
21 and over775,625803,6201,579,24542,20541,32083,525
65 and over99,715134,070233,7852,1951,9704,165

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport (pp. 322–333)—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the year ended 31 March 1969 are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
196719681969
*Including road motor, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
    Railways(000)23,72322,18622,261
    Railway road motor services(000)22,24021,39722,609
Livestock tonnagetons (000)329292250
Goods tonnagetons (000)11,53410,58110,548
Revenue—
    Railway operation$(000)75,02871,65374,601
Total*$(000)88,75685,83292,030
Expenditure—
    Railway operation$(000)75,15171,88172,892
Total*$(000)87,87884,66086,495

Road Transport (p. 342)—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1969 are compared with those for 31 March 1968.

ClassAs at 31 March
19681969
*Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars817,656843,190
Trucks164,675166,987
Contract vehicles1,4011,579
Omnibuses and service cars3,2163,212
Motor cycles30,15929,750
Power cycles18,35918,233
Totals1,034,7481,062,951
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*74,88875,606
Trailers191,337201,264
Grand totals1,301,6911,339,821

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country during the year ended 31 March 1969. Cars 49,817; motor cycles (including power cycles), 3,465; commercial vehicles, 12,041; trailers, 18,005; total, 83,328.

BUILDING AND HOUSING (pp. 529–548)

Building Permits—The following table presents the latest statistics on building permits issued (including Government buildings).

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19681969
NumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats21,365161.622,318175.0
Alterations and additions to houses and flats35,98025.735,62327.1
Other buildings (including alterations)15,986143.016,358193.2
Totals, all buildings73,331330.374,299395.4

Houses and Flats Completed—There were 21,764 houses and flats completed in the year ended 31 March 1969 compared with 23,297 in the preceding year.

MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE

Wool (p. 575)—Weight, sale value, and average value per pound of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the last three seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per PoundAverage Minimum Floor Price per Pound of Greasy WoolIndex Numbers* Base: 1963–64 (=1000)
*Based on price on floor, clean.
 lb (000)$(m)cc 
1965–66509,161176.634.6929.17775
1966–67533,789156.929.3930.00683
1967–68539,778123.422.8725.00533
1968–69516,528144.928.0625.00 

DOMESTIC TRADE (pp. 581–606)

Retail Trade—Values of quarterly sales or turnover for all retail stores, corrected for seasonal fluctuations and for price and population changes, are shown in the following table for the latest quarters.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER—ALL STORE TYPES

Quarter EndedTotal SalesTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $sIn Constant 1957–58 $sIn Current $sIn Constant 1957–58 $s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally CorrectedAs RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
total turnover $(m)total turnover $(m)turnover per head of population $turnover per head of population $
*Preliminary estimates only.
1968 Dec457.3412.6347.1313.2165.3149.1125.4113.2
1969 Mar397.3417.2297.6312.5143.0150.1107.1112.5
          June*423432313319152155113115

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with previous quarters) by surveyed businesses covering about 58 percent of total hire purchase business.

GOODS SOLD ON HIRE PURCHASE

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal
*As at end of quarter.
1968—$(000)$(m)
    December18,2133,8623507,92830,35361.2
1969—
    March17,1333,8613546,57627,92466.7

Summary of Stocks—The following table gives a summary of stocks held by manufacturers, wholesale traders, and retail traders.

StocksAs at 31 March
1966196719681969
Manufacturers—$(million)
    Materials232.9249.5272.4302.5
    Finished goods94.6109.3134.3145.0
Wholesale226.4235.1242.5265.2
Retail260.4272.7273.7280.9
Totals814.3866.6922.9993.6

EXTERNAL TRADE (pp. 607–671)

Statistics of external trade in the June year 1969 are given below.

Total Commodity Trade—Following are statistics of exports and imports.

Year Ended JuneExportsImports (c.d.v.)*Excess of Exports Over Imports
New Zealand ProduceTotal Exports

*The corresponding c.i.f. values were $813.2 million in 1966–67, $674.7 million in 1967–68, and $849.6 million in 1968–69

†Provisional.

 $(million)
1966756.8767.3729.437.9
1967717.6727.2752.2-25.0
1968804.6820.5622.9197.6
1969967.8987.5796.8190.7

Exports—An indication of the movement in the value of exports in the main groups of commodities is afforded by the following table.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Year ended JuneDairy Products (incl. Casein)Meat and Meat PreparationsWoolHides, Skins, and PeltsPulp, paper and Paper-board
*Provisional.
 $(million)
1967205.4205.0174.133.616.6
1968210.4260.7158.239.823.9
1969*204.7309.5212.655.427.0

Imports—The table following classifies imports by broad divisions.

IMPORTS VALUED AT CURRENT DOMESTIC VALUE IN COUNTRY OF EXPORT

Year Ended JuneFood and Live AnimalsCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, etc.ChemicalsManufactured GoodsMachinery and Transport EquipmentMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesTotal*

*Including sections not listed.

†Provisional.

 $(million)
196637.135.039.980.2216.3263.446.8729.4
196731.436.744.977.7210.9290.946.4752.2
196832.031.848.076.8182.0196.443.6622.9
196933.943.956.4102.4233.1253.259.6796.8

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 679–701)—Details of the consumers' price index for later quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average 25 centres, 1965 (=1000)
Group or SubgroupCalendar Year 1965Quarter Ended 31 March 1969Quarter Ended 30 June 1969
Food—
    Fruits and vegetables1,0001,1711,137
    Meat and fish1,0001,1671,198
    Other foods1,0001,1681,183
    All foods1,0001,1681,179
Housing—
    Rent1,0001,2001,208
    Home ownership1,0001,2251,246
    All housing1,0001,2171,234
Household operation—
    Fuel and light1,0001,1721,174
    Home furnishing1,0001,1031,113
    Domestic supplies and services1,0001,1381,143
    All household operation1,0001,1291,136
Apparel—
    Clothing1,0001,1021,111
    Footwear1,0001,1121,131
    All apparel1,0001,1041,115
Transportation—
    Public transport1,0001,1291,141
    Private transport1,0001,2241,247
    All transportation1,0001,2001,220
Miscellaneous—
    Tobacco and alcohol1,0001,2051,207
    Other supplies1,0001,2041,210
    Other services1,0001,2501,285
    All miscellaneous1,0001,2171,229
All groups1,0001,1761,189

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE (pp. 742–782)

Receipts of Consolidated Revenue Account and National Roads Fund—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

(Source: Parliamentary paper B. 6, 1969)
ItemYears Ended 31 March
196719681969
*Special receipts in addition were: Adjustment of value of investments held overseas consequent on devaluation of currency, $2,482,000; interim payment by Reserve Bank for net gain due to devaluation, $408,000; U.S. military sales arrangement credit, $1,518,000.
Direct taxation—$(thousand)
    Income and social security taxes664,413672,784691,548
    Estate and gift duty23,06421,73124,113
    Land tax3,5064,4272,681
Total—Direct taxation690,983698,942718,341
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty92,01295,545106,412
    Beer duty34,73535,59135,826
    Sales tax78,92675,38982,801
    Racing duty12,02911,32111,154
    Stamp duties9,5778,3819,355
    Film hire tax378303271
    Highways taxation70,07173,40777,909
    Motor vehicles, fees and charges and mileage tax13,55816,035
Total—Indirect taxation297,728313,495340,063
Total—Taxation receipts988,7101,012,4371,058,404
Interest—
    On capital liability—
        Electric supply24,05730,01932,752
        Post Office10,82311,40111,837
        State Advances Corporation9,77011,65413,518
        Other17,99218,78120,423
    On other public moneys3,6794,1375,598
Total—Interest66,32175,99284,128
Profits from trading undertakings12,31210,9505,437
Departmental receipts54,71055,54159,225
Total—Other133,342142,483148,790
Total—Ordinary Receipts1,122,0521,154,920*1,207,194

Consolidated Revenue Account Expenditure—The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYears Ended 31 March
196719681969
*Includes refund of $408,000 received from Reserve Bank in 1967–68.
Permanent appropriations—$(thousand)
    Under special Acts of Legislature—
        Civil List586629678
            Debt services—
                Interest105,958115,806132,359
                Transfer to Loans Redemption Account37,60653,43716,340
                Administration and management9941,1231,080
                Total—Debt services144,558170,366149,778
Special Acts—
    Government Superannuation Fund17,23217,53117,572
    Miscellaneous2,5082,4332,937
                Total—Special Acts19,74019,96420,509
                Total—Permanent appropriations164,885190,959170,965
Annual appropriations—
    Vote—
        Legislative762891890
        Prime Minister's Office495253
        External Affairs9,8669,91111,526
Finance—
    Audit659707738
    Customs2,2802,4592,522
    Inland Revenue5,9236,2026,409
    Stabilisation35,81017,83416,423
    Treasury3,0042,6792,055
                Total—Finance47,67629,87928,146
General Administration—
    Broadcasting182229
    Government Printing Office6,8736,1656,011
    Internal Affairs6,5076,3296,564
    Labour4,9015,8006,640
    Maori and Island Affairs6,8366,9127,762
    Marine3,3352,9492,976
    State Advances Corporation293138
    State Services Commission687672701
    Statistics1,6451,2831,267
    Valuation1,3981,5991,627
                Total—General Administration32,23031,76233,618
    Law and Order—
        Crown Law136145159
        Justice9,1819,4519,998
        Police11,07812,17912,885
            Total—Law and Order20,39421,77623,043
    Defence88,58987,11185,336
    Maintenance—
        Public Works and Services36,79336,30137,809
        Roads, etc.1,9384,7004,712
            Total—Maintenance38,73141,00142,521
    Development of Primary and Secondary Industries—
        Agriculture20,28419,21920,577
        Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services9,0629,1409,504
        Forest Service6,2766,7197,253
        Industries and Commerce2,5572,6123,485
        Lands and Survey5,0525,3515,748
        Mines1,2383,3272,687
        Scientific and Industrial Research7,5167,9028,664
        Tourist and Publicity4,6634,9005,312
        Transport3,3114,0214,226
            Total—Development of Primary and Secondary Industries59,96163,19167,456
Social Services—
    Social Security Monetary Benefits—
        Age55,10257,49560,833
        Invalids5,0715,2965,514
        Widows11,31611,99512,623
        Sickness4,5595,1565,589
        Family66,81671,45268,266
        Miners131118106
        Orphans122127137
        Unemployment1412,1763,302
        Universal superannuation70,19376,37480,605
 213,451230,188236,975
    Education146,359159,776175,919
    Family benefit capitalisation7,5767,2377,790
    Health12,20512,58213,197
    Health benefits37,47039,31541,937
    Hospitals115,010119,141126,546
        Social security expenses and emergency benefits8,4609,58510,820
        War and other pensions30,91930,70830,794
            Total—Social Services571,450608,531643,977
                Total Annual Appropriations869,708894,104936,566
Unauthorised expenditure—
    Services not provided for162555
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account16,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund10,000
Final settlement with Reserve Bank: net loss due to devaluation465*
Special payment to Reserve Bank: effect of devaluation on repurchase of IMF drawings25,467
Armed services equipment purchased under credit arrangements13,462
Total expenditure1,050,6091,095,3181,146,930

National Roads Fund Expenditure

ItemYears Ended 31 March
196719681969
 $(thousand)
Highways maintenance9,53310,31012,456
Highways construction26,67322,76625,786
Subsidies to local authorities28,42626,86128,202
Administration and general5,9225,7746,310
Unauthorised366
Total expenditure70,55765,71772,760

Summary of Budget Proposals—The Financial Statement was presented on 26 June 1969. Principal changes from the existing situation are as follows.

The Post Office is to issue a new type of bond, known as the National Development Bond, to mature in 8 years with rates of interest rising from 2 1/2 percent in the first year to 9 1/2 percent in the eighth year; also an incentive savings bond scheme is to be introduced with ballots for prizes. Incentives are provided to encourage farmers to switch from dairy to meat production. Petrol tax at the rate of 2.3 cents a gallon is to be transferred from the Consolidated Revenue Account to the National Roads Fund. An increased medical services fund is to apply to first consultations with specialist doctors. Reduced scale of estate duties with exemption to $12,000 applied from 26 June 1969.

Overseas Exchange Transactions (p. 846)—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the years ended 31 March 1967, 1968 and 1969.

(Source: Reserve Bank)
ItemYears Ended 31 March
196719681969
RECEIPTS—
        Exports—$ (million)
            Butter117.5109.6107.8
            Cheese54.949.442.1
            Meat207.9247.0298.0
            Wool216.7151.1213.4
            Other198.7230.6 
                  Total exports795.8787.8953.8
        Other current receipts92.2102.8142.0
                  Total current receipts887.9890.61,095.8
        Capital receipts—
            (a) Government—
                IMF drawing66.8
                Sales of investments57.054.744.8
                Borrowing79.679.450.2
                Loans to Reserve Bank45.614.4
            (b) Private24.053.143.0
                Total capital receipts206.2268.4138.0
                Total receipts1,094.21,159.01,233.8
PAYMENTS—
    Imports—
        (a) Government74.360.751.0
        (b) Private648.0571.1693.6
            Total imports722.3631.8744.7
    Other current payments
        (a) Government56.057.262.7
        (b) Private216.3219.0243.5
            Total current payments994.6908.01,050.9
Capital payments—
        (a) Government—
            Investment51.871.053.5
            Debt repayment17.524.545.5
            IMF repurchases31.357.4
            Other official payments26.89.4
        (b) Private25.229.739.1
              Total capital payments94.5183.3204.9
              Total payments1,089.01,091.31,255.8
Balance on trade transactions+73.4+156.0+209.1
Invisible balance-180.0-173.4-164.2
Balance on current account-106.6-17.4+44.9
Balance on capital account+111.8+85.1-66.9
Overall balance+5.2+67.7-22.0

Estimated Distribution of the Labour Force (p. 900)—The following table supplies an estimated distribution of the total labour force at 15 October 1968 and 15 April 1969. The figures have been adjusted in line with 1966 census data.

Industrial GroupMalesFemalesTotals
October 1968April 1969October 1968April 1969October 1968April 1969
 thousand
Primary industry129.3126.716.416.6145.7143.3
Manufacturing industry204.5220.064.667.6269.1287.6
Power, water, and sanitary services14.314.21.21.215.515.4
Building and construction82.084.02.12.284.186.2
Transport and communication79.579.915.315.794.895.6
Commerce114.8116.866.968.1181.7184.9
Domestic and personal services25.725.828.729.454.455.2
Administration and professional82.584.091.094.3173.5178.3
Totals in industry732.6751.4286.2295.11,018.81,046.5
Armed forces11.111.30.60.611.711.9
Registered unemployed4.22.01.50.85.72.8
Totals, labour force747.9764.7288.3296.51,036.21,061.2

Summary of Vacancies, Placements, and Registered Unemployed Persons—This table gives additional figures to those presented on page 911.

PeriodVacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthUnemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly average for calendar year—
  19665,5502,2037,7536743371,011332131463
  19672,6821,4454,1271,3764071,7833,2675853,852
  19681,8528282,6801,8215422,3635,2721,6096,881
Month—
  1968—April1,3396872,0261,2375311,7686,7801,7508,530
              May1,5746422,2162,2685212,796,3561,9088,24
              June1,4776192,0962,6614213,0826,2281,9028,130
              July1,3526862,0382,7125753,2876,7001,8608,560
              August1,4506872,1372,3353892,7245,7731,8817,654
              September1,4957512,2461,9273872,3144,7461,7266,472
              October2,5691,0743,6431,6804852,1653,7841,3675,151
              November3,2701,3004,5701,3043771,6813,2341,2744,508
              December2,6881,0983,7865401727123,2801,2714,551
  1969—January2,5051,0483,5531,2968842,1803,4071,2344,641
              February2,5311,0873,6181,7127292,4412,4871,0033,490
              March2,6749043,5781,1094571,5662,0078782,885
              April2,6039133,5161,0773741,4512,1947752,969

MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Radio Licences (p. 376)—The number of radio licences in force on 31 March 1969 was 665,061 compared with 656,610 at 31 March 1968.

Television Licences (p. 377)—At 31 May 1969 there were 610,017 television receiving licences in force, compared with 582,093 at 31 May 1968.

Horse Racing (pp. 769–770)—The number of racing days in the calendar year 1968 was 402. Totalisator turnover totalled $124,528,000 in 1968 ($128,324,000 in 1967) while Government taxation totalled $11,277,000 in 1968 ($11,652,000 in 1967).

Land Transfers (pp 286–289)—The average amount per transaction (town and suburban properties) in 1968–69 was $7,370 as compared with $6,660 in 1966–67 and $6,993 in 1067–68.

ItemYears Ended 31 March
1966196719681969
Urban properties—
    Number 61,58159,15155,82057,854
    Consideration$(000)393,964393,968390,454426,380
Rural properties—
    Freehold—
        Number 9,2818,9147,5667,329
        Areaacres (000)1,5601,5921,1151,247
        Consideration$(000)185,253184,007141,180141,205
    Total freehold and leasehold—
        Number 9,9279,4888,1057,801
        Consideration$(000)198,632195,244151,359150,148
All properties: Total consideration$(000)592,596589,211541,812576,528

Mortgages (pp. 853–860)—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last four financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegistered*Discharged*
NumberAmountNumberAmount
*Inclusive of duplicate registrations and discharges.
  $(000) $(000)
196676,971487,95059,479230,060
196775,303493,43855,958239,315
196873,335467,77353,200236,132
196975,543482,30758,429260,944

PRODUCTIVITY (p. 389)—The productivity index shows changes in the volume of output per person engaged, and is obtained by dividing the volume of production index by an index of employment. In the following table provisional figures are given for 1967–68 and revisions for four preceding years.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of Productivity
*Provisional.
1954–551,0001,0001,000
1961–621,3071,1431,143
1962–631,3491,1611,162
1963–641,4301192x1200x
1964–651,5181230x1234x
1965–661,6121274x1265x
1966–671685*1314x1282x*
1967–681661*1,3151263*
1968–691692*1,3191283*

POPULATION ESTIMATES

The estimated populations at 1 April 1969 are given for satistical and urban areas.

POPULATION OF STATISTICAL AREAS

Statistical AreaCensus 1966Estimates 1 April 1969
Northland93,51494,900
Central Auckland613,671656,198
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty389,334408,800
East Coast46,98847,100
Hawke's Bay124,960129,600
Taranaki101,104101,500
Wellington523,755542,000
Totals North Island1,893,3261,980,098
Marlborough29,42830,400
Nelson67,20868,400
Westland24,35323,900
Canterbury376,441388,141
Otago183,477182,300
Southland102,686107,600
Totals South Island783,593800,741
Totals New Zealand2,676,9192,780,839

POPULATION OF URBAN AREAS

Urban AreaCensus 1966Estimates 1 April 1969
Whangarei29,50332,100
Auckland548,293588,400
Hamilton63,30369,800
Tauranga31,60634,300
Rotorua33,22936,100
Gisborne27,80428,800
Napier38,30940,700
Hastings37,46639,900
New Plymouth35,28036,000
Wanganui38,17438,700
Palmerston North49,14051,500
Hutt114,628119,800
Wellington167,859175,500
Nelson27,61528,500
Christchurch247,248258,200
Timaru27,94628,500
Dunedin108,734110,300
Invercargill46,01648,500
Totals, 18 urban areas1,672,1531,765,900

FRANCHISE

Voting Age (pp. 52–53)—The voting age for parliamentary elections was reduced to 20 years in August 1969.

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abortion, 117, 157, 158
Accident insurance, 883–887, 896–897, 1061
Accidents—
aircraft, 119, 159, 976
drowning, 118, 120
cases treated in hospitals, 159–160
drowning, 118, 120
causes of, 345, 969, 972, 973
drowning, 118, 120
deaths from, 104, 105, 118–120, 344–346, 463, 965, 966, 969, 971, 973
drowning, 118, 120
farming, 119–120, 972–973
frequency and severity rates, 965–966
industrial, 118–119, 961–972
in home, 118–120, 160
mining, 119, 463, 464, 967, 968
motor-vehicle, 104, 105, 118–119, 159, 344–346
railway, 118, 119, 159, 332, 345
time lost through, 965–967
transport, 104, 105, 118–119, 159, 332, 344–346
Acclimatisation of fish, 5, 458
Accommodation licences, 1003–1005
Accounts—
Government sector, 724
inter-industry study, 741
public, 742–749
Acts (see Legislation)
Added value in manufacturing, 475–483, 497–501, 510–528, 1052
Administrative tribunals, 1021–1025
Adoptions, 95, 181, 240
Adult education, 236–237
National Council of, 236
Adultery, 127
Adults, heights and weights of, 169
Advances—
bank, 824, 826, 827, 828–830, 1057
bank, control policy, 830
bank, reserve ratio, 830
building societies, 867–871
rural, 289–290, 861–867
Advertisements, medical, 133
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 371–372, 375, 376, 378
Aerated water and cordial industry, 479, 515
Aerial—
land survey, 305
work operations, 352, 357
Aero clubs, 353, 360
Aerodromes, 352, 353, 360
Afforestation, 437–444
Age benefits, 27, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178–179
Age distribution of population, 85
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 353, 357
imports of, 665, 669
clubs, 220
imports of, 665, 669
colleges, 229, 231, 232
imports of, 665, 669
machinery, 482, 527
imports of, 665, 669
production, 401–410, 414–415, 416–426, 1042
research, 241–242, 243–244, 247–248, 411
Workers Act, 940
Agriculture, 243, 393–436, 1042
Department of, 243–244, 410–412
occupational safety, 973, 974, 975, 977
publications on, 412, 433, 1090–1091
Aid—
commonwealth schemes, 41–42
distribution of New Zealand, 42–43
nature of, 38, 41–42
Air—
accidents, 119, 159
Force, Royal New Zealand, 275–277, 277–280
licensing and control, 353, 355, 361
mails, 355, 356, 358–359, 363
navigation services, 353–354
pollution, 132
Aircraft—
safety of, 976
types on domestic services, 355
types on international services, 352–353
Air New Zealand, 353, 358, 774, 1028
Airport statistics, 360
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 704
duty on, 673, 743, 750, 752
exports of, 632, 634
imports of, 657, 658, 663, 667
sale of, 1003–1006
Alexander Turnbull Library, 378–379
Aliens, 80–81
Ambulance, St. John, 143
Amortisation of public debt, 745, 749, 780–781, 786–787, 792, 794
Amputees, 191, 193–194, 197
Amusement tax, 382–383, 750, 768
Angling, 458, 994
Animal life, publications on, 1089
Animals, noxious, 442
Anniversary Days, 1007
Annual Holidays Act, 938
Annual value system of rating, 783–784
Annuities, 201–207
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in the, 987–988, 1068
Antarctica, publications on, 987, 1099
Ante-natal services, 150
Antimony, ore, 466
Anzac Day Act, 939
ANZAM, 40
ANZUS Treaty, 31, 39, 40, 271
Apiaries and apiculture, 436
Apples, 417–419, 428–430
consumption of, 429, 703
exported, 429, 632, 634, 652, 1048
marketing of, 429, 572–573
Apprentices, 912–914, 961
Arable farming, 393–404, 411, 416–427, 1042
Aramoana, G.M.V., 324, 357
Aranui, G.M.V., 324, 357
Arbitration Court, 27, 51, 250, 387, 925, 926, 936–939, 943, 945, 949, 950, 1026, 1066
Architecture, publications on, 1092
Armed Forces—
deaths while overseas, 97
at census dates, 61
in war, 279
honours and awards conferred, 1032, 1033
at census dates, 61
in war, 279
in war, 279–281, 1065, 1066
at census dates, 61
in war, 279
pay and allowances, 708, 712, 717–720
at census dates, 61
in war, 279
serving overseas, 272, 277–281
at census dates, 61
in war, 279
strengths of, 271, 272, 273, 275, 277, 279
in war, 279
superannuation, 201–203
Army, 270, 273–275, 277–281
Arrivals (see Migration)
Arson and incendiarism, 893
Art galleries, 1074–1076
Articles on special subjects in previous issues, 1071–1072
Artificial aids, (under Social Security), 174, 191
Arts—
Advisory Council, 1073
in New Zealand, 1073–1079
publications on the, 1092
Asbestos, 467, 469
Asian Development Bank, 851
Assessable income, 802–817
Assessment of—
income tax, 753–761, 803–817
land tax, 761–762
Assurance, life, 876–883, 895–896, 1061
Auckland Harbour Bridge, (see also Harbour Bridge Authority), 334–335
Audio-visual teaching aids, 227–228
Australia—
Free Trade Agreement with, 608–609, 625, 627
New Zealand representation in, 1034, 1035 reciprocal trade with, 608–609, 625, 627, 674–675
representation in New Zealand, 1034
shipping to and from, 316
visitors and migrants from, 77, 990
Aviation, 352–361
agricultural, 357
Awards, cultural, 1073–1074, 1078–1079
Awards to armed forces personnel, 1032, 1033

B

Bacon and ham—
consumption of, 702
curing, 479, 511
Balance of payments, 724–740
capital account, 728–731, 733, 735
current account, 727–728, 730, 733, 734
insurance, 730, 734
regional accounts, 732–736
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 736–740
Balance of trade, 611
Bananas—
consumption of, 703
imports of, 574, 663, 667
Bank notes, 821, 824, 841, 842
denominations of, 842
in circulation, 842, 1057
Bank of New Zealand, 774, 825, 1064
Bankruptcy, 999–1001, 1060
industry groups of bankrupts, 1001
Banks and banking, 820–852, 1057–1058
assets and liabilities, 824–826, 843–845
economics, publications of, 820, 822, 874, 1084
overseas assets of, 824, 826, 843–846, 1087
savings, 832–838, 1058
trading, 825–831, 840, 843–845
Barley, 416–420, 422–423, 425, 1042
Beds, hospital, 148
Beef—
cattle, 401, 431–433, 434–435, 1043
chilled, 578–580, 644–645
consumption of, 407–408, 702
export of, 562–563, 567, 570–571, 574, 578–580, 644–645, 702
production of, 406–408, 510
retail prices of, 681, 683
slaughterings for, 408
Beer—
consumption of, 704
duty on, 673, 743, 744, 750, 752
export of, 632, 634
production of, 514
Bees, 436
Benefits, social security, 172–191, 712, 714, 717–720, 721, 746, 915
Bentonite, 459, 467, 469
Beverage industries, 479, 483–486, 494–496, 514–515
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 1081–1102
Bills of exchange, 843
Bills, Treasury, 778
Biographies and autobiographies, 1099
Biology publications, 1089
Birth rate, 88–91
Birthplaces of population, 86
Births, 90–96, 1037
ex-nuptial, 94–95
first, 93–94
multiple, 91–92
of Maoris, 88
registration of, 90
still, 92, 95, 96, 116–117
Biscuit industry, 479–513
Blind, benefits for and education of, 182, 211, 221, 224
Board of Trade, 672
Boarding of school children, 217–218, 219
Boards, Producer (see New Zealand Wool, Meat, etc.)
Boilers, inspection of, 975, 976
Bonds, National Savings, 832
Bonus issue tax, 754
Books—
imports of, 667
library, 378–382
New Zealand, 1006, 1081–1102
Boroughs, 54–55, 56, 66–68, 784–795
area of, 66–68
bridges in, 334
capital and unimproved values, 309, 784
councils, 55
debt, 788, 791, 793, 1056
employees of, 794–795
milage of streets, 334
number of, 54–55
population, 66–68
stores in, 585
Borstal institutions and training, 262–264, 265–267
Bread subsidy, 706
Breeding ewes, 431–436
Breweries, 479, 514
Brick production, 523
Brides and grooms, 122–124
Bridges and bridging, 323, 324, 334–335, 337, 339
Brigades, fire, 894
Britain—
New Zealand representation in, 1034
Representation in New Zealand, 1034
British—
Drama League, 1073
Overseas Airways Corporation, 353, 358
postal orders, 364
sovereignty, 29
trade preference, 674
Broadcasting, radio and television, 370–377
for schools, 227
stations, 371–373
Building (see also Housing), 529–548, 860–867
costs, 529
imports of, 663, 668–669
index of production, 388
imports of, 663, 668–669
Industry Advisory Council, 529
imports of, 663, 668–669
materials, 523–525, 536–537
imports of, 663, 668–669
permits, 531–535
persons engaged in, 530, 900, 904–906, 909, 911, 913, 917–918, 920, 922
wages and working hours of employees, 530, 930, 931
work put in place, 536
Building societies, 867–871
assets and liabilities of, 871
Bullion production, 465
Burials, 96, 132–133
Bursaries—
academic boarding, 217
dental, 138
Department of Health, 131, 140, 230
ex-servicemen's children, 196
forestry, 443
medical 229
physiotherapy, 139
secondary schools, 218
secondary teachers', 225
technical schools, 218
university, 211, 229–230
war, 196
Buses, 332–333, 340, 342, 343, 346, 348–351
Bush, 284, 437–444
Bushel units, weights of, 418
Business—
and management publications, 877, 893, 1091
census of, 581–594
failures, 999–1001, 1060
loans, 843, 844, 867
Butter (see Dairy produce)
Butterfat production, 405, 1051

C

Cabinet, 50
Cable tramway, 348, 351
Cables, overseas, 367–368
Cadets—
army, 274–275
navy, 272–273
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 408
Campbell Island, 1, 60, 978
Camps, health, 135, 143
Canada—
exchange rate with, 843
migrants from, 77, 87
New Zealand representation, 1034, 1035
reciprocal trade with, 615, 617, 638, 641, 642, 644, 645, 647, 649, 652, 653, 656, 661–666, 675, 727, 728
representation in New Zealand, 1034
Canberra Pact, 31
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 108
deaths from, 104, 107–110, 112, 156
site of disease, 109, 110
Canned and preserved meats, etc.,
exported, 632, 633, 647
production of, 510
Canned fruits—
consumption of, 703
production of, 479, 513–514
Canned vegetables—
consumption of, 703
exports of, 632, 634
production of, 479, 513–514
Capital—
expenditure of Government, 745–747, 748
expenditure on farms, 400
formation, 708, 710–712
invested in electric-power undertakings, 556–557, 559
invested in manufacturing industries, 502–503
of companies, 872–875, 1060
transfers, 846–847
value of land, 308–310, 783–785
Capital punishment, 257
Capitalisation of family benefit, 173, 181–182
Carbonettes, 464
Cargo carried by air transport, 355–357, 359
Cargo handled at ports, 316–320
Carnegie Corporation, 235
Casein exported, 632, 633, 649
Casein produced, 404
Casualties in war, 279–280
Catchment boards, 291, 785–788, 793, 795
number of, 55
Catchment commissions, 55
Cattle, 394–408, 431–435, 1043, 1063
hides exported, (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 408
Cement—
exports of, 631, 633
industry, 481, 524
production of, 469
Cemeteries, 133–134
Census, 60
age distribution of population, 82, 85
country of birth, 86
dependent children, 83–84
employment statistics, 914–921
income earners in each household, 819
incomes of individuals, 818–819
major industrial groups, 917–918
marital status, 82–83
occupations of married women, 920–921
occupations of population, 918–921
of agriculture, 396
of building and construction, 529
of distribution, 581–594
of dwellings, 543–548
of libraries, 380–381
of mining and quarrying, 470
of poultry, 435–436
of religious professions, 84–85
publications, 1110
racial origins of population, 86
Central Government finance, 742–782, 1053–1054
Cereals, 416–423, 1042
consumption of, 704, 705
Cerebral palsy, 139, 211
Certificates of title, 285
Chatham Islands—
area, 1
schools, 213, 214, 221
Cheese (see Dairy produce)
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 481, 483–486, 494–508
Chemists, 143, 174
Child health and welfare, 134–135, 211, 224, 237–240, 258, 260
Childbirth accidents, etc., 104, 105, 112–118, 157, 158
Children—
accidents affecting, 120
adopted, 95, 181, 240
affected by divorce proceedings, 126, 128
allowances, 172, 173, 175, 179–181, 181–182
born, number and sexes, 191, 1037
deaths of, (see Infant mortality)
dental treatment of, 136–137
dependent, 83–84, 238–240
handicapped, 135, 144, 145, 211–212, 214, 240
health of, 134–135
heights and weights of, 168
legitimated, 95
of deceased or incapacitated ex-servicemen, 196
offences by, 238, 258–260
restrictions on employment of, 939, 940
school, 213–220, 1038
Children's courts, 238–240, 258–260
Children's homes, 144–145, 239, 240
Chronology of principal events, 1063–1070
Churches, 84–85
marriages in, 125
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 673
imports of, 657, 658
production of 479, 515
Cinemas, 382–386
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 750, 770
Cinematograph Films Regulations, 976
Cities, area and population of, 66–68
Citizenship, 79–80
Citrus fruits, 430
consumption of, 703
imports of, 574, 662, 667, 671
Civil—
aviation, 352–361
defence, 281
jurisdiction, 251–252
list, 47–48, 745
Claims, insurance—
accident, 884–887, 896–897
fire, 889–894, 896–897
motor vehicle (third party), 886–887, 896–897
Clays, 459, 523
Clergy of each church, and marriages by, 125
Climate, 16–24
observations for year, 23–24
Clinics—
ante-natal, 150
dental, 138
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 682
Clothing, imports of, 660, 667
Clothing industry, 480, 483–486, 488–490, 492–508, 515–517
Clover, 416–419, 425, 426
seed, (see Grass and clover seed)
Club charters, 1004
Coal—
and petroleum products industry, 481, 483–486, 494–508
wages and hours worked, 930
welfare and research fund, 464
consumption of, 463, 492–493
wages and hours worked, 930
welfare and research fund, 464
deposits, 8, 460–462
wages and hours worked, 930
welfare and research fund, 464
exports of, 635
wages and hours worked, 930
welfare and research fund, 464
mining, 459–464, 469, 470, 967, 968
wages and hours worked, 930
welfare and research fund, 464
production of, 459, 463, 464, 469
research, 461, 469
resources, 460–462, 469
State mines, 464, 748, 774
used in gas industry, 560–561
Coastal shipping, 311–312, 316–317, 321
Co-education, 212
Cocoa imported, 663
Coffee imported, 667
Coin and coinage, 841–842
held by banks, 826
Colleges—
agricultural, 229, 231, 232
air force, 276–277
military, 274–275
naval, 272
pharmacy, 143
teachers', 218, 225–226
Colombo Plan, 32, 41–42, 734, 1068
Commercial failures, 999–1001, 1060
Commercial radio and television, 371–377
Commodity sales—
retail, 582–588, 592, 596
wholesale, 590, 593, 602
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 33
aid schemes, 41–42
defence, 40, 270, 271, 277–278
Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, 277–278
Communications, 362–386, 1087
Communications, radio, 368
satellite, 368
Community centres, 237
Companies, 872–875
balance dates of, 818
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
bank advances to, 829
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
deposits with, 839–840
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
financial statements, analysis of, 874–875
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
income of, 708, 717–720, 802–804, 810–818
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
joint stock, 586, 816–817, 872–875
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
overseas, 872–874
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
paid-up capital, 815–817
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
private, 586, 816–817, 872–874
in manufacturing industries, 504–505
public, 586, 816–817, 872–875
registered, 871–874, 1060
share prices indices, 697–701
taxation of, 754, 802–804, 811–817
with overseas affiliations, 736–740
Comparisons with other countries (see International comparisons)
Compensation—
Court, 51, 250, 963–964, 1026
criminal injuries, 264–265
workers, 867, 961–964
Compulsory—
arbitration, 949
unionism, 943–944
Computers, 241, 1007
Conciliation Council, 943, 949–950
Concrete products industry, 481, 524
Condensate, natural gas, 466
Confectionery industry, 479, 513
Confinement, deaths in, 104, 105, 117, 157
Confinements, 91, 149
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 122, 124
Consolidated Revenue Account, 172, 336, 339, 742–750, 1053
Constitution of New Zealand, 44
Construction Act, 974
Construction, building, and housing, 529–548, 860–867
wages and hours worked of employees, 930, 931
Consumer Council, 680
Consumer prices, 679–684
index, 684–690, 700–701
Contact lenses, 191
Contagious diseases, (see Diseases)
Contingent liabilities, State, 772–773
Convictions, 252–260
for traffic offences, 253–254, 347–348
of juveniles, 258–260
of women, 258
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 252–256, 1038
Convictions in Supreme Court, 256–257, 1038
Cook, Captain James, 1116–1128
Cook Islands, 2, 14, 32, 34, 60, 978–983, 1064, 1070
constitutional changes, 32, 34–36
history, 28, 32, 34, 36
immigrants from, 77, 79, 86
population, 60, 980–981
public finance, 983
trade, 656, 670–671, 982–983
Cook Strait, 4
air freight service, 356
submarine power cable, 551
vehicular ferry service, 324, 327, 331
Co-operative credit associations, 861, 867
Co-operative dairy companies, 404, 405
Copper ore, 459, 465, 469
Copra, 982, 985, 987
Copyright, 998, 1007, 1081
Cordial and aerated-water industry, 479, 515
Corn crops, 417–420
Correspondence schools and classes, 219–220, 233–234, 1038
Cosmetics, manufacture of, 481, 522
Cost of living, 679–690
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 664, 668
Council for—
Adult Education, 236
Educational Research, 235
Technical Education, 234
Counties, 54, 55, 56, 69–70, 784–795
area of, 69–70
debt, 788, 789–794, 1056
employees of, 794–795
franchise, 56
population, 69–70
roads and roading, 334–339
bridges in, 334
debt, 788, 789–794, 1056
employees of, 794–795
franchise, 56
population, 69–70
roads and roading, 334–339
building values, 535
debt, 788, 789–794, 1056
employees of, 794–795
franchise, 56
population, 69–70
roads and roading, 334–339
capital and unimproved values, 309, 784
debt, 788, 789–794, 1056
employees of, 794–795
franchise, 56
population, 69–70
roads and roading, 334–339
population of, 69–70
debt, 788, 789–794, 1056
employees of, 794–795
franchise, 56
population, 69–70
roads and roading, 334–339
councils, 55
debt, 788, 789–794, 1056
employees of, 794–795
franchise, 56
population, 69–70
roads and roading, 334–339
Country Library Service, 379
County towns, area and population, 67
Court of Appeal, 51, 249–250, 252, 257–258, 1026
Court of Arbitration, 51, 250, 387, 925, 926, 936–939, 943, 945, 949, 950, 1026, 1066
Courts (see also Supreme, Magistrates, etc), 249–253
Judges of, 249–250, 1026
structure and types of, 51, 249–250
Cranes, inspection of, 975, 976
Crayfish, 453–457
exports of, 456, 457, 631, 633
Cream, consumption of, 702
Credit, rural intermediate, 861, 867
Creditors' petitions, 999
Cremation, 132–133
Crews of overseas vessels, 76
Crime, law and, 249–268, 1039
Criminal—
appeals, 257–258
habitual, 266
injuries compensation, 264–265
jurisdiction, 252–257
reformation and punishment of, 260–264
Crippled children, (see also Handicapped children), 144
Crops, 284, 401–404, 412, 416–431, 1042
Crown land, 294–301
Cultivation, area in, 284, 419
Cultural awards, 1073–1074, 1078–1079
Currency and banking, (see also Exchange), 820–852, 1057–1058
Customary land, 302
Customs tariff and revenue, 671–678, 722 743–745, 750–753

D

Dairy—
Board, 405, 408, 571, 576
account, 581
consumption of, 702, 705
export of, 319, 562, 564–569, 571, 573, 607, 629–630, 632, 633, 635, 647–649, 702, 846, 847, 1047
export price index, 694, 700–701
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 576–578
subsidies on, 706
cows, 405, 431–433, 434–435, 1043
account, 581
consumption of, 702, 705
export of, 319, 562, 564–569, 571, 573, 607, 629–630, 632, 633, 635, 647–649, 702, 846, 847, 1047
export price index, 694, 700–701
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 576–578
subsidies on, 706
factories, 404, 405, 479, 511
account, 581
consumption of, 702, 705
export of, 319, 562, 564–569, 571, 573, 607, 629–630, 632, 633, 635, 647–649, 702, 846, 847, 1047
export price index, 694, 700–701
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 576–578
subsidies on, 706
farming, 393–406, 411, 927
account, 581
consumption of, 702, 705
export of, 319, 562, 564–569, 571, 573, 607, 629–630, 632, 633, 635, 647–649, 702, 846, 847, 1047
export price index, 694, 700–701
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 576–578
subsidies on, 706
machinery, 415–416, 634
account, 581
consumption of, 702, 705
export of, 319, 562, 564–569, 571, 573, 607, 629–630, 632, 633, 635, 647–649, 702, 846, 847, 1047
export price index, 694, 700–701
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 576–578
subsidies on, 706
produce, 404–406, 411, 511
account, 581
consumption of, 702, 705
export of, 319, 562, 564–569, 571, 573, 607, 629–630, 632, 633, 635, 647–649, 702, 846, 847, 1047
export price index, 694, 700–701
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 576–578
subsidies on, 706
Deaf, education of, 211
Death duty, 722, 750, 762–763
estates passed for, 765–768
Death rates, 97–101, 104–120
international comparisons, 112
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 97–101, 105–120
Deaths, 88, 96–120, 153–158, 1037
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 98–101
by causes, 103–112, 115–120, 969, 973
distribution over year, 99
due to earthquakes, 14
foetal, 96
from accidents on farms, 973
from external causes, 104, 105, 118–120
from puerperal causes, 104, 105, 117–118, 157
in confinement, 104, 105, 117, 157
in hospitals, 155–157, 160
in mental hospitals, 167
neo-natal and perinatal, 104, 105, 117
of friendly society members, 208
of infants, 104, 105, 112–116, 1037
of insured persons, 879–882
of Maoris, 96–101, 103–120
of servicemen overseas, 97–280
registration of, 96–97
Debentures, 790, 792, 838, 1054
Debits, bank, 831
Debt—
conversion of, 776
hospital boards, 151, 773
local government, 735, 782, 784, 786–788, 790–794, 1055–1056
public, 735, 772–782, 784, 786–794, 1054
Debtors' petitions, 999
Decimal currency, 841
Defence, 269–281
Civil, 281
expenditure on, 270–271, 722, 743, 746
publications on, 1087
science, 270
Degrees, university, 211, 224, 229–233
Delinquency, juvenile, 238–240, 258–260
Demography, 58–87, 1036, 1037
Denominational schools, 209, 212, 216
Dental—
benefits (social security), 137, 174, 190–191
bursaries, 138
Council, 141
health, 137–138
nurses, 136–137, 191
research, 138
Dentistry publications, 1090
Department of—
Agriculture, 243–244, 410–412
Civil Aviation, (see Ministry of Transport)
Health, 130–131, 974, 975, 977
Internal Affairs, 976
Labour, 903, 910, 911, 912, 914, 915, 974–975, 976
Maori and Island Affairs, 996
Marine, 453, 940, 975–976
Mines, 459, 976
Scientific and Industrial Research, 241–248, 987
Departments, Government (see also under individual Departments), 50–51, 1012, 1017–1021, 1026–1027
Departures (see Migration)
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 191–198
Dependent children, 83–84, 238–240
Deposits—
interest rates on, 834, 835, 836, 839, 840–841
time, 825, 826
with building societies, 871
with Reserve Bank, 824
with savings banks, 832, 834, 836, 837, 1056
with stock and station agencies, 838–839
with trading banks, 825–828, 840
with trading companies, 839–840
Depreciation allowances, 708, 715, 753–754
Desertion in marriage, 126–127, 180
Designs, registration of, 998
Development Finance Corporation, 852
Diagnostic laboratory services, 174, 190
Diagrams and graphs (see Contents, viii)
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 323–326
Dietitians, 142
Diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus immunisation, 135
Diplomas, 223, 224, 231–232
Diplomatic representation, 1033–1035
Directories and encyclopaedias, 1082–1083
Disabilities from industrial accidents, 964–971
Disability war pensions, 176, 192–194, 197
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 139–140
Disabled servicemen, 140, 191–201
Discount rates, 823
Diseases—
deaths from, 103–112, 116–118, 156–157
notification of, by type, 132, 152–154
occupational, 134
prevention of, 135
treated in hospitals, 156–158
Disengaged persons, 910, 911
Displaced persons, 78
Disputes, industrial, 949–960, 1062, 1067
Dissolution of marriage, 126–128
Distribution—
census of, 581–594
by ages, 85
by industries, 917–918
of labour force, 900, 904–906, 908–910, 915–923
by ages, 85
by industries, 917–918
of population, 64–72
by ages, 85
by industries, 917–918
District high schools, 209, 210, 219, 221
Dividends—
taxation on, 756
totalisator, 770
Divorce, 122, 124, 126–128
Divorced persons remarrying, 122, 124
Doctors (see Medical practitioners)
Dogs, 435
Domains, public, 298–301
Domestic assistance, 174, 190
Domestic trade, 581–606
Dominion Museum, 1074, 1076–1077
Drainage boards, 291, 785–788, 793, 795
number of, 55
Drama in New Zealand, publications on the, 1095
Drivers' licences, 340
Drowning accidents, 118, 120
Drugs, 133, 188
dangerous, 133
Drunkenness 127, 253, 256, 258, 347
Ducks, 435–436
Duties, 750–771
customs and excise, 671–678, 722, 743–745, 750–752
estate and gift, 750, 762–764
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 529–548
amenities of, 546
census of, 543–548
materials used, 547
number of rooms and occupants, 547–548
tenure of, 545, 548

E

Earthquake and war damage insurance, 897–898
Earthquakes, 13–15, 1063, 1066, 1070
Inangahua, 14–15
Earths, types of, 393–395
Economic—
pensions, 193–195
planning, 1103–1106
research, 245
stabilisation, 745
Economic and banking publications, 1084
Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), 37
Education (see also Schools), 27, 209–240, 1038
Act, 27, 941, 1064
adult, 236–237
annual appropriations, 746
boards, 209, 941
buildings, 220, 774
Commonwealth scheme, 41
Department of, 209–228
dental health, 137–138
districts, 213, 214, 216, 226
expenditure on, 219, 224, 722, 746
handicapped children, 211–212, 214
health, 135, 136, 137
higher, 211, 218, 221, 222–226, 228–233, 1038
of ex-servicemen, 200
Pacific Islands, 237, 981, 984, 986
physical, 145–146
pre-school, 212, 221
primary, 209, 210, 212–215, 216, 219, 221, 224, 1038
psychological service, 211–212
publications, 227–228, 231, 986, 1086–1087
rural, 218–220
secondary, 210, 216–218, 219–224, 1038
system, 210–212
technical, 221, 223, 224, 233–235, 1038
training of teachers, 218, 221, 223, 225–226
Educational—
qualifications of labour force, 235, 921
research, 235–236
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 38
Eels, 458
Effective weekly wage-rates, 934–935
Eggs—
consumption of, 704
export of, 632, 633
marketing of, 436, 574
production, 436
retail price of, 574, 681
subsidy on, 574, 706
Elections, general, 46, 53, 1005
Electoral, 45, 51–54, 1005–1006
Act 1956, 45 47, 51–52
Representation Commission, 45, 47, 52
roll, 52, 1005
Electorates, 1013
Electric—
appliances in homes, 546
boards, 55, 552–553, 785–788, 793, 795, 1056
finance of, 551–552
in manufacturing industries, 491–492
publications on, 1090
power, 549–559, 1069
boards, 55, 552–553, 785–788, 793, 795, 1056
finance of, 551–552
in manufacturing industries, 491–492
publications on, 1090
railways, 323–326, 328
steam stations, 464, 549, 550
supply account, 748
Electrical machinery and appliances imported, 659, 666, 669
Electrical machinery and appliances industry, 482, 483–508
Embassies, 1033–1035
Emergency benefits, 173, 175, 177, 185
Emigration, 74–79
Employers—
liability insurance, 883, 885, 897, 964
unions, 944, 945, 947, 948
Employment, 899–924
districts production in, 476–478
index of, 389
on farms, 398–399
placement service, 903, 910, 911
promotion, 903, 913–914
regulations affecting, 936–942
restrictions on age, 939
seasonal fluctuations in, 922
service, national, 903
survey of, 903–910
vacancies, 907, 910, 911
Encyclopaedias and directories, 1082–1083
Endowment land, 295, 296
Engineering industries, 482–508, 526–528
Engines—
employed in manufacturing industries, 491–492
railway, 323–326
English and Maori language publications, 1091–1092
Ensilage (see Silage)
Erosion, 7–12, 290–292
protection, forest, 441
Estate Duty, 743, 744, 750, 762–763
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 997
assigned, 999–1000
passed for death duty, 765–768
European Economic Community (EEC), 568, 726, 1068, 1069, 1070
trade with, 609, 615, 618, 638, 641, 661, 662 727, 728
European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 568–569
trade with, 609, 615, 618, 638, 641, 661, 662
Events, historical, 1063–1070
Ewes, breeding, 431–434
Examinations, 211, 216, 223–224
marine officers, 321
Excess retention tax, 754
Exchange allocation, 848–849
Exchange (currency)—
bills of, 843
control of, 820–821, 841, 848, 849
New Zealand—London, 842–843
rates of, 821–822, 842–843
Exchange transactions, overseas, 845–850
Exchanges, telephone, 365–366
Excise duties, 673, 722, 744, 750, 752
Executive council, 45, 49, 1012
Ex-nuptial infants—
ages of mothers, 95
births of, 94–95
legitimation of, 95
protection of, 240
Exotic forests, 437–446
Expectation of life, 101–103
Expeditionary forces, 279, 1065, 1066
Expenditure—
broadcasting and television, 375
cinemas, 383
civil aviation, 354
defence, 270–271, 743, 746
education, 219, 224, 236, 746
electric power, 556–557, 559
farms, 400
Forest Service, 444
government, (see Government Finance)
health, 131, 746
hospital boards, 150–151
insurance companies, 879, 881, 884, 885, 887, 888–894, 898, 1061
local government, 337, 338–339, 723, 786–787
mental hospitals, 167
national, 707–724
National Roads Fund, 336–339, 749
Post Office, 364, 366, 369
railway, 326–328, 748, 1041
rehabilitation, 200–201
research, 247–248
roads, 336–339, 749
social security, 175
social services, 746
urban transport, 348–349
Explosives, 976
Exports, (see also under individual products) 607–619, 628–656, 1044–1050
by ports, 319, 655
value, 629–630, 633–636, 644–654
volume, 630–632, 644–654
dairy produce, 571
meat, 571
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
classification of, 635–636
value, 629–630, 633–636, 644–654
volume, 630–632, 644–654
dairy produce, 571
meat, 571
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
commodities exported—
value, 629–630, 633–636, 644–654
volume, 630–632, 644–654
dairy produce, 571
meat, 571
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
control of, 619–620
dairy produce, 571
meat, 571
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
destination of, 608, 609, 614–618, 637–654, 732
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
gross national product, relation to, 391–392
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
incentive scheme, 622
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
licences, 619
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
prices, 575–580
index numbers, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 618–619
re-exports, 655–656
index numbers, 618–619
value of, 610–618, 628–631, 633–656, 846, 847, 1044–1050
index numbers, 618–619
volume, 618–619, 630–632, 644–654, 1044–1050
index numbers, 618–619
Ex-Servicemen—
acquisition of land by, 296–297
dependants of, 191–198
disabled, 191–199
pension for, 191–198
rehabilitation, 200–201, 296–297, 862, 867
External—
Affairs, Department of, 32
annual appropriations, 745
migration, (see also emigration, immigration) 62, 74–79, 1036
trade, 607–678, 1044–1050

F

Factories, 471–528, 1052
accidents in, 964–972
Act, 939
classification of, 474–528
classified by size, 487–488
coal consumed in, 492–493
dairy, 404, 405
employees, 475–488, 900, 904–906, 908–909, 911, 913, 915–923, 1052
expenses of operation, 502
fire loses, 894
summary of operations, 508
Factory production, 471–528, 1052
Fallow land, 284
Family benefits, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181–182
capitalisation of, 173, 181–182, 538, 862
Farm—
accidents, 119–120, 972–973
rates of pay, 927
superannuation, 205
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
advisory service, 411
rates of pay, 927
superannuation, 205
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
area in cultivation, 417–418
rates of pay, 927
superannuation, 205
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
capital expenditure on, 400
rates of pay, 927
superannuation, 205
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
employees, 398–399
rates of pay, 927
superannuation, 205
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
finance, 290, 829, 861–867
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
gross farming income, 401–404
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
holdings, 282–284
classification by types, 396-398
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
incomes, 796, 801
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
industry reserves, 581
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
machinery, 415–416, 482, 527
imports of, 665, 669
production of, 527
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
produce—
consumption of, 404–410, 702–705
export of, 319, 607, 629–635, 644–653, 1045–1049
marketing of, 562–581
index of, 387–388, 402–403
production, 401–410, 414–415, 416–426, 1042
index of, 387–388, 402–403
settlement and assistance, 289–290
subsidies, 413–414
Farmers' Mutual Insurance Associations, 894
Farming, 393–436
cattle, 431–433, 434–435
dairy, 405, 431–433, 434–435, 927
sheep, 405, 431-433, 434–435
Fathers, ages of, 92
Faulting, 8
Fauna, publications on New Zealand, 1089
Female suffrage, 52
Female wage rates, 488, 490–491, 934
Ferry services, 324, 327, 331
Fertiliser—
imports of, 658, 663, 668
industry, 481, 521
land top-dressed with, 412–413
subsidy on transport of, 413–414
Fiction, selected New Zealand, 1094–1096
Film-hire tax, 750, 770
Finance—
and investment, 853–875
farm, 290, 829, 861–867
Government, 720–724, 742–782, 1053–1054
hospital board, 150–151
housing, 538
local government, 723, 783–795, 1055–1056
Fire—
boards, 55, 205, 785–788, 793, 795
brigades, 894
districts, 892
insurance, 888–894, 896–897, 1061
losses, 888, 891–894
prevention in forests, 442
Service Council, 891, 892
Fires—
causes of, 893
on vessels, 322
First births, 93–94
Fish—
acclimatisation of, 5, 458
and fisheries, 453–458
consumption of, 704
exported, 456, 457, 458, 631, 633, 635, 654
imported, 667
value of production, 454–457
Fishing, 453–458
big-game, 457–458, 994
industry, index of production, 387–388
Fixed deposits, 825, 826, 839, 840
Flats, (see Houses and flats)
pensioners', 144–145
Flax, linen, 431
Flax, phormium, (see Phormium)
Flora, publications on New Zealand, 1089–1093
Flour—
consumption of, 704
production of, 512
subsidy, 706
Fluoridation, 138
Fodder crops, 416–420, 422, 425
Foetal deaths, 96, 116
Fog signals, 322
Food—
And Agriculture Organisation (F.A.O.), 38
consumption, 702–705
imports of, 657, 658, 662, 663, 667
inspection and sale of, 133
poisoning, 133, 152, 153
production, 479, 483–486, 494–508, 510–514
retail prices of, 681, 683
subsidies, 706
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 682
Footwear industry, 480, 483–486, 494–508
imports of, 660, 669
Foreigners, naturalisation of, 79–80
Foreign policy, 30–44
Forest—
conservation, 437, 440–444
exotic, 437–446, 1107–1108
fire prevention, 442
indigenous, 437–446
private, 443–444, 448
produce exported, 631, 633, 654, 1108, 1109
resources, 438–439
service, 437, 439–444
utilisation, 444–452
Forestry, 387–388, 437–452
development and future prospects of, 1107–1115
persons engaged in, 450
publications, 452, 1090–1091
research, 442, 443
training, 443
Forty-hour week, 938
Fowls, 435–436
Franchise, central government, 52–54
Franchise, local government, 56–57
Freehold land, 282, 296
Freight—
carried by air transport, 355–357, 359
carried by shipping, 311–320
carried by trains, 327, 330–331, 1041
Freshwater fisheries, 453, 458
Friendly societies, 207–208
Frost, 20, 22
Frozen foods, 513–514
consumption of, 704
Fruit—
consumption of, 703
export of, 632, 634, 652, 1048
imports of, 662, 667, 671
industry, 284, 417–419, 427, 428–430
marketing of, 572–573
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 479
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 657, 658, 663, 668
Furniture and fixtures industry, 480, 518

G

Gardens, market, and nurseries, 284, 417–420, 426, 427
Gardens, production in home, 427
Gas—
appliances in homes, 546
boards, 55, 785–786, 788, 793, 795
council, 560
generation and supply, 560–561
price, 560
subsidy, 560, 706
Gazetteers, 1096
Geese, 435
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 39 565–567, 676–677
Assembly, (see Parliament)
Assembly Library, 378
Elections, 45, 46–47, 53, 1005
wage orders, 925–926
Geographic Board, 306
Geographical features, 2–6
Geology, 7–13, 468–469
maps, 10–11, 468
publications, 9, 12, 1088–1089
Geothermal steam, electric power stations, 464, 549, 550, 553
Geysers, (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 744, 750, 763–764
Glaciers, 3–4, 9
Glass and glass products industry, 481
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 27, 1063, 1064
exported, 634
mining and production, 459, 45, 469
reserve, 824
Goods—
carried on railways, 327, 330–331, 1041
dangerous, 976
Government—
and public administration publications, 1086
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
Departments (see also under individual names), 50–51, 1012, 1017–1021, 1026–1027
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
employees, 908–910, 923, 1028
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
finance, 720–724, 742–782, 1053–1054
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
houses, sale of, 865, 866
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
housing, 529, 533, 534, 535, 540–542, 747, 748
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
insurance, 895–898
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
railways (see Railways)
Act, 941
Industrial Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
sector, accounts of, 724
Service Tribunal Act, 927, 941
superannuation fund, 201–203, 748
system of, 44–51
Governor-General, 1009–1010
powers, duties, etc., 44–50, 250
Graduates, university, 211, 230, 232–233
Grain—
crops, 416–423, 1042
International Agreement, 677
milling, 479, 512
Grapes and vineyards, 428
Grass and clover seed, 425–426
exports of, 632, 634, 653, 1048
Grasses, 416–419, 425, 426
Grassland and grasses research, 412
Grasslands, 284, 412, 425
Greenstone, 459, 467
Groceries, retail prices of, 681, 683
Gross—
capital formation, 709, 710
of central Government, 735, 772–778, 1054
of local government, 782, 789–794, 1055
domestic product, 390–392
of central Government, 735, 772–778, 1054
of local government, 782, 789–794, 1055
farming income, 401–404
of central Government, 735, 772–778, 1054
of local government, 782, 789–794, 1055
indebtedness—
of central Government, 735, 772–778, 1054
of local government, 782, 789–794, 1055
national product, 390–391, 707–711, 716

H

Hail, 20
Ham (see Bacon and ham)
Handicapped children, 135, 144–145, 211–212, 214, 240
Harbours, 2
Harbour boards, 55, 205, 785–788, 793, 795, 1056
Harbour Bridge Authority, 55, 785, 786, 788, 793, 795
Harvests, 416–431, 1042
Hay, 416–419, 422, 425
Health—
Act 1956, and others, 129, 130
annual appropriations, 746
benefits, 173, 174–178, 182–183, 184–185
camps, 135, 143
child, 134–135
dental, 136–138
Department of, 130–131, 974, 975, 977
education, 135, 136, 137
expenditure, 131, 746
insurance, 207–208
mental, 161–167
occupational, 133–134, 939, 940
public, 129–146
publications on, 105, 129, 136, 154, 156, 168
Hearing aids, 191
Heart disease, 111–112, 156
deaths from, 104, 105, 111–112, 156
Heavy traffic fees, 336
Hepatitis, 152, 153
Herd testing, 411
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 319, 632, 633, 651–652, 1048
High commissions, 1034–1035
Higher education (see Education)
Higher School Certificate, 211
Highways, 334–339
taxation, 336, 750, 752–753
Hire purchase trade, 587, 602–606
Historic Articles Act, 1079
Historic Places Trust, 1079–1080
History of New Zealand, 25–29, 1063–1070, 1116–1128
publications on, 1096–1098
Holdings (see Land holdings)
Holidays, 1007
Home—
economics publications, 1091
garden vegetable production, 427
lay-by accounts. Post Office Savings Bank, 835
Science, School of, 142
Home service (in War), 281
Homes—
accidents in, 118–120, 160
children's, 145, 240
joint family, 542–543
old people's, 131, 144–145, 148
Homicide, 104, 105, 118, 159, 257, 264
Honey, 436
consumption of, 704
exported, 632, 633
marketing of, 574
Honours conferred, 1031–1033
Hops, 430, 514
export of, 632, 634
Horse-racing, 768–770
Horses, 435
Horticulture, 411–412, 426–430
Hosiery and other knitting mills, 479, 516
Hospital—
benefits, 150, 173, 174, 188–189
employees, 951
finances of, 150–151
indebtedness of, 151, 773
number of, 55
Boards, 55, 147-151, 786, 789, 793, 795, 1028
employees, 951
finances of, 150–151
indebtedness of, 151, 773
number of, 55
districts, 57, 147
Oakley, 139
Queen Elizabeth, 139
Hospitals, (see also Patients), 146–167
beds in, 148
deaths in, 155–157, 160
Karitane, 143
maternity, 149–150
mental, 161–167, 189, 239
private, 148–149
public, 148–149, 154–160
St. Helens, 150
staff of, 149, 1028
Hostels, 145, 903
Hot springs, 13, 994–995
Hotels and restaurants, fire losses on, 894
Hotels, licensed, 1003–1005
Hours of work, 507, 510–527, 929–932, 936–942
Households, incomes of, 819
Households, size of, 547
House of Representatives, 29, 45–49, 1013, 1063–1070
broadcasting of proceedings of, 373
members of, 1013
Houses and flats, (see also dwellings) 529–548, 861–867
census enumerations, 543–548
completed, 531
finance of, 538
fire losses on, 894
for the elderly, 131, 144–145, 148
Maori, 539–540
rental value of owner-occupier, 707, 708, 712, 717–720
rents, 544–545, 681
sale of State, 865, 866
State, 529, 533, 534, 535, 540–542, 747, 748
Housing, 529–548, 747, 748, 860–867
Council, 530
debt, 773, 774
Division, Ministry of Works, 540–542
industry, wages and hours worked, 930, 931, 933, 934
Humidity, 20–21
Hunting, 994
Hydatids, 132, 152, 153
Hydro-electric power, 549–559
water sources, 4–5
Hygiene—
industrial 133–134
social, 132–134

I

Ice-cream—
consumption of, 702
industry, 479, 512
Illegitimacy (see Ex-nuptial)
Immigration, 74–79, 1036
ages of migrants, 76
assisted, 77–78
hostels, 903
original, 26
policy, 77
Immunisation, 135, 153–154
Import price indexes, 696–697, 700–701
Importers, bank advances to, 829
Imports, 607–628, 657–671, 1044
by ports, 670
classification of, 657–660
gross national product, relation to, 391–392
licensing and control of, 619–626
origin of, 608, 609, 614–618, 660–667, 732
payments on account of, 846, 847
value of, 611–618, 657–667, 670–671
volume of, 667–669
volume index numbers, 618–619
Inangahua earthquake, 14–15
Income—
company, 708, 717–720, 802–804, 810–818
earners in each household, 819
gross farming, 401–404
industrial classification of, 808, 812–814, 816–817
investment, 796, 800, 806, 846
national, 707–724, 752
of individuals, 796–801, 803, 804–810, 818–819
of insurance companies, 879, 881, 882, 884, 885, 887–889, 891, 895, 898
of salary and wage earners, 796–797, 799, 801, 806–808
of self employed, 796, 798, 801, 806–808
of women, 805, 818–819
private, 707–713, 716–720
returnable, 803–817
sources of, 796–802, 806–808
Income tax, 722, 743, 744, 750, 751, 752, 753–761, 796–819
Indebtedness (see debt)
Index numbers—
consumers' price, 684–690, 700–701
employment, 389
export prices, 693–697, 700–701
by commodity groups, 694
external trade, volume of, 618–619
factory production, value and volume, 505–506
farm production, value and volume, 387–388, 402–403
gross domestic product, 390
gross farming income, 402
import prices, 696–697, 700–701
manufacturing industries production, value and volume, 505–506
production, 387–389
productivity, 387, 389
reproduction, 91
retail prices, 684–690, 700–701
share prices, 697–701
volume of production, 388–389, 505–506
wage rates, 932–935
wholesale prices, 691–693, 700–701
wool prices, 575, 694, 696, 697
Indigenous forest, 284, 437–446
Industrial—
associations, 947–948
classification of salary and wage payments, 928
conciliation and arbitration, 925, 926, 936–942, 943, 945, 949–953, 958–959, 1065
disputes, 949–960, 1062, 1067
distribution of population, 917–918
hygiene, 133–134
injuries, 964–972
life assurance, 880–881
production, 471–528
Relations Act, 953
research, 242–243
stoppages, 953–960, 1062, 1067
unions, 943–948, 949, 950, 952, 953
Industrial accidents, 118–119, 961–972
compensation paid, 965, 967
deaths from, 118–119, 965, 966, 971
frequency and severity rates, 965–966
time and cause of, 969, 971–972
Industries—
bank advances to, 829
classification of, 474–528
manufacturing, 387–388, 471–528, 1053
Industry—
groups of bankrupts, 1001
organisation of, 504–505
persons engaged in, 900, 904–906, 908–910, 911, 913, 915–923, 1052
power and technology publications, 1090
State aid to, 863, 864, 867
wages and overtime, 475–476, 479–482, 488–491, 501, 505, 508, 510–527, 928, 930–932
Infancy, diseases of, 116–118
Infant mortality, 99, 112–116, 1037
Injuries, industrial, 964–972
Insanity, 161–167
Insecticide, aerial spraying of, 357
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 442
Insolvency, 999–1001, 1060
Instruments, duty on, 750, 768
Insurance, 876–898, 1061
accident, 883–887, 896–897, 1061
balance of payments, 730, 734
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
employers' liability, 883, 885, 897, 964
fire, 888–894, 896–897, 1061
life, 876–883, 895–896, 1061
motor-vehicles, third party risks, 346, 883–887, 897
policies, 876–883, 888, 895, 1061
sickness, 883, 885
State, 896–897
tax exemptions, 757
Intellectually handicapped children, 134, 144–145
Intercensal records, 61
Inter-industry studies and sector accounts, 741
Interest—
credit by savings banks, 832, 834, 836, 837, 1058
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
on hospital board debt, 151
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
on local government debt, 786–787, 791, 792, 794
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
on Post Office capital liability, 744
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
on public debt, 708, 714, 721, 722, 743, 745, 776–777, 779–780
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
payments overseas, 779–780
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
payments to consolidated revenue account, 748
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
rates on—
company deposits, 839–840
fixed deposits, 840–841
local Government debt, 794
mortgages, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
public debt, 776–777, 779–780, 864
small savings, 834–835, 839–841
stock and station deposits, 839
Intermediate schools, 215
International—
activities, New Zealand's 28, 30–44
air services, 352–353, 358–360
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 38, 311, 743, 747, 748, 772, 774–775, 777, 850–851, 1069
Coffee Agreement, 678
Finance Corporation, 38, 850–851, 1069
Geophysical Year, 988, 1068
Grains Arrangement, 677
investment income, 846
Monetary Fund, 38, 743, 747, 772, 846, 847, 850–851, 1069, 1070
Refugee Organisation, 78
Sugar Agreement, 677–678
Wheat Agreement, 677
Wool Secretariat, 564
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 88–89
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
cinema attendance, 386
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
consumption of foodstuffs, 705
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
dairy produce consumption, 705
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
death rates from stated causes, 112
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
expectation of life, 102
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
external trade per head, 610
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
infant-mortality rates, 113
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
libraries, 381–382
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
life assurances, 876
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
marriage rates, 121
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
motor accident, death, and injury rates, 346
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
newspapers, 377
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
population, 87
annual average increase, 61, 75
heights and weights, 168, 171
prices, 683–684
standards of living, 1002
suicide rates, 120
telephones, 365
television, 374
Invalids' benefits, 173, 175, 176, 177, 182–183
Investment—
accounts, 835
and finance, 853–875
incomes, 796, 800, 806, 846
in New Zealand and overseas, 736–740
pool—National Provident Fund, 205–206
Reserve Bank, 824
societies, 867–871
State, 774, 781–782
Invisible imports and exports, 846, 847
Iron and steel—
imports of, 665, 668
industry, 482, 527
Iron ores and ironsands, 459, 460, 464–465, 469
Island territories, 1–2, 32, 34–36, 60, 237, 745, 978–979, 983–988
constitutional changes, 34–36
Islands, 1
administered on trust, 978, 988
annexed, 32

J

Jails, prisoners in, 265–267, 1039
Joinery industry, 480, 518
Joint family homes, 542–543
Judiciary, 51, 249–250
members of, 1026
superannuation of, 202
Juries, 250–251
Justice, 249–268, 1039
Justices of the Peace, 250, 252
Juvenile—
offenders, 238, 258–260
wage-rates, 926, 934
working conditions, 939, 940

K

Karitane hospitals, 143
Kauri gum, 467, 631, 633
Kermadec Islands, 1, 60, 978, 1064
Kindergarten-schools, 212, 221
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 479, 151

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 174, 190
Labour—
Department of, 903, 910, 911, 912, 914, 915, 974–975, 977
distribution of, 900, 904–906, 908–910, 911, 913, 915–923
educational qualifications of, 235
projections, 901–902
Disputes Investigation Act, 952–953
distribution of, 900, 904–906, 908–910, 911, 913, 915–923
educational qualifications of, 235
projections, 901–902
force, 472, 475
distribution of, 900, 904–906, 908–910, 911, 913, 915–923
educational qualifications of, 235
projections, 901–902
hours, 507, 510–527, 929–932, 936–942
laws and working conditions, 936–942
Lakes, 5–6
artificial, 5, 549, 550
Lamb—
consumption, 407–408, 702
exported, 562–563, 566–567, 570–571, 580, 645–646, 702
produced, 406–408
Lambs, 431–434
slaughtered, 408, 510
Land, 282–310
conservation, 290
classification by farm types, 396–398
mortgages on, 853–860, 861–864, 867, 882
Crown, 282, 294–301
classification by farm types, 396–398
mortgages on, 853–860, 861–864, 867, 882
development, 289–290, 296–297
classification by farm types, 396–398
mortgages on, 853–860, 861–864, 867, 882
drainage boards, 55, 785–786, 788, 793, 795
classification by farm types, 396–398
mortgages on, 853–860, 861–864, 867, 882
empowerment to purchase (see Public Works Act), 58, 130
classification by farm types, 396–398
mortgages on, 853–860, 861–864, 867, 882
holdings, 282–284
classification by farm types, 396–398
mortgages on, 853–860, 861–864, 867, 882
Maori, 302–304
registration, 285
settlement promotion, 289–290
surveys, 304–305
tax, 722, 744, 750, 761–762
transfers, 286–289, 1059
utilisation by type, tenure, area, 282-284
Valuation Court, (see Supreme Court, Administrative Division)
valuation of, 306–310, 783–784
Language, Maori and English publications, 1091–1092
Latest statistical information, 1113–1128
Law (see Legislation)
affecting labour, 936–942
and crime, 249–268, 1039
publications, 1084–1086
revision of, 249
suits, 251
Lead, 466
Leasehold landholdings, 282–286, 294–296
Leather and leather products, 481, 483–486, 494–508, 520
Legal profession, 251
Legations, 1034, 1035
Legislation—
in force in January 1969, 1017–1021
influences on, in New Zealand, 28
labour and allied, 936–942
passed in 1968, 1014–1016
Legislative authority, 45–49
Legislative Council, 29, 45
Legitimation Act, 95
Letters, etc., posted, 362–363, 1040
Libraries, census of, 380–381
Libraries, publications on, 379, 1082
Library school, 380
Library services, 224, 227, 378–382
Licences—
aerodrome, 361
by local authorities, 784–785
drivers', 340
export, 619
fishing, 458
flight crew, etc., 361
import, 619–626
motor-vehicle, 340–342
petroleum prospecting, 466
publicans, 1003–1005
radio and television, 368, 370, 376–377
restaurant, 1003–1005
transport, 342–343, 346
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 342–344
control commission (liquor), 1003–1005
poll, 1005–1006
trusts, 1004–1005
Licensing of—
commercial air services, 353, 355, 361
goods and passenger services, 342–343
lotteries and raffles, 1003
motor vehicles, 340–342
private hospitals, 149
sale of alcoholic liquor, 1003–1006
Life assurance, 876–883, 895–896, 1061
international comparison, 876
Life, expectation of, 101–103, 923–924
Lifts, inspection of, 975, 976
Lighthouses, 322
Lime—
for agriculture, 413–414
industry, 481
Limestone, 459, 469, 470
Linen flax, 431, 479
Linseed, 422
Liquor licensing, 1003–1006
Literary awards, 1078
Literature, New Zealand, 1081–1102
Livestock, 431–436, 1043
slaughtering, 408
Loans—
allocation of, 774, 778, 781–782
by building societies, 867–871
conversion of, 776
dates of maturity 776–778
domicile of, 777, 1054
forestry, 444
hospital board, 151
housing, 530–531, 538–539
land development, 290
national development, 747–749, 860, 864, 866
of local government, 339, 784, 785–794, 1055–1056
on assurance policies, 882–883, 896
overseas, 775–778
redemption of, 745, 749, 780–781, 786–787, 792, 794
rehabilitation, 201, 862, 867
State Advances, 531, 538–539, 860–867
supplementary, 867
suspensory, 867
to disabled war-pensioners, 194
war, 773
Local Authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local government, 54–57, 783–795
advances to, 337–339, 863, 865–867
assets and liabilities of, 788–789
Commission, 56
debt of, 735, 782, 784, 786–794, 1055
districts, 54
employees of, 794–795, 908–910, 923
expenditure of, 723, 786–787
finance of, 723, 783–795, 1055–1056
franchise, 56–57
health and welfare responsibilities of, 130–133, 145
history of, 55
housing by, 531, 538
investment pool, 205–206
levies on, by hospital boards, 786
number of local authorities, 55
rates, 723, 771
revenue of, 723, 784–785
reading, 336–339
stock, 789
subsidies and grants to, 337–339, 413, 414, 538, 784–785
superannuation, 205
taxation by, 723, 771, 783–785
urban transport operated by, 348–351
Local railway board, 55, 785–788, 795
Lockouts, 949–960
Locomotives, 324–326, 328
Lodges, friendly societies, 207–208
Logging, 387, 388, 444–450
London prices for dairy produce, 576
London prices for meat, 578–579
Losses from fire, 888, 891–894
Lotteries, 1003
duty on, 768, 1003
grants, 146, 1074
Lubricants and fuels, imports of, 657, 658, 663, 668
Lucerne, 417–419, 425, 426

M

Machinery—
accidents, 969, 972, 973
farm, 415–416
imports of, 659, 665–666, 669
industry, 482, 527–528
safety of, 974–975, 976
used in manufacturing industries, 491–492
Magistrates' Courts 51, 249, 251–254, 963, 1039
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 250, 252
Mails, 362–363, 369, 1040
air, 355, 356, 358–359, 363
Maize, 417–420
Malaysia, reciprocal trade with, 675
Malting barley, 422–423
Management and business publications, 1091
Manganese ore, 466
Manufacturing industries, 387–388, 471–528, 1052
assets of, 502–503
by employment districts, 476–478
classification of, 474–528
coal consumed in, 492–493
expenses of operation, 502
motive power, 491–492
net output (net value added) in, 497–501, 1052
persons engaged in, 475–488, 900, 904–906, 908–910, 911, 913, 915–923, 1052
stocks, 503–504
summary of operations, 508
wages in, 475–482, 488–491, 507, 510–528, 928, 930–932, 1052
Manures (see Fertilisers)
Maori—
Affairs, Board of, 303
and English language publications, 1091–1092
Appellate Court, 250, 303
apprentices registered, 913–914
birthrate, 88–90
children, heights and weights of, 167–168
death rate, 97–98, 104
Education Foundation, 236
electorates, 51, 1005, 1013
housing, 539–540
Land Court, 250, 303
lands, 302–304
Members of Parliament, 47–49, 1013, 1064
trustee, 303
welfare, 996
youths, trade training for, 913–914
Maoris—
births of, 88
children attending schools, 214–215, 217
census of, 73, 74
deaths of, 88, 96–101, 103–120
expectation of life, 103
franchise, 53
history of, 25–26, 29
infant mortality of, 113–116
natural increase of, 88
population, 59, 73–74
pre-employment courses, 915
publications and articles on, 1071–1072, 1086, 1087–1088, 1091–1092, 1096–1101
scholarships for, 212, 217
schools for, 212, 214–215, 217, 219
settled on farms, 303
Maps—
factory production, 477–478
geological, 10, 11, 468
holdings by type of farming, 397
mineral resources, 460
New Zealand (end of volume)
power stations, 554, 555
rainfall, 19
topographical, 305
Marginal land, 290
Marine Department, 453, 940
occupational safety, 975–976
Marine officers' certificates, 321, 940
Marital status, 82–83, 122
Market gardens, 284, 417–420, 426–427, 927
Marketing of primary produce, 562–581
Marriage guidance, 128
Marriages, 121–125, 1037
dissolution and nullity, 122, 126–128
Masseurs (see Physiotherapists)
Materials used in manufacturing industries, 475–478, 493–495, 1052
Maternal welfare, 135–136, 149–150
Maternity—
benefits, 149, 173, 174, 189
hospitals, 149–150
nurses, 142, 149, 189
Meat—
consumption of, 406–408, 702
export of, 319, 406–408, 562–571, 578–580, 607, 629, 630, 632, 633, 635, 644–647, 702, 846, 847
export price index, 694, 697
freezing and preserving industry, 479, 510, 829
wages and hours worked, 930
industry reserve account, 581
inspection of, 411
levy on, 571
marketing of, 562–581
prices for, 578–580
production, 406–408, 1051
retail prices, 681, 683
Meat Producers Board, 408, 571, 579
Medical—
advertisements, 133
benefits, 173, 174, 175, 188–191
bursaries, 229
Council, 141
practitioners, 141, 174, 188
publications, 1090
Research Council, 130, 131, 141, 244
Research Endowment Fund, 141
services, 129–167, 188–191
statistics, 140
Medicine, physical, 139
Members of Executive Council, 1012
Members of Parliament, 47–49, 1013
salaries of, 47–49
superannuation of, 49, 202
Mental—
diseases, 163–167
health and psychology publications, 1083
hospitals, 131, 161–167, 189, 239
Mercantile marine, 280, 311–321
pensions, 195
Mercury, 466
Metal products industry, 482, 483–508, 527
Meteorological—
observations for year, 23, 24
Meteorology, (see also Climate), 15–24
Midwives, 140, 142, 149, 189
Migration, external, 62, 74–79, 1036
internal, 70–72
Milage of—
bus, etc., routes, 349–351
commercial air services, 356, 357
railways, 322–324, 1041
roads, 334, 337, 338
State highways, 334, 335, 337, 338
Milage tax, 336, 750, 753
Military—
colleges, 274–275
forces, 273–275, 277–281
pensions, 191–201
Milk—
boards, 55, 573, 785–788, 795
consumption, 702, 705
dried and condensed, exports of, 632, 633, 649, 1047
dried and condensed, production of, 404
levy on, 573
marketing of, 573
subsidy, 573, 706
Milk products (see Dairy produce)
Milking machines, 415, 416
Minerals and mineral production, 459–470, 481
Miners' benefits, 173, 175, 176, 177, 183
Miner's phthisis, 183
Mines Department, 459, 976
Mining and quarrying, census of, 470
Mining, 387, 388, 459–470, 774
accidents, 463, 464, 967, 968
legislation, 459–460
persons engaged in, 463–464, 908, 917
state aid to, 468
value of production, 459, 468, 469
Ministers of each Church and marriages by, 125
Ministers of the Crown, 1012
Ministries, successive, 1010–1011
Ministry of Works, 977
Ministry of Transport—Civil Aviation Division, 353, 976
Minors, marriages of, 124
Monarch, the, 44–45
Monetary and Economic Council, 78, 681, 851
Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, Royal Commission on, 850
Monetary policy, 831–832
Money orders, 364–1040
Morbidity, 152–160
Mortality (see Deaths)
Mortgage guarantee scheme, 862
Mortgages, 838, 853–860, 860–867, 871, 882, 883, 1059
discharged, 853–854, 860
rates of interest on, 853, 856–859, 861, 862, 1059
registered, 853–859, 860
sources of finance, 859, 860–861
State Advances, 860–867
Mothers—
ages of, 92–96
in ex-nuptial cases, 95
issue of, 93
Motor body building and repairs industry, 482 526
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 341
imports of, 663, 668
retail price of, 682
taxation on, 336, 744, 750, 752, 753
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 104, 105, 118–119, 344–346
assembly of, 482, 526
drivers' licences, 340
imports of, 666, 669
inspection of, 346
insurance, 883–887, 897
Post Office, 370
registration and licensing of, 340–342
repairs industry, 482, 526
taxation, 336, 722, 750, 753
value of hire purchase sales, 604, 606
Motor-engineering industry, 482–526
Motorways, 334, 338
Mountaineering, 994
Mountains, 2–3, 7–13
Multiple births, 91–92
Murder, 104, 105, 118, 159, 257
Museums, 227, 1076–1078
Music in New Zealand, publications on, 1092
Mussels, 455
Mutton—
consumption of, 407–408, 702
exported, 562–563, 566–567, 570–571, 580, 645–646, 702
produced, 406–408, 510
retail prices of, 681, 683
Mutual insurance associations, 894

N

Narcotics, 133
Nassella tussock boards, 55, 413, 785–786, 788, 795
National—
accounts, 707–741
central division, 379
Airways Corporation, 352, 353, 355–356, 774, 1028
central division, 379
Archives, 1079
central division, 379
Art Gallery, 1074–1075, 1076
central division, 379
Development Conference, 1070, 1103–1106
central division, 379
development loans, 747–749, 860, 864, 866
central division, 379
employment services, 903
central division, 379
Film Library, 227
central division, 379
Health Institute, 141
central division, 379
Housing Council, 530
central division, 379
Income and expenditure, 702–724, 752
central division, 379
Library of New Zealand, 224, 227, 378–380
central division, 379
licensing poll, 1005–1006
Military Service Act, 270
Parks, 298–301
Provident Fund, 204–206
Research Advisory Council, 245–247
Roads Board, 55, 335–339
Roads Fund, 335–339, 743, 744, 748–749, 750, 752–753
Safety Association, 977
song, 1008
Nationality and naturalisation, 79–80
Native animals, birds, and fish, publications on, 1089–1090
Native bush, 284, 437–444
Natural gas, 459, 460, 466, 469, 560, 1070
Natural increase of population, 59, 75, 88–89
Naturalisation, 79–80
Nature Conservation Council, 301
Nauru Island, 988
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy)
bases, 272
defence, 271–273, 278, 279, 280, 281
vessels, 272
Navigational aids, air, 354
Netherlands, immigration from, 77, 78, 80, 81, 86
New Zealand—
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 572–573
area of, 1, 2, 73, 282
Ballet Company, 1073
books, 1081–1102
boundaries of, 1
Broadcasting Corporation, 371–377, 1028
constitution 44
Dairy Board, 405, 571, 576
Drama Council, 1073
Egg Marketing Authority, 574
Electricity Department, 549–559, 922
life and scenery, publications, 1096–1097
Literary Fund, 1073, 1078
mean time, 1006
Meat Producers Board, 571, 579
Milk Board, 573
Opera Company, 1073
Players Company, 1073
Red Cross Society, 143
representation overseas, 1033–1034, 1035
Road Safety Council, 347
Wool Board, 410, 572
Wool Commission, 410, 572, 735
Newspapers, 377–378
produced, 509
Newsprint—
exports of, 319, 452, 631, 633, 654, 1050
imports of, 452, 669
production, 447–448
Niue Island, 1, 25, 26, 27, 35, 60, 77, 86, 656, 670–671, 978–979, 983–985
history, 26, 27, 35
immigrants from, 77, 86
Note issue, 821, 824, 841, 842
Notes in circulation, 842, 1057
Notifiable diseases, 132, 152
Noxious animals, 442
Nullity of marriage, 126–128
Nurseries, plant, 284, 427
Nurses—
dental, 136–137
in public hospitals, 149
industrial, 134
male, 142
maternity, 142, 149, 189
Plunket, 135, 143
psychiatric, 142, 161
public health, 134, 149
registration of, 142
training of, 140, 142
war casualties, 280
Nursing, 140, 142, 186, 190

O

Oatmeal, etc., 512, 704
Oats, 416–420, 422, 425, 1042
Occupational—
classification of
married women, 920–921
population, 918–921
school-leavers, 218
health, 133–134, 939, 940
safety, 939–942, 974–977
status, 916
of bankrupts, 1001
therapy, 139, 142, 161
Occupation of married women, 920–921
Occupation of school-leavers, 218
Office machines, imports of, 665, 669
Officers' Certificates (Marine), 321; 940
Offices Act, Shops and, 939–940
Oil drilling and prospecting, 466–467, 469
Oil refinery, 466, 1069
Old people's homes, 131, 144–145, 148
Ombudsman (Parliamentary Commissioner), 50, 1030–1031
Onions, 416, 419, 424, 425
exports of, 632, 634
Opossum skins exported, (see Hides)
Opticians, registration of, 142
Oranges, imports of, 662, 667
Orchards, 284, 417–419, 428–430, 927
Orchestras, N.Z.B.C., 374
Orphans, benefits, 173, 175, 177, 181
Ottawa Agreement, 672, 674, 675
Outlying islands, 1
Outpatients, 148–149
Overdraft authorities, unexercised, 831
Overdraft rates, 840
Overseas—
exchange transactions, 845–850
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 627–628, 1033–1035
reserves (banks), 824, 826, 843–845, 1057
territories (see Island Territories)
travel allowances, 848
vessels, crews of, 76
war service, persons with, 280
Overtime, 507, 510–527, 929–932, 939, 941
Oysters, 453, 455, 457

P

Pacific Islands, (see Island Territories, or individual islands)
constitutional changes, 35–36
publications dealing with, 1099
Paint and varnish industry, 481, 509, 522
Painting in New Zealand, publications on, 1092
Paper and paper products industry, 446–448, 450, 480, 483–486, 488–508, 518–519, 1108–1109
Paper and pulp, external trade in, 319, 452, 658, 663, 668, 669, 1111–1113
Parcels post, 363
Parents—
ages of, 92, 95
births by duration of marriage, 94
previous issue of, 93
Parks, National, 298–301
Parliament, 29, 45–50, 1013, 1014, 1063–1070
Members of, 1013
term of, 1006
Parliamentary—
Commissioner (Ombudsman), 50, 1030–1031
elections, 46–47, 1005
functions and control, 46
procedure, 46
Parole boards, 262, 263–264
Passenger services—
railway, 324–325, 331–333
road, 342–344, 348–351
Passengers—
buses, etc., 333, 343–344, 348–351
commercial aircraft, 355–356, 360
overseas, 74–79, 1036
railway, 328–329, 333, 1041
shipping, 314
Passports, 79
Pasture grasses, 284, 412
Patents, designs, trade marks, 998
Patients in hospitals, 148–149, 154–160
Patients in mental hospitals, 161–167
PAYE taxation, 758–761, 1068
Payments, balance of, (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 417, 418, 428–430, 703
export of, 429, 632, 634, 1048
marketing of, 429, 572–573
Peas, 417–420, 423, 1042
export of, 423, 632, 634, 653
Pelts (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Penal system, 260–264
Pensioners' flats, 131, 145, 538
Pensions—
social security, 175–187
war, 191–201
Perinatal mortality and prematurity, 104, 105, 117
Periodic detention, 260, 261
Perlite, 467, 469
Permanent heads of Government Departments, 1026–1027
Permits, building, 531–535
Pest destruction boards, 55, 413–414, 785–788, 793, 795
Petitions—
bankruptcy, 999
divorce, 126–128
Petrol (see Motor spirits)
Petroleum, 459, 466–467, 469
imports of, 657, 658, 663, 668
industry, 481, 483–486, 494–508
Pharmaceutical benefits, 173, 174, 188
Pharmaceutical chemists, 143, 174
Pharmaceuticals, manufacture of, 481, 522
Pharmacy Board, 143
Phormium, 284, 431
industry, 479
Phosphate rock, 467, 520
from Nauru Island, 988
imports of, 663
Photography, aerial, 305
Phthisis (see tuberculosis)
Miners', 183
Physical welfare and recreation, 145–146
Physiography, 1–24
Physiotherapists, 139, 142
Physiotherapy benefits, 174, 190
Pig-meats—
consumption of, 407–408, 702
exports of, 702
prices for, 580
production of, 406–408
Pigs, 401–404, 432, 433, 435, 1043
slaughtered, 408
Pilots, air, 357, 361
Placement service, 903, 911
Planing mills, 480, 517
Planning, town and country, 57–58
Plantations, 284, 419, 426, 437–446
Plantation board, 55, 785–786, 788, 795
Plantinum, 466
Plumbers, registration of, 142
Plunket nurses, 135, 143
Plunket Society, 143
subsidies to, 131
Plywood and veneer, 448–449, 480, 524–525, 631, 633
Poems, publications of, 1093–1094
Poisoning, 118, 133, 152, 153, 159, 160, 969, 972
Poisons, 133
Police, 239, 267–268, 941
superannuation, 201–203
Policies, insurance, 876–883, 888, 895, 1061
Poliomyelitis, 104, 105, 135, 153
vaccination, 135
Political parties, 46
Polling at—
general elections, 1005
licensing poll, 1005–1006
Pollution, air, 132
Population, (see also Census), 59–87, 1036
age distribution, 85
density of, 72–73
distribution of, 64–73
heights and weights, 161–171
increases, 59–62, 70–72, 75, 88–89
industrial distribution of, 917–918
international comparisons, 61, 75, 87
Maori, 73–74
projections, 63–64
sex proportions of, 72
urbanisation of, 70–72
vital statistics, 88–128
world, 87
Pork (see Pig-meats)
Portfolios of Ministers, 1012
Ports—
fishing, 453, 456
imports by, 670
of arrival and departure, 314
safety of, 975
shipping and trade of, 311–320, 655, 670
Postal notes, 364, 1040
Post Office, 362–370, 1040
debt, 774, 778
superannuation of, 201–203
wages and hours worked of, 931
employees, 370, 1028
superannuation of, 201–203
wages and hours worked of, 931
interest on capital liability, 744
Savings Bank, 743, 833–836, 840–841, 1058
Staff Tribunal, 927, 941
work performed for other departments, 369–370
Potato Board, 423, 573
Potatoes, 416–419, 423–424, 425, 427, 573, 1042
consumption of, 703, 705
export of, 632, 634
levy on, 423
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 481, 523
Poultry, 435–436, 1063
consumption of, 704
Pounamu (greenstone), 467
Power, (see electric power)
Preferential tariff, 671–678
Pregnancy, diseases, etc., of, 116–118 157, 185
deaths from, 104, 105, 117, 157
Premiums, insurance—
accident, 884–887, 896–897
fire, 888–891, 896–897
life, 877–881, 895
motor vehicle (third party), 886–887
Pre-school education, 212, 221
Preserved meats, etc., production of, 510
Preventive detention, 262, 264, 266
Price Tribunal, 679–680
Prices, 679–701
basic, for dairy produce, 576–578
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
comparisons with other countries, 683–684
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
export, 575–580
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
export, indices of, 693–697, 700–701
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
import, indices of, 696–697, 700–701
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
of New Zealand stocks, 779
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
retail, 679–683
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
stabilisation of, 679–681
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
Trade Practices Act, 680
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
wholesale, 681, 683–684
index numbers, 691–693, 700–701
Prices and Trade Practices Commission, 680
Primary products—
consumption of, 404, 406–407, 702–705
by ports, 319
export of, 607, 629–635, 644–654, 1045–1050
by ports, 319
marketing of, 562–581
Primary schools, 209, 210, 212–215, 216, 219, 221, 224
Prime Ministers, successive, 1010–1011
Principal events, 1063–1070
Printing and publishing industry, 480, 483–486, 494–508, 519
Prisoners of war, 280
Prisons and prisoners, 260–264, 265–267, 1039
Private—
assignments, 999
income, 707–713, 716–720
savings banks, 836, 841
schools, 209, 210, 212, 216, 217, 219, 221, 1038
Privy council, 250
Probation of offenders, 253, 254, 257, 258, 260–261
Production, 387–392
building materials, 523–525, 536–537
clothing, 480, 483–486, 488–490, 492–508, 515–517
dairy, 404–406, 411, 1051
farm, 401–410, 414–415, 416–426, 1051
fisheries, 454–458
index numbers of, 387–389
manufacturing industries, 471–528, 1052
meat, 406–408, 510, 1051
mineral, 459–470, 481
pulp and paper, etc. 446–448
timber, 444–449, 517, 1051
value of (see gross domestic product) wheat, 416–420, 420–422, 425
wool, 396, 401–404, 408–410, 1051
Productivity index, 387–389
Projections—
labour force, 901–902
population, 63–64
school population, 223
Proprietors, working, 905, 906
Protection of wages, 927
Psychology and mental health publications, 1083
Public—
accounts, 742–749
interest on, 708, 714, 721, 722, 743, 745, 776–777, 779–780
repayment of, 780–781
administration and Government, publications on, 1086
interest on, 708, 714, 721, 722, 743, 745, 776–777, 779–780
repayment of, 780–781
authority sector of national income and expenditure, 720–724
interest on, 708, 714, 721, 722, 743, 745, 776–777, 779–780
repayment of, 780–781
debt, 735, 772–782, 1054
interest on, 708, 714, 721, 722, 743, 745, 776–777, 779–780
repayment of, 780–781
finance, 742–782, 1053–1054
health, 129–146
holidays, 1007
Public Service, 941, 1029–1030
employees, 1028
superannuation, 201–203
Public Trust Office, 997
Public Works—
Act (see Land), 58
employees, 922
maintenance appropriations, 746
occupational safety, 977
railway construction, 323–324
road construction, 333–339
services, maintenance of, 722
Publicans' licences, 1003–1005
Publications, (see also by subject), 1081
Education, 228
Education Gazette, 228
New Zealand Listener, 374
Post Primary School Bulletin, 228
Primary School Bulletin, 227
School Journal, 227
Publishing and printing industry, 480, 483–486, 494–496, 498–500, 502–508, 519, 1006–1007
Puerperal infections and causes of death, 104, 105, 117–118, 152, 153, 157
Pulp and paper industry, 446–448, 450, 452, 474, 480, 518, 663, 1108, 1109
export of, 319, 452, 631, 633, 635, 654, 1050, 1111–1113
import of, 452, 658, 663, 668
Pumice, 459, 631, 633

Q

Qantas Empire Airways, 353, 358
Quadruplets born, 91
Quarries, 459, 470
accidents at, 967, 968
persons engaged in, 908, 917
safety in, 940, 976
Quarrying and mining, census of, 470
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 1073–1074
Quintuplets born, 91

R

Rabbit boards, (see Pest destruction boards)
Rabbits, destruction of, 357
Racial origins of population, 86
Racing taxation, 743, 744, 750, 768–770
Radiation protection, 134, 138
Radio and television, 370–377
advertising, 371, 372, 375, 376
assembly and manufacture of sets, 482, 509, 525
licences, 368, 370, 376–377
Radio—
beacons, 322
communication, 368
New Zealand, 372, 373
stations, 368, 371–373
time signals, 373, 1006
Radioactivity, protection against, 134
Radiology, 138
Radiotelephone services, 368
Raffles, 1003
Railcars, 324–326, 1066
Rail traffic—
goods, 327, 330–331, 1041
passengers, 328–329, 331, 1041
Railway equipment, imports of, 666
Railways, 322–333, 1041, 1064–1069
accidents, 118, 119, 332, 345, 1066, 1067
air freight service, 324, 355, 356–357, 1067
debt, 774
employees, 332, 1028
licensing protection, 342–343
private, 332
revenue and expenditure, 326-328, 748, 1041
road-rail ferry service, 324, 327, 331, 1069, 1070
road services, 327, 331, 332–333
superannuation, 201–203
Tribunal, 332, 927, 941
wages and hours of employees, 931
Rainfall, 17–19, 24, 291, 292
Rangemaking industry, 482, 525
Ranges, (see Mountains)
Raoul Island, 1, 14, 978
Rarotonga Island, (see also Cook Islands), 979
Rates, local government, 723, 771, 783–785
valuation for, 307–308
Rates of exchange, 821–822, 842–843
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 674–678
Recreation, 145–146, 441
Red Cross Society, 143
Redemption of loans, 745, 749, 780-781, 786–787, 792, 794
Re-exports, 655–656
Refrigerators, 509
Refugees, 78
Regional Authority, 55
Regional planning, 57
Registrars, marriages before, 121, 125
Registration of—
adopted children, 95
aircraft, 361
aliens, 80–81
apiaries, 436
apprentices, 912–914
births, 90
building societies, 868
chemists, 143
companies, 872–874, 1060
deaths, 96–97
deeds, 853
dentists, 141
designs, 998
dietitians, 142
electors, 53, 1005
employers' unions, 944, 945, 947–948
ex-nuptial births, 94
friendly societies, 207
land titles, 285
land values, 310
male nurses, 142
Maori deaths, 96
Maori electors, 53
marriages, 121, 125
maternity nurses, 142
medical practitioners, 141
midwives, 140
mortgages, 853–859, 860, 1059
motor vehicles, 340–342
nurseries, 427
nurses, 140, 142
nursing aids, 142
occupational therapists, 142
opticians, 142
patents, 998
physiotherapists, 142
plumbers, 142
private schools, 209, 217
psychiatric nurses, 142
psychopaedic nurses, 142
still-births, 96
trade marks, 998
trade unions, 943–948
unemployed, 914–915
vessels, 320–321
Rehabilitation, 200–201, 722, 862, 867
disabled civilians, 139–140
land settlement, 296–297
Religious professions, 84–85
marriages by ministers of, 121, 125
publications on, 1083
Renewable leases, 295, 296
Rental cars, 340, 342, 344
Rental value, owner-occupied houses, 707, 708, 712, 717–720
Rents, 544–545, 681
stabilisation of, 548
Representation in New Zealand, 1034–1035
Representation overseas, 1033–1034, 1035
Representatives, House of, (see also House of Representatives), 29, 45–49, 1013,
Reproduction index, 91
Research, 241–248
agricultural, 241–242, 243–244, 247–248, 411
Antarctic, 987, 988, 1068
coal, 461, 469
crop, 241
dental, 138
economic, 245–247
educational, 235–236
expenditure, 247–248
forestry, 442, 443
fruit, 241
grassland and grasses, 243
medical, 141
mining, 461
oil, 466, 469
plant, 241, 243
scientific and industrial, 241–248
social sciences, 244–245
soil, 241, 243, 244
wheat, 242
wool, 410
Research associations in industry, 242–243
Reserve Bank, 28, 820–824, 841–845, 848–852, 1066
assets and liabilities, 824
Reserve ratio bank advances, 830
Reserves—
air force, 276
farm industry, 581
military, 274, 275
naval, 273
overseas (banks), 824, 826, 843–845
public or scenic, 298–301
Restaurant licences, 1003–1005
Retail prices, 679–683
index numbers, 684–690, 700–701
Retail trade, 581–588, 592–602
Retailers, bank advances to, 829
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 375–376
cinemas, 383
customs, 673, 743–745, 750–753
electric power, 556, 558
forest service, 444
Government (see Government finance)
insurance companies, 879, 881, 882, 884, 885, 887–889, 891, 895, 898, 1061
local government, 336, 340, 723, 784–785
National Roads Fund, 336, 339, 340, 749, 750, 752–753
Post Office, 364, 365, 367, 369
railway, 326–328, 748, 1041
urban transport, 348–349
Rheumatism, 139
Rice, 667
Rifle clubs, 275
River boards, 55, 785–786, 788, 795
Rivers, 4–5
control of, 290–293
hydro-electric development on, 549–550, 551
Road—
accidents, 104, 105, 118–119
bridges in, 334
milage of roads, 334
boards, 55, 785–788, 794
bridges in, 334
milage of roads, 334
districts, 336, 784–795
bridges in, 334
milage of roads, 334
safety, 346–348
services, 327, 332–333, 342–344, 346, 348–351
transport, 333–351
Tunnel Authority, 55, 334, 335, 785–788, 795
Roads, 333–351
expenditure on, 336–339, 749, 774
taxation, 750, 752–753
Rolling stock, railway, 324–326, 328
Roman Catholic schools, 216
Ross Dependency, 1, 60, 305, 978, 987–988
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 275–277, 277–280
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 273
Royal New Zealand Navy, 271–273, 277–280
Rubber products, 481, 483–486, 494–508, 520
Rural—
education, 218–220
intermediate credit associations, 861, 867
mail deliveries, 363
mortgages, 854–856, 858–860, 861–862
population, 70–72
Reticulation Council, 552–553
Ryegrass, 425, 426

S

St. Helens Hospitals, 150
St. John Ambulance, 143
Safe Air Limited, 356, 357
Safety of machinery, 974–975, 976
Safety of workers, 939–941, 974–977
Salaries and wages, 708, 712, 717–720, 796, 797, 799, 808, 813, 925–935, 1052
by industry groups, 928, 930–932
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
by occupations, 808, 813, 933–934
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
hourly average, 929–932
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
industrial classification of, 928
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
in manufacturing industries, 475–482, 488–491, 507, 510–528
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
legislation, 925–928, 936–938
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
lost through industrial disputes, 953–955, 957, 959, 960, 1062
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
protection of, 927
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
rates, 925–935
average, 929–932
effective, 934–935
minimum, 926, 927, 935
nominal, 932–934
weekly, 928–929, 930–935
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 47–49
House of Representatives, 47–49
Sales tax, 722, 743, 744, 750, 751, 770–771
Salt, 459, 468
Samoa (see Western Samoa)
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 300–301
Sand and gravel, 459, 470
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 441
Sanitation, 130, 131
Sausages, casings, export of, 632, 633, 652
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 832
banks, 832–838, 840–841, 1058
private, 710, 712, 713, 715
small, 832–838, 840–841
Sawmills, etc., 444, 448, 480, 517
wages and hours of employees, 930
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 212, 217
for Pacific Islanders, 237
university, 229
School—
Certificate, 210, 216, 223
ages of, 213–214
duration of attendance, 217
intended occupations of, 218
medical examinations of, 134
roll numbers of, 213, 221–223
transport and board of, 219
children, 213–220, 1038
ages of, 213–214
duration of attendance, 217
intended occupations of, 218
medical examinations of, 134
roll numbers of, 213, 221–223
transport and board of, 219
committees, 209
dental service, 136–137
inspectors, 213, 216
Journal, 227
Library Service, 227, 379
of Home Science, 142
Savings Bank, 835–836
teachers (see teachers)
Schools—
broadcasts to, 227
consolidation of, 218
correspondence, 219–220, 221, 233–234, 1038
denominational, 209, 212, 216
free textbooks for, 227
Maori, 212, 214–215, 217, 219
military, 274
primary, 210, 212–215, 216, 219, 221, 224, 1038
private, 212, 216, 217, 219, 221, 1038
secondary, 210, 216–218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 1038
special, 211–212, 224, 238
State, 209–223, 1038
technical, 217, 218, 221, 224, 1038
Science in New Zealand, 241–248
publications, 248, 1088–1091
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 241–243
Sea fisheries, 453–458
Seals, 453, 457
Seamen, 940
Seamen Act, Shipping and, 940
Secondary education (see also Schools, education), 210, 216–218
Securities, Government, 826, 838, 845, 849–850, 865, 866, 890
Seed certification, 425
Seed sowing, aerial, 357
Seeds, grass and clover, 243
exported, 632, 634, 653, 1048
Seismology, 13–15
Self employed, incomes of, 796, 798, 801, 806–808
Sentences by courts, 254–257, 260, 1039
Separation, marital, 126–127
Serpentine, 459, 467, 521
Service establishments (trade), 591–593
Service-car licences, 340
Servicemen (see also Ex-servicemen)—
casualties on active service, 280
dependants of, 191–198
registration of deaths of, 97
Services sector of economy 387–388
Settlement of land, 283, 289–290, 294, 297
Settlement, ex-servicemen's, 200, 296–297
Sex proportions of population, 72
Sexes of—
children born, 91
factory employees, 486–491, 507
patients in mental hospitals, 162–163
patients in public hospitals, 155
prisoners, 265
Sexual offences, 253, 257, 259
Share prices, index numbers, 697–701
Shares in building societies, 867–869
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 940
Sheep, 431–434, 1043, 1063
and lambs slaughtered, 408, 510
farming, 393–404, 408–410
skins and pelts exported, (see Hides)
Sheetmetal working industry, 527
Shipping, 311–322, 940
on inland waters, 320
Shipping and Seamen Act, 940
Ships (see Vessels)
Shops, 581–606
and Offices Act, 939–940
fire losses on, 894
Short-wave radio broadcasting, 372, 373
Sick funds, 208
Sickness, 152–167
benefits, 173, 175, 176, 177, 184–185
insurance, 208, 883, 885
Silage, 416–419, 422, 425
Silver, 459, 465
Silviculture, 440–443
Ski-ing, 994
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Slaughter of animals for food, 408
Snow, 20
Soap industry, 481, 509, 521
Soaps, export of, 632, 634
Social science and welfare publications, 1083–1084
Social Security, 172–191
Act, 28, 172, 1066
annual appropriations, 743, 746
benefits, 150, 172–191, 712, 714, 717–720, 721, 746
fund, 742
reciprocity with other countries, 172, 186–187
supplementary assistance, 173, 175, 177, 186
taxation, 172, 722, 743, 744, 750, 751, 804, 811–812
Social services, expenditure on, 746
Soil conservation, 242, 290–291, 292
Soils, 393–395
Soldiers, 273–275, 277–281
South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 31, 39–40, 270, 271, 1070
Southern Alps, 2, 3, 8, 9, 20, 21
South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand, 352
South Pacific Commission, 35
Souvenirs, 995
Sovereignty, 29
Spas, 994–995
Specialist services (neuro-surgery), 174
Speed limit, 346
Spirits—
consumption of, 704
duty on, 673
imports of, 663, 667
Sports, 145
publications on, 1092–1093
Stamp duties, 743, 744
Standard time, 1006
Standards Council, 1002
Standards of living, international indicators of, 1002
State—
Advances Corporation, 531, 538–539, 773, 860–867
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
coal mines, 464, 748, 774
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
departments, 50–51
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
finance, 720–724, 742–782, 1053–1054
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
forests, 437–446, 774
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
housing, 529, 533, 534, 535, 540–542, 865, 866
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
indebtedness, 735, 772–782, 1054
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
insurance—
accident and fire, 896–897
earthquake and war damage, 897–898
life, 895–896
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
placement services, 903, 911
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
schools, 209–223, 1038
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
Services, 941, 1027–1030
Commission, 976–977, 1028–1030
wards, 239–240
Statistical areas, 65
area and population of, 65
cinemas in, 383–385
crops grown in, 417–420
density of population in, 73
industrial production by, 475
livestock in, 433
retail trade in, 583
Statistical—
information, latest, 1129–1144
publications, 1083–1084, 1100–1102
summary, 1036–1062
Statute of Westminster, 29, 34, 45
Statutes (see legislation)
Steam electric power stations, 549, 550, 553, 556
Steel and iron, imports of, 665, 668
Steel industry, 465, 469, 474, 482, 527
Sterling exchange rates, 842–843
Stewart Island, 1, 29, 70
Still-births, 90–92, 95, 96, 116
Stock and station agents—
advances to, 829
deposits, etc., with, 838–839
Stock, quotations for, 779
Stock, registered, local government, 789
Stocks—
manufacturers', 503–504
retail, 583–588, 597
wholesale, 589–590, 601–602
Stone, building and ornamental, 459, 468, 469
Stoppages, industrial, 953–960, 1062, 1067
Straits Air Freight Express, (see Safe Air Limited) Stranding of vessels, 322
Strikes, 949–960, 1062, 1067
Students, 221–223, 1038
Students, university, 211, 218, 230–232, 1038
Studentships, secondary teacher, 225
Submarine power cable, Cook Strait, 551
Subscribers, telephone, 365
Subsidies, 706, 708, 721, 723
agricultural, 413
highways, 336–339
on butter, 706
on food, 573–574, 706
soil conservation and rivers control, 291, 292
superannuation fund, 748
to gasworks, 560, 706
to hospital boards, 151
to local government, 336–339, 413, 538, 784–785
to mining, 468
Suffrage, 47, 52
Sugar—
consumption of, 704, 705
duty on, 673
imports of, 658, 662, 667
international agreement, 677–678
used by factories, 512–514
Suicides, 104, 105, 120, 159
ages of, 120
Sulphur, imports of, 664, 668
Sulphur used in fertiliser industry, 521
Summary convictions, 252–256, 1039
Sunshine, 21–22
Superannuation—
government, 201–203, 748
of Members of Parliament, 49, 203
private funds, 207
social security, 173, 175, 176, 177–178
Superphosphate and fertiliser industry, 481, 521
Supreme Court, 51, 249, 251–252, 256–257, 1026, 1039
Administrative Division, 250, 289–290, 307
Surveys—
aerial, land, 305
employment, 903–910
geological, 468–469
land, 304–305
of ships, 322
Sweepstakes, 1003
Swimming accidents, 118

T

Tallow exported, 319, 632, 634, 650, 1049
Tallow produced, 510
Tanning industry, 481, 520
Tariff and Development Board, 626–627
Tariff, Customs, 671–678
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 565–567, 676–677
Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. (see Air New Zealand)
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 448, 774
Taxation (see also individual taxes), 707–723, 743, 744, 796–819
amendments to legislation, 758
direct, 709, 710, 712–714, 717–718, 721–723, 744, 750, 751, 753–761, 796–819
exemptions from, 753, 756–757, 761–762, 808–810
indirect, 708, 714, 721, 722, 723, 744, 750, 751
rates of, 723, 771, 783–785, 813
Taxis, 340, 342
Taxpayers, incomes of, 803–817
Tea—
consumption of, 704
imports of, 663, 667
Teacher studentships, 225
Teachers, 225–227
primary school, 225–226
secondary school, 225–227
superannuation, 201–203
training of, 218, 221, 223, 225–227
Teaching aids, 227–228
Technical Correspondence Institute, 234
Technical education, (see also Education, Schools), 221, 233–235
Technical Education, Council for, 234–235
Technology, publications on, 1090
Telecommunications, 368
Telegraph services, 364–370
Telephone services, 364–370
Television, 370, 373–374
stations, 374
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 605, 606
Television and radio assembly and manufacture, 482, 509, 525
Telex (teleprinter) services, 367
Temperature, 20 22
Tenancy Act, 548
Tenancy and rents, 548
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 294
of dwellings, 545, 548
of occupied land, 282–294
Term of parliament, poll on, 1006
Terms of trade, 696–697
Territorial Air Force, 275
Territorial Forces (Army), 273–275
Territories, (see Island Territories)
Tetanus immunisation, 135
Textbooks in schools, free, 227
Textiles, production of, 479, 483–486, 494–508, 515–516
Theatres, etc., fire losses on, 894
Theft, 253, 257, 258, 259
Therapists, occupational, 139, 142, 161
Thermal activity, 2, 13, 994–995
Third-party risks insurance, 346, 883–887, 897
Thrift club accounts, Post Office Savings Banks, 835
Thunderstorms, 20
Timber, 437–452
exports of, 319, 450–452, 631, 633, 654, 1050
imports of, 450–452
output, 444–449, 517, 1051
plantations, 284, 426, 437–446
preservation of, 449–450, 480, 483–486, 494–496, 517
resources, 438–439, 1107–1108, 1112–1115
Time service (radio), 373, 1006
Tin, 466
Tobacco—
consumption of, 704
duty on, 673
growers, 927
imports of, 657, 658, 663, 667
industry, 430, 479, 483–486, 494–496, 515
Tokelau (Union) Islands, 1, 25, 26, 27, 35, 60, 77, 656, 670–671, 978–979, 985–987, 1066
history, 25–27, 60, 79
Toll service, 366–367
Tonnage of registered vessels, 321
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 311–320
Topdressing, 353, 357, 412–413
Topographical mapping, 304–305
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 769
taxation, 769–770
turnover on, 769–770
Tourist—
and Publicity Department, 995
attractions, 989, 993–995
Hotel Corporation, 992, 1028
industry, 989–995
Tourists, 76, 989–992
Town and country planning, 57–58
Town districts, 55, 56, 57, 784–795
area of, 68
bridges in, 334
capital and unimproved values, 309, 784
councils of, 55
debt, 788, 791
milage of streets, 334
population, 68
Tractors, imports of, 665, 669
Tractors on farms, 120, 415, 416
Trade—
marks, 998
practices, 680
retail, 581–588, 592–600
training of Maori youths, 913–914
unions, 943–948, 949, 950, 952, 953
wholesale, 581, 588–590, 593–594, 600–602
Trade external, 607–678, 1044–1050
agreements, 565–569, 674–678
balance of, 611
Board of, 672
commissioner service, 627–628
direction of exports, 608, 609, 614–618, 637–654, 732
origin of imports, 608, 609, 614–618, 660–667, 732
per head, value of, 611
Promotion Council, 628
representation overseas, 1035
statistics, compilation of, 611–619
terms of, 696–697
volume of, 618–619, 630–632, 667–669
Trades Certification Board, 223
Trades examinations, 223, 233
Trading and works account, State, 743, 747–749
Trading banks, 825–831, 840, 844–845, 1057
advances, classification, 829–830, 1057
Traffic—
accidents, 159, 344–346
deaths from, 104, 105, 118–119, 345–346
air, 352–361
motor, 340–351
offences, 252, 253, 254–255, 346–348
railways, 328–331, 1041
Tramways, 348, 351
deaths due to accidents, 119
Transhipment of cargo, 317–319
Transport, 311–361, 993
accidents (see traffic accidents)
boards, 55
equipment, imports of, 659, 666, 669
equipment industry, 482, 483–508, 526
licensing, 342–343, 346
of school children, 219
research, 344
urban, 248–251
Transport and communications, publications on, 1088
Travel and tourism, 989–995
allowances, overseas, 848
Trawling, 453–454, 456
Treasury bills, 778
Treaty of Waitangi, 29, 302, 1063
Trees, forest, 437–439
Tribunals, administrative, 1021–1025
Triplets born, 91–92
Trolley-buses, 348–351
Trout, 5, 458
Trust (liquor) control, 1004–1005
Trust territory, 988
Trustee, Public, 997
Trustee savings banks, 836–838, 841
Tuberculosis, 132, 144, 152, 154, 156, 177, 183
deaths from, 104, 105, 106–107, 156
Tungsten ore, 459, 465, 469
Tunnels, road and railway, 323, 324, 334, 335
Turkeys, 435–436
Tussock boards, 55, 413, 785–786, 788, 795
Twins born, 91–92
Tyre tax, 753

U

Undergraduates, 230–232
Underground water authorities, 55
Unemployment, 911, 914–915
benefits, 173, 175, 176, 177, 184, 915
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 831
Unimproved occupied land, 284
Unimproved value of land, 308–310, 761
rating on, 783–784
Unions, trade, 943–948, 949, 950, 952, 953
United Kingdom—
communications with, 358, 367–368
dairy produce and meat imported into, 562–571, 575–579, 607, 644–649
debt domiciled in, 775–776, 777, 1054
exchange rate with, 842–843
New Zealand representation in, 1033–1035
relations with, 30–34
representation in New Zealand, 1034
shipping to and from, 316, 320
social security reciprocity, 186–187
trade agreements with, 566–567
trade with, 562–571, 575–579, 607–678, 727, 728
visitors and migrants from, 77, 78, 86, 990
United Nations, 35, 36–39, 271, 278, 988, 1068, 1069, 1070
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 775–776, 777, 1054
exchange rate with, 843
New Zealand representation in, 1033–1035
representation in New Zealand, 1035
shipping to and from, 316, 320
trade with, 562, 563, 567, 571, 607–678, 727, 728
visitors and migrants from, 77, 990
Universities, 211, 228–233
University—
bursaries, 211, 229–230
colleges of agriculture, 228
education, 211, 218, 221, 222, 224, 225–226, 228–233, 1038
entrance examination, 211, 223, 228
graduates, 211, 230, 232–233
Grants Committee, 228
scholarships, 229
students, 211, 218, 230–232, 1038
Uranium, 465
Urban—
areas, 65–66
cinemas in, 384–385
population, 65–66, 70
stores in, 584
drainage boards, 786–788, 793, 795
mortgages, 854–856, 858–860, 861–862
population, growth of, 70–72
transport, 348–351
transport boards, 55, 785–788, 793, 795
Urbanisation of population, 70–72

V

Vacancies, employment, 907, 910, 911
Valley authority, 55
Valuation—
of land, 306–310, 783–784
roll, 307, 783
Value added in manufacturing, 475–483, 497–501, 510–528, 1052
Valuers' Registration Board, 310
Veal—
consumption of, 407–408, 702
export of, 644–645, 702
production of, 406–408, 510
Vegetable growing, commercial, 417–420, 426–427
Vegetables—
consumption of, 703–705
exported, canned and frozen, 632, 634, 653
grown in home gardens, 427
retail prices of, 681, 683
Vehicles—
motor, (see Motor vehicles)
railway, 324–326
Veneer and plywood, 448–449, 480, 524–525
Venereal diseases, 104, 105, 132, 156
Vessels—
crews of, 75, 76
entered and cleared, 311–316
fishing, 453, 454
nationality of, 320
radio communication with, 368
safety of, 940, 975
wrecked, 322
Veterans' allowances, 193, 195
Veterinarians, training of, 229
Veterinary services, 411, 413
Vineyards and grapes, 428
Visitors, to New Zealand, 76, 989–992
points of arrival of, 991
Visual aids, in teaching, 227–228
Vital statistics, 88–128, 1037
Vocational guidance, 228, 912
Volcanism, 9
Volcanoes, 2, 3, 7, 9–13, 994, 1064, 1067
Volunteer Service Abroad, (V.S.A.), 42
Voluntary welfare organisations, 143
Voting—
at general elections, 52, 1005
at licensing polls, 1005–1006
Maoris, 53
qualifications, 53–54, 56

W

Wages (see Salaries and wages)
Waitangi, Treaty of, 29, 1063
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 196
casualties, 279–280
damage and earthquake insurance, 897–898
loans, 773
pensions, 191–201
pensions, supplementary assistance, 194–195, 196
publications, 1098
veterans' allowances, 193, 195
Warships, 273
Washing machines, 509
Water—
power development of, 549–551
safety campaign, 146
supply boards, 55
Waterfront control, 941–942, 1067
Weather, 15–16, 993
forecasting, 15
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 357
Welfare—
Maori, 996
maternal, 135–136
of workers, 939, 941
organisations, 143
publications, 1083–1084
Western Samoa, 2, 14, 32, 34, 35, 36, 77, 80, 86, 614, 1065, 1069
Westminster, Statute of, 29, 34, 45
Whales and whaling, 457, 988, 1063
Wheat, 416–420, 420–422, 425, 1042
Board, 421
imports of, 421, 662, 667
international agreement, 677
milled, 512
research, 242
Whey butter (see Dairy products)
Whisky, imports of, 663, 667
Whitebait, 453, 455, 458
Whooping cough, immunisation, 135
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 1003–1005
prices, 681, 683–684
prices index, 691–693, 700–701
trade, 581, 588–590, 593, 594, 600–602
Widowers, remarriages of, 122, 124
Widows—
benefits, 173, 175, 176, 177, 179–180
number of, 82
remarriages of, 122, 124
war pensions, 176, 192–196, 199
Wildlife sanctuaries, 301
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 997
Winds, 16–17
Wine, consumption of, 704
Wine licences, 1003–1004
Wine-making industry, 479
Withdrawals from savings banks, 832, 834, 836, 837, 1058
Women—
Air Force, Royal New Zealand, 75
child bearing ages of, 90, 91
criminal charges and convictions against, 258
deaths of, in childbirth, 104, 105, 117, 157
employed in industry, 472, 476–478, 486–491, 507, 899–900, 904–909, 916–921, 924
incomes of, 805, 818–819
married, occupations of, 920–921
nationality laws, re, 79, 80
Naval Service, Royal New Zealand, 273
offences by, 258
on juries, 250
police, 268
wage rates, of, 488, 490–491, 934
working conditions of, 940
working hours of, 507, 939
Wood preservation, 449–450, 480, 483–486, 494–496, 517
Wood pulp—
exports of, 319, 452, 631, 633, 635, 654, 1050
imports of, 452, 658, 663, 668
production of, 446–448, 474, 480, 518
Wool—
Board, 410, 572
Commission, 410, 572, 735
Commission Account, 581
exports of, 319, 607, 608, 629, 630, 632, 634, 643, 644, 846, 847, 1045
export price index, 694, 697
levy, 410, 572
marketing of, 562–564, 572
prices for, 575, 1051
production, 401–404, 408–410, 411, 479, 510, 1051
research, 410
used at local mills, 516
Woollen mills, 479, 515–516, 930
Woollen piece-goods, imports of, 664, 668
Workers' compensation, 961–964, 967
Board, 961, 964, 975, 977
Workers—
ages of injured, 969, 973
Educational Association, 237
safety and welfare, 939–941, 974–977
unions of, -944, 945–948
Working—
conditions, 936–942
days lost through industrial disputes, 953–955, 957, , 960, 1062
hours, 507, 510–527, 929–932, 936–942
life expectancies, 923–924
proprietors, 905, 906
Works and trading account, state, 743, 747–749
Works, Ministry of, 977
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World population statistics, 87
Wrecks, 322

X

X-ray services, 132, 138, 154, 189–190

Y

Youth hostels, 131, 145.
Youth—
wage rates of, 934
working conditions of, 939, 940

Z

Zinc, 466